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Morse, C. J.
July 8, 1881, E. E. Starkweather & Co., who were engaged in the hardware trade at Port Huron, Michigan, sold their stock to the plaintiff. Pratt & Co., creditors of Starkweather & Co., attached the goods in question in this suit as the property of Stark-weather & Co., claiming the sale to plaintiff to be fraudulent, as being made with the intent to hinder, delay or defraud their creditors in the collection of their debts. The plaintiff brought replevin for the property against the defendant who held it as deputy sheriff of St. Clair county under the attachment aforesaid. Plaintiff, previous to the sale of the goods and accounts of the Starkweather firm to him, had been a clerk in their store for about eight months, was familiar with the books, and knew the actual financial condition of the firm at the time of the sale. The firm was composed of Fred. E. Starkweather, William Curtis, and Benjamin Hillier. • Curtis and Hillier attended to other business, and left the entire management of the firm matters to Starkweather. The business, under his management, did not prosper, and getting involved to a large extent, a week or ten days before the sale to plaintiff, Starkweather saw Curtis and Hillier, and explained to them the situation-of affairs, and they, acting upon his statement, made the sale to plaintiff, asking Starkweather to sign the bill of sale, which he did without knowing the terms and conditions of the transfer. The theory of defendant upon the trial was that plaintiff, being a clerk of the firm, and knowing the shape of their affairs, had such knowledge of their financial embarrassment, that if the sale on their part was fraudulent as against their creditors, it was also fraudulent on the part of the plaintiff, he having sufficient knowledge of their intention to make the sale void, although he did not actually participate in the fraud. It was also claimed that the circumstances of the condition of the firm and their sale to plaintiff evidenced a fraudulent intent on the part of Stark-weather & Co. against the rights of their creditors. The judgment in the court below was in favor of plaintiff, who claimed that the sale was in perfect good faith on his part. Error is assigned in that the plaintiff as a witness in his own behalf was allowed to state that he judged the stock to be worth $4000 at the time he purchased ; that he had no other purpose or intention than to acquire the stock at a fair price ; that he bought it and the accounts in good faith and at what he considered'a fair and full consideration. We see no ob jection to this testimony. It was competent on the question of his good faith, which was directly in issue under former decisions of this Court.
.At the close of the evidence the defendant’s counsel prepared and presented to the court a statement of the facts which lie claimed were undisputed in the case (such statement being of considerable length), and followed it with this clause, “upon these undisputed facts I charge you.” After this came six propositions of law as applied to such facts. This method of presenting his points of law to the circuit judge was such that it became necessarily a single request to instruct the jury ; and if in any way the statement of facts as presented was not correct, the whole of the instructions asked would fall with it. We do not think the circuit judge under the testimony in the case would have been justified in finding the facts as presented to him by defendant’s counsel, as he would have been usurping the province of the jury in so doing in -relation to one or two points at least. Therefore there was no error in refusing the requests of the defendant’s counsel. Upon the question of fraudulent intent the court instructed the jury as follows:
“And you are instructed that it is the law that every conveyance of property that is made with the intent of hindering, delaying or defrauding creditors, as against persons hindered, delayed or defrauded, is void; but in order to constitute a sale fraudulent when it is shown that the party purchasing has parted with a valuable consideration, it is essential that it further should be made to appear that the person disposed of his property intending to defraud his creditors or to hinder or delay them in the collection of their debts ; but in addition to this it must also be established that the one acquiring title has participated in such intention; further, notwithstanding it may have been shown that the plaintiff lias parted with an adequate consideration for the goods-in question, if it has been shown that he intended to hinder, delay or defraud the creditors of Starkweather & Co., the sale to him would be void as to such creditors, notwithstanding payment of such consideration. It is a question for you to determine from the evidence whether or not Stark-weather & Co., in disposing of this stock, intended to defraud their creditors, and if so, did the plaintiff know the purpose of such sale, aud did he purchase- with such knowledge, with the purpose of aiding such fraudulent intent, and if you are satisfied from the evidence that the sale was made from the firm of Starkweather & Co. to the plaintiff for the purpose of hindering, delaying or defrauding their creditors, and if you believe that the plaintiff knew of such design, and bought the goods in order to aid and assist them in carrying out such fraudulent object, the sale would be void as to the defendant’s claim under the attachment in favor of Pratt & Co. and such should be your verdict, and this should be so, notwithstanding the plaintiff may have parted with his money or may be liable upon obligations still outstanding against him. Whether or not the firm of Stark-weather & Co. disposed of the stock in question with the intent to defraud their creditors, and whether or not the plaintiff may or may not have participated in such fraudulent intent, if such intent has been shown, must be determined by you from the facts and circumstances that have been introduced in evidence; and if such facts and circumstances have been established so as to satisfy you that the plaintiff, as a reasonably prudent man, must have understood that the act of Starkweather & Co. in diposing of the stock to him was to hinder, delay, or defraud their creditors, — he should be held responsible for such knowledge and fraudulent intent, notwithstanding the plaintiff may insist that he had no such object or purpose.
Now, gentlemen, in view of what has been said, if such be your conclusion that the sale from Starkweather & Co. to the plaintiff was made for the purpose of hindering, delaying, or defrauding their creditors, and that plaintiff knew or had good reason to know of such intent at the time of purchasing property, your verdict will be for the defendant, and in that event you should find that the defendant had a special lien on the property in question to the amount of the judgment of Pratt & Co., and the costs, in all $1763.75, and interest from the date of the rendition of such judgment.
If, on the other hand, it shall be your conclusion that the stock -was sold -to the plaintiff in good ■ faith, without any fraudulent intent, or plaintiff didn’t participate in any fraudulent,intent that may have been shown on the part of Starkweather & Co., your verdict should be for the plaintiff.”
To which defendant’s counsel excepted, and now claims that it was not a proper charge to the jury, as it in effect gave the jury to understand that the plaintiff must actually participate in the fraud in order to vitiate the sale. It seems to us that the charge was not so clear as it should have been, and might have misled the jury. Although the court does say in one part of the instructions that if the facts and circumstances “ were such as to satisfy them that the plaintiff, as a reasonably prudent man, must have understood that the act of Starkweather & Co., in disposing of the stock to him, was to hinder, delay or defraud their creditors, he should be held responsible for such knowledge and fraudulent intent, notwithstanding he may insist that he had no such object or purpose,” yet the whole tenor seems to be that in order to make the sale void as to him he must have jparticipated in the fraudulent intent.- Plaintiff was not a creditor of the firm, but a purchaser, and the court should have clearly pointed out the distinction, and given the jury to understand, in unmistakable language, that knowledge on- the part of plaintiff of facts sufficient to put an ordinarily juudent man on inquiry is all that is required, and that participation in the fraud was not necessary. Willey v. Snyder 34 Mich. 60; Hough v. Dickinson ante p. 89.
Another error is manifest in the permitting of the counsel for the plaintiff in his argument to the jury to go outside of the evidence in the cause and appeal to the prejudices of a jury against non-residents. Great latitude must necessarily be allowed counsel in argument as to illustration and amplification in dwelling upon the facts, and much can be excused in the counsel for the zeal and excitement of speech in his client’s behalf. But the circuit judge is suppose'd to be -wanting in this zeal and excitement, and when his attention is called, as it was repeatedly in this cause, to unauthorized, and uncalled for statements by counsel in summing up, he should at once take all proper efforts to stop any further abuse, and to correct, if possible, the injury already done. In this case it appears he did neither. ¥e think the statements made by the plaintiff’s counsel to the jury that Starkweather & Co. turned every cent over to their creditors, and invited them from all over the county to come to Port Huron, and that Pratt & Co. were hogs in attempting to secure their claim, and wanted to gobble all there was of the property, as unwarranted by the testimony, and should not have been allowed without some rebuke to him, or some explanation to the jury, upon the part of the court. It is the duty of the circuit judge to see to it that both plaintiff and defendant have a trial of their rights as free from bias and prejudice as possible.
In omitting to stop counsel, and in neglecting to counteract the effect of the evil caused by his remarks, after exception taken by defendant’s counsel, the court erred. A new trial must be granted, and the judgment of the court below
Peversed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
In May 1883 Eugene Angel!, a private banker in the city of Lansing, became insolvent and made an assignment for the benefit of creditors. The estate was brought into the circuit court for Ingham county, where a receiver was appointed. He received some assets from the bank at Lansing, and some monéy from banks elsewhere that held funds subject to draft. Among these was the Chase National Bank in New York city, which had at the time of the failure about $2900. Drafts had been drawn to more than cover this balance, but were not presented before the failure, and were afterwards dishonored.
Petitioner Downer’s claim is for something over $800, which he claims was a trust fund included in the Chase National Bank deposit, and which he insists must be paid him in full, instead of putting him to share in a pro rata dividend among general creditors.
The facts which he relies on are not entirely agreed upon, although they are mainly so. In April 1883 Mr. Downer owned some buildings in North Lansing which were rented, and some which wore to be repaired and improved. As he lived in another state, and wished to have some one in Lansing look after matters, he made an agreement with Angelí to look after his rents and taxes, and to pay the repairing bills as they accrued to two contractors wrho had them in •charge. For this service Angelí was to have $100 at any rate, and $25 more if he thought it a proper charge. Mr. Downer left with Mr. Angelí a draft for $1000 on a Boston bank, out of which Angelí was to make his payments. This draft Angelí put to Downer’s credit, at $1000, and sent it forward in the usual course of collection to the Chase National Bank, which collected it and placed the proceeds to Angell’s general credit. Between the time when Angelí took this draft Angelí drew continually on the Chase National Bank, and kept his balance there replenished by new remittances, so that in the interval before his failure he had drawn from that bank about $16,000, and sent forward not far from the same amount, his running balances being usually about $4000. The draft, when forwarded, was not distinguished from other remittances, and in Angell’s bank books was entered like ordinary deposits.
We have had occasion heretofore, to consider whether persons holding drafts on the Chase National Bank obtained thereby a specific lien on the money there held to Angell’s credit, and we concluded that the relation between Angelí and that bank was that of debtor and creditor, so that no specific right in that fund was transferred to the persons receiving drafts on that bank. We see nothing in the established facts here to distinguish it.
There is nothing which leads us to believe that Downer ever required that Angelí should keep the proceeds of the $1000 draft separate from his other funds. As a matter of fact it was not so kept. It was entered as a credit on the same books containing all bank accounts, and the draft formed only a part of remittances collected and placed to Angell’s general credit, where balances 'were daily changing by drafts and receipts, and where there was nothing to interfere with the complete absorption of all the balances whenever Angelí should draw enough, as he did draw enough, to exhaust them. Had all the drafts which he drew been presented before his failure, there would have been nothing left.
Whatever may have been the propriety of Angell’s keeping a special fund of this $1000 and its proceeds, the testimony satisfies us that he was not ordered to do so, and never did so in fact. It was at once credited to Mr. Downer as so much cash, and charged to the Chase National Bank as a remittance. The payments made by Angelí to the contractors on Downer’s account were in no case charged to the fund in New York, but were made at Lansing. Whether any of them wore made in the interval between the delivery of the draft on April 19th and the reception of notice of its credit to the account in New York by the Chase National Bank does not very plainly appear. It was never separated in that bank, and the amount of it and of all the deposits held with it, was exhausted and renewed some four times. It would be idle to consider such money as a trust fund capable of identification in the New York banking-house. It stood with that always as part of general remittances taken in and paid out in the usual course of business like any other deposits for which the bank became liable to its depositors. It would be as entirely consistent to treat ■ this mone}r as drawn to Lansing, where it was all to be paid out by the first drafts of an equal amount disposed of by Angelí, as to regard it as continuing unaffected by the many business drafts drawn from day to day, and only made good by continual remittances to cover them. None of .these were payable out of special funds. They were all drawn on the credit balances, which included the proceeds of Downer’s draft among the rest. There is-no more reason for treating it as Downer’s money than for regarding it as appropriated to the use of the bona fide draft purchasers, whose drafts would have exhausted it, and who. knew nothing of any equities to impede them. But we have already held that these draft-holders did not get any lien on the fund.
We can see no reason why Mr. Downer has any more equities as against this fund than any other creditors who trusted Angelí with their money, or who purchased drafts on, his New York correspondent. They must all be treated .alike and share in the dividends from his estate in the same way.
The decree must be affirmed with costs.
Morse, C. J. and Champlin, J. concurred. Sherwood, J. concurred in the result. | [
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Campbell, J.
Plaintiff sued defendant on a marine policy upon the steamer Spartan, dated April 21,1883, and running from May 1 to November 30, 1883, covering the usual risks on any of the Great Lakes and river St. Lawrence. The ves. sel was wrecked on Lake Superior on the 19th of June, and abandonment was made by plaintiff and accepted by defendant as for a total loss. Defendant took posession of the wreck, and had the vessel repaired, at án expense-of over 50 per cent.
■ The defense rested on the alleged ground that plaintiff was not insured, and could not sue on the policy. It was also claimed that no one was insured so as to create any legal obligation.
The form of the policy, as issued, was in the beginning that defendant by that policy of insurance “ on account of Owen Sound Steamship Company, — loss, if any, payable to the Bichelieu & Ontario Navigation Company,” did make insurance on the property in question upon the terms specified. -Nothing appears in any other part of the policy to show who was supposed to be insured, and no name of any one appears for any purpose except as quoted. The property insured is “the body, tackle, appar.el and other furniture of the iron steamer called the ‘ Spartan,’ ” and it is provided that “the said vessel, tackle, apparel and other furniture are valued at fifty thousand dollars, without any further ■account to be given by the assured to the assurers, for the same.” Provision was made as to the duties of both parties in case of damage, and for total abandonment in certain contingencies stated.
The circuit court for the county of Wayne, where the action was tried, took the case from the jury and ordered a verdict for defendant, and on the trial ruled out nearly all of plaintiff’s evidence, most of which was undoubtedly admissible, if plaintiff could sue at all. We must therefore assume, what no doubt was the fact, that all the substantial rulings were made on the theory of an entire want of legal right. And a disposition of that question will dispose of the controversy hereafter, as there is no defense except on that .theory.
In the spring of 1883 five Canadian gentlemen who desired to establish a line of steamers to navigate Lakes Superior and Huron, Georgian Bay, and adjacent waters, and to become incorporated for that puipose in accordance with the terms agreed on with plaintiff, obtained a charter for a term of years of the steamships Magnet and Spartan; and, among other terms of the charter it was stipulated that the charterers should procure an incorporation with all convenient speed, and have a formal agreement and ratification executed b}' the incorporated company, and that during the entire term insurance should be kept up to the full value of the vessels, in companies'to be approved by plaintiff, and in.case of total loss the insurance money should replace the vessels, and the rent cease; while in case of partial loss, plaintiff should pay over the insurance to the charterers received under any or all of the policies, in which the loss was made payable to plaintiff; and the lessees were, except in case of total loss, bound to restore the property at the end of the lease, in good-order.
An application was made in pursuance of this agreement by one of the charterers to Charles Perry of Toronto, who was endeavoring to get risks under an arrangement with Crosby & Dimick of Buffalo, general agents for defendant, there being reasons of economy which made it desirable to do the business outside of Canada, and save the necessity of compliance with the conditions imposed on such agencies. Perry himself made the applications to Crosby & Dimick who filled up and signed the policy and returned it to Perry who was to deliver it and look after the premium notes. The policy was delivered to or for plaintiff, immediately after its date. Perry, in making the application, as he testified, intended it to be for plaintiff. According to his view, as he swears, he was not holding a direct agency for defendant to act in Canada, as he would have been subject to a penalty for doing so without a license.. But he was unquestionably acting in the employment and interest of defendant’s general agents in Buffalo, and on their behalf in all that he did, and was paid his commissions and authorized by them to undertake risks.
The premium notes were not required or taken by Perry until June 21, 1883, which was two weeks after the incorporation of the charterers, and they were retained and paid at maturity to defendant. The loss was not known until a few days after these notes were given, and Perry at once communicated with plaintiff, who gave notice in due time of the abandonment, which defendant accepted and acted on, as before stated, after defendant had taken proper steps to be represented on the survey.
On the 12th of May, 1883, Perry, acting apparently on his own motion, wrote to Crosby & Dimick, intimating his doubt concerning the regularity of the policy by reason of the charterers’ having procured the insurance. On the 28th of May he wrote again, asking the issue of new policies, describing the various interests, to be made out to plaintiff, and stated he would return the old policies when he could get them back from Montreal, where plaintiff had its office. Crosby & Dimick replied the next day that it was unnecessary to write new policies, and that all necessary was an endorsement making them cover plaintiff’s interest, which Perry was authorized to make and report. They also enclosed blank premium notes which they requested him to have filled out and returned. Perry, as before stated, obtained the notes, and all the other steps were taken, including the abandonment and acceptance, but he seems to have never called the attention of plaintiff to having the endorsements made, and this was not done.
We can see nothing in this policy which is inconsistent with its covering the interests as they actually stood, and while the proposed endorsement would have shown the precise condition of things on the policy itself, it was evidently not supposed by Crosby & Dimick that it would have changed the effect of the policy, or made a new one out of it. The Owen Sound Steamship Company, whose substantial identity was not destroyed by the incorporation, although formally merged in it, had undertaken such obligations to obtain insurance and to restore the property, as gave them a full insurable interest, whether' any one else was mentioned or not. 2 Pars. Marit. Law 77, 78, and cases cited. There is no doubt of the common-law right of agents and bailees to insure under such circumstances for the full value of the property insured. Waters v. Monarch L. & F. Ins. Co. 34 E. L. & Eq. 116: 25 Law J. (Q. B.) 102; Crowley v. Cohen 3 B. & Ad. 478; 3 Kent’s Com. 262. And the authorities are clear that where the party thus insured in his own name receives all the insurance money, he must account for it to the real parties in interest. Id.
The policy here is inconsistent with the idea that it was meant to cover anything less than the entire vessel. No one could contract with reference to a total abandonment on any other basis. And the only question really is whether under this policy plaintiff can sue directly in its own name.
Upon this we have no doubt. This policy contains an express promise to pay the money to the plaintiff. It contains no reservation that plaintiff shall be paid according to the amount of any interest which may be shown, or any partial amount. The promise is unconditional to pay the whole of it. It was understood by the defendant that the insurance was in fact made for plaintiff’s benefit, and it was really so made. A payment to plaintiff would absolve defendant from any duty to the Owen Sound Steamship Company, if any such duty existed.
Under such circumstances we think the defendant entered into contract relations which plaintiff has a right to assert directly. The case is in all substantial features the counterpart of Hopkins Manuf’g Co. v. Aurora F. & M. Ins. Co. 48 Mich. 148, where the beneficiary named was held authorized to sue for the insurance money as the legal payee. As we have so decided ourselves, we need not discuss the decisions elsewhere which were cited to the same effect.
In our opinion, the court below should have directed a verdict for the plaintiff, whose right was not open to any controversy on 'the undisputed facts, without reference to what-was shut out.
The judgment should be reversed with costs and a new trial granted.
Cooley, C. J. and Sherwood, J. concurred. | [
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Morse, C. J.
Complainant filed her bill in the circuit court for the county of Kent in chancery, praying for a divorce from the defendant on two grounds : extreme cruelty and want of proper maintenance. Defendant interposed a demurrer for the reason that the case stated in complainant’s bill did not entitle her to relief, and that the acts set forth therein did not inlaw constitute extreme cruelty. The court below sustained the demurrer and dismissed the bill.
We shall not discuss the various allegations in the bill, as no good purpose will be served by so doing. Some of them are vague, shadowy and unsatisfactory, but upon the whole face of the bill enough appears, in our opinion, to require answer and explanation by defendant. The decree of the circuit court for the county of Kent in chancery is reversed, and defendant must answer. The complainant will be allowed her costs in this Court, but no solicitor's fee, the allowance heretofore made being deemed under the circumstances sufficient.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
This is a suit in equity. The purpose of the suit is to obtain a decree vacating a discharge of mortgage which was entered upon the record by inadvertence or error, and also a foreclosure of the mortgage as against a .party to whom the mortgagor had conveyed the land after the discharge had been entered, but with notice, as the bill avers, that the mortgage had not been paid.
The facts, as they are disclosed b}7 the evidence, we find to be the following:
Thomas Holmes, the mortgagor, borrowed of complainant .on May 29, 1860, the sum of fourteen hundred dollars, and gave him a mortgage in consideration thereof for the sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable in five years from that date, with interest at the rate of ten per cent, per annum, payable semi-annually. In the spring of 1870 the whole principal sum of this mortgage remained unpaid, and also the interest except about a hundred and seventy dollars which had been paid at different times, and complainant began foreclosure. The matter was however arranged between the parties by the mortgagor giving to complainant a new mortgage for the sum of three thousand seven hundred dollars, which is the mortgage now in suit. The sum was made up by compounding the interest at ten per cent., semi-annually, and adding thereto certain items of costs, expenses, etc., amounting to $253.62. There was no authority of law for thus compounding the interest, and the amount was increased more than a thousand dollars thereby. There is reason to believe, also, that the items of costs and expenses which were charged were extravagant; but no legal duress is shown or claimed, and we shall enter here upon no inquiry whether the mortgagor could have made defense to any part of the mortgage. It is not to be supposed, however, that such a mortgage would have been given except under the pressure of some great necessity.
On November 25, 1872, the mortgagee went to the office of the register of deeds, where the mortgage was recorded, and in his presence entered on.the margin of the record a full discharge of the mortgage. Up to that time only two hundred dollars had been paid upon it, and nobody is able to make any explanation how this discharge came to be made. It is suggested that it was made by mistake when the discharge of a different mortgage was intended, but no evidence is given to that effect, and the discharge therefore remains unexplained and unaccountable. The mortgagor was not aware of it for two years or more thereafter, and when it came to his knowledge, he said nothing about it, but made further payments, the whole, up to March 3, 1877, amounting to $943.39. It seems evident that up to that time the mortgagor had formed no purpose to take advantage of the inadvertent or erroneous discharge.
On March 14, 1879, however, the mortgagor with his wife executed to his son Abiram Holmes, then resident in Ohicago, a warranty deed of the land mortgaged, for the nominal consideration of six thousand dollars, receiving, as the parties to the transaction claimed, one thousand five hundred dollars in cash and prior indebtedness, and taking back from the grantee a mortgage of four thousand five hundred dollars. There were circumstances attending this trade indicating great haste, and it is not disputed now that Thomas Holmes had a purpose to take advantage of the discharge and get rid of paying the mortgage. This he justified to himself by the extortion which the complainant had practiced upon him in taking the mortgage, and in the terms exacted. "When the papers were presented for record the register of deeds suspected something wrong and immediately notified complainant, who lost no time in instituting this suit.
The chief contention in the suit was over the question whether Abiram Holmes was aware, when he took the deed from his father, that the mortgage had not been paid, and must have been discharged by inadvertence. The circuit judge found that he was, and gave decree of foreclosure for* $9080.19, and charged the defondants Thomas and Abiram Holmes personally with all costs. Abiram Holmes alone appealed.
There is no direct evidence that Abiram Holmes was aware, when he received the deed from his father, that his father was not in justice and equity entitled to make a conveyance free of liens. The indirect evidence, however, is strongly relied upon, and is thought to be conclusive.
First, it is said there was gross inadequacy in the price which Abiram Holmes was to pay for the land. Complainant produced a number of witnesses whose testimony -went to show that the land was worth from $8000 to $10,000, whereas Abiram Holmes was to pay but $6000. A consideration of all the evidence does not, however, make out such a case of gross inadequacy as would be evidence of fraudulent purpose; and in a transaction between father and son, especially when the father was considerably advanced in years, as was the case here, and was expected to remain upon the land, as also appears, the fact of low selling price would scarcely excite remark, unless it appeared that some other party might be wronged thereby. But in this case the question in dispute is whether the son knew that any other person was in position to be wronged thereby; and it cannot well be claimed that the mere fact that his father was willing to sell to him at a low price would charge him with notice of an intended fraud. On the contrary, he had a right to Suppose Ins father’s purposes were honest, and that if the father made any concessions in the matter of price, he did so from proper motives. Large farms are not readily sold at the value the owners and their neighbors place upon 'them, and when one finds a purchaser in his own family he is more likely to accept a low price than if he wer-e to sell to a stranger, and [is] quite justifiable in doing so. And probably the price Abiram was to pay in this case was as large as at a forced sale could have been realized.
Then it is mentioned as a suspicious circumstance that Abiram Holmes procured an abstract of the title to the land, which showed this mortgage to have been discharged. This is charged to have been done for appearances' merely and in order that he might be able tó make a showing that he was relying -upon a clear record. And why, it is asked, should the son, when dealing with his father, go to the record- to ascertain what the title was, when presumptively the father would have truthfully told him its exact state? This is a pertinent question,-but Abiram Holmes, if he was honest in the transaction, could easily make sufficient answer to it; it is only when we assume that he was dishonest in taking the deed that the procuring of an abstract becomes a suspicious circumstance. Lands, as every lawyer in Michigan knows, were at an early day bought and sold very carelessly, and with little investigation of title; and it often happened after many years’ póssession and cultivation that a party found to his astonishment that he had no title to land he had bought and long occupied. Experience and observation inculcated prudence; and the reasons for being particular to know what was shown by the record applied as well when one was dealing with his father as when buying of a stranger. There would be a lack of common- business caution if he were not thus particular; and common business caution can never, by itself, afford ground of suspicion. Much less can it be proof of intended fraud.
It is further said that for many years- Thomas Holmes had been an unthrifty man, and Abiram Holmes had had no reason for believing that he had paid off the mortgage in question; that it is morally certain, in fact, that he must have known his father had never been able to pay it. The argument drawn from this is that when he found by the abstract from the records that the mortgage appeared to be discharged, he was bound to infer, even if his father had not told him, that a discharge of the mortgage had from some cause been entered without payment and under circumstances which still left the mortgage in force. To strengthen the argument on this branch of the case complainant produced evidence tending to show that Thomas Holmes had for many years been tardy in meeting his obligations for farm and family expenses, and that in 1870 when Abiram went out into the world to act and operate in his own behalf, his father, as he subsequently informed a witness, “told Abiram he had better go if he wanted ever to do anything for himself : to start out now: ‘ Start out for yourself,’ says he; ‘ I aint in a situation to do anything for you : I can’t help you to a dollar, and you will have to start out: you might just as well go now as at any time and begin for yourself.’ ”
There is nothing in all this that brings home to Abiram a knowledge that his father in 1879 had an unpaid mortgage on his farm, or that fairly charges him with notice that such was probably the case. At most it would only apprise him that his father did not feel that, in addition to supporting his family and meeting his own obligations, he could spare anything to aid his son in getting started in the world. But the son, if he knew of the mortgage, might well refer this inability to the necessity he felt of paying it off. He might well agree with the father that such payment would be the father’s first duty. And we find nothing in this record which fairly tends to show that when Abiram Holmes found the mortgage discharged of record, he was notified, either directly or by the circumstances, that the discharge was not made in consideration of payment, as it professed to be.
On the argument much stress was laid on the relationship between Thomas and Abiram, as raising a probability that the latter was fully apprised of his father’s embarrassments. But if the relationship were to be accepted as the basis for a legal presumption that a father laboring under pecuniary embarrassments would explain them to his children and keep them posted in respect to such embarrassments, such legal presumption would do violence to the facts in a great many cases, and would often result in gross in justice. It is matter of common observation in the settlement of estates of deceased persons that the members of the family are surprised at the discovery of demands, liens and embarrassments of which they had before no knowledge and no suspicion. While a person in easy circumstances may delight to have his family understand and en joy his prosperity in his life-time, and may therefore keep them fully informed concerning it, the man who is embarrassed is found very often to shrink from disclosure, even to his wife, and his own family may be more ignorant respecting his embarrassments than the community in general. And for all that appears this may have been the case with Thomas Holmes.
But if we assume that Abiram Holmes knew of the origin and early history of the' indebtedness to complainant, the assumption will fall far short of making out the necessary support to the complainant’s case. Ho would then have known that his father, the owner of a good farm worth five or six thousand dollars, contracted in 1860 an obligation to pay $1500, with seventy-five dollars every six months as interest thereon. ' This was not a very serious burden, and the son might well suppose the father without difficulty would keep the interest paid. He would know that the amount, even if the interest remained unpaid, could not in ten years be increased to $3700, or even to near that sum by any process which could be justified to the conscience; and when in 1879 he saw by the abstract that there had been a mortgage of $3700 on the land which was also discharged, there was nothing in the circumstances, as they are brought before us in this case, to charge him with knowledge or notice that so large a debt as $3700 had existed at the date of the mortgage. It did not exist in fact, as we have seen; and when Abiram Holmes found the mortgage discharged of record, lie was no more called upon to indulge in conjecture how the discharge came to be made than he was to pry into the reasons for so large a mortgage having been given. He was no more bound to infer mistake in the discharge than extortion and oppression in obtaining the mortgage; it was-enough for him, if he proposed to buy, that the party who-had taken a mortgage for more than was due him had discharged it; and the reason for the large mortgage and the-reason for the discharge were alike immaterial. He had, a. right, however, to suppose that complainant was a fair man and would demand nothing but what was justly his due ; and if he surmised that the parties for some unexplained reason of their own had given and taken a mortgage for an excessive amount but without any understanding or expectation that more should be paid than was justly owing, the surmise would not have been unnatural or unreasonable. He was-certainly not bound to assume or suspect that complainant had taken advantage of his father’s necessities to oppress him so-grossly as was intended.
Complainant in this case had the burden of proving notice-to Abiram Holmes not only that there was once a mortgage, but that it was still in existence. The prima facie case was-all against him. The mortgage, by his voluntary act, was discharged of record. The mortgagor, even if unthrifty, might; well have been supposed able to pay off the original indebtedness, and Abiram Holmes is not proved to have known of any other. The mere fact, therefore, of Abiram Holmes'acting upon the proof of payment which the discharge would afford, and which of itself was of the very highest nature, is-not suspicious. The fact that Thomas Holmes intended to-take advantage of the discharge to cut off the mortgage is-not proof that he disclosed the design to his son: on the-contrary he would naturally be careful to conceal it, lest by the disclosure the design might be defeated. Complainant-attaches importance to the testimony of one Sheridan who-had been in the same employment vdth Abiram Holmes and is supposed to have obtained damaging admissions. According to his statement, Sheridan was a stranger to complainant, but was applied to a year before he gave his testimony, to ascertain if he know any facts favorable to complainant. But as he states it, it is plain he was expected to obtain admissions if possible. Complainant subsequently addressed him a letter, and he made this letter the pretext for making inquiries. Abiram, according to the witness, replied that “ Mr. Sheldon was a regular old rascal, and made his money by swindling poor people out of it: he said we had him just where we wanted him.” Confessions said to have been obtained in this way, especially pending litigation, are utterly unreliable, and are entitled to little or no consideration. It is not at all probable that Abiram Holmes, in response to an inquiry by one who apprised him at the time that he was in correspondence with the antagonist in a pending litigation, would make an admission which could be used by that antagonist as evidence. The very question, as the witness states it, would put him on his guard. But the response, if made as stated, has little significance. Abiram testifies positively that he had no knowledge of the discharge of the mortgage having been erroneous or inadvertent when he took his deed; and if he discovered all the facts afterwards, he would forfeit no rights by expressing, even in the strongest terms, his gratification that the extortion of complainant had through a blunder been defeated.
We find, therefore, that complainant has not made the necessary showing of notice in Abiram Holmes. The decree should therefore be reversed. It may be proper, to add, however, that even if notice were proved, the decree ought not to stand. Complainant has come into a court of equity to obtain relief against the consequences of his own blunder for which none of the defendants was in any way responsible. When the bill was filed Abiram Holmes had done nothing which he was not legally and equitably entitled to do. He had simply taken a deed and given back a mortgage ; and this he had a lawful right to do even if the mortgage of complainant was still a valid lien on the land. Complainant had no right, on the facts as they then stood, to put Abiram Holmes to the cost of correcting complainant’s own error by suit in equity, but he should have taken some step which put Abiram distinctly in the wrong before the latter could be chargeable with costs. But complainant was bound to do more than this : when he sought equity he was bound to do equity. If it was equitable to restore his mortgage, it was not equitable to do so for more than was justly due. In so far as he had obtained an unconscionable advantage, he should have been compelled, as a condition to relief, to accept the restoration of the mortgage with that advantage surrendered. The decree for more than nine thousand dollars, made up as it has been, is shocking to any just sense of equity. It is not enough for complainant to say the mortgagor consented to give the mortgage in question : that mortgage is discharged, and the parties do not consent to its restoration. Under such circumstances complainant invokes the aid of equity, and appeals to the conscience. To give him more than the original sum loaned, with interest computed thereon according to law, would not be equity and would not be sanctioned by an enlightened conscience.
The Court, however, is inclined to hold that as to any sums still owing by Abiram Holmes on' his purchase at the time when, after making such purchase, he was notified of complainant’s equities, said Holmes is not entitled to protection, and that complainant to that extent is entitled to foreclose his mortgage. This will give the defendant Abiram Holmes all the protection that is required by any rule of justice, and does not increase his liability, but only appropriates his subsequent payments to the party equitably entitled.
The decree must be reversed, with costs of this Court, and the cause remanded for further proceedings. A reference to determine the payments made by Abiram Holmes will probably be essential.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
This is a bill filed to obtain a specific performance or else compensation for the support of defendant. A general demurrer was put in, but overruled, and defendant appeals.
The bill alleges that in May, 1879, defendant entered into an agreement with his daughter, Josephine Bourget, complainant’s wife, which it is alleged was in substance that she should support and maintain him, except as to clothing, during his life, and that in consideration thereof he should allow her and her family to possess and reside upon a certain lot named, in Detroit, belonging to defendant, and that it should be hers absolutely after his death; that in pursuance of this agreement till her death, said Josephine supported and maintained defendant, and resided on the land; and that pursuant to the agreement defendant and wife made a deed to her in 1881. The bill does not aver the contents of this deed or that it was delivered. If it had been, the bill would be improper, because the contract would have been fulfilled, and the "cour-ts of law could secure the possession of the land if disputed.
The bill further avers that Mrs. Bourget spent $147 in improvements, and labor to the amount of $75; and that defendant’s support and maintenance was worth $1300 ; that Josephine Bourget died intestate in August, 1883, leaving two little children, one of whom died about a fortnight after, and the other, who inherited his share, in October, 1884, leaving his father, the complainant, his sole heir; that defendant, immediately after his daughter’s death, left the house and shut it up and excluded complainant, and on the day she died and before her death, repudiated the alleged agreement, which complainant avers his readiness to perform.
Complainant fears defendant will dispose of the property, which will make a recovery difficult, and asks an injunction and specific performance, or compensation.
We can see no foundation for jurisdiction in this case. If Josephine Bourget were living, and had filed this bill herself, a decree of specific performance would, if made, involve continuous duties on her part, including all those household cares and attentions essential to the decent care of parents by their children, which could not be constantly regulated by any process within the power of a court of equity, and which, if enforced unwillingly, would be destitute of the affection and confidence which are the chief value of such relations. The duties on defendant’s part would also be continuous and dependent on good treatment, and the conveyance must either be made by will, which no court can compel a man to make, or by deed from his heirs. In other words, the performance could not be enforced mutually or at all, and is impracticable within any rule of equity.
The impropriety of interference in equity in such cases has been so uniformly recognized by this Court that it is not necessary to discuss it at length. A court of equity cannot enforce a contract specifically unless it can be done mutually and completely, and so as to secure substantially beyond question all that the parties contemplate. If this-is impracticable, the remedy, if any exists, is to be found elsewhere. Buck v. Smith 29 Mich. 166; Blanchard v. Detroit, L. & L. M. R. R. Co. 31 Mich. 52; Rust v. Conrad 47 Mich. 449; Bumpus v. Bumpus 53 Mich. 346; Wright v. Wright 31 Mich. 380; Roberts v. Kelsey 38 Mich. 602.
The case of Bumpus v. Bumpus, so far as practicability is concerned, is a much stronger case in its facts than the present one, and the doctrine was there laid down that courts should not interfere in such cases. The case of Chipman v. Thompson Walk. Ch. 405, which is relied on by complainant, has no analogy to the present one. In that case full papers were made out, and a deed deposited in escrow and referred to in the written articles. The parties to be supported had both died, and the purpose of the bill was to compel delivery of the conveyance by the depositary. There was nothing difficult in the duties to be performed, and no delay required to determine whether the parties to the original agreement would perform their obligations.
In the present case the want of mutuality is especially manifest, apart from the other difficulties. It was never contemplated that the parent should have to look to any one but his daughter for the care which he needed. Her death made the performance impossible. Beyond this, it cannot be claimed that any duty devolved on her infant children, or on complainant, which could be enforced by legal proceedings. Assuming that this future possibility was of such a nature that it passed by descent to complainant (which it would be difficult to maintain when the conditions are personal), it cannot be said that he could be bound unless he chose to accept an estate so burdened; and the mere devolution of the estate could not bring him into such relations of contract that defendant could force him to carry out his wife’s obligations. It might be open to some consideration whether a married woman, living with her husband, could make such a sole contract as would bring into the family, for continued maintenance, and for a price to be paid to herself alone, strangers to the household.,
It is claimed, however, that if specific performance cannot be granted, complainant can have a decree for damages. But there is no authority for holding that equity can grant damages unless there is some case of equitable relief made out also, to which the damages would be applicable or subsidiary.
Moreover, the action for damages for breach of contract, if lying at all, belongs to Mrs. Bourgot’s estate, and cannot pass by inheritance. Heirs-at-law cannot sue on contract, except where they have a cause of action on covenants running with the land. Personal actions do not descend to heirs.
The decree must be reversed and the bill dismissed with costs of both courts.
Morse, C. J. and Champlin, J. concurred. Sherwood, J. did not sit in this case. | [
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Turkish v City of Warren
This zoning case causes . us to revisit Kropf, Sabo, and Kirk. We hold that the majority rule enunciated in both Kropf and Kirk as well as the minority opinion of Justice Williams in Sabo remain the law in Michigan today insofar as the appropriate standard for determining the validity of zoning ordinances is concerned. Accordingly, we affirm the Court of Appeals ruling of unconstitutionality, but remand this matter to the Warren City Council acting as zoning authority for further action consistent with this opinion,
I. The Appropriate Standard
The appropriate standard for determining the constitutional validity of municipal zoning determinations was succinctly set forth in Kirk as follows:
"The principles and tests to use to determine whether the present zoning of plaintiffs’ property is valid was detailed in Kropf.
"The important principles require that for an ordinance to be successfully challenged plaintiffs prove:
" '[F]irst, that there is no reasonable governmental interest being advanced by the present zoning classification itself * * * or
" '[Secondly, that an ordinance may be unreasonable because of the purely arbitrary, capricious and unfounded exclusion of other types of legitimate land use from the area in question.’ 391 Mich 139, 158.
"The four rules for applying these principles were also outlined in Kropf. They are:
"1. '[T]he ordinance comes to us clothed with every presumption of validity.’ 391 Mich 139, 162, quoting from Brae Burn, Inc v Bloomfield Hills, 350 Mich 425; 86 NW2d 166 (1957).
"2. '[I]t is the burden of the party attacking to prove affirmatively that the ordinance is an arbitrary and unreasonable restriction upon the owner’s use of his property * * *. It must appear that the clause attacked is an arbitrary fiat, a whimsical ipse dixit, and that there is no room for a legitimate difference of opinion concerning its reasonableness.’ 391 Mich 139, 162, quoting Brae Burn, Inc.
"3. 'Michigan has adopted the view that to sustain an attack on a zoning ordinance, an aggrieved property owner must show that if the ordinance is enforced the consequent restrictions on his property preclude its use for any purposes to which it is reasonably adapted.’ 391 Mich 139, 162-163.
"4. 'This Court, however, is inclined to give considerable weight to the findings of the trial judge in equity cases.’ 391 Mich 139, 163, quoting Christine Building Co v City of Troy, 367 Mich 508, 518; 116 NW2d 816 (1962).” 398 Mich 429, 439-440.
See Sabo v Monroe Twp, 394 Mich 531, 542; 232 NW2d 584 (1975). (Separate opinion of Williams, J., for reversal of the trial court.)
II. Facts
This is an unusual zoning case involving what the defendant’s Director of Planning has described as "a problem piece” of property. Plaintiffs allege that, because of two factors, the cost of developing their property under the challenged R-l-C single-family zoning ordinance would equal plaintiffs’ potential sales return, thereby rendering the disputed zoning designation unconstitutionally confiscatory as applied to their parcel. Throughout both their pleadings and proofs, plaintiffs have urged that their parcel be judicially reclassified to permit the construction of multiple family dwellings, an R-3 use.
The first of two factors identified by plaintiffs in support of their position concerns the allegation that, despite plaintiffs’ efforts to persuade the city to develop the abutting area with a uniform road system, defendant has consistently permitted the platting of surrounding land in such a manner as to render plaintiffs’ property landlocked and road-less. The second factor put forward by plaintiffs concerns the further allegation that, due to the extreme narrowness of plaintiffs’ parcel, in order to develop their land in accordance with the disputed R-l-C zoning scheme plaintiffs would have to construct a road servicing only one rather than two rows of homes. Under this circumstance, homes constructed on plaintiffs’ property would necessarily face the backs of already existing residences, an obviously undesirable arrangement.
The trial court held that in view of these circumstances the city’s zoning designation was "unreasonable, arbitrary and confiscatory” and therefore constitutionally invalid. That court specifically declined to consider the case as coming "within the purview of a preferred use doctrine”, Bristow v Woodhaven, 35 Mich App 205; 192 NW2d 322 (1971), and relied on this Court’s ruling in Bassey v Huntington Woods, 344 Mich 701, 704-705; 74 NW2d 897 (1956), that: "[A]n ordinance that prevents the property owner from making any beneficial use of his property is both unreasonable and confiscatory”. In its order of judgment the trial court granted the definitive relief sought in plaintiffs’ complaint, stating:
"2. Defendant City of Warren, its agents, officers, employees, attorneys and all persons acting in concert with it, are hereby enjoined from interfering with plaintiffs’ use of the property in accordance with defendant’s R-3 zoning classification.”
The Court of Appeals affirmed the trial judge’s finding of confiscation as supportable by the record, citing Smith v Wood Creek Farms, 371 Mich 127; 123 NW2d 210 (1963). That Court, however, simultaneously offered the following gratuitous remark:
"We would, prefer to reverse without prejudice to an application to the legislative body of defendant seeking an administrative hearing with regard to the reasonableness of plaintiffs’ proposed [R-3, multiple-family dwelling] use.” 61 Mich App 435, 440; 232 NW2d 732 (1975).
III. Application of the Appropriate Standard on De Novo Review to the Facts
Applying those rules enumerated, in Part I discussing Kirk, supra, it is clear that this matter is particularly governed by rule 3 of Kropf, i.e., "to sustain an attack on a zoning ordinance, an aggrieved property owner must show that if the ordinance is enforced the consequent restrictions on his property preclude its use for any purposes to which it is reasonably adapted”. It is, of course, plaintiffs’ duty "to prove affirmatively that the ordinance is an arbitrary and unreasonable restriction upon the owner’s use of his property” (Kropf, rule 2), as the "ordinance comes to us clothed with every presumption, of validity” (Kropf, rule 1).
Applying these three rules to the totality of circumstances adduced at trial, our review of the record supports the finding that defendant’s platting of surrounding land has landlocked plaintiffs’ parcel to the extent that all reasonable uses are precluded under the R-l-C zoning designation; plaintiffs have affirmatively proven that their development costs under the disputed R-l-C ordinance would be roughly equivalent to any potential sales returns on the developed property, thereby rendering the classification scheme unreasonable and void. Therefore, reviewing the record de novo, yet affording "considerable weight to the findings of the trial judge in equity” (Kropf, rule 4), we uphold the rulings of unconstitutionality made by both the trial court and Court of Appeals. As applied to plaintiffs’ property, defendant’s R-l-C zoning classification is adjudged "unreasonable, arbitrary and confiscatory”, thereby rendering the disputed R-l-C zoning designation constitutionally invalid and void.
IV. Effect of Constitutional Invalidity
Having found defendant’s R-l-C single family zoning ordinance void, the following issues require our attention: (1) what effect is to be accorded our de novo finding of unconstitutionality?; and (2) through what procedure is this effect to be determined?
More specifically, the first question to be resolved is whether, considering both plaintiffs’ asserted interest in constructing multiple-family dwellings on their parcel — a permitted R-3 use— and the trial court’s order generally enjoining defendant "from interfering with plaintiffs’ use of the property in accordance with defendant’s R-3 zoning classification”, plaintiffs may construct any structure deemed permissible within the R-3 classification or only that specific use prescribed at trial. For example, may plaintiffs construct: multiple-family units (as indicated in their pleadings); garden apartments; a two-and-one-half story apartment house; a storage building; a church, etc.? The second question requiring resolution is whether this determination is to be made by the trial court alone, an appropriate administrative entity as has been suggested by Justice Levin, the trial court supplemented by public testimony, or this Court alone?
In resolving these questions, after careful consideration we reject the approach suggested by both Justice Levin and the Court of Appeals below urging remand exclusively to an appropriate administrative body for a full trial-type administrative, quasi-judicial determination of the use to be made by an aggrieved landowner subsequent to a judicial declaration of unconstitutionality. In contrast, we rule that subsequent to a judicial declaration of invalidity the matter should be remanded to the appropriate municipal zoning authority to present, for the chancellor’s consideration within 60 days of this Court’s or the appropriate reviewing court’s order of unconstitutionality, an adopted amendatory ordinance comporting with the dictates of equity as well as the requirements of constitutional reasonableness as applied to plaintiffs’ parcel; upon the presentation of such amend-atory ordinance, the chancellor shall proceed as detailed infra, Part V.
A. The Administrative or Quasi-Judicial Approach
While in the instant case a unanimous Court of Appeals felt "bound by existing precedent”, 61 Mich App 435, 438, to uphold the chancellor’s finding of invalidity and order of general injunc-tive relief, that Court expatiated on Justice Lev-in’s administrative approach to the review of zoning determinations set forth in Kropf, supra, 164 et seq. In obiter dictum, the Court of Appeals remarked:
"We would prefer to reverse without prejudice to an application to the legislative body of defendant seeking an administrative hearing with regard to the reasonableness of plaintiffs’ proposed use.” 61 Mich App 435, 440.
We note that the position urged by the Court of Appeals in the instant case has twice been rejected by a majority of this Court: in Kirk, supra, and Kropf, supra.
Although similar, Justice Levin’s opinion in this case adopts a somewhat modified version of the administrative approach urged by the Court of Appeals. Accordingly, having found defendant’s R-1-C ordinance unconstitutionally confiscatory, Justice Levin is not disposed to affirm the trial court’s order permitting construction "in accordance with defendant’s R-3 zoning classification”. Rather, the Justice would direct that the matter be remanded exclusively to the appropriate administrative body to conduct a full trial-type administrative hearing and to render a decision supported by substantial evidence on the record developed at that hearing; such decisional authority, absent subsequent appeal, is wholly ceded to the administrative body without the necessity of the chancellor’s review and approval.
Contrary to the dictates of the traditional legislative approach, the Levin opinion offers plaintiffs the option of either (1) first seeking a court ruling on unconstitutionality followed by remand for an administrative hearing and determination unaided by impartial judicial scrutiny and equitable consideration with respect to a plaintiff’s proposed use, or (2) first challenging a zoning classification in an administrative proceeding — whether the subject ordinance has been judicially determined constitutional or not — in the hope that such body will in effect grant a variance. In either case, the opinion continues, the administrative hearing is subject to judicial review, albeit not de novo as is presently the established law in this state.
We disagree with both options. The first option impermissibly invades this Court’s powers of de novo review and places a successful litigant in the precarious position of seeking to establish its proposed use before an adversely interested litigant (in this case the city) without the benefit of subse quent judicial consideration unless an appeal is effected on the ground that such decision is not supported by substantial evidence on the record. The second option impermissibly encroaches upon the presumption of legislative validity as well as time-honored notions of separation of powers.
My Brother Levin firmly believes that such a system of administrative ad hoc zoning ordinance amendment procedures will promote the public welfare as well as relieve the burden on the courts. His opinion indicates that he is not alone in that laudable belief.
We are of the opinion, however, that such a system as proposed by Justice Levin which permits every constitutionally valid zoning ordinance to be challenged by an affected property owner can only invite countless challenges, many of which must proceed to the courts for a dispositive adjudication. The net result of such a quasi-judicial scheme would most assuredly increase rather than relieve the burden on the courts; the burden on zoning bodies would likewise be unquestionably magnified.
Further, and perhaps more significant, the authority of a zoning body’s legislative action would likely be debased concomitantly to the extent that every affected property owner could challenge that authority, not on the basis of the value of the constitutionally valid zoning classification to the general public, but on the basis of that zoning determination’s value to the individual property owner regardless of the general welfare. Such consequence would undoubtedly destroy both the necessity and desirability of representative legislative action as well as reduce land use determination to a type of "what’s-in-it-for-me” or spot zoning scheme generally eschewed as not in the public interest.
For the above reasons, we reject both options of Justice Levin’s administrative approach to the review and challenge of zoning determinations. At the same time, however, we find certain components of that approach instructive insofar as they could be applied on remand to defendant city council aided by the chancellor to determine the reasonableness of a landowner’s proposed use in accordance with the dictates of equity. We generally accept the following statement of Justice Levin in Part IV D of his opinion as apposite in this regard:
"The judicial determination that the ordinance as applied to the Turkish parcel is unconstitutional should not mean that the Turkishes are necessarily entitled to use the property for multiple-family residences. The surrounding owners have an interest in how the Turkish property is developed, as does the city in providing for orderly development, consistent with its master plan, with adequate services and protection of aesthetic and environmental values. Accordingly, although the Turkishes’ proposed use may appear to a court to be 'reasonable’, there may be other feasible means of developing single-family homes on the parcel if the city permits variances regarding street width and lot size or under other circumstances. The parcel might also be used, consistent with the present zoning, for schools, religious institutions, or some other use. Although uses consistent with present zoning may not be feasible, it may be that some use other than multiple residences is feasible and more compatible with competing interests.”
B. The Legislative Approach
While we are not persuaded to adopt Justice Levin’s administrative approach to the review of zoning determinations, questions remain regarding the effect to be accorded an ordinance’s judicially declared invalidity as well as the appropriate judi cial procedure to be undertaken in determining and ordering such effect.
In resolving these questions, the line of cases discussed infra provides this Court with five alternative methods of judicial action subsequent to a judicial finding of constitutional invalidity:
(1) leave the subject parcel unzoned until either a use is instituted by plaintiff or the parcel is rezoned, Daraban v Red ford Twp, 383 Mich 497; 176 NW2d 598 (1970) (dissenting opinion);
(2) enjoin defendant from enforcing a zoning classification other than that classification urged by plaintiff and determined appropriate by the court, Long v Highland Park, 329 Mich 146; 45 NW2d 10 (1950) and its progeny, infra;
(3) enjoin defendant from such interference and affirmatively order the institution of plaintiffs proposed specific use on the parcel, Daraban (majority), infra;
(4) enjoin defendant from enforcing the unconstitutional classification but remand the matter to the appropriate municipal zoning authority to present for the chancellor’s consideration within 60 days of this Court’s or the appropriate reviewing court’s order of unconstitutionality, an adopted amendatory ordinance comporting with the dictates of equity as well as the requirements of constitutional reasonableness as applied to an aggrieved landowner’s parcel, see Dequindre Development Co v Warren Charter Twp, 359 Mich 634; 103 NW2d 600 (1960) (separate opinion of Justice Black), infra; or,
(5) remand, per the Levin opinion, exclusively for an administrative hearing to determine an appropriate use of plaintiffs parcel, discussed supra.
We find alternative (1) unacceptable for the reason that merely rendering the parcel unzoned leaves it potentially vulnerable to any uses including those neither urged by plaintiff nor compatible with the orderly development of the community. Alternative (2) may be too expansive in scope insofar as it permits a landowner to develop its property within the general zoning classification approved by the court whether or not such use would be equitable. Alternative (3) is unacceptable for the reason that it may be too restrictive in its implicit rejection of other uses to which plaintiffs’ land might more equitably be put. Finally, Justice Levin’s recommended position, (5), is not adopted for reasons heretofore discussed.
We adopt alternative (4) and hold that, subsequent to a judicial finding of zoning classification invalidity, enforcement of the disputed ordinance should be enjoined and the matter remanded to defendant city council to present, for the chancellor’s consideration within 60 days of this Court’s or the appropriate reviewing court’s order of unconstitutionality, an adopted amendatory ordinance comporting with the dictates of equity as well as the requirements of constitutional reasonableness as applied to an aggrieved landowner’s parcel.
Specifically, upon the expiration of or within this 60-day period, the chancellor shall enter one of the following orders:
(i) If, after remand to defendant city council, plaintiff and defendant find defendant’s submitted amendatory ordinance mutually acceptable, the chancellor shall order the implementation of such "midsatisfactory” amendatory ordinance.
(ii) If, after remand to defendant city council, defendant submits an amendatory ordinance unacceptable to plaintiff but embodying Justice Black’s "midsatisfactory use” as determined by the chan cellor through a balancing of equitable considerations, the chancellor shall order the implementation of such "midsatisfactory” amendatory ordinance.
(iii) If, after remand to defendant city council, defendant submits an amendatory ordinance unacceptable to plaintiff and plaintiff submits a proposed use embodying Justice Black’s "midsatisfac-tory use” as determined by the chancellor through a balancing of equitable considerations, the chancellor shall order the implementation of plaintiff’s proposed "midsatisfactory use”.
(iv) If, after remand to defendant city council, neither plaintiff nor defendant can agree upon the other’s amendatory ordinance or proposed use and the chancellor determines that neither party’s proposal embodies Justice Black’s "midsatisfac-tory use”, the chancellor shall order the implementation of a "midsatisfactory use” after both plaintiff and defendant as well as other affected parties have had the benefit of a hearing and the submission of proofs to determine the most equitable or "midsatisfactory use” to be made of plaintiff’s parcel.
(v) If, after remand to defendant city council, defendant does not submit an adopted amendatory ordinance to the chancellor for consideration within 60 days of this Court’s or the appropriate reviewing court’s order of unconstitutionality, we direct the chancellor to conduct a hearing supplemented by the submission of proofs by all affected parties to determine and implement the most equitable or "midsatisfactory use” to be made of plaintiff’s parcel.
Of course, if either party is dissatisfied with the chancellor’s order, an appeal is permitted from that order under normal procedures of de novo review.
This ruling is to be accorded limited retroactive effect as to all actions hereinafter commenced as well as all actions heretofore commenced and now pending in either the trial or appellate courts.
The alternatives set forth above are discussed below.
Alternative 1: Declaration of Invalidity Under Both the Brae Burn Rule as Well as the Daraban Dissent Rendering the Parcel Unzoned
The dissenting opinion in Daraban v Redford Twp, 383 Mich 497, 501; 176 NW2d 598 (1970), argued that this Court was without the requisite constitutional power to affirmatively do more than declare a disputed land use classification invalid. The trial court having declared the Daraban zoning restriction void, the dissent reasoned, this Court was incompetent either: (i) to enjoin a defendant municipality from zoning the subject parcel in a manner different from that sought by plaintiff; or, (ii) to order the institution of plaintiff’s proposed use as either prayed in plaintiff’s complaint or argued before the lower judicial tribunal as to that now unzoned parcel.
In effect, the dissent in Daraban would have rendered the subject parcel unzoned, an interim determination awaiting either a legislative rezoning or the institution of some use of the parcel by the previously aggrieved landowner. Although a technically logical position, we are of the opinion that restricting the Court’s declaratory powers in such an absolute manner may operate to produce a result neither generally prayed nor argued for by an aggrieved landowner and potentially incompatible with the orderly development of the general community or abutting parcels of property. We therefore reject this alternative form of judicial action rendering the property unzoned as impractical and inequitable.
Alternative 2: Issuance of General Injunctive Relief
Sensitive to the potential dangers posed by leaving land unzoned, the judiciary of this state has, at minimum, uniformly granted aggrieved landowners injunctive relief generally restraining a defendant municipality from rezoning the subject parcel in a manner different from that classification sought by plaintiff.
Three cases decided by this Coúrt are particularly illustrative of this proposition. In each of these cases, this Court sustained the chancellor’s decree to the extent that the decree: (i) found the disputed classification unconstitutional; (ii) enjoined defendant from enforcing the invalid restriction; (iii) permitted plaintiff to proceed under the classification urged by plaintiff; but, (iv) did not consider or order the propriety of the aggrieved landowner’s proposed specific use.
In Long v Highland Park, 329 Mich 146; 45 NW2d 10 (1950), plaintiffs sought to institute an unspecified business use within the general B-2 business classification on a tract of land designated R-l and, therefore, zoned for nonbusiness uses. The trial court declared defendant’s disputed R-l zoning ordinance (nonbusiness purposes) invalid as applied to plaintiffs land and issued an injunction restraining defendant from attempting to enforce the restrictions. The trial court further ordered that plaintiffs be permitted to use the subject parcel "for any of the purposes allowed by the ordinance under classification B-2, for business purposes”. This Court unanimously affirmed. Neither the trial court nor this Court, however, ordered or passed on the reasonableness of plaintiffs proposed particular use.
Second, in the case of Industrial Land Co v Birmingham, 346 Mich 667; 78 NW2d 656 (1956), a unanimous Supreme Court upheld a circuit court ruling of zoning classification unconstitutionality as well as the chancellor’s order that "the use of this property for business purposes, as provided in section 1001 of ordinance No 221, as amended, is a reasonable use. * * * [Pjlaintiffs are also entitled to an injunction restraining the original defendants from prohibiting plaintiffs’ use of the premises for those [business] uses permitted by section 1001 of the ordinance, and from interfering with such uses”. 346 Mich 667, 672. Attacking the trial judge’s injunctive order finding defendant’s single-family zoning ordinance unconstitutional, defendant claimed that "the court cannot, by injunctive relief, proceed to rezone plaintiffs’ property, as that is a legislative act and a function of the city commission of Birmingham, and that by doing so, would be zoning by judicial determination”. 346 Mich 667, 671. This claim was summarily rejected by the Supreme Court on the basis of Long, supra. As in Long, this Court did not specify the precise use to which plaintiff could put its lands beyond permitting those general uses allowed under the zoning classification adjudged valid.
Lastly, in Roll v City of Troy, 370 Mich 94; 120 NW2d 804 (1963), plaintiffs sought to develop their parcel into 15,000-square-foot lots; that parcel was zoned to permit lots no smaller than 30,000 square feet in area. This Court upheld the chancellor’s order declaring defendant’s 30,000-square-foot minimum lot size restriction unconstitutionally confiscatory as applied to plaintiffs’ property, restraining defendant from enforcing that restriction on plaintiffs’ land, and permitting plaintiffs to develop their land in accordance with the general single-family zoning classification. This Court, however, vitiated the lower court’s order to the extent that the chancellor had authorized plaintiffs "to use the said property for a residential subdivision in accordance with the proposed plat attached to plaintiffs’ bill of complaint [establishing the minimum lot size at 15,000 square feet]”. 370 Mich 94, 96, 99. Thus, while upholding the lower court’s decree that defendant could not constitutionally restrict plaintiffs’ residential lot size to the disputed number of minimum square feet, the Court affirmed its earlier posture that the trial court could not affirmatively sanction a specific proposed use. Said a majority of six Justices:
"This Court agreed with the trial judge in Christine, 515, 516, that he had no legal duty, right, or obligation to undertake to pass upon the reasonableness of proposed zoning that is not yet the subject of an ordinance. Recognizing that zoning is a legislative function we affirm the principle that courts cannot write zoning laws. The trial court’s decree is modified by striking therefrom that portion authorizing and empowering plaintiffs to use the property as proposed in the plat. In all other respects the decree is affirmed.” 370 Mich 94, 99.
The state of the law in 1963, therefore, appeared clearly settled that neither this Court nor the lower courts of this state could affirmatively order the institution of a specifically proposed use as reasonable subsequent to a finding of classification invalidity. Rather, this Court felt itself constrained to merely enjoin defendant from imposing a zoning classification other than that generally decreed permissible by the lower tribunal.
We are of the opinion that this alternative form of relief may be too expansive in scope insofar as it sanctions an aggrieved landowner’s development of its parcel in any manner enumerated under the general zoning classification whether or not such potential uses would be inequitable or deleterious to the surrounding community or abutting landowners. Since overall equitable considerations are ignored, we reject this alternative.
Alternative 3: Issuance of Injunctive Relief as Well as Order Affirmatively Sanctioning Plaintiff’s Specifically Proposed Use: The Daraban Rule
. In 1970, however, this Court expressly expanded the declaratory powers of the judiciary in reviewing zoning determinations beyond the options of dither rendering the land unrestricted or merely enjoining the enforcement of a zoning classification as applied to a plaintiffs subject parcel different froih that decreed by thé court. Indeed, the majority in Daraban, supra, sanctioned an order not only enjoining defendant’s interference with plaintiffs requested general use but also affirmatively permitting the specific use proposed by plaintiff.
In Daraban the trial judge decreed:
"It is further ordered and adjudged that the defendants, * * * be further permanently enjoined from interfering with plaintiffs erection of apartment dwellings on the property in question in accordance with plaihtiiFs exhibit number 4, referred to in the court’s opinion on page 9, and in accordance with the R-3 zoning classiñcation of the township of Redford.” 383 Mich 497, 500. (Emphasis added.)
On appeal, 15 Mich App 132; 166 NW2d ^95 (1968), defendant alleged that the chancellor’s use-specific injunction constituted a judicial invasion of the legislative power. Judge Pratt, writing for Presiding Judge Holbrook and then-Judge, now-Justice Levin, affirmed the trial court’s definitive decree of injunctive relief as supportable by 15 years of precedent.
On subsequent appeal this Court affirmed the trial court’s order permitting the institution of plaintiff’s proposed specific use.
It is clear from the majority’s 1970 opinion in Dhrábán thát a court may order that definitive rélief requested by plaintiff in its pleadings or argued before the Court. Contrary to the position urged by the Daraban dissent, a court may order the institution of not only the general land use classification urged by the landowner but also a specific use prayed for.
Compared to alternatives (1). and (2), we find that this alternative may be too restrictive in scope. The Daraban approach is rejected for the reason that it expressly dismisses consideration of any other uses to which the parcel may equitably be put beyond that specific use urged by plaintiff.
.Alternative 4: The Position Urged by Justice Black in Dequindre: Balancing the Equities on Remand
Midway between the positions espoused by the Daraban dissent, rendering the parcel unzbned, ahd the Daraban majority, Ordering a particular üsé proposed by an aggrieved landowner, lies the "bálanciñg of the competing equities” position proinulgated by Justice Black in his separate opinion for affirmance on condition, found in Dequindre Development CO v Warren Charter Twp, 359 Mich 634; 103 NW2d 600 (1960).
In. Dequindre, plaintiff sought to construct a tráiler coach park on a parcel of land zoned for single-family résidentiál uses. The chancellor de-cláréd defendant’s disputed ordinance confiscatory and ordered defendant to "permit the plaintiff to build and develop said property as a trailer park”. 359 Mich 634, 637.
On appeal, four Justices directed summary af-firmance of the chancellor’s order, three Justices urged reversal on the ground that plaintiff had merely presented a debatable question which the Court was not empowered to disturb, and Justice Black urged affirmance on condition. The trial court’s decree affirmatively permitting the use of the subject parcel for trailer park purposes was summarily upheld.
In his separate opinion for affirmance on condition, Justice Black reacted to what he perceived to be the harsh result sanctioned by the majority of either invalidating "defendants’ too-restrictive ordinance”, thereby implicitly rendering the subject parcel unzoned, or granting "plaintiffs prayer for specific relief’ as was done in the lower court’s order permitting plaintiffs proposed specific Use as £L trailer park. Rejecting the appropriateness of forcing the Court into the "inexorable choice” of granting either one land use extreme or the other, the Justice opined that a more equitable "midsa-tisfactory” úse of the subject parcel could perhaps be better arrived at by remanding the matter to the chancellor via the appropriate municipal zoning body for further proceedings. We quote at length Justice Black’s remarks in this regard:
"An over-concentration of trailer coach living undoubtedly creates problems of municipal concern such as the superintendent has described. The appealing need for solutional aid stares at us from the appendix, yet the usual extremes of affirmance or reversal appear as marking all limits of the judicial function. But do they? Looking upward and outward at the great horizons of equity, and recalling that the shape of decretal relief should as a rule be formed by the chancellor according to germane conditions and equities as same may be shown to exist at the time of final decree (Herpolsheimer v A B Herpolsheimer Realty Co, 344 Mich 657 [75 NW2d 333 (1956)]; Carlson v Williams, 348 Mich 165 [82 NW2d 483 (1957)]), it would seem that there need be no inexorable choice, now at least, between plaintiff’s prayer for specific relief and defendants’ too-restrictive ordinance. Why cannot plaintiff and the defendant city consider, together, some possibly midsatisfactory use such as light manufacturing, or retailing, or neighborhood-acceptable commercial endeavor? Why must the permitted use be a this-or-that showdown between temporary life in mobile coaches— or nothing? Does not equity have a duty here, the public interest being at prominent stake? Why not give the parties a chance to answer these questions, in the court below, prior to entry of final decree?
"I would remand by special order (see Court Rule No 72, § 1 [1945]) authorizing the city to present, for judicial consideration below if it will, an amendatory ordinance which in so many words relieves plaintiff’s tract from the present R-l designation and provides some less restrictive designation conforming — as the city may be advised — with the requirements of constitutional reasonableness; such amendatory ordinance to be adopted and submitted to the successor chancellor within 60 days from the date of such order. The order should provide that, if the city elects not to amend and submit as authorized, due report of that fact shall thereupon be made to this Court by the successor chancellor, whereupon our decree of affirmance will enter. It should also provide, for the event of amendment and submission so authorized, that further disagreement of the parties, if any, should be reported by the chancellor to this Court with accompanying certified record of such additional proceedings as may be ordered and supervised by him.” 359 Mich 634, 642-643.
We find most instructive Justice Black’s championship of the need to balance competing equitable considerations upon remand to the appropriate municipal zoning body for timely presentation of an adopted amendatory ordinance to the chancellor for a determination of the "midsatisfactory” use to be accorded the subject parcel. It is manifest to this Court that the inevitable tension between landowners and municipal zoning authorities subsequent to a judicial finding of classification invalidity can perhaps best be resolved only through a consideration and balancing of the competing equities revolving about the particular use to be made of a plaintiffs parcel at both the legislative and judicial levels.
V. Conclusion: Remand to the Chancellor for A Determination of the Most Equitable Use to Be Made of Plaintiffs’ Parcel Within the R-3 Zoning Classification
In resolving the questions of (i) what effect is to be accorded an ordinance’s judicially declared invalidity, and (ii) what judicial procedure is to be undertaken in fashioning such effect, the line of cases discussed above provide us with the following alternatives:
(1) render the subject parcel unzoned until either a use is instituted or the parcel is rezoned, Daraban (dissent), supra;
(2) enjoin defendant from enforcing a land use restriction more restrictive than that determined appropriate by the court, Long and its progeny, supra;
(3) enjoin defendant from such interference and affirmatively order the institution of plaintiffs proposed specific use on the parcel, Daraban (majority), supra;
(4) enjoin deféndant from enforcing the unconstitutional classification but remand the matter to the appropriate municipal zoning authority to present, for the chancellor’s consideration within 60 days of this Court’s or the appropriate reviewing court’s order of Unconstitutionality, an adopted amendatory ordinance comporting with the dictates of equity as well as the requirements of constitutional reasonableness as applied to an aggrieved landowner’s parcel, see Dequindre (separate opinion of Justice Black), supra; or,
(5) remand, per the Levin opinion, exclusively for an administrative hearing to determine an appropriate use of plaintiffs parcel.
Considering these alternatives, we find (1) unacceptable for the reasons stated supra, that such action would potentially render the parcel subject to uses neither argued for by plaintiff nor consistent with the orderly development of the community and abutting lands. We similarly find that alterhative (2) may be too expansive in scope and therefore undesirable insofar as it sanctions development of the subject parcel in any manner enumerated under the ordered general zoning classification whether or not such use would be deleteri ous to the surrounding community. Alternative (3) is likewise rejected for the reason that it may be too restrictive in scope in its dismissal of other perhaps more equitable uses to which the parcel could theoretically be put but for the plaintiff’s prayer for a proposed specific use. Finally, Justice Levin’s recommended position, (5); is contrary to the general posture assumed by a majority of this Court in the area of land use classification review for the reasons stated supra.
Therefore, rejecting alternatives (1), (2), (3) and (5), we find that alternative (4) embodies the current thinking of this Court in recognition of the inherent equitable nature of zoning classifications, challenges thereto, and the institution of uses on particular parcels of land which exist, not in a vacuum, but within a dynamic community. Such a "balancing of the competing equities” approach adopted by this Court today ensures the orderly and equitable development of the communities of our state; it similarly provides affected parties with a competent, disinterested, and reflective forum for the resolution of latid use grievances guided by notions of equity while concurrently affording the legislative branch of our state government necessary deference.
For the reasons set forth in this opinion, we affirm the trial court’s finding of unconstitutionality.
Further, we order that this matter be remanded to defendant city council to present, for the chancellor’s consideration within 60 days of this order, an adopted amendatory ordinance comporting with the dictates of equity as well as the requirements of constitutional reasonableness as applied to plaintiffs’ parcel.
Upon the expiration of or within this 60 day period, the chancellor shall enter one of the following orders:
(i) If, after remand to defendant city council, plaintiffs and defendant find defendant’s submitted amendatory ordinance mutually acceptable, the chancellor shall order the implementation of such amendatory ordinance.
(ii) If, after remand to defendant city council, defendant submits an amendatory ordinance unacceptable to plaintiffs but embodying Justice Black’s "midsatisfactory use” as determined by the chancellor through a balancing of equitable considerations, the chancellor shall order the implementation of such midsatisfactory amendatory ordinance.
(iii) If, after remand to defendant city council, defendant submits an amendatory ordinance unacceptable to plaintiffs and plaintiffs submit a proposed use embodying Justice Black’s "midsatisfac-tory use” as determined by the chancellor through a balancing of equitable considerations, the chancellor shall order the implementation of plaintiffs’ proposed "midsatisfactory use”.
(iv) If, after remand to defendant city council, neither plaintiffs nor defendant can agree upon the other’s amendatory ordinance or proposed use and the chancellor determines that neither party’s proposal embodies Justice Black’s "midsatisfac-tory use”, the chancellor shall order the implementation of a midsatisfactory use after both plaintiffs and defendant as well as other affected parties have had the benefit of a hearing and the submission of proofs to determine the most equitable or midsatisfactory use to be made of plaintiffs’ parcel.
(v) If, after remand to defendant city council, defendant does not submit an adopted amendatory ordinance to the chancellor for consideration within 60 days of this Court’s order, we direct the chancellor to conduct a hearing supplemented by the submission of proofs by all affected parties to determine and implement the most equitable or "midsatisfactory use” to be made of plaintiffs’ parcel.
Of course, if either party is dissatisfied with the chancellor’s order, an appeal is permitted from that order under normal procedures of de novo review. We note that this ruling is to be accorded limited retroactive effect as to all actions hereafter commenced as well as all actions heretofore commenced and now pending in either the trial or appellate courts.
Affirmed in part, modified in part, and remanded. No costs, a public question being involved.
Zaagman v City of Kentwood
Little need be remarked about this case. We affirm the Court of Appeals finding of constitutionality on the ground that plaintiff has failed to meet its burden to affirmatively prove that either defendant’s ordinance is arbitrary and unreasonable or that no reasonable governmental interest is advanced by the present zoning classification. Kirk, supra; Kropf, supra. Plaintiff has not made out a case for either a denial of substantive due process or denial of equal protection.
Affirmed. Costs awarded to defendant.
Coleman, C.J., and Fitzgerald and Ryan, JJ., concurred with Williams, J.
Blair Moody, Jr., J., took no part in the decision of this case.
Levin, J.
(for affirmance and remand). Wé all agree, in Turkish, that the owners succeeded in proving that their undeveloped land could not feasibly be developed for the permitted úse; and that the cause should be remanded to the eity for further proceedings. We do not agree with the post-remand procedures prescribed in the opinion of the Court.
In Zaagman, the owners failed to prove, the unconstitutionality of the zoning of their undeveloped land.
I
In Kropf v Sterling Heights, concurring With the majority, I expressed the view that tbe actibn of a local authority in changing or denying a change in zoning "on individual grounds is administrative, not legislative”, and that "the reasonableness of the proposed use” was "the stándárd in fact generally followed by a local legislative body when granting or refusing a change [emphasis supplied]”, and that since the question was "qudsijudicial and affect[s] private rights” the merits were, under this state’s constitution, subject to judicial review to determine whether the grant or denial was "supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record”.
Seven months later, in West v Portage, this Court held that an amendment to a city’s zohing ordinance was not subject to referendum; I wrote the lead opinion, which received three signatures; oür conclusion was based on the vieW that an amendment such as there presented was "an administrative, not a legislative, act”. A fourth Justice concurred in the result.
A year later, in Sabo v Monroe Twp, this Court affirmed decisions of the Court of Appeals in three cases, Sabo, Smookler, and Nickola. The Justices who signed the lead opinion in West also signed my opinion in Sabo which, through the happenstance that only five Justices were participating, became the opinion of the Court.
In Sabo, Smookler and Nickola the Court of Appeals agreed with the plaintiffs that they should be allowed to use land zoned for other uses to construct mobile home parks. Four of the five Justices participating voted to affirm the Court of Appeals. In a separate opinion for affirmance Justice Williams said that the zoning was confiscatory as applied to Sabo’s land because it could not be feasibly used as zoned, and that exclusionary zoning had been proven in Smookler because no specific land in the township had been zoned for mobile home parks and in Nickola because mobile homes had been excluded from all but one-tenth of one percent of the township. The majority stated that it did not agree with Justice Williams "that on proof that a community has excluded a legitimate use, here mobile home parks, it necessarily becomes obliged to grant a request for rezoning to permit that use. The land sought to be rezoned may not be suitable for development for the excluded use”.
While the majority, adverting to the concept expressed in my concurring opinion in Kropf, said that "[e]ven if present zoning is not unreasonable or confiscatory, a proposed use should be permitted if reasonable under all the circumstances [emphasis supplied]”, and "[w]e would require that the proofs now adduced in circuit court be presented administratively and restrict judicial review to whether the record evidence supports the administrative finding on the issue whether the proposed use is reasonable [emphasis supplied]”, we said that had not been the applicable rule of law: "However, it is the present practice to present the proofs in circuit court and for a reviewing court to make its own independent examination and analysis of the record. Kropf v Sterling Heights, supra (majority opinion)”.
We then noted that the Court of Appeals, upon examination of the record, had decided the proposed uses should be allowed and the record established they were reasonable. On that ground we joined with Justice Williams in affirming the Court of Appeals:
"In each of these cases the Court of Appeals held that the proposed use should be allowed. The record in each establishes that the proposed use (which happens to be a partially or totally excluded use) is reasonable. On that ground we join in affirming the decision of the Court of Appeals.”
Thus, while we could not join with Justice Williams either in concluding that the Sabo zoning was not feasible or that mobile home park use should be authorized merely because exclusionary zoning had been proven, we joined with him in affirming the decisions of the Court of Appeals because, in apparent observance of the operative standards set forth in the majority opinion in Kropf (which we said "should” be changed and which we "would” change), it had made its own independent examination and analysis of the record and determined that the proposed uses should be allowed and because it appeared to us that the record further established that the lands were suitable for development for the excluded use. The partially or totally excluded uses, mobile home parks, would be compatible with nearby uses and would not impair community development and were thus reasonable.
Before Sabo was decided, the Court of Appeals had decided Werkhoven v Grandville Turkish v City of Warren, and Ed Zaagman, Inc v Kentwood. A few weeks later, we remanded Werkhoven to the Court of Appeals. Although the remand was not for reconsideration in light of the opinion of the Court but, rather, for reconsideration "in light of the opinions of the Justices [emphasis supplied]” in Sabo, Smookler and Nickola, the Werkhoven order was read by some as indicating that the substantive standard which the Sabo majority said "should” be adopted and the procedure it said it "would” require had become the law. We granted leave to appeal in Turkish and Zaagman.
In Turkish the Court of Appeals had concluded that single-family residential development was not feasible and hence the zoning was confiscatory and affirmed the trial court’s grant of injunctive relief. It stated, however, that it would prefer to withhold injunctive relief arid remand for further proceedings because, álthough plaintiffs’ proposed use for multiple-family dwellings appeared reasonable, the record was insufficient to enable the court to determine whether the city’s action in denying the request for rezoning was supported and suggested adoption by this Court of the administrative/legislative analysis. In Zaagman the Court of Appeals, on the authority of Kropf, reversed a grant of injunctive relief which would have permitted development of a mobile home park on land zoned for other residential uses.
Shortly after Turkish and Zaagman were argued Kirk v Tyrone Twp stated that Sabo had adopted the concurring opinion in Kropf and then proceeded to overrule it, and reiterated adherence to the principles stated in Kropf. Today the Court reaffirms its adherence to those principles.
It is perhaps understatement to say that the Court does not embrace the view espoused by me in the concurring opinion in Kropf.
The crux of the argument for regarding a change in zoning on individualized grounds as administrative is that the state cannot constitutionally make an individualized decision, "quasi-judicial and affect[ing] private rights”, that is not subject to judicial review on the merits. Const 1963, art 6, § 28. Kropf was not a direct appeal from a denial of a zoning change, but rather, as here, an action challenging the constitutionality of the zoning. The issue whether a local legislative body is acting in an administrative capacity and must observe procedures appropriate to individual ized decision-making when considering such a zoning change can be duly presented and decided only in a case where such a zoning change, granted or denied, is challenged on direct appeal on thé ground that it was not "supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record”. Const 1963, art 6, § 28.
II
The focus in the opinion of the Court and this opinion on the question whether zoning changes are necessarily legislative or can be administrative in nature may tend to obscure what is at issue and is decided in the instant cases and the substantial agreement of the members of the Court on what is being decided in Turkish.
While we continue to disagree on whether individualized zoning changes are administrative and thus subject to constitutional limitations regarding the procedures by which such decisions may be made and requirements of judicial review on the merits, we all agree in Turkish that
—the owners proved that their undeveloped land could not feasibly be developed for the permitted use.
—existing procedures, following a judicial determination of unconstitutionality, should be modified to provide the city an opportunity to show that the land should not be used as the owner proposes. Although the existing zoning is unconstitutional as applied, it does not follow the land may be used as the owner wishes.
—if there is more than one feasible use for the land, the city’s choice should generally prevail.
—the question of alternative feasible uses and the impact of the owner’s and city’s proposed uses on surrounding uses and future community development should be the subject of an evidentiary hearing, and decision should be based on the record made at that hearing.
—the decision is subject to judicial review on the merits.
Our disagreement concerns whether the hearing should be conducted by the local legislative body (or an agency or officer designated by it) or by the circuit court, the articulation of the standard for decision and the scope of judicial review.
We would require that the hearing be conducted by or for the local legislative body. Its choice should not be made before the record is developed. Its choice is likely to be more intelligent and responsible if made after presentation of all the evidence. A circuit judge may wonder whether the city would have made a different choice if it had had the benefit of the evidence later presented to him.
While many communities do not have experience in conducting administrative hearings in zoning matters, recent amendments to the city and village, township and county enabling acts require all communities exercising zoning power to provide, on applications for special land uses and planned unit developments, for public hearings, standards for decision, procedures and a statement of the basis of decision. As a result, most communities are now required to develop a hearing capacity.
The Court states that the standard for decision is whether the city’s alternative use or uses comports "with the dictates of equity as well as the requirements of constitutional reasonableness as applied to an aggrieved landowner’s parcel”. We would judge the city’s alternative use or uses by the same standard applied in deciding whether the existing, zoning is valid — reasonableness as applied to the property. Hence, if there is more than one feasible use, the city’s choice, unless unreasonable as applied, should govern.
Nor do we think that the scope of judicial review should include "a balancing of equitable considerations”. Even if there is a preference for judicial fact finding, the judge’s role should be confined to a determination whether the city’s alternative proposed use or uses are unreasonable as applied to the property.
Ill
The Court’s apparent conclusion that a zoning case sounds in equity is an offshoot of the procedural posture of many zoning challenges on constitutional grounds. While some property owners have sought mandamus, certiorari, superintending control or a declaratory judgment, the practice has evolved of filing a bill of complaint seeking injunctive relief against enforcement of the zoning ordinance. Because equitable relief was sought, the case was on the equity side of the court. Thus, in Hitchman v Oakland Twp, the Court said that an action to enjoin the enforcement of a zoning ordinance was a "suit in equity”. When that Court turned "to a consideration of the proofs submitted by the parties”, it said that "[t]his being an equity case, we hear it de novo. [Citation omitted.] While we give due consideration to the findings of the trial judge, nonetheless it is our duty to weigh the evidence and reach an independent conclusion”.
The Court today expands this procedural concept into a substantive standard which clothes the circuit judge, dubbed "chancellor”, with the power to reject the community’s choice "through a balancing of equitable considerations”. Although this Court withholds the equitable relief sought, remanding the case to the city for further proceedings, and equitable relief may never be granted, it nevertheless evokes the equitable nature of the relief sought as justifying the substantive standard and procedures prescribed by it.
All that has been decided at this juncture is that the Turkish land cannot feasibly be used as zoned; a declaratory judgment to that effect could properly enter. The subsequent judicial role should be limited to a determination whether the record shows that the city has provided the owners with a feasible alternative use that is not unreasonable as applied. The city’s decision in that regard, if adequately supported by the record, should govern. If it appears that there is foot-dragging or that the city is acting in bad faith, the court then can be asked to act. I would not anticipate that need or articulate a substantive standard or establish procedures on an assumption that the city will not act responsibly.
It is also noteworthy that the reviewing standard, even in equity cases, is no longer described as "de novo”. GCR 1963, 517, states that "[i]n all actions tried upon the facts without a jury * * * [findings of fact shall not be set aside unless clearly erroneous”. Further, GCR 1963, 11, provides that "[t]hese rules govern the practice in the circuit courts * * * in actions of a civil nature whether heretofore cognizable as actions at law or in. equity”. It has been said that the clearly erroneous standard is the standard applied in equity before the distinction between law and equity actions was abolished. In Tuttle v Dep’t of State Highways, we adopted the following formulation of the clearly erroneous standard: " '[A] finding is "clearly erroneous” when although there is evidence to support it, the reviewing court on the entire evidence is left with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.’ ” The clearly erroneous/cfe novo standard thus relates to appellate review of a judge’s findings of fact. It is not a substantive legal standard against which the facts so found are to be judged, nor does it change the scope or nature of the judicial function or of judicial review.
IV
In Turkish, the owners of 4.83 undeveloped acres contend that the City of Warren’s zoning ordinance is invalid as applied because it is not economically feasible to develop the parcel as zoned and the present zoning is therefore confiscatory and constitutionally invalid.
The land, with a house on it, was purchased for $17,000 in 1956 by the Turkishes as a home for his parents. Nearly all the surrounding land was then undeveloped farm land except for a single family subdivision immediately to the south.
By 1966 nearly all the surrounding land had been developed as single-family residences with the exception of some land to the north. That year the owners of parcels to the north sought to plat and develop their property.. Turkish’s parents still lived on the property and he declined to join in the development.
In 1968, the owners to the north petitioned to have their zoning changed to permit multiple dwellings. Turkish objected because the petition did not include plans for unified development with his land; he feared that his property would be "landlocked”. He had previously discussed this potential situation with the city planner. The petition was withdrawn.
The following year, the city council approved the plat of a subdivision immediately north of the Turkish parcel. Turkish challenged the council’s action in circuit court on the ground that he had not received adequate notice of the council’s hearing and had previously been assured by the city planner that the surrounding property would not be platted without a unified road system. The court dismissed the action and no appeal was taken.
The Turkishes then sought to change the zoning of their parcel from single-family residential to multiple-family residential (R-3). The city council denied the zoning change.
The Turkishes commenced the instant action. The circuit court held that because development costs would be equal to or greater than the price at which the developed parcel could be sold, the zoning was confiscatory and unconstitutional as applied to the Turkish parcel. The court enjoined the city from "interfering with plaintiffs’ use of the property in accordance with R-3 zoning”. The Court of Appeals affirmed.
A
The legislative power to regulate the use of land, although the regulation may have an adverse affect on value, is well established.
It is claimed that the zoning as applied violates substantive due process because the sum of the land value, cost of development and a reasonable return exceeded the price at which the developed land could be marketed.
The United States Supreme Court has said that the Federal constitutional proscription against "taking” without compensation may include governmental action that diminishes the value of property even if there is no physical appropriation. The Court has further said that "while property may be regulated to a certain extent, if regulation goes too far it will be recognized as a taking”.
An owner of land is not entitled to a maximum return on his investment or to the "highest and best” use of his land. This Court has nevertheless held that "an ordinance that prevents the property owner from making any beneficial use of his property is both unreasonable and confiscatory. * * * The use imposed by the ordinance must be feasible use”.
B
The Turkishes introduced evidence tending to show that if they developed their narrow parcel (1300' X 160') for single-family houses as required by the zoning ordinance and in accordance with set-back, street-width and lot-size requirements, they could only plat one street with one row of 19 lots.
In a letter to the City Attorney, the City Engineer estimated the costs of developing the parcel as zoned to be $103,000. The Turkishes’ expert witness testified that the development cost would be between $135,000 and $136,000 or approximately $7,100 per lot.
The principal disputed issue at trial was the price at which lots could be sold. The city’s expert testified that the present market value of the parcel when developed would be between $6,600 and $7,200 per lot. The Turkishes’ expert said the value would be less than $8,000.
It therefore appears, as the circuit court found, that the parcel cannot be used as zoned because the cost of developing it for single-family housing, without allowing for a reasonable return and the undeveloped land value, is nearly equal to its value as developed, making development as zoned unfeasible. No owner would develop his property unless the value as developed substantially exceeds the cost of developing it and the basic specu? lative land value.
Although the judge found that the parcel had a market value of approximately $35,000, that does not mean that the parcel as zoned can be feasibly used, but may simply reflect the value of the property if rezoned less the cost and risk of obtaining rezoning.
Although "the ordinance comes to us clothed with every presumption of validity”, plaintiffs sustained their burden, under Kropf, as reaffirmed in Kirk, of proving that the zoning is confiscatory as applied to their parcel: "[I]f the ordinance is enforced the consequent restrictions on [their] property preclude its use for any purposes to which it is reasonably adapted.”
C
The city contends that the Turkishes are not entitled to a zoning change because they had an opportunity to develop their land, but decided not to do so at the time.
Viewed historically, the equities and lost opportunities run in both directions. It is quite possible that had the Turkishes and the city approached the development of the parcel and the surrounding land differently the Turkishes would not now own an undeveloped parcel. Notwithstanding what oc curred in the past, the proofs showed that the zoning as applied to the parcel precludes development of the permitted single-family residence use. Whether in hindsight the Turkishes should have developed their parcel earlier, and even if they purchased the parcel knowing that as zoned it could not be used, the ordinance now precludes any feasible use of the property.
D
The judicial determination that the ordinance as applied to the Turkish parcel is unconstitutional should not mean that the Turkishes are necessarily entitled to use the property for multiple-family residences. The surrounding owners have an interest in how the Turkish property is developed, as does the city in providing for orderly development, consistent with its master plan, with adequate services and protection of aesthetic and environmental values. Accordingly, although the Turk-ishes’ proposed use may appear to a court to be "reasonable”, there may be other feasible means of developing single-family homes on the parcel if the city permits variances regarding street width and lot size or under other circumstances. The parcel might also be used, consistent with the present zoning, for schools, religious institutions, or some other use. Although uses consistent with present zoning may not be feasible, it may be that some use other than multiple residences is feasible and more compatible with competing interests.
The question of how best to accommodate the interests of the Turkishes, the neighboring owners, and the city should be decided by the local zoning authority and not by a court, although subject to judicial review.
V
The nature of proceedings before a local zoning authority has divided this Court, and has been given considerable attention by commentators.
The traditional approach has been to regard all zoning changes as legislative because they are made by local legislative bodies, generally by way of amendment of the existing zoning ordinance. The ordinance and any changes made in it are given a presumption of validity and an approval or refusal to approve a zoning change is reviewable by a court only to determine whether the zoning is confiscatory, denied substantive due process by not furthering a legitimate governmental interest or denied equal protection by excluding all or nearly all of a particular use.
A different approach was suggested by a few courts during the 1950’s and 1960’s with respect to referendum provisions, given impetus by a law review comment, and now has been adopted in several jurisdictions, endorsed by the ABA Advisory Commission on Housing and Urban Growth and substantially adopted in the Model Land Development Code. It is embodied in recommenda tions for revisions of Michigan’s zoning enabling acts and was recently enacted with respect to applications for special land uses and planned unit developments. That approach is premised on a perceived difference in the nature of the determination made by a local legislative body when it considers zoning changes pertaining to individual parcels of land:
"Generally, when a municipal legislative body enacts a comprehensive plan and zoning code it acts in a policy making capacity. But in amending a zoning code, or reclassifying land thereunder, the same body, in effect, makes an adjudication between the rights sought by the proponents and those claimed by the opponents of the zoning change. The parties whose interests are affected are readily identifiable. Although important questions of public policy may permeate a zoning amendment, the decision has a far greater impact on one group of citizens than on the public generally.”
Just as the procedures followed by this Court, by courts in general, and by administrative bodies, vary depending on whether the court or agency is prescribing broad, prospective legislative-type rules or, in contrast, is adjudicating an individual case (whether civil or criminal), the procedures in zoning should be consonant with the nature of the function: where the function is adjudicative, concerning peculiarly the rights or property of a particular individual, the procedure should be such that the decision is based on pertinent evidence, to which interested parties have an oppor tunity to respond, and it should be supported by an explanation of the reasons for decision.
Where a zoning change involves the interests of a discrete and limited number of property owners, notice and hearing are required to give those whose interests are directly at stake an opportunity to present facts supporting those interests and reasons a particular parcel should or should not be rezoned. The local zoning authority should be limited to a consideration of the record to assure that there has been an opportunity to respond and to avoid the appearance of unfairness which arises from ex parte communications. A record (which need not be a verbatim transcript but simply a summary of the facts and arguments presented, or a tape recording, and a file containing all written documents) should be kept so that the local zoning body can base its decision on the record, and so that, upon review by a court, it can base its decision on the same record. Findings of fact and reasons for decision (which need not be formalized, legalistic documents) serve similar purposes.
Perhaps the most controversial aspect of the administrative analysis in Michigan has been the substantive standard of review suggested in the concurring opinion in Kropf and the majority opinion in Sabo. The proposition there offered was that "[e]ven if present zoning is not unreasonable or confiscatory, a proposed use should be permitted if reasonable under all the circumstances. Kropf v Sterling Heights, 391 Mich 139, 164; 215 NW2d 179 (1974) (concurring opinion)”.
We agree that the "reasonableness of the proposed use” standard lends itself to the substitution of a judicial judgment for that of the local legislative body, and that the scope of judicial review should be confined to determining whether (1) the decision of the local legislative zoning body conforms to the substantive standard for passing on exceptions or zoning changes articulated and applied by the local legislative body; (2) the decision of the local legislative zoning body is "supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record”; (3) the procedures followed adequately protect the rights of those concerned; (4) the decision was consistent with constitutional requirements of substantive due process and equal protection and with any master plan.
VI
In Zaagman, Ed Zaagman, Inc, the owner of a 17-acre undeveloped parcel of land in Kentwood, with a population of 25,300, sought to invalidate the city’s zoning ordinance as applied and to have the parcel rezoned to permit use as a 97-site mobile home park.
The parcel is zoned R-3, permitting development of one- and two-family homes and, under certain circumstances, planned garden apartments.
In 1973 the landowner asked the city to rezone the property. The request was referred to the city planning commission, which, acting on a consultant’s conclusion that a mobile home park would be undesirable because of traffic congestion, crowding of schools and other effects of asserted higher density, denied the request. The city refused rezoning.
This action was then commenced in circuit court seeking an injunction against enforcement of the ordinance with respect to the parcel and an order approving construction of a mobile home park.
Kentwood has four parcels zoned R-5, permitting mobile home park use. Three are fully developed, with a total of 673 mobile home pads, almost all of which were occupied. The fourth park was new, having 196 pads, 29 of which were vacant.
Existing mobile home parks covered 116 acres. There were about 870 mobile home sites, 5,220 single-family residences, 98 duplexes and almost 2,000 apartment units, with 700 additional units then under construction.
There were approximately 9,000 acres of vacant land in Kentwood zoned as follows: 1,000 agricultural; 1,600 single family; 4,300 in two kinds of zones permitting single- and double-family homes and garden apartments; 300 planned development; 300 commercial; and 1,500 industrial.
The Kentwood Land Use System Plan of 1973 called for 94 acres to be used for mobile home parks, 30 acres of which were not then zoned for mobile home park development.
The relief requested was granted by the circuit court, a short time before Kropf was decided. The Court of Appeals reversed on the authority of Kropf
The landowner’s proofs tended to show that the parcel was well-suited for use as a mobile home park. Zoning is not, however, unreasonable or unconstitutional simply because it does permit a use for which the land is suited.
The landowner also argued that the zoning is invalid because the ordinance in effect excludes mobile home development from the city as a whole.
While local units of government may, pursuant to the police power granted by the Legislature, regulate land use, they may not preclude all growth nor may they entirely exclude a particular kind of residential development. Zoning and other land use regulations may properly be designed to facilitate planned growth, and development to protect the public health and safety, permit governmental services to keep pace with development and to retain some of the aesthetic and environmental values which might otherwise be lost. Put simply, "[z]oning is a means by which a governmental body can plan for the future — it may not be used as a means to deny the future”.
Where a unit of government in effect singles out for exclusion one or more forms of land use, either directly or indirectly (by, for example, permitting uses which few of the persons seeking to use the land can afford), a question may arise whether a legitimate governmental interest is being advanced.
There were no undeveloped R-5 zones in the city. In the four developed R-5 zones there were approximately 870 sites, with about 30 vacant. Less than 1% of the acreage in the city was devoted to mobile home park use. The percentage of mobile home units to total dwelling units was substantially less than in some nearby communities.
The mayor testified, however, that the ordinance was being revised to provide for a "fairly substantial mobile home area in an entirely different section of the city”. Such an area is shown on the city’s general development plan.
Justice Williams has written:
"While mobile home parks are not a guaranteed constitutional use, they are necessary to the essential human problem of low-cost shelter. Legislatively and judicially, as a lawful land use, they deserve protection from discrimination by exclusionary zoning.”
Given fundamental demographic changes, particularly in the availability and affordability of single-family homes, mobile homes may have become the only feasible means for persons of modest means to own and live in a single-family residence. Today’s mobile home parks differ from yesterday’s trailer camps. In addition to paved streets, sidewalks, central recreational facilities and other conveniences of modern suburban living, the homes may be larger and better constructed and designed than some conventionally constructed single-family homes.
Yet there has been a persistent reluctance on the part of some municipalities to permit the development of mobile home parks, sometimes because of a legitimate concern regarding overpopulation or the adequacy of services, sometimes because of concern for aesthetics, and sometimes because of an unexpressed desire to exclude the kind of persons thought to reside in them.
We are not, however, faced with a prohibition of a " 'constitutionally’ recognized use” giving rise to a "prima facie case placing a heavy burden on the municipality to justify the local legislation”. Nor, unlike Nickola, is there a suggestion that the city has refused all new applications for mobile home use, making the prospect of future mobile home park development elsewhere in the city illusory.
Absent any showing that there is a pattern of refusals of applications where property is suited for mobile home use, or any indication that the planning commission or city commission does not consider each application on its merits and acts in accordance with an unspoken plan to deny such applications, the ordinance is not exclusionary, and the failure to permit a parcel to be used for mobile homes, although well suited for that purpose, does not justify a conclusion that the ordinance as applied to that parcel is unconstitutional.
Kavanagh, J., concurred with Levin, J.
Kropf v Sterling Heights, 391 Mich 139; 215 NW2d 179 (1974).
Sabo v Monroe Twp, 394 Mich 531; 232 NW2d 584 (1975).
Kirk v Tyrone Twp, 398 Mich 429; 247 NW2d 848 (1976).
Plaintiffs’ complaint, in pertinent part, reads as follows:
"(b) That plaintiffs be permitted to commence construction in accordance with defendant’s R-3 zoning ordinance.
"(c) That plaintiffs have such further and other relief as may be just and equitable under the circumstances.”
At no point in either their pleadings or testimony at trial have plaintiffs requested the judicial declaration of a proposed use other than the construction and development of multiple-family dwellings, one of many enumerated R-3 uses.
In its answer to plaintiffs’ complaint, defendant merely prays that the complaint be dismissed and that costs as well as attorneys’ fees be awarded. Defendant has consistently averred that the parcel in question is solely amenable to an R-l-C single-family residential use; defendant nowhere indicates that an R-3 use other than that requested by plaintiffs would be satisfactory.
Warren Zoning Ordinance 30, art X, §§ 10.01 et seq., delineates the particular uses and specifications to which property zoned R-3 may be put. Section 10.01 entitled "Uses Permitted” provides as follows:
"In all R-3 districts no building or land, except as otherwise provided in this ordinance, shall be erected or used except for one or more of the following specified uses:
"(a) All uses permitted and as regulated in R-2 districts.
"(b) Multiple-family dwellings and efficiency apartments.
"(c) Boarding, rooming and lodging houses or tourist homes.
"(d) Private garages or community garages, either separated or in connected groups, having common and unpierced dividing walls between contiguous private garages. Maximum area per car to be stored in such garages shall not exceed two hundred-fifty (250) square feet.” Warren Zoning Ordinance 30, art IX, §§ 9.01 et seq., details the uses and specifications permitted under the R-2 two-family residential district classification referred to in § 10.01, supra. Section 9.01 provides as follows:
"In all R-2 residential districts, no building or land, except as otherwise provided in this ordinance, shall be erected or used except for one or more of the following specified uses:
"(a) All uses permitted and as regulated in R-l-C districts.
"(b) Two-family dwellings.
"(c) Private museums, on approval of the Planning Commission.
"(d) Building and uses customarily incidental to the above permitted uses shall include not more than one (1) private garage which shall provide parking space for not more than two (2) motor vehicles per living unit, not more than one of which may be a commercial vehicle which shall not exceed three-quarter (3/4) ton capacity and shall be kept housed within a garage when not in use, provided said commercial vehicle is owned and operated by a member of the family who. resides in said living unit. Maximum area per car to be stored in such garages shall not exceed two hundred fifty (250) square feet.
"(e) A residence may be used for a home occupation, provided it complies with § 2.29 of this ordinance, after approval has been granted by the Board of Appeals.
“(f) Hospitals, except animal hospitals and hospitals or sanitariums for contagious, mental or drug or liquor addict cases, and institutions of a philanthropic and charitable nature, after approval has been granted by the Planning Commission.
"(g) The storage or parking of trucks, truck tractors and truck trailers of over three-quarter (3/4) ton capacity, automobile trailers or the storage, parking or use of coaches, bus or streetcar bodies, or similar dwellings, tourist cabins, or tents shall not be allowed or considered a legal accessory use in an R-2 district.. This shall not prohibit the storage of one unoccupied house trailer or watercraft, which is the property of the occupant, provided, however, that such house trailer or watercraft shall be parked in the rear yard at least ten (10) feet away from any dwelling and any property line.”
Warren Zoning Ordinance 30, art VII, §§ 7.01 et seq., captioned "R- 1-C One Family Residential District” provides in § 7.01 for all uses permitted under the R-l-B designation, Warren Zoning Ordinance 30, art VI, §§ 6.01 et seq., which in turn refers to all uses permitted under R-l-A. Warren Zoning Ordinance 30, art V, §§ 5.01 et seq., details the uses permitted under the R-l-A one-family residential district classification. Those uses are defined in § 5.01 as follows:
"In all R-l-A districts, no building or land, except as otherwise provided in this ordinance, shall be erected or used except for one or more of the following specified uses:
"(a) One-family dwellings.
"(b) Farms on those parcels of land separately owned outside the boundaries of proprietary or supervisor’s plats, having an area of not less than three (3) acres, all subject to city and county health and sanitation ordinances.
"(c) Churches, public schools, public libraries, private educational institutions, when approved by the City of Warren Planning Commission.
"(d) Municipal owned and operated parks and playgrounds, available for use by the residents of the City of Warren, after approval by the Planning Commission.
"(e) Church or public building bulletin boards, not exceeding ten (10) square feet in area, and temporary signs not exceeding six (6) square feet in area appertaining to the lease, hire or sale of a building or premises, which sign shall be removed as soon as the premises are leased, hired or sold. Provided, further, that not more than one (1) temporary non-illuminated subdivision sign pertaining to the sale or rental of premises being developed on which it is maintained, and having an area of not more than three hundred (300) square feet nor more than ten (10) square feet for each lot within the subdivision of less than thirty (30) lots. Said sign shall not exceed twelve (12) feet in height above ground and shall be removed upon completion and occupation of buildings.
"(f) Community buildings, country clubs, fraternal lodges, or similar civic or social clubs (but not a residential club, or a club operated as a commercial enterprise), after approval by the Planning Commission.
"(g) The use of open land for privately owned and operated parks, picnic groves, golf courses, or similar facilities for outdoor exercises and recreation, which may or may not be operated for profit, provided such use does not impair the natural appearances of such land or tend to produce noise or annoyance to surrounding properties, shall be permitted only after approval by the Planning Commission,
"(h) Publicly owned buildings, transformer stations and substations, without service yards, after the approval of the City of Warren Planning Commission as being in harmony with the structures in the area, not injurious to the surrounding neighborhood and in accord with the spirit and purpose of this ordinance,
"(i) Temporary buildings for uses incidental to construction work, which buildings shall be removed upon completion or abandonment of the construction work.
"(j) The use of a parcel, lot or lots for the carrying on of gardening activities or the production of agricultural products through the direct tilling of the soil, together with facilities for the sale of the products thus produced thereon shall be permitted, provided that said facilities for the sale of any such products shall be located on the premises not nearer than thirty (30) feet from the front lot line,
"(k) Accessory buildings or uses customarily incident to any of the above permitted uses, when located on the same or adjoining lot and not involving any business, profession, trade or occupation. One (1) private garage for each residential lot in which there is housed not more than three (3) vehicles, not more than one (1) of which may be a commercial vehicle, shall be considered a legal accessory use, provided, however, any such commercial vehicle shall not exceed three-quarter (3/4) ton capacity, and shall be kept housed within a garage when not in use; and provided, further, that no moving vans shall be housed in private garages. All garages and/or accessory buildings shall contain not more than seven hundred (700) square feet of floor area.
"(1) The storage or parking or use of moving vans, automobile trailers, trailer coaches, bus or streetcar bodies, or similar dwellings, tourist cabins or tents, shall not be allowed or considered a legal accessory use in an R-l-A district, except that a temporary permit may be issued for the parking in the rear yard of one (1) house trailer, for not more than thirty (30) days within any calendar year, when occupants of such house trailer are provided with the sanitary facilities used by the household on whose lot they are occupying and only when such trailer occupants are visiting relatives and non-paying guests. This shall not prohibit the storage of one (1) unoccupied house trailer or small utility trailer, or a single watercraft in the rear yard no larger than one which may be transported with trailer by a passenger motor vehicle, and which is the property of the occupant on said lot, provided such trailer or watercraft is parked at least ten (10) feet from any dwelling or property line.”
It is apparent from this zoning scheme that a plethora of uses are permitted under the R-3 zoning designation, including but not limited to the specific multiple-family dwelling use proposed by plaintiffs herein.
See 4 Anderson, American Law of Zoning (2d ed), § 28.10, p 378. Other courts have similarly found that leaving property unzoned is unacceptable. The Illinois Court of Appeals in Harshman v De Kalb, 64 Ill App 2d 347, 352-353; 212 NE2d 146 (1965), Stated the following in this regard:
"The practical effect of declaring an existing zoning ordinance null and void in regard to á particular piece of property is to leave that piece of property in a condition which, for lack of a better description, has bpen called unzoned. To avoid the obvious dilemma of such a situation, recent cases have held that the court may frame its order in reference td a specific proposal before it and find that the contemplated use would be a reasonable one. Sinclair Pipe Line v Village of Richton Park, 19 Ill 2d 370; 167 NE2d 406 [1960]; Franklin v Village of Franklin Park, 19 Ill 2d 381; 167 NE2d 195 [1960],
"The aim of these decisions is to avoid the possibility of a re-zoning Of the. property to some other undesirable classification and, thus, invite further litigation, and to prevent any exploitation by the owner of the fact that his property is, at least temporarily, unzoned. To those ends, the wisdom of these decisions seems clear.”
In Daraban, supra, Justice T. G. Kavanagh in his dissenting opinion noted the following cases in support of the Long proposition which he unsuccessfully sought to overturn:
"The cases of Long v Highland Park, 329 Mich 146 [45 NW2d 10] (1950); Redford Moving & Storage Co v Detroit, 336 Mich 702 [58 NW2d 812] (1953); Industrial Land Co v Birmingham, 346 Mich 667 [78 NW2d 656] (1956); Dequindre Development Co v Warren Charter Twp, 359 Mich 634 [103 NW2d 600] (1960), have apparently come to stand as authority for the issuance of injunctions which can restrain municipalities from zoning the property involved in a manner different from that sought by the plaintiff.” 383 Mich 497, 506.
See 4 Anderson, American Law of Zoning (2d ed), § 28.10, p 379, and cases cited therein.
See Dade County v Moore, 266 So 2d 389 (Fla App, 1972); Clearwa-ter v College Properties, Inc, 239 So 2d 515 (Fla App, 1970); Hudson v Buena Vista Twp Zoning Board, 6 Mich App 625; 150 NW2d 167 (1967).
Other jurisdictions have sanctioned orders permitting the institution of an aggrieved landowner’s proposed specific use subsequent to a finding of classification invalidity and supportable by evidence as to reasonableness of that specific use. We find the following cases persuasive:
In Fiore v Highland Park, 76 Ill App 2d 62; 221 NE2d 323 (1966), plaintiff sought to develop multiple-family dwellings on its parcel zoned for office and research use; plaintiff presented specific proofs at trial as to the nature of the apartment complex they intended to construct on the subject parcel. The trial court declared the disputed ordinance invalid and ordered defendant to permit plaintiff to develop its parcel for multiple-family dwellings under the general zoning classification permitting such use. On appeal, the Illinois Court upheld the finding of unconstitutionality, but reversed the chancellor’s order as too broad insofar as it did not address itself to the reasonableness of the "specific use contemplated by the owner”. 76 Ill App 2d 62, 76. The Court offered the following guidelines for the chancellor to consider on remand in framing its decree with respect to plaintiff’s proposed specific use alone:
"The most that a court may do after declaring an existing zoning ordinance void as applied to certain property is to find that the specific use contemplated by the owner is reasonable and may be permitted.
"Under such circumstances, the court may frame its decree in the light of the evidence before it with reference to the specific proposed use; and may decree such contemplated use to be a reasonable one. Such decree neither impinges upon the legislative function, nor in effect leaves the property unzoned, with its potential problem of further litigation due to further rezoning by the municipality; and it limits plaintiffs’ use of the land to that contemplated and indicated by the record. Sinclair Pipe Line v Richton Park, supra, 379; 167 NE2d 406; Harshman v De Kalb, supra.
"In the case at bar, the plaintiffs presented evidence as to the nature of the apartment complex they intended to construct on these premises. The decree of the trial court should be framed with reference to the evidence of this intended use and permit such use only, rather than any permitted under the applicable multiple-family zoning restriction. If the court finds that such evidence is not sufficient to enable it to intelligently frame its decree, it should hear additional evidence pertinent to such use.” 76 Ill App 2d 62, 76.
The Illinois Court of Appeals in La Salle National Bank v Chicago, 130 Ill App 2d 457; 264 NE2d 799 (1970), was faced with a situation similar to that presented in Fiore. In LaSalle, plaintiffs sought to construct “three detached structures containing a total of twenty-two units” on property zoned for single-family residential dwellings. The trial court held the disputed classification invalid and entered an order permitting plaintiffs to construct a "multiple-family apartment project subject * * * to the R-3 General Residence District provisions of the Chicago Zoning Ordinance”. On appeal, the Court affirmed the chancellor’s finding of unconstitutionality but reversed and remanded the lower court’s order which directed the construction of multiple-family dwellings, a use different from that specifically proposed by plaintiffs (i.e., three detached structures containing 22 units). On remand,, the chancellor was restricted to a determination of the reasonableness of plaintiffs’ specifically averred definitive relief. Said the opinion’s author:
"The issue here is how a decree in a zoning case is to be framed. * * * Since the practical effect of declaring an existing zoning ordinance void in regard to a particular piece of property is to leave that piece of property in an unzoned condition, the court may frame its order in reference to a specific proposal before it and find that the contemplated use would be a reasonable one. Harshman v De Kalb, 64 Ill App 2d 347; 212 NE2d 146 (1965). Sinclair Pipe Line v Village of Richton Park, 19 Ill 2d 370; 167 NE2d 406 (1960). However, the court must exercise this authority with extreme care to avoid any encroachment into the legislative function of zoning. Harshman v DeKalb, supra. The most that a court may do after declaring an existing zoning ordinance void as applied to certain property is to find from clear evidence before it that the specific use contemplated by the owner is reasonable and may be permitted. Fiore v Highland Park, 76 Ill App 2d 62, 76; 221 NE2d 323 (1966). Consequently, the decree of the trial court should be framed with reference to the evidence of the intended use and permit such use only, rather than being framed with reference to a multiple family zoning classification. Fiore v Highland Park, supra." 130 Ill App 2d 457, 460-461.
Dixon v Kane County, 77 Ill App 2d 338; 222 NE2d 354 (1966), presented a separate panel of Illinois appellate justices with an aggrieved landowner’s attempt to construct a gas service station (a B-1 business use) on property zoned for single-family residential and agricultural uses. That panel reversed the chancellor’s order upholding the validity of the disputed classification and remanded the matter for entry of an order authorizing the use of plaintiffs parcel for gasoline service station purposes "since the plaintiff did present evidence concerning [that] proposed use of the property and since this appears to be a reasonable use * * * in accordance with the evidence”. 77 Ill App 2d 338, 343. Again citing Fiore, supra, the Court stated the following general proposition:
"If no specific use is proposed, the most the court can do is invalidate the zoning. If a specific use is proposed, the court, after invalidating the zoning, may authorize the proposed use if that is reasonable under the circumstances of the case.” Id., 342.
Further, in Harshman v De Kalb, 64 Ill App 2d 347; 212 NE2d 146 (1965), the Illinois appellate panel upheld the chancellor’s declaration of classification invalidity but reversed and remanded to develop a record, and finding thereon, as to a specific use to be made by plaintiff of its property, which specific intentions had not been averred at trial. Citing a statement of the Illinois Supreme Court in Reeve v Village of Glenview, 29 Ill 2d 611, 615-617; 195 NE2d 188, 191 (1963), the Harshman Court forwarded the proposition that a court may not order .relief in the absence of clear evidence of the reasonableness of a specific usé contemplated by plaintiff. Once presented with a proposed specific use, therefore, the chancellor was empowered to determine its reasonableness and frame á decree accordingly. Regarding the requirement of réásonableness, the pahel cautioned:
"It is also apparent that the courts must exercise this authority with, extreme care to avoid any encroachment into the legislative function of zoning. It is imperative that there be clear evidence before the court of the specific use to which the owner intends to develop his property and the order framed in reference to it, Sinclair Pipe Line v Village of Richton Park [19 Ill 2d 370; 167 NE2d 406 (1960)].” Harshman v De Kalb, 64 Ill App 2d 347, 353; 212 NE2d 146, 149 (1965).
See, generally, Flair Corp v Brecksville, 49 Ohio App 2d 77; 3 Ohio Op 3d 146; 359 NE2d 459 (1976) (remand to determine specific use[s] to which plaintiff land could reasonably be put); Ellick v Board of Supervisors, 17 Pa Commonwealth Ct 404; 333 A2d 239 (1975) (remand pursuant to statutory authority to determine the reasonableness of plaintiffs proposed specific use).
This Court in Frendo v Southfield Twp, 349 Mich 693; 85 NW2d 130 (1957), also recognized the need when fashioning zoning relief to "balance the conflicting equities and try to reach a fair working result consistent with the dilemma before us”. 349 Mich 693, 698. In this regard, the Court stated:
"Few decisions in any such zoning cases fail to harm and displease someone; our job is try to balance the conflicting equities and try to reach a fair working result consistent with the dilemma before us. We grant, then, that any relief given here to the plaintiffs will to some extent harm home owners in the vicinity. Yet a denial of relief will most certainly affect the plaintiffs; they will be left to pay taxes on lots which we believe the proofs plainly show are entirely unusable for the purposes to which by this ordinance they are restricted.” Id.
The Frendo Court, however, was not disposed to direct remand for a determination of the "midsatisfactory” use to be accorded the subject parcel as was Justice Black in Dequindre, supra. Rather, having found the disputed single-family zoning classification unconstitutional, the Court ordered that the defendant permit a use of the parcel consistent with the general commercial use classification prayed by plaintiff.
Kropf v Sterling Heights, 391 Mich 139, 164; 215 NW2d 179 (1974).
Const 1963, art 6, § 28.
West v Portage, 392 Mich 458; 221 NW2d 303; 72 ALR3d 1016 (1974).
Sabo v Monroe Twp, 394 Mich 531; 232 NW2d 584 (1975), aff'g 46 Mich App 344; 208 NW2d 57 (1973).
Smookler v Wheatfield Twp, 394 Mich 574; 232 NW2d 616 (1975), aff'g 46 Mich App 162; 207 NW2d 464 (1973).
Nickola v Grand Blanc Twp, 394 Mich 589; 232 NW2d 604 (1975), aff'g 47 Mich App 684; 209 NW2d 803 (1973).
Sabo v Monroe Twp, supra, pp 535-536.
Id., pp 536-537.
Id., p 537.
See Sabo v Monroe Twp, supra, p 536, fn 5.
Werkhoven v Grandville, 61 Mich App 200; 232 NW2d 356 (1975).
Turkish v City of Warren, 61 Mich App 435; 232 NW2d 732 (1975).
Ed Zaagman, Inc v Kentwood, 61 Mich App 693; 233 NW2d 146 (1975).
395 Mich 753; 232 NW2d 671 (1975).
Kirk v Tyrone Twp, 398 Mich 429; 247 NW2d 848 (1976).
1978 PA 637, 1978 PA 638 and 1978 PA 640; MCL 125.286b et seq., 125.584a et seq., 125.216b et seq.; MSA 5.2963(16b) et seq., 5.2934(1) et seq., 5.2961(16b) et seq., amending the township, city and village and county zoning enabling acts.
Hitchman v Oakland Twp, 329 Mich 331, 333, 335-336; 45 NW2d 306 (1951).
"Rule 517 prescribes a' single standard of review for court findings in all actions, legal or equitable, tried without a jury. The standard is essentially that of the former equity practice. The standard is that findings of fact shall not be set aside unless 'clearly erroneous.’
"Formerly in chancery cases, although it was commonly said that issues of fact were tried de novo on appeal or that the Supreme Court must weigh the evidence and reach an independent conclusion on review of the facts, this did not mean that the findings of the trial judge were entitled to no consideration. * * * The Supreme Court was most reluctant to disturb the findings of a trial judge based on credibility, since the trial judge, as the trier of facts, had the advantage of observing the witnesses.
"Thus it is clear that Rule 517 accurately restates former practice in the review of chancery cases in Michigan, although the language itself is borrowed from Federal Rule 52.” 2 Honigman & Hawkins, Michigan Court Rules Annotated (2d ed), pp 596-597.
Tuttle v Dep’t of State Highways, 397 Mich 44, 46; 243 NW2d 244 (1976).
See Austin v Older, 283 Mich 667, 676-677; 278 NW 727 (1938); Village of Euclid v Ambler Realty Co, 272 US 366; 47 S Ct 114; 71 L Ed 303; 54 ALR 1016 (1926).
See United States v Kansas City Life Ins Co, 339 US 799, 810; 70 S Ct 885; 94 L Ed 1277 (1950); cf. San Diego County v Miller, 13 Cal 3d 684, 691; 119 Cal Rptr 491, 495; 532 P2d 139 (1975); Michelman, Property, Utility, and Fairness: Comments on the Ethical Foundations of "Just Compensation” Law, 80 Harv L Rev 1165, 1190-1193 (1967).
Pennsylvania Coal Co v Mahon, 260 US 393, 415; 43 S Ct 158; 67 L Ed 322 (1922).
See Bassey v Huntington Woods, 344 Mich 701, 704-705; 74 NW2d 897(1956).
Similarly, see Smith v Village of Wood Creek Farms, 371 Mich 127, 136; 123 NW2d 210 (1963); Frendo v Southfield Twp, 349 Mich 693; 85 NW2d 130 (1957); Nectow v City of Cambridge, 277 US 183; 48 S Ct 447; 72 L Ed 842 (1928).
Kropf v Sterling Heights, supra, pp 162-163.
Kirk v Tyrone Twp, supra, pp 439-440.
See Kropf v Sterling Heights, supra, p 152.
See Sabo v Monroe Twp, supra; West v. Portage, supra; Kropf v Sterling Heights, supra; Kirk v Tyrone Twp, supra.
See Cunningham, Rezoning by Amendment as an Administrative or Quasi-Judicial Act: The "New Look” in Michigan Zoning, 73 Mich L Rev 1341 (1975); Lax, 1974 Annual Survey of Michigan Law, Local Government, 21 Wayne L Rev 577 (1975); Cohn & Polito, Administrative Zoning Change: Give it a Chance, 54 Mich St B J 956 (Dec, 1975); Ternan, Michigan Zoning: A Need for Clarity and Stability, 55 Mich St B J 33 (Jan, 1976); Crawford, Administrative Zoning Change— Prospects and Problems, 54 Mich St B J 854 (Nov, 1975); Anthony, Rezoning Procedure: A Dramatic Change, 54 Mich St B J 855 (Nov, 1975).
See, also, ABA Advisory Commission on Housing & Urban Growth, Housing For All Under Law (Fishman, ed. Cambridge, Mass: Bal-linger Publishing Co, 1978), pp 268 et seq.; Developments in the Law —Zoning, 91 Harv L Rev 1427, 1508 (1978); Levy, Judicial Review of Zoning Cases — New Rules?, 6 Tulsa L J 1 (1969); Booth, A Realistic Reexamination of Rezoning Procedure: The Complementary Requirements of Due Process and Judicial Review, 10 Ga L Rev 753 (Í976); Sullivan, Araby Revised: The Evolving Concept of Procedural Due Process Before Land Use Regulatory Bodies, 15 Santa Clara Lawyer 50 (1974); Freilich, Editors Comments — Fasano v Board of County Commissioners of Washington County: Is Rezoning an Administrative or Legislative Function?, 6 Urban Lawyer vii (1974); Comment, Developments in the Search for Workable Standards of Judicial Review of Piecemeal Rezoning, 24 Catholic U L Rev 294 (1975).
One observer characterizes the traditional approach as empowering local legislative bodies
"to change the zoning classification of land at will or to refuse to change it, regardless of what record is made in the proceedings before them, so long as they do not place the land in a zoning category which does not permit reasonable use and enjoyment thereof.” Crawford, supra, p 854.
See Bird v Sorenson, 16 Utah 2d 1; 394 P2d 808 (1964); Donovan v Clark, 222 F Supp 632, 634 (D DC, 1963); Morton v Mayor & Council of Clark Twp, 102 NJ Super 84; 245 A2d 377 (1968); Mmneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co v Nadasdy, 247 Minn 159; 76 NW2d 670 (1956); Kelley v John, 162 Neb 319, 323-325; 75 NW2d 713 (1956); Golden v Overland Park, — Kans —; 584 P2d 130 (1978).
The Oklahoma Supreme Court adopted the quasi-judicial approach in Sand Springs v Colliver, 434 P2d 186 (Okla, 1967), but overruled that decision in O’Rourke v Tulsa, 457 P2d 782 (Okla, 1969). See Levy, supra, p 19.
Comment, Zoning Amendments—The Product of Judicial or Quasi-Judicial Action, 33 Ohio St L J 130 (1972).
See Fasano v Washington County Board of Commissioners, 264 Or 574; 507 P2d 23 (1973); Fleming v Tacoma, 81 Wash 2d 292, 298-300; 502 P2d 327, 330-331 (1972); Snyder v Lakewood, 189 Colo 421; 542 P2d 371 (1975); Lowe v Missoula, 165 Mont 38, 45-47; 525 P2d 551, 554 (1974); Forman v Eagle Thrifty Drugs & Markets, Inc, 89 Nev 533, 536-537; 516 P2d 1234, 1236 (1973).
See, also, Ward v Skokie, 26 Ill 2d 415, 423-424; 186 NE2d 529, 533 (1962) (concurring opinion); City of Eastlake v Forest City Enterprises, Inc, 426 US 668, 685, fns 6, 7; 96 S Ct 2358; 49 L Ed 2d 132 (1976) (Stevens, J., dissenting),
The American Bar Association Advisory Commission on Housing & Urban (Jrowth adopted a number of policy statements "which summarize the major themes and findings of its report”, including the following:
"1. A primary concern in facilitating rational and equitable urban growth is the extent to which the traditional system of land-use controls has evolved into a highly discretionary process. While this development has its salutary aspects, particularly in permitting local government to respond to the increased complexities of land-use decision-making, it has also strained the fairness and rationality of the regulatory system,
"Because of the issues involved in reconciling discretionary action with procedural fairness, Chapter 4 in part concerns the legal distinction between 'legislative’ and 'administrative’ or 'quasi-judicial’ actions. The discussion of these labels, however, should not be emphasized to the point of distraction from the underlying concepts. The issue is one of procedural fairness and predictability that is adaptable to local conditions and capabilities. The use of terms such as cross-examination, fair and impartial tribunal, and the like, need not be interpreted in the same sense as they might be in an attempt to reform the judicial process.
“2. A government body, in granting or denying development permission for a specific parcel of land at the request of a particular party, is engaged in an adjudicatory process. As such, the essentials of procedural due process normally expected of administrative bodies— adequate notice, an opportunity to be heard, a fair and impartial tribunal, and findings based on an adequate record — must be met. Furthermore, such local actions, when reviewed by the courts, need not be accorded the traditional presumption of legislative validity.
"Traditionally, courts have viewed all amendments to a zoning ordinance as legislative acts, because they are granted by the local legislature. Consequently, such actions have been accorded a presumption of legislative validity. Under this presumption, challenges to the validity of a local action have been required to demonstrate that the decision is arbitrary, capricious, and unreasonable, and that it has no relation to the public health, safety, and welfare — an extremely onerous burden. The Advisory Commission recognizes that the local legislature, in enacting or amending a zoning ordinance applicable to all or a substantial part of a political jurisdiction, is acting in a different role from the one it assumes when making a decision on requests by parties or individuals for particular changes from the general scheme. The latter role is more akin to that of settling disputes, and therefore, to promote greater fairness and avoid the risk of arbitrariness, should be afforded greater due process standards. This approach does not affect text amendments applying to classes of land use or a collection of parcels within an area, comprehensive or planning area rezonings, and adoption of the comprehensive plan (in whole or by area); such actions should retain their 'legislative’ characterization and be subject to the traditional standards of judicial review. The legislative characterization may continue to be appropriate for individual requests for development permission that have a substantial or disproportionate impact on the community, regardless of the size of the parcel or parcels at issue.
"3. State zoning enabling legislation should be amended so as to specify the requirements for administrative review of individual requests for zoning changes or development permission. Such legislation should be responsive to the varying financial capabilities and development activity existing in political jurisdictions of differing sizes, which would affect their ability to implement a sophisticated administrative process. (Small communities, for example, may lack the financial resources or a sufficient level of development activity to justify the changes necessary for such an approach.)
"While the shift in attitude toward local land-use actions affecting specific parcels has been initiated largely by the judiciary, more flexible reform in this area could be brought about through legislative change. (See, e.g., the ALI Model Land Development Code.)
"4. To assure a fair and impartial tribunal for 'quasi-judicial’ actions, enabling legislation and local rules should be amended to limit prehearing or ex parte contacts between the parties to the action and the public officials involved, or to require that such contacts (excepting routine informational discussions with professional staff members) be on the record. This approach reduces the amount of lobbying or informal advocacy that often precedes the formal hearing and casts a shadow over the fairness of the entire proceeding.
“5. Judicial review of the grant or denial of individual requests for development permission should proceed on the record established in the hearing below in accordance with general principles of administrative law or as prescribed by statute, unless determined otherwise by the court. This approach seeks to avoid de novo review in such cases. Accordingly, the record established at the hearing' would be called up and examined for errors without the court substituting its judgment for that of the lower body. The court could remand the case to the administrative body for a new hearing, additional findings, or other actions in accordance with traditional judicial functions in administrative law. The efforts of the courts would thereby be focused on the record and findings made below, and the importance of fair and rational local government action would be emphasized.
"6. The implementation of the procedural changes suggested in this chapter may impose additional administrative burdens on the plan commission, board of appeals, and legislative body. To lessen these administrative burdens, while at the same time assuring a more efficient and professional process, local governments should consider the creation of a hearing examiner system. The hearing examiner would hear and decide cases, subject to appeal to the local governing body, in conventional discretionary matters such as requests for variances, special permits, and subdivision plats. With regard to individual requests for rezonings of specific parcels, they too should be heard by the hearing examiner, with a complete record made of the proceedings. The hearing examiner’s recommendations would then be submitted to the governing body, which would make the final decision on the basis of the record established before the examiner.
"The hearing examiner provides a mechanism for diverting administrative burdens and leaving the public official with time for the more important tasks of planning, policy formulation, and making final decisions on the record made before the hearing examiner. It must be recognized that instituting a hearing examiner system will involve public costs and probably would be best justified in areas undergoing substantial development activity.”
See Housing For All Under Law, supra, pp viii, 319-322.
"(i) Notwithstanding the provisions of § 2-311, the local governing body may authorize development by a special amendment only if the procedures of this Section are followed. A special amendment is an amendment
"(a) which results in a change limited in effect to a single parcel or to several parcels under related ownership; or
"(b) which changes regulations applicable to an area of [50] acres or less; or
"(c) which permits development specified in a previously adopted ordinance as permissible upon stated criteria after approval by the local governing body.
“(2) Prior to the adoption of a special amendment, the Land Development Agency shall hold a hearing in accordance with § 2-304 and make findings and recommendations on the issues presented in regard to the proposed amendment. A special amendment may be adopted only if
"(a) development at the proposed location is essential or especially appropriate in view of the available alternatives within or without the jurisdiction; or
"(b) the development is development of regional benefit under § 7-301(4); or
"(c) the development could have been granted a special development permit under Part 2 of this Article or under Article 7, whether or not the development ordinance before the amendment authorized the Land Development Agency to grant a permit on that basis; or
"(d) there was a mistake in the original ordinance in regard to the property.
"(3) Upon receipt of the findings and recommendations of the Agency, the governing body may, with or without an additional hearing, adopt the proposed amendment, or modify the proposed amendment and adopt it as modified. A local governing body may adopt a special amendment only if it finds that the amendment would satisfy the requirements of subsection (2). Any additional hearing by the governing body shall be conducted in accordance with § 2-305.
"(4) The decision of the governing body to adopt a special amendment shall be supported by findings and conclusions based upon the record as if a special development permit had been granted. In any judicial proceeding thereon, the findings and conclusions shall be those of the agency under subsection (2) unless the governing body, on the basis of the same record or a record prepared before it, makes other findings and conclusions.” ALI, Model Land Development Code, § 2-312, pp 108-111 (emphasis supplied).
The Notes to § 2-312 explain that
"The Land Development Agency must hold a hearing and make specific findings arid recommendations on the issues presented in regard to any special amendment. This hearing must be conducted as an administrative hearing under § 2-304, not as a legislative-type hearing under § 2-305. (Compare § 2-311[3].) In order to justify the grant of a special amendment it must be 'supported by findings and conclusions based upon the record as if a special development permit had been granted.’ ”
See, generally, Peterson, Flexibility in Rezoning and Related Governmental Land Use Decisions, 36 Ohio St L J 499 (1975).
See Office of Land Use, Zoning Advisory Committee, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Michigan’s Zoning Enabling Acts— Recommendations for Revision, pp 48-50, 65-68. See, also, Appendix A, Jan, 1977 Revision.
See fn 16, supra.
Fleming v Tacoma, supra, p 299.
A change to permit development of a major shopping center, because of its long-term impact on the local government’s resources available for capital improvements, its potential for influencing patterns of growth and its impact on a large number of landowners, may require a procedure that is an amalgam of administrative and legislative principles. Crawford, supra, p 856. Cf. Developments in the Law —Zoning, 91 Harv L Rev 1427, 1511 (1978).
It has been said:
"The judicial deference to 'legislative’ action by an administrative agency is based upon the concept that the agency is applying expertise in making a decision tantamount to either an expression of legislative policy or an exercise of legislative judgment based upon more or less general information relating to the area of its expertise. Thus the characteristics to be expected from a 'legislative’ action are: (1) a broad base of general, non-quantifiable information; (2) the broad, non-particularized impact of an announcement of legislative policy; and (3) the exercise of broad discretion to select a policy to implement the objectives with which the administrative body is charged.
"In the administrative setting an adjudicative action is based upon the facts of the particular case, facts which are capable of proof by judicial methods, and is generally limited in its immediate effect to particular individuals. It may or may not also involve an initial decision as to a general policy to be followed in similar cases. Similarly, it may or may not ultimately depend upon agency discretion rather than application of precise predetermined standards. The importance of the particular facts of the case and of the nature of those facts compels a much greater procedural standard to insure that individuals directly affected are given a fair opportunity not only to be heard but to prove their version of the particular facts as well.” Booth, supra, pp 768-769.
It has also been said:
"It is an established constitutional principle that procedural due process attaches only to administrative or adjudicatory action by the state, and not to legislative action.
"Two separate inquiries are necessary if administrative decisions are to be differentiated from legislative decisions in a manner that is responsive in all cases to the due process interests in efficiency, representation, and dignity. The first inquiry concerns the type of underlying facts on which the decision is based. This examination provides a reasonably clear and feasible means for distinguishing policy decisions from specific applications of the policy. The second inquiry considers whether the government action results in a differentiable impact on specifiable individuals, thus making allowance for the fact that new policies may be articulated through specific decisions of limited applicability.
"Identifying actions that are administrative by the nature of the underlying facts and the particularity of the impact comports with the functional analysis of procedural due process.
"Amendments to general plans have not been dealt with uniformly by the courts. Some jurisdictions have held that because the adoption of the original plan is a legislative act, an amendment to it must also be characterized as legislative. But many zoning amendments fit the characteristics of administrative action. A zoning amendment generally proposes reclassification of a specific parcel of land, and involves an inquiry into the desirability of a particular land use. The inquiry will therefore frequently turn on facts concerning a specific situation and will have a differentiated impact on particular individuals, thus fulfilling both criteria for an administrative action. Some amendments to general plans, however, are properly classified as legislative, particularly where they are the result of a change in a basic policy decision underlying the formulation of the original plan. For example, a decision whether or not to amend a plan to permit multiunit residential housing in a small, rural community will likely turn on a policy debate over whether the town is now willing to accept the consequences of growth and urbanization. Assuming that the decision does not produce a differentiated impact, that certain people or neighborhoods are not forced to bear the entire cost of the amendment, implementation of the amendment need not be accompanied by procedural safeguards.” Developments in the Law — Zoning, supra, pp 1508-1513.
Sabo v Monroe Twp, supra, pp 536-537.
Const 1963, art 6, § 28.
See Davis, Administrative Law Treatise (1976 Supp), § 7.00, p 242. It has been said that local units of government will be unable to follow such procedures because of the prohibitive costs and their lack of experience in conducting hearings, and that the procedures are inconsistent with participatory democracy. In response it must be conceded that there may be increased costs, but the experience in Oregon, for example, suggests that local units of government respond in a variety of innovative ways, avoiding the major expenses of verbatim transcripts and formal cross-examination, yet nevertheless following procedures assuring impartiality and fairness. See Platt, Oregon v Michigan, Newsletter, Real Property Law Section, St Bar of Mich (No 10, Dec, 1975). Formal trials are not required; procedures not much different from those prevailing in many communities are what is called for. To the extent informal citizen-legislator communication is decreased the process will be more precise, fair and protective of the rights of individuals. It is again pertinent that the Legislature has recently required administrative hearings on applications for special land uses and planned unit developments. See fn 16, supra.
In Sabo v Monroe Twp, supra, pp 538-541, the Court was divided on the meaning of the statutory requirement, found in the zoning enabling acts, that zoning be in accordance with a "comprehensive plan”. The majority (three justices) held that "plan” did not mean "master plan”, but simply required that zoning be comprehensive, uniform and broad in scope. See Mandelker, The Role of the Local Comprehensive Plan in Land Use Regulation, 74 Mich L Rev 899, 902 (1976). See, also, authorities cited id., p 904, fn 21. While it is desirable that master plans be adopted, since thereby planning will be facilitated and unnecessary discretion of local zoning bodies in considering rezoning proposals will be circumscribed, the failure to adopt a master plan does not invalidate an otherwise valid zoning regulation.
There was some mention at trial of the non-feasibility of developing the property as zoned. Plaintiffs proofs at trial consisted of the testimony of two experts and of its owner Edward Zaagman.
The experts’ testimony on this aspect was scanty: one expert said that he questioned "with the industrial on the north and the industrial on the east, whether the land would be — you would be able to get an economic return on the land to justify it [single-family development], but obviously that is my opinion”. The second expert testified that a mobile home park would be the most suitable use for the parcel and that although it would be physically possible to develop the parcel in many ways, its highest and best use would be as a mobile home park.
Zaagman testified that after analyzing the costs of developing the parcel as zoned, he concluded that he could not economically build single-family homes, duplexes or garden apartments. He explained that since there was a relatively high demand for the few available mobile home sites in the area and since the industrial and mobile home parks that surrounded the parcel made it relatively undesirable for single-family use, the parcel was best suited for mobile homes.
Although the city did not dispute that the parcel was unsuitable for development as zoned, all statements on behalf of plaintiff regarding feasibility were in the form of conclusory opinions, unsupported by a factual predicate. Unlike the proofs in Turkish, here there was no effort to quantitatively support the claim that the ordinance was confiscatory because the sum of the costs of development, the basic speculative land value and a reasonable return would exceed the anticipated return.
The 94 acres apparently does not include land currently used for mobile homes since 116 acres are already developed as mobile home parks.
After the city filed a claim of appeal the judge, in an addendum to his bench-dictated opinion which was revised and filed after entry of the judgment and Kropf was decided, stated:
"After the above opinion had been edited and transcribed for filing, it was brought to this court’s attention that on February 19, 1974, the Michigan Supreme Court reversed Kropf v Sterling Heights, 41 Mich App 21 [199 NW2d 567] (1972), by an opinion overruling the so-called 'preferred use’ doctrine of Bristow v City of Woodhaven, 35 Mich App 205 [192 NW2d 322] (1971), and subsequent cases. This development may have a profound effect on the legal framework within which the subject case was decided and is brought to the attention of the parties in the event that they wish to consider post-trial proceedings.”
No such proceedings were pursued.
See, generally, Rubinowitz, Exclusionary Zoning: A Wrong in Search of a Remedy, 6 J of L Reform 625 (1973); Note, The Inadequacy of Judicial Remedies in Cases of Exclusionary Zoning, 74 Mich L Rev 760 (1976); Note, Equal Protection and Exclusionary Zoning, 60 Va L Rev 163 (1974); Kaye, The Validity of Zoning an Entire Municipality Exclusively Residential, 7 Urban L Ann 304 (1974); Comment, Removing the Bar of Exclusionary Zoning to a Decent Home, 32 Ohio St L J 373 (1971); Bigham & Bostick, Exclusionary Zoning Practices: An Examination of the Current Controversy, 25 Vanderbilt L Rev 1111 (1972); Zumbrun & Hookano, No-Growth and Related Land-Use Legal Problems: An Overview, 9 Urban Lawyer 122, 132, 143-156 (1977); Note, The Equal Protection Clause and Exclusionary Zoning After Valtierra and Dandridge, 81 Yale L J 61 (1971); Note, Exclusionary Zoning and Equal Protection, 84 Harv L Rev 1645 (1971); Lyon, Exclusionary Zoning From a Regional Perspective, 5 Urban L Ann 239 (1972); Hirshon, The Interrelationship Between Exclusionary Zoning and Exclusionary Subdivision Control, 5 J of L Reform 351 (1972) ;' Branfman, Cohen & Trubek, Measuring the Invisible Wall: Land Use Controls and Residential Patterns of the Poor, 82 Yale L J 483 (1973); Symposium, Exclusionary Zoning, 22 Syracuse L Rev 465 (1971); Note, The Use of Zoning Laws to Prevent Poor People From Moving to Suburbia, 16 Howard L J 351 (1971); Note, The Constitutionality of Local Zoning, 79 Yale L J 896 (Í970).
See Flippen, Constitutionality of Zoning Ordinances Which Exclude Mobile Homes, 12 Am Bus L J 15 (1974); Note, Housing— Mobile Homes — Some Legal Questions, 75 W Va L Rev 382 (1973); Sunde, The Presumption of Validity of Mobile Homes as a Preferred Use, 7 Urban L Ann 296 (1974); Moore, The Mobile Home and the Law, 6 Akron L Rev 1 (1973); Van Iden, Zoning Restrictions Applied to Mobile Homes, 20 Cleveland St L Rev 196 (1971).
See, also, Southern Burlington County NAACP v Mount Laurel Twp, 67 NJ 151; 336 A2d 713 (1975); United Farmworkers of Florida Housing Project, Inc v Delray Beach, 493 F2d 799 (CA 5, 1974); Metropolitan Housing Development Corp v Village of Arlington Heights, 517 F2d 409 (CA 7, 1975), but cf. San Antonio Independent School Dist v Rodriguez, 411 US 1, 28, 29; 93 S Ct 1278; 36 L Ed 2d 16 (1973).
National Land & Investment Co v Easttown Twp Board of Adjustment, 419 Pa 504, 527-528; 215 A2d 597 (1965). Similarly, see Golden v Planning Board of Ramapo, 30 NY2d 359, 379; 285 NE2d 291; 334 NYS2d 138 (1972).
See, also, Dequindre Development Co v Warren Charter Twp, 359 Mich 634, 640; 103 NW2d 600 (1960); Nickola v Grand Blanc Twp, supra, p 608; Kirk v Tyrone Twp, supra.
Nickola v Grand Blanc Twp, supra, p 608.
See Babcock & Bosselman, Exclusionary Zoning: Land Use Regulation and Housing in the 1970’s (NY: Praeger Publishers, Inc., 1973), pp 8-9.
See Neithercut, The Mobile Home: Problems With its Recognition as a Valid Housing Source, Newsletter, Real Property Section, St Bar of Mich (No 10, Dec, 1975), p 15.
The author notes that in December, 1975 there were more than five million mobile homes and that "[o]ne-half of all housing starts are now mobile homes and 95% of all homes built for less than $15,000 are mobile homes. ** * * Eighty percent of mobile homes are in mobile home parks. * * * One thousand new parks a year are opened which offer over 100 unit sites.”
"Mobile homes are built more like houses than mobile vehicles. * * * They are fully insulated and wired[,] with adequate plumbing also. * * * The largest mobile homes are 14 feet wide by 75 feet long which equals or surpasses the 900 square feet size of the average new single family [home] insured by the FHA.
"While mobile homes were originally for transient purposes, today about 60% of all mobile home owners never move their home. The MHMA [Mobile Home Manufacturers’ Association] reports that the average stay in one location by mobile home owners is 58 months, which is approximately the same residency duration as in conventional housing. About 70% of the mobile homes used since WW II have been used as permanent dwellings.” Id., p 25.
Kropf v Sterling Heights, supra, p 155. See, also, Gust v Canton Twp, 342 Mich 436; 70 NW2d 772 (1955).
Nickola v Grand Blanc Twp, supra, pp 612-613. | [
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Per Curiam.
The question before us is how far the permissible stop-and-frisk of Terry v Ohio extends in an automobile context. When the record does not show that the search was prompted by the officer’s fear of violence while pursuing his investigation, Terry v Ohio does not provide authority to validate the search without a warrant.
I
At roll call for his shift on June 10, 1976, Saginaw police officer Herzberg was told that a young black man, who had been arrested for the armed robbery of "after hours” drinking establishments in Saginaw, had escaped from the hospital where he apparently was receiving treatment. The individual was described only as being 5 feet 8 inches tall with a dark complexion.
Later that same morning (approximately 6:30 a.m.) Herzberg noticed a van parked in a prohibited zone by the entrance to a building. Herzberg testified that he knew that an "after hours” drinking establishment was being run in this building. Herzberg noted that the defendant was seated in the driver’s seat of the van and a young black man was in the passenger seat.
He circled the block and pulled behind and to the side of the van. He decided to investigate further and radioed other officers of his intention to do so. His approach to the van went unnoticed by the occupants. As the officer approached the van, the defendant bent slightly forward, leaning to the right, and "* * * you could see that something was going on in the middle section of where his body was”.
Herzberg asked the defendant to identify himself and to step out of the van. The defendant did get out of the van and Herzberg told him to go back and stand by a backup unit which had by then arrived. Herzberg then looked inside the van and saw a "lump” where two pieces of carpeting came together. He lifted the carpeting and found a pistol.
The defendant was charged with carrying a pistol in an automobile.
II
The defendant filed a motion to suppress the weapon seized; he alleged its seizure was the product of an illegal search. At the hearing on the motion, Herzberg explained his action as follows:
"Q. Well, why were you going to check the van?
"A Because of the circumstances of being parked in front of the after-hours joint, the movements that he had made and the male Negro subject in the van with him.
"Q. All right. What did you do then?
"A. After he had made his movements and stepped from the van, in my own mind, I was sure there was something there.
"Q. What did you think was there?
’A. A gun.
”Q. And why did you think that there was a gun there?
'A. As far as I could see, that’s all it could have been.
”Q. What factors did you base your belief that you— or your feeling that there was a weapon inside of the van at that time? What were the factors?
’A. It would be the simple fact that they were parked illegally in front of the after-hours joint, blocking, a clear obstruction in and out, and the movements that he made and the information that we had regarding these places that were being robbed.
”Q. All right, and what did you do when you looked inside the van? What did you find?
”A. I could see the carpeting was separated ahd there was a lump there, where the two pieces of carpeting had come together. One would be underneath and the other would overlap. The hump was pushed up.
"Q. Could you see the hump before you did ahything with the carpet?
"A. Yes.
”Q. What did you do after that?
’A. I lifted the piece of carpeting up and looked underneath it.
”Q. What did you find?
’A. A pistol.
”Q. Was it unloaded?
'A. No.
”Q. Was it ready to fire?
’A. Yes.
”Q. What did you do after you found the weapon?
’A. The weapon, when I found it, had the hammer cocked. Simply by depressing the trigger it would have fired so I dropped the clip out and racked the chamber. There was a live round in the chamber.”
In denying the motion, the trial judge Said in part:
"* * * it would appear that the evidence in this case clearly warrants the police action. He was acting on information which made him suspicious of the vehicle being parked at the place that it was, with the companion that the defendant had with him.
"This, combined with the defendant’s own motions in apparently trying to hide something, caused the officer very properly to take the steps he did to search the vehicle and to disarm the defendant.”
The Court of Appeals affirmed.
Ill
Terry v Ohio permits a protective search of the person during an investigatory stop in order to militate against unnecessary risks to police officers performing their duties. Further detention oí* Search must be based on consent Or probable cause. The people do not suggest there was consent or probable cause in this case. While the police must be free to investigate without fear of violence, there is nothing in thié récord to suggest that Herzberg searched the van for that purpose.
In lieu of granting leave to appeal, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), we reverse the judgments of the Court of Appeals and the circuit court and remand the case to the Saginaw Circuit Court for entry of an order consistent with this opinion.
Kavanagh, Levin, Ryan, arid Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred.
392 US 1; 88 S Ct 1868; 20 L Ed 2d 889 (1968).
The black man in the van was not in fact the one sought.
Contrast Pennsylvania v Mimms, 434 US 106; 98 S Ct 330; 54 L Ed 2d 331 (1977), where the police noticed the "bulge” on defendant’s person once he emerged from a vehicle.
MCL 750.227; MSA 28.424.
87 Mich App 185; 274 NW2d 13 (1978).
See United States v Brignoni-Ponce, 422 US 873, 882; 95 S Ct 2574; 45 L Ed 2d 607 (1975), and United States v Ortiz, 422 US 891, 896; 95 S Ct 2585; 45 L Ed 2d 623 (1975). Contrast People v Damaska, 404 Mich 391; 273 NW2d 58 (1978), Where We found probable cause for the police to proceed with a vehicle search after an investigatory stop.
See Adams v Williams, 407 US 143, 146; 92 S Ct 1921; 32 L Ed 2d 612 (1972).
We need not decide, consequently, whether the Terry protective search may extend from the person to the vehicle a person has exited. See, e.g., Government of the Canal Zone v Bender, 573 F2d 1329 (CA 5, 1978), limiting Terry under similar circumstances. | [
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The amended motion to extend time back is treated as a supplement to the petition for reconsideration. The petition for reconsideration of this Court’s order of April 17, 1978 is considered and the petition is denied because it does not appear that said order was entered erroneously. This order is entered without prejudice to petitioner’s right to apply to the Board of Law Examiners for a special certificate of qualification to practice law pursuant to Rule 5(D) of the Rules for the Board of Law Examiners as amended by Court order dated May 4, 1978. | [
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Levin, J.
(to reverse). Plaintiff, administrator of the estate of Mamie Jean Johnson, commenced this action for wrongful death against the Secretary of State pursuant to the unidentified owner/ driver provision of the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act.
We granted leave to appeal to decide whether, in an action based upon that act, evidence of the unidentified driver’s flight from the scene of an accident, in violation of the statutory duties to stop, give information and aid, and to make a report, should give rise to a presumption of the driver’s negligence. The trial judge held that evidence of flight was not probative of the driver’s negligence and directed a verdict for the defendant at the conclusion of plaintiff’s proofs. The Court of Appeals affirmed.
One can agree with our colleagues that
i) flight from an accident scene, taken alone, does not prove negligence,
ii) violation of the statutory duties to stop, give information and aid, and to make a report, is not civilly actionable, absent proof of resultant aggravation of injury or death, and
iii) the mere happening of an accident is not evidence of negligence, and in an action against the Secretary of State, as in one against a hit-run driver if he is identified and can be sued, the plaintiff has the burden of proving negligence, without agreeing with their conclusion that the burden of producing evidence should be allocated
i) as if the unidentified driver had not violated those statutory duties,
ii) as if the violation of those duties had not resulted in a loss of evidence concerning the circumstances of the accident, a loss that plaintiff cannot overcome because the victim is unable to testify and no other witness provides evidence of the circumstances of the accident, and
iii) as if the state had not declared a public policy of compensating the victims of unidentified drivers and the defendant Secretary of State were not obliged to do so.
The burden of producing evidence is not invariably allocated to the pleader of the fact to be proved. That burden may be otherwise allocated by the Legislature or judicial decision based, among other factors, on an estimate of the probabilities, fairness and special policy considerations, and similar concerns may justify the creation, judicially or by law, of a presumption to aid the party who has the burden of production.
The action of the driver in concealing his identity and in failing to provide information about the circumstances of the accident, in violation of his statutory duties, is akin to the deliberate destruc tion of or a failure to produce at trial evidence within a party’s control. In such a case a presumption arises that the evidence, if produced, "would operate against him; and every intendment will be in favor of the opposite party”. On the same principle, an inference should arise, where the evidentiary gap is not closed by other evidence of the circumstances of the accident, that if the driver had complied with his statutory duties the evidence that would have been produced "would operate against him”; That inference, together with the inference of consciousness of wrongdoing which may be drawn from flight when there is a statutory duty to remain at the scene, should, in our opinion, give rise to a rebuttable presumption that the driver was at fault, and a prima facie case sufficient to avoid a directed verdict at the close of plaintiffs proofs.
If the victim or other witnesses can provide information concerning the circumstances of the accident, the driver’s failure to stop and give information may not then result in a loss of evidence preventing the plaintiff from producing evidence of those circumstances. The inference drawn from the evidence of flight can be weighed with the circumstances of the accident as one of the factors in deciding whether the driver was negligent. A fair allocation of the burden of production of evidence does not then call for an evidentiary presumption.
Such a presumption should, however, arise in the atypical case where, as here, the circumstances of the accident are unknown because the victim is unable to testify, there were no known witnesses to the accident, the driver is unidentified and unsuable and his failure to comply with his statutory obligations caused a loss of evidence which compliance would have provided.
The presumption is fair in that it arises where the driver’s breach of statutory duties results in a loss of evidence that the plaintiff cannot otherwise provide. It is in accord with the probabilities as it is unlikely that a non-culpable driver would subject himself to a prison term on a hit-run charge. It serves the special policy considerations of compensating the victims of unidentified hit-run drivers implicit in the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act.
I
There was no evidence substantiating plaintiff’s allegation that Mamie Johnson was killed while walking across a street, although there was evidence tending to show that she was killed as a result of being struck by a vehicle or of being involved in an automobile accident.
Mamie Johnson’s body was apparently found by Hubert Ingram and transported to a hospital. An attempt was made to depose Ingram at a time when he was in the Wayne County Jail. He refused to cooperate and no effort was made to compel his testimony. Ño other witnesses came forward and no driver of an automobile that may have caused the injuries was identified.
An assistant Wayne County medical examiner described in detail the nature of the injuries— laceration of the head, contusions of the scalp, abrasions on both knees, abrasions on back, fractured ribs, both lungs torn, liver lacerated, bleed ing in abdominal cavity. He concluded that her death was the result of an automobile accident: "[T]he injuries that I see in this case are such that are seen by me and my colleagues in the cases of car accidents * * *. [T]his injury that I see here is very characteristic to the automobile accident.” He did not remember any case "like it” except an automobile accident.
The trial judge said that the evidence was sufficient for the jury to find that Mamie Johnson was struck by an automobile but that evidence of flight was not alone sufficient to permit an inference that the fleeing driver was negligent. The Court of Appeals said that the medical examiner’s opinion was an inference drawn without facts.
We all agree with the judge that there was evidence that Mamie Johnson’s death resulted from an automobile accident. The Court of Appeals erred in concluding that the medical examiner’s opinion was not factually supported. The medical examiner, a physician, had examined thousands of bodies over a ten-year period. He testified that he had made a careful examination of Mamie Johnson’s body. What he learned in that examination and the sum of his experience from other examinations are facts. He was able to form an opinion, based on those facts, that Mamie Johnson’s injuries were caused by an automobile accident. His opinion that her injuries were characteristic of an automobile accident was factually supported by what he observed and his experience regarding the meaning of those observations.
A more difficult question is whether it is reasonable to infer that Mamie Johnson’s death was caused by the fleeing driver’s negligence.
It was not shown whether Mamie Johnson’s injuries were inflicted when she was struck by án automobile or while riding as a passenger in an, automobile. In either circumstance; the driver of an automobile failed to provide statutorily required aid, assistance and information. If she were a passenger in an automobile, she must have been removed from the automobile and left to be found by others. If she was struck with sufficient force to cause serious injury or death, the jury could properly conclude that the driver knew that he had been involved in an injury accident. There was, in either event, "physical contact by the unidentified vehicle with” Mamie Johnson, arid its driver was obliged to give his name, address and registratioñ number arid to render reasonable assistance in securing medical aid or transportation and to make a report to police authorities.
II
In Dodd v Secretary of State, 390 Mich 606, 613; 213 NW2d 109 (1973), this Court held that a prima facie case against the Secretary of State Under the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act was made on the plaintiffs testimony that he hud looked both ways and had seen no traffic before crossing the street, and a witness’s testimony that she saw no lights other than the tail lights on the hit-rün car: "A jury could have found that the hit-run car was traveling without lights, in violation of our motor vehicle code, and by so doing was négligently operated.”
Three justices, concurring in the result, woüld have held that the driver’s failure to stop and identify himself was itself a circumstance from which some negligence oh the part of the driver could be inferred.
“Even Without the specific requirements of the foregoing statute [requiring a driver to stop and give information and aid], it would be safe to say that an ordinarily prudent person has an obligation to stop and render assistance to a fellow human being Who has been injured in a collision with his motor vehicle. It would be most unenlightened fdr the law to countenance an advantage to the hit-and-run driver arising out of his violatioh of a statutory and common-law duty to stop. The failure to stop is inconsistent with an assumption that the hit-and-rün driver was exercising due care at the time of the collision. Failure to Stop creates an inference in the minds of reasonable people that the driver does not wish to be identified and that his wish to be unidentified stems from a fear of the consequences of being known. This line of reasoning comports with the ordinary experiences of people in their everyday lives.” Dodd v Secretary of State, supra, pp 618-619 (Brennan, J.) (emphasis supplied).
The trial judge correctly observed that the separate opinion was not precedentially binding because a majority of the Court had not signed it. He said further that the view there stated was “not legally sound”. This Court, he said, has wavered in criminal cases regarding the admissibility of evidence of flight, and the only case concerning the question whether evidence of flight alone was sufficient held that it was not.
There is no need to seek to reconcile decisions in criminal and civil cases oí, indeed, to determine whether flight alone is probative of consciousness of Wrongdoing.
We do not maintain that ah inference of negli gence may be drawn from flight alone. Since an automobile driver may not lawfully leave the scene of an automobile accident, flight does not stand alone. One who flees from the scene of an accident violates the statutory obligations to stop, give information and aid, and to make a report, and thereby subjects himself to the imposition of a severe prison term. It is reasonable, therefore, to draw inferences from the flight of a driver involved in an automobile accident that might not be appropriate in another case.
To be sure, it is possible that for personal reasons, innocent as far as the law is concerned, a driver may wish to avoid identifying himself. A person may flee for reasons other than culpability in the accident — because of fear, to avoid "becoming involved”, or to avoid publicity and embarrassment in being at the scene. Nevertheless, because violation of the statutory duties may subject a fleeing driver to severe penalty and it is unlikely, weighing the probabilities, that there would be a reason unrelated to culpability in the accident that would outweigh , the risk of that penalty, it is reasonable to draw the inference that he fled to avoid revealing such culpability.
Courts in other jurisdictions have said that flight permits an inference of negligence. In Jones v Strelecki, 49 NJ 513, 519; 231 A2d 558, 561 (1967), the New Jersey Supreme Court declared in an action to recover for injuries caused by a hit-run driver under a statute similar to the Michigan statute:
"The purpose of this section of the Motor Vehicle Act is to prevent a driver from evading his responsibility by escaping from the scene. [Citation omitted.] More specifically, in the context of this case, the failure to stop permits an inference of consciousness of lack of care and of liability for the occurrence. For example in Vuillemot v August J Claverie & Co, 12 La App 236; 125 So 168, 169-170 (1929), the court said:
" 'Then, too, since the accident was caused by a truck and since no truck stopped, either the driver of the truck which caused it was not keeping a proper lookout, or he drove away in an effort to avoid being caught. If he had been keeping a proper lookout, surely he would have noticed that the truck struck the young lady with its front fender. If he was not keeping a proper lookout, he was negligent. If he did know that he struck the young lady and did not stop, then his action in attempting to escape was tantamount to an admission of guilt. We have therefore come to the conclusion that, although the evidence as to the facts of the accident is very meager, there is sufficient in the record to warrant the finding that the young lady was killed by a truck and that the driver of the truck was at fault.’ ”
Other courts have also recognized that an inference of negligence may be drawn from a driver’s flight from the scene of an accident.
Our colleagues state that the cases from other jurisdictions are distinguishable because in those cases there was other evidence of the circumstances of the accident. The deficiency in this plaintiff’s proofs which they identify may, however, properly be attributed to the driver’s failure to comply with the statutory obligations to stop, give information and aid, and to make a report. If the driver had done so, it is likely that there would have been evidence of the "width, location, direction and surface of the roadway where the accident occurred, the weather conditions and the time of day of the accident, and the location and position of the injured person”.
The rule is well established that where there is a deliberate destruction of or failure to produce evidence in one’s control a presumption arises that if the evidence were produced it would operate against the party who deliberately destroyed or failed to produce it. In the ordinary civil case a party may be under no legal obligation to produce evidence and yet such a presumption arises. The policy reasons for creating such a presumption are more compelling where the evidence is withheld in violation of a statutory duty to produce it.
Ill
We are of the opinion that the inference of culpability flowing from the willingness of the driver to incur the severe penalties which attach to non-compliance with the statutory duties to stop, give information and aid, and to make a report, should be coupled with the adverse inference which arises from destruction or nonproduction of evidence to create a presumption of negligence that relieves the plaintiff of the burden of producing evidence of the circumstances of the accident in those cases where the loss of such evidence may properly be attributable to the driver’s breach of his statutory duties and the plaintiff is not otherwise able to produce evidence of such circumstances.
The presumption is, of course, rebuttable; the inference of negligence is mandatory only in the absence of evidence tending to prove due care. If the defendant can produce evidence, for example, that the driver skidded on an oil slick, or the victim walked in front of the car, or the driver lost control due to a blowout, the inference ceases to be mandatory and the trier of fact can choose whether to infer negligence.
The law is replete with presumptions and inferences drawn from other facts. Human experience tells us that often a state of facts is likely to exist although it cannot be directly proven. A presumption eases the proponent’s burden of production on the ultimate fact and allows a meritorious case to be established on proof of facts which justify an inference of the ultimate fact. If the trier of fact finds the fact which supports the presumption, the ultimate fact must be found in the absence of evidence to the contrary. If contrary evidence is offered, the trier is free from the compulsion of the presumption and weighs all the evidence, including the evidence of the basic fact. The trier is free to infer the existence of the ultimate fact, but the law does not require it.
Courts create presumptions for a variety of reasons: to avoid an impasse where evidence of the presumed fact is lacking, as where a person’s unexplained absence of seven years creates a presumption of death; to produce a result in accordance with human experience, as where a child born in wedlock is presumed to be legitimate; to reach a result deemed to be socially desirable, as where long possession of real estate creates a presumption that the possessor holds under a lost grant. In such cases the law aids the party making use of the presumption in proving his case. He cannot produce evidence of the presumed fact, but evidence of other facts puts in issue the existence of the presumed fact and demands evidence of its non-existence.
Analogous is "the presumption of law” concerning the defendant’s state of mind and, hence, culpability, that arises from "the act of killing” "that it was done with malice aforethought” which was said to obtain "where there was an entire absence of qualifying or explanatory evidence involved in, or deducible from, the manner of the killing”, a presumption which permits the people to make a prima facie case without producing evidence regarding the defendant’s state of mind.
Providing a presumption of negligence in a case such as this is a fairer allocation of the burden of producing evidence than to impose the entire burden on the plaintiff and to relieve the Secretary of State, who stands in the shoes of the defaulting driver, of any burden whatsoever.
The plaintiff proved that the unidentified driver killed Mamie Johnson and in violation of the statute did not stop, give information and aid and make a report, but fled. But for such violation Mamie Johnson may have survived to testify and, even if she was killed instantly, the circumstances of the accident would have been timely investigated and developed and the evidentiary gap which our colleagues say distinguishes this case from Dodd and cases from other jurisdictions would have been eliminated.
Because the evidentiary gap is substantially attributable to the driver’s failure to comply with his statutory duties and because, in light of the severe penalties for not doing so, he would probably have complied if he were not culpable, a presumption of negligence is both fair and in accord with the probabilities. There is greater risk that a meritorious case will fail due to insistence on the usual allocation of the burden of producing evidence than that a jury will bring in a favorable verdict in a non-meritorious case.
The Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act is remedial. One of its purposes is to provide a remedy to the victim of an unidentified hit-run driver.
The unwitnessed fatal accident is a likely cause for claim under the statute. If the accident is witnessed or the victim survives, the driver is more likely to be identified. It would be incongruous if the very circumstance which makes this case appropriate for recovery from the accident claims fund should operate to preclude recovery.
The purposes of the statutes requiring a driver to stop and give information and aid and to make a report and of the statute providing a source of recovery for injuries caused by a hit-run driver support the inference of negligence derived from flight and non-compliance with such statutory obligations.
We reverse and remand for a new trial.
Kavanagh, Williams, Fitzgerald, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
Ryan, J.
I cannot agree that the learned trial judge erred in granting the defendant’s motion for directed verdict.
Plaintiff, administrator of the estate of Mamie Jean Johnson, deceased, brought this action against the Secretary of State pursuant to the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act, to recover for the wrongful death of the decedent allegedly caused by an unidentified hit-and-run driver.
There were no witnesses to the accident. At trial, plaintiff submitted no evidence as to where, by whom, and when the body of the decedent was found, and no evidence was produced concerning the circumstances of the accident itself.
The only testimony produced on behalf of the plaintiff was that of the county medical examiner who performed the autopsy on the decedent. He testified concerning the nature and extent of the decedent’s injuries and expressed the opinion that the injuries were of the type characteristic of automobile accidents.
The defendant moved for a directed verdict at the close of plaintiff’s proofs. In response, the plaintiff argued that evidence of the driver’s flight from the scene of the accident should be sufficient to raise a presumption of negligence. The trial court held, however, that evidence of flight alone was an insufficient basis upon which to submit to the jury the issue of the defendant’s negligence and granted the defendant’s motion for directed verdict.
The Court of Appeals affirmed. This Court granted leave to appeal on the following issues: 1) in an action based upon MCL 257.1112; MSA 9.2812, is evidence that the motor vehicle did not stop after the accident sufficient to create a presumption of negligence avoiding a directed verdict, and 2) did the trial court commit reversible error in granting defendant’s motion for directed verdict.
I
The Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act establishes a statutory cause of action against the Secretary of State in hit-and-run accidents and in pertinent part provides:
"Where the death of or personal injury to any person is occasioned in this state by a motor vehicle but the identity of the motor vehicle and of the driver and owner, thereof cannot be established, any person who would have a cause of action against the owner or driver in respect to the death or personal injury may bring an action against the secretary, * * MCL 257.1112; MSA 9.2812.
The legislative purpose that an injury or death suffered in an alleged hit-and-run accident would be compensable from the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Fund only when the plaintiff sustains the burden of proof on his cause of action is evidenced in part by § 16 of the act which provides:
"In an action against the secretary, he may deny generally the allegations in respect to the unidentified motor vehicle and unidentified owner and driver thereof and shall not be required to set forth the facts upon which he relies.” MCL 257.1116; MSA 9.2816.
The driver of a motor vehicle involved in an accident who fails to stop and identify himself and render aid or assistance to a person injured as a result of the accident is criminally liable. MCL 257.617; MSA 9.2317. While ordinarily the violation of a statutory duty constitutes negligence per se, in order to sustain a verdict for the plaintiff the violation must have been a proximate cause of the plaintiffs injury. Baker v Saginaw City Lines, Inc, 366 Mich 180; 113 NW2d 912 (1962); Holbert v Staniak, 359 Mich 283; 102 NW2d 186 (1960); Holmes v Merson, 285 Mich 136; 280 NW 139 (1938). Manifestly, a driver’s violation of the statutory duty to stop and give information and render assistance to persons injured in an auto accident is a violation which occurs after the accident and necessarily subsequent to the alleged negligent conduct which causes the accident. Consequently, such statutory violation cannot constitute negligence per se proximately contributing to the injury or death of a person involved in such an accident in the absence of proof that the failure to stop and give information and aid was a cause of further injury or of death. Since, in the case before us, there is no claim or proof of further or aggravated injury or of death, the unknown driver’s statutory alleged violation does not constitute negligence per se with respect to the death of plaintiffs decedent.
II
Because in the case before us there was no direct or circumstantial evidence of negligence causing the death of plaintiffs decedent, the plaintiff relies upon the probative value attributable to evidence of flight in order to sustain the burden of proof as to the negligence of the hit-and-run driver.
Logically, the failure of a driver of a motor vehicle to stop at the scene of an accident in which he is involved is relevant in determining the driver’s consciousness of his responsibility for the accident. The flight of an accused from the scene of a crime is comparable conduct and of a type which the jury may consider as evidence tending to disclose a consciousness of guilt in the mind of the defendant. See People v Kyles, 40 Mich App 357; 198 NW2d 732 (1972).
However, the equivocal nature of flight under any circumstances has been cause for concern to this Court on previous occasion.
"Flight from the scene of a tragedy may be quite as consistent with innocence as with guilt. One, who in self-defense kills or maims another, may through ignorance of the law or through panic flee from the scene of his act, and yet be perfectly innocent. We think it would be a dangerous rule which would permit the jury to consider flight as substantive evidence of guilt.” People v Cismadija, 167 Mich 210; 132 NW 489 (1911).
Consequently, no inference or presumption of guilt is raised by evidence of flight alone. While flight is some evidence tending to prove that the fleeing person believes himself responsible for the mishap, caution must be exercised by the trial judge to prevent the jury from reaching a verdict based on that factor alone. The procedural rules for a directed verdict and a judgment notwithstanding a verdict are the devices by which the trial judge exercises such caution as a matter of law. See discussion Part III, infra.
In hit-and-run accident cases, evidence of flight is more probative of negligence when other, usually circumstantial, evidence as to the cause of impact is adduced. The width, location, direction and surface of the roadway where the accident occurred, the weather conditions and time of day of the accident, and the location and position of the injured person are all matters of circumstantial evidence of the vehicle’s operation and speed, the driver’s ability to have seen and avoided the defendant, and the pedestrian’s probable course and conduct prior to the accident.
When a person is struck by an automobile under circumstances that suggest to the reasonable person that the accident might have been avoided but for some amount of blameworthy conduct on the part of the driver, an inference of negligence may well arise upon evidence of the driver’s flight.
"The failure to stop is inconsistent with an assumption that the hit-and-run driver was exercising due care at the time of the collision. Failure to stop creates an inference in the minds of reasonable people that the driver does not wish to be identified and that his wish to be unidentified stems from a fear of the consequences of being known.” Dodd v Secretary of State, 390 Mich 606, 619; 213 NW2d 109 (1973) (Brennan, J., concurring).
Needless confusion has evolved from the inexact use of the term "inference” to describe the probative value of evidence of flight. The drawing of permissible inferences in the judicial fact-finding process is nothing more than the application of proposals of logic or rationalization in order to make certain deductions from known facts. Unlike a presumption, which arises from the high degree of probative or inferential value which flows from a particular set of basic facts, an inference is not a rule of law and is simply descriptive of the process of logic which is employed in reaching conclusions from established facts in evidence.
Uniformly, cases in which any inferential value is attributed to evidence of flight are those in which courts have discussed the initial admissibility of evidence of flight in situations where substantial circumstantial evidence was also produced concerning the accident itself. In all of the cases to which plaintiff invites our attention, the records were replete with evidence concerning the circumstances which existed at the accident scene.
Ill
A conclusion that a driver’s flight from the scene of an accident may be considered as some evidence of the driver’s culpable state of mind does not end our present inquiry. The question remains whether the whole of the evidence submitted by plaintiff in this case, when examined in a light most favorable to the plaintiff, was sufficient to withstand a motion by defendant for a directed verdict.
At trial, the only testimony introduced by the plaintiff on the liability issue was that of the medical examiner who performed the autopsy on the deceased. The witness described the nature and extent of the deceased’s injuries and expressed the opinion that the injuries were "such that are seen by me and my colleagues in the cases of car accidents”. No evidence as to where the decedent’s body was found or the circumstances surrounding the accident or concerning the accident scene was produced and, of course, there was no identification of the driver of a motor vehicle which could have struck the decedent.
Defendant moved for a directed verdict at the close of plaintiffs proofs. In granting the motion the trial court stated:
"Taking the evidence in the light most favorable to the plaintiff,“’there was an accident with an automobile. I believe the evidence is sufficient for a reasonable trier of fact to find that the deceased was struck by an automobile.
"There • was evidence from the medical examiner, which will remain in the record, that he believed that this woman suffered fatal injuries in an automobile accident, but that it is not sufficient evidence for a jury to find any negligence. The only evidence upon which the plaintiff here can rely to show negligence on the part of the driver is the evidence of flight.
"Is evidence of flight enough to go to the jury? I think not, not even based upon the reason of the three-man minority in the Dodd versus the Secretary of State. The majority, of course, did not predicate its opinion on the proposition that flight creates evidence of negligence sufficient to create an issue of fact for the jury.”
On review of a grant of motion for directed verdict, the question for this Court is whether the plaintiff produced sufficient evidence to go to a jury on a material question of fact which, if determined in plaintiffs favor, would entitle the plaintiff to a judgment. Marietta v Cliffs Ridge, Inc, 385 Mich 364; 189 NW2d 208 (1971); Daniel v McNamara, 10 Mich App 299; 159 NW2d 339 (1968).
While variously stated by different courts, the measure of evidence sufficient to make a submittable question of fact for the jury is something less than a preponderance of evidence and something more than a mere scintilla of evidence. See Lebeis v Rutzen, 289 Mich 1; 286 NW 134 (1939). Submission by the plaintiff of merely some evidence will not withstand a motion for directed verdict where the evidence produced is insufficient to allow a jury to draw reasonable inferences as to the defendant’s alleged negligent conduct.
The evidence adduced by the plaintiff on the liability issue in this case consisted solely of proof of the fact of an auto accident plus flight by the driver. We agree with the trial judge that the testimony of the medical examiner, read in a light most favorable to the plaintiff, establishes only that the deceased was involved in an automobile accident. The mere happening of an accident, however, is not itself evidence of negligence. In order to take the case out of the realm of conjecture and within the field of legitimate inferences from established facts, negligence must be established by direct or circumstantial evidence which gives rise to an inference that a cause of the accident was the defendant’s carelessness. Gadde v Michigan Consolidated Gas Co, 377 Mich 117, 121; 139 NW2d 722 (1966); Mercure v Popig, 326 Mich 140, 145; 40 NW2d 95 (1949).
Conspicuously lacking in plaintiff’s proofs is any circumstantial evidence tending to show where the body of the deceased was found, the road and weather conditions, or any other factors probative of negligence causing the impact.
By producing no more than evidence of an automobile accident and subsequent flight, the plaintiff failed to establish a prima facie case of negligence warranting submission to the jury of any factual issue. Analogous for purposes of this analysis has been this Court’s treatment of flight in criminal prosecutions. Even though flight may be shown as evidence tending to show the defendant’s culpable state of mind, flight alone is not sufficient to submit the case to the jury. See People v Cisma-dija, supra.
Jury instructions approved by the California court in Brooks v E J Willig Truck Transportation Co, 40 Cal 2d 669, 676; 255 P2d 802, 806 (1953), a hit-and-run case, are enlightening; "[T]he fact that Farnsworth left the scene of the accident could not, in and of itself, be the basis of a verdict against defendants [Farnsworth and his employer], and if Farnsworth was not guilty of negligence which caused the accident and death of Brooks, or if Brooks was guilty of negligence which contributed to his injury and death, the verdict must be for defendants, regardless of what Farnsworth did or failed to do after the accident.” Implicit in the court’s instructions was the proposition that a prima facie case of negligence against the hit-and-run driver would first have to be established by independent evidence before flight could be considered as evidence of the driver’s culpable state of mind.
In support of his claim that evidence of flight alone makes out a jury-submissible issue on. the liability questions in this case, the plaintiff relies upon Jones v Strelecki, 49 NJ 513, 517; 231 A2d 558, 560 (1967). A careful examination of that case demonstrates, however, that then its facts are juxtaposed with the plaintiff’s proofs in this case, the probative value attributable to evidence of flight alone appears in clearer perspective, Pertinent portions of the plaintiff’s proofs in Jones were summarized by the New Jersey Supreme Court as follows:
"There were no eyewitnesses to the fatal accident. Most of the proof adduced came from a State Trooper who appeared on the scene about 3:55 a.m. on September 29, 1962, some short time after the mishap.
"The accident occurred in Elk Township, Gloucester County, on the Glassboro-Centerton Road, called Buck Road, about three-tenths of a mile south of the Glass-boro-Elk Township line. The area is rural. The road, which is straight and level for a considerable distance, is 20 feet wide with a 2-foot shoulder on each side. It has no artificial lighting. The roadway and the shoulders have a blacktop surface. There are no curbs or sidewalks for pedestrian travel. Beyond the 2-foot shoulders are dirt and grass. There is no intersecting street to the township line.
"The night of the accident was clear and the roadway was dry. When the trooper arrived at the scene he found the body of the deceased, Reuben O. Jones, age 33 years, lying at an angle across the center line of the roadway, the head pointing toward the east. It was in a pool of blood, The body was 'broken up;’ a bone was protruding from the left leg. He found the decedent’s left shoe on the westerly shoulder 47'2" north of the body; 48'8" farther north he found a sizable piece of bone, obviously from the broken left leg. It too was on the westerly shoulder. Thus the bone was 95'10" from the resting place of the body.
"Further examination of the roadway in both directions revealed no skid marks or tire marks of any kind on the traveled surface or on the shoulders; nor did it disclose any debris or dirt spots which might indicate the point of impact.”
The court then concluded:
"We agree that the evidence of the culpable producing cause of the accident is meager. But in our judgment, viewing the circumstances in their totality and giving the plaintiff the benefit of all favorable inferences from them, as we must, factual issues are sufficiently raised as to whether Jones was struck by a motor vehicle, and as to the driver’s negligence and decedent’s contributory negligence, to require submission of the case to a jury for determination.
"Here we have a straight, level roadway with nothing to obstruct the view ahead. A motorist driving along it would naturally be conscious of the absence of sidewalks, and thus chargeable with knowledge that pedes trians would walk on the narrow shoulders immediately adjacent to the limited 10-foot normal travel width of the roadway for each direction. Such circumstances, of course, demanded reasonably diligent use of his powers of observation.” Id. (Citations omitted.)
By way of dictum the court then added, "in the context of this case, the failure to stop permits an inference of consciousness of lack of care and of liability for the occurrence”. Id., 519. (Emphasis added.)
The New Jersey court’s characterization of plaintiffs proofs in Jones as "meager”, before even addressing the significance of flight, does not escape our attention. In comparison to the amount and quality of evidence produced by the plaintiff in Jones, the evidence introduced by the plaintiff in this case is simply insignificant.
Plaintiff did not make out a jury-submissible case and for that reason the decision of the Court of Appeals should be affirmed.
Coleman, C.J., concurred with Ryan, J.
"Where the death of or personal injury to any person is occasioned in this state by a motor vehicle but the identity of the motor vehicle and of the driver and owner thereof cannot be established, any person who would have a cause of action against the owner or driver in respect to the death or personal injury may bring an action against the secretary, either alone or as a codefendant with others alleged to be responsible for the death or personal injury. In any action commenced under this section, physical contact by the unidentified vehicle with the plaintiff or with a vehicle occupied by the plaintiff, is a condition precedent to such action.” MCL 257.1112; MSA 9.2812.
The act applies to accidents occurring November 1, 1965 through January 1, 1976. MCL 257.1131; MSA 9.2831; MCL 257.1133; MSA 9.2833. Mamie Johnson died January 7, 1972.
The no-fault automobile liability act, effective October 1, 1973, provides that a person may obtain personal protection insurance benefits through an assigned claims plan if no personal protection insurance applicable to a motor-vehicle caused accidental bodily injury can be identified.
Section 617 of the Michigan Vehicle Code requires the driver to stop and to fulfill the requirements of § 619:
"(a) The driver of any vehicle who knows or who has reason to believe that he has been involved in an accident upon either public or private property, when such property is open to travel by the public, resulting in injury to or death of any person shall immediately stop such vehicle at the scene of such accident and shall remain thereat until he has fulfilled the requirements of section 619. Every such stop shall be made without obstructing traffic more than is necessary.
“(b) Any person failing to stop or to comply with said requirements under such circumstances shall upon conviction be punished by imprisonment in the county or municipal jail for not less than 30 days nor more than 1 year, or in the state prison for not less than 1 nor more than 5 years, or by fine of not less than $100.00 nor more than $5,000.00, or by both such fine and imprisonment.” MCL 257.617; MSA 9.2317.
Section 617 was amended by 1975 PA 170 to, among other things, reduce the penalty to imprisonment for not more than 2 years, or a fine of not more than $2,000 or both.
Section 619 requires the driver to give his name, address and registration number and to render to any person injured reasonable assistance, including aid or transportation:
"The driver of any vehicle who knows or who has reason to believe that he has been involved in an accident resulting in injury to or death of any person or damage to any vehicle which is driven or attended by any person shall give his name, address, and the registration number of the vehicle he is driving, also the name and address of the owner, and exhibit his operator’s or chauffeur’s license to the person struck or the driver or occupants of any vehicle collided with and shall render to any person injured in such accident reasonable assistance in securing medical aid or transportation of injured person or persons.” MCL 257.619; MSA 9.2319.
Section 622 requires the driver to report the accident forthwith at a police station or to a police officer. The statute provides that the investigating officer shall prepare and complete a report in full on forms supplied by the Director of the State Police:
"The driver of every motor vehicle involved in an accident resulting in injury or death of any person or total damage to all property to an apparent extent of $200.00 or more shall forthwith report such accident to the nearest or most convenient police station or police officer. The officer receiving such report or his commanding officer shall forthwith forward each individual report to the director of state police on forms prescribed by him which shall be completed in full by the investigating officer. The director of state police shall analyze each report relative to the cause of the reported accident and shall prepare for public use the information compiled from the reports. A copy of the report required under sections 621 and 622 of this act shall be retained for at least 3 years at the local police or sheriffs department or local state police post making the report.” MCL 257.622; MSA 9.2322.
McCormick, Evidence (2d ed), §§ 338, 343; pp 788, 806.
Brandt v C F Smith & Co, 242 Mich 217, 222; 218 NW 803 (1928); similarly, see Fontana v Ford Motor Co, 278 Mich 199, 203-204; 270 NW 266 (1936); Griggs v Saginaw & F R Co, 196 Mich 258, 265-266; 162 NW 960 (1917); Leeds v Masha, 328 Mich 137, 140; 43 NW2d 92 (1950); Long v Earle, 277 Mich 505, 516; 269 NW 577 (1936).
He said that she had been drinking; blood alcohol was .11.
See fn 2, supra.
See fn 2, supra.
See Negri v Slotkin, 397 Mich 105; 244 NW2d 98 (1976).
He referred to People v Harter, 244 Mich 346; 221 NW 302 (1928); and People v MacCullough, 281 Mich 15; 274 NW 693 (1937).
In the cited case, other facts and circumstances were shown, such as the location of the body, but these in and of themselves were not dispositive. We read the case as holding that the inference of fault was reasonable because of flight.
See Shaddy v Daley, 58 Idaho 536; 76 P2d 279 (1938); Lynch v McGovern, 270 So 2d 770 (Fla App, 1973); Busbee v Quarrier, 172 So 2d 17 (Fla App, 1965); Kotler v Lalley, 112 Conn 86; 151 A 433 (1930); State v Ford, 109 Conn 490; 146 A 828 (1929); Battle v Kilcrease, 54 Ga App 808; 189 SE 573 (1936); Harrington v Sharif, 305 F2d 333 (CA 2, 1962); Brooks v EJ Willig Truck Transportation Co, 40 Cal 2d 669; 255 P2d 802 (1953).
See fn 4, supra.
In re Wood Estate, 374 Mich 278, 290-292; 132 NW2d 35; 5 ALR3d 1 (1965); Kar v Hogan, 399 Mich 529, 541; 251 NW2d 77 (1976).
Morgan, Basic Problems of Evidence (4th ed), pp 31-34; Tracy, Handbook of the Law of Evidence, pp 29-35; 1 Jones on Evidence (6th ed), § 3:1, p 125; 9 Wigmore on Evidence (3d ed), §§ 2487, 2491, 2494, pp 278-284, 288-292, 293-300.
People v Potter, 5 Mich 1, 9 (1858). Similarly, see Perkins, Criminal Law (2d ed), p 50. But see LaFave & Scott, Criminal Law, § 68, p 539, fn 36. Compare People v Haack, 396 Mich 367, 377-378; 240 NW2d 704 (1976).
MCL 257.1112; MSA 9.2812.
Shaddy v Daley, 58 Idaho 536; 76 P2d 279 (1938); Harrington v Sharif, 305 F2d 333 (CA 2, 1962).
1 Jones, The Law of Evidence (6th ed), § 3:2, p 128.
Shaddy v Daley, supra; Olofson v Kilgallon, 362 Mass 803; 291 NE2d 600 (1973); Jones v Strelecki, 49 NJ 513; 231 A2d 558 (1967). | [
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Per Curiam.
The law firm of Kelman, Loria, Downing, Schneider & Simpson (the "firm”, below) successfully represented a class of disabled work ers in a mandamus action against the Director of the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau arising out of the director’s computation of adjustments in the weekly benefit rates under MCL 418.355; MSA 17.237(355). As a result, the Court of Appeals ordered the director to set aside his previous computation for calendar year 1973 and increase the rates for 1973 by $30. 53 Mich App 262; 218 NW2d 794 (1974). Since we did not deny leave to appeal until November 21, 1974, the weekly benefits for both 1973 and 1974 were affected. It was not untii 1975 that the director complied with the Court of Appeals mandate. The firm has since then sought an attorney fee for the representation undertaken. Thwarted at each step, the firm now seeks leave to appeal in our Court. We believe the firm is entitled to an attorney fee and remand the case to the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau.
I
Seventeen plaintiffs filed a complaint for mandamus in the Court of Appeals, for themselves and all others similarly situated. The plaintiffs asked that the defendant director be ordered to increase his computation of rates for 1973 from $29 to $30 which would mean an increase of $l/week for each plaintiff. The plaintiffs ultimately prevailed.
The firm first sought attorney fees in a petition filed with the bureau shortly after the Court of Appeals decision. The director concluded that the petition could not be entertained by the bureau. On January 2, 1975, the firm sent a letter to all insurers and self-insured employers:
"It is our understanding that the Director of the Bureau of Workmen’s Compensation is proceeding to enforce the final judgment in the matter of Alexander v Director, Bureau of Workmen’s Compensation, 53 Mich App 262; leave to appeal denied 393 Mich 758 [1974]. This case was a class action brought by our firm representing all recipients of workmen’s compensation adversely affected by the Director’s previous adjustment of the maximum weekly rates coihmencing in 1973. As a result of the final judgment in this matter you will be requested to make an additional payment to members of the class who received payments during the affected period.
"As you know, the law creates an attorney’s lien upon the judgment or fund resulting from an attorney’s services. Michigan law has recognized the special or charging lien of an attorney as an equitable right to have the fees and costs due to him for services in a suit secured to him out of the judgment or recovery in that particular suit. This lien is based upon the natural equity that plaintiffs should not be allowed to appropriate the whole of a judgment in their favor without payming [sic] thereout for the services of their attorneys in obtaining such judgment.
"The workmen’s compensation Statute and rules provide for an attorney fee equal to 30% of the accrued compensation.
"We filed a petition to fix fees on May 15, 1974, and we have had discussions of this matter with the Director’s office. It is a matter of public record and is well known that the matter of Alexander v Director, Bureau of Workmen’s Compensation, was determined by the Court of Appeals to be a class action brought on behalf of all similarly situated claimants and that we áre the attorneys of record for the class.
"As you know, Rule 18 of the Workmen’s Compensation Rules provides that:
" 'When the claimant is represented by counsel, the accrued compensation shall be made payable to the persons entitled thereto and mailed to the attorney representing such person.’
"We believe that it is your duty to abide by the laws and rules relating to attorney fees and liens in this matter.”
In April 1975, the bureau sent a notice to all insurance companies and self-insured employers:
"[T]he Court of Appeals has determined that there should be a $1.00 increase in weekly rates for both 1973 and 1974. There is still pending litigation as to the fee to be awarded the plaintiffs’ attorney.
"All insurance carriers and self-insureds now have an obligation to pay such increases, even though there is a fee question still unresolved.
"Each company has to consider their individual obligations; however, benefits should be processed. Some carriers are paying 70% of such benefits until the fee problem is resolved. This appears to be a reasonable position.
"May we have your corrected Form 101 to show the additional payment.”
The response varied: the Second Injury Fund, for example, has paid 70% of the benefits owed to members of the class and placed 30% in escrow, except in cases in which the firm represented the employee and then the 30% was paid to the firm which has in turn placed those funds in escrow; Chrysler Corporation has paid 100% to class members; Michigan Mutual Insurance Company has paid no increased benefits for 1973 and 1974.
The firm was unsuccessful in having its petition heard either in the Court of Appeals or before the bureau. Eventually, we ordered the board to "hear the merits of plaintiffs’ petition to fix attorney fees in the appeal now pending before it”. 395 Mich 772 (1975). On September 27, 1977, the board said in part:
"We believe we are without authority to issue an order relative to the substantive rights of parties not in interest. Nothing herein should be construed as a bar to counsel bringing an action on behalf of each and every injured workman in the state who was paid less than what we know now to be the proper rate of compensation. Counsel made new law on behalf of plaintiff Alexander and is free to enforce same on behalf of any other client. Such individual actions will, of necessity, involve specific employees and specific employers. If there be any dispute as to entitlement (§ 841), the matter may come before the bureau on each and every case.”
The Court of Appeals peremptorily affirmed.
II
There are two questions that the firm’s pleadings raise: first, is the firm entitled to any attorney fee from the class members; and second, if so, what is the proper forum for resolving how much the attorney fee should be.
A
Justice Harlan restated the applicable rule in Mills v Electric Auto-Lite Co, 396 US 375, 391-392; 90 S Ct 616; 24 L Ed 2d 593 (1970):
"While the general American rule is that attorneys’ fees are not ordinarily recoverable as costs, both the courts and Congress have developed exceptions to this rule for situations in which overriding considerations indicate the need for such a recovery. A primary judge-created exception has been to award expenses where a plaintiff has successfully maintained a suit, usually on behalf of a class, that benefits a group of others in the same manner as himself. [Citation omitted.] To allow the others to obtain full benefit from the plaintiff’s efforts without contributing equally to the litigation expenses would be to enrich the others unjustly at the plaintiff’s expense.”
That "primary exception” has evolved from Trustees v Greenough, 105 US 527; 26 L Ed 1157 (1882), and Central Railroad & Banking Co of Georgia v Pettus, 113 US 116; 5 S Ct 387; 28 L Ed 915 (1885), and become known as the "equitable fund” or "common fund” doctrine. We have embraced the exception as well.
"This rule, that the costs as between solicitor and client will be paid out of a fund under the control of a court of equity to persons who have been successful in a suit concerning it, resulting in benefit to all interested in the fund, has been applied by the Federal courts to suits brought by stockholders for the benefit of the corporation. The allowance may be made either to the complainant or to the solicitors themselves, without application by their immediate client.” Sant v Perron-ville Shingle Co, 179 Mich 42, 58; 146 NW 212 (1914).
The exception is available when a fund is created, preserved or protected. See 7A, Wright & Miller, Federal Practice & Procedure, § 1803, pp 284-292; Pete v United Mine Workers of America Welfare & Retirement Fund of 1950, 171 US App DC 1; 517 F2d 1275 (1975).
There can be little question in this case that class members received benefits ($1 moré per week) for 1973 and 1974 that they would not have received but for the litigation begun by the firm. It also appears that these benefits can be cumulated into a "fund”. The benefited class members should therefore contribute equally to the litigation expenses.
B
Thé court in which the services were rendered would ordinarily be the proper forum to determine the amount of attorney fees. Sant, supra, 179 Mich 59. An evidentiary hearing on the extent and nature of services rendered may be needed. See, e.g., in another context Perkins v Standard Oil Co of California, 399 US 222, 223; 90 S Ct 1989; 26 L Ed 2d 534 (1970). Although the Court of Appeals panel which heard this case would have been able to judge the quality of the firm’s work, the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau which daily confronts the worker’s compensation practitioner would be in a better position to evaluate the fee the firm should receive. Consequently, in 1975, we believed the Court of Appeals should have asked the bureau to handle the firm’s petition and therefore we entered our order remanding the matter to the board.
There are additional reasons in this case why the bureau is the appropriate forum to evaluate the firm’s petition. The Worker’s Disability Compensation Act provides in § 858 that:
"[t]he fees and payment thereof of all attorneys and physicians for services under this act shall be subject to the approval of a hearing referee. In the event of disagreement as to such fees, an interested party may apply to the bureau for a hearing. After an order by the referee, review may be had by the director if a request is filed within 15 days. Thereafter the director’s order may be reviewed by the appeal board on request of an interested party if a request is filed within 15 days. The director, by rule, may prescribe maximum attorney fees and the manner in which the amount may be determined or paid by the employee. When fees are requested in excess of that provided by rule, the director may award such fee by special order.” MCL 418.858; MSA 17.237(858).
The act and the bureau’s rule contemplate that an attorney will be paid when he recovers benefits for an employee. There can be no doubt that the firm rendered "services under this act” since without the act there would have been no case in the Court of Appeals. The board’s opinion recognizes that this firm is entitled to some fee for its work, but it would require that determination in "each and every case”. That method would be self-defeating, since the total benefits in each individual case could not justify expenditure of the firm’s time to file a petition and would certainly place a monumental task on an already overburdened board.
The bureau is the best forum to resolve the issues raised by the petition. Accordingly, in lieu of granting leave to appeal, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), we remand the case to the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau for a determination of the amount the firm is to be paid and how payment is to be accomplished. The Court of Appeals panel which issued the writ of mandamus shall review that decision and enter an appropriate order enforcing the attorney fee award.
Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred.
See Manual for Complex Litigation (West, 1977) (Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure, Supplemental Pamphlet), § 1.47(b), p 66, for factors that have been considered by Federal courts in evaluating attorney fee petitions.
1972 A ACS R 408.44.
We do not decide the question of the propriety of a class action in the bureau. This petition is an outgrowth of a class action in the Court of Appeals. Remand to the bureau is similar to reference to a circuit judge, an option available to the Court of Appeals in an original action. GCR 1963, 816.2(2)(c). | [
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Williams, J.
(for dismissal). This is a case of first impression. No Michigan or foreign opinion has been cited to us, nor did our research reveal any, where a quasi-judicial agency assumed to bring the Supreme Court before it for adjudication. However, those are the facts of this case. The Michigan Employment Relations Commission (hereinafter MERC) has attempted to take jurisdiction over the Michigan Supreme Court to determine a union representation election proceeding in which this Court would be a defendant.
We hold that Const 1963, art 3, § 2, headed separation of powers of government, precludes MERC’s assumption of such jurisdiction over the Michigan Supreme Court. We do not here consider whether, or to what extent, Const 1963, art 4, § 48 is modified by Const 1963, art 6, § 7. We order MERC Case No. R77 L-572 dismissed for lack of jurisdiction.
I. Facts
On December 27, 1977, Local 586, Service Employees International Union, AFL-CIO, pursuant to MCL 423.212; MSA 17.455(12), petitioned for an election among certain employees working at the Lansing offices of the Michigan Supreme Court. The proposed bargaining unit included:
"All employees in the general list titles, located in Lansing, Michigan. Court officers, custodians, multilith technicians, secretaries, toll terminal operators and receptionists.”
More specifically, the bargaining unit included persons holding the above-designated job categories in the employ of the offices of the Supreme Court Clerk, Reporter, Crier and State Court Administrator.
At the request of the Court, MERC both postponed a pre-election conference originally sched uled for January 16, 1978, and agreed to consider the jurisdictional question that is the subject of this opinion. Prior to MERC’s consideration, the Court, through then Chief Justice Thomas Giles Kavanagh, indicated in two separate letters to Charles M. Rehmus, Chairperson of MERC, its conclusion that art 6, § 7 and art 3, § 2 of the Michigan Constitution prohibited the statutory jurisdiction in question.
In a decision dated September 8, 1978, MERC issued a finding that it did have jurisdiction and ordered that an election be conducted. MERC observed:
"Art 3, § 2 (separation of powers provision) can be dealt with summarily on the observation that clerical employees do not exercise the powers of one branch of government or another.”
This Court on October 5, 1978, issued an order to MERC and petitioner herein to show cause why this Court should not dismiss the petition for lack of jurisdiction. Both MERC and petitioner filed briefs on the matter.
II. Discussion
It is elementary that in Michigan government the legislative, executive and judicial branches are separate and co-equal. In re 1976 PA 267, 400 Mich 660, 662-663; 255 NW2d 635 (1977). Article 3, § 2 makes this clear and specific. It reads:
"The powers of government are divided into three branches; legislative, executive and judicial. No person exercising powers of one branch shall exercise powers properly belonging to another branch except as expressly provided in this constitution.” (Emphasis added.)
The Michigan Supreme Court, of course, is charged with superintending the exercise of the judicial power. Art 6, § 4 and art 6, § l.
What the facts of this case show is MERC attempting to bring the Michigan Supreme Court before it as a party in a lawsuit, in which MERC will make a determination and may cause an order to issue affecting the Michigan Supreme Court. In short, MERC is attempting to exercise jurisdiction over the Michigan Supreme Court.
As already indicated, there is no prior Michigan case that has addressed itself to this issue. This may well be because it is such an anomalous situation. It is difficult to envision any comparable situation where a subordinate arm of the judicial branch of government would attempt to exercise an executive power over the Governor or a legislative power over the Legislature. But here an executive agency is attempting to exercise adjudicative authority over the Michigan Supreme Court.
As a further incidental indication of how far out of the order of things it is to have MERC holding court over the Supreme Court, an appeal from the order of MERC is to the Court of Appeals. If MERC has jurisdiction to determine cases with the Supreme Court as a party, then the Supreme Court might be in a position to appeal from the decision of MERC to the Court of Appeals, which again is an inferior tribunal to the Supreme Court. In short, MERC assuming jurisdiction over the Supreme Court puts everything upside-down.
III. Respondents’ Arguments
At the outset, it is significant to note that respondents have produced no precedent on the issue of an administrative agency’s assumption of jurisdiction over a Supreme Court.
Furthermore, in its opinion asserting its jurisdiction to bring the Supreme Court before it as a litigant, MERC summarily dismissed the separation of powers argument:
"Art 3, § 2 (separation of powers provision) can be dealt with summarily on the observation that clerical employees do not exercise the powers of one branch of government or another.”
MERC’s conclusion focuses on the wrong point. It is not determinative that certain Supreme Court employees may or may not be subject to the public employment relations act, MCL 423.201 et seq., MSA 17.455(1) et seq. The point is that MERC is attempting to bring the Supreme Court before its tribunal as a party defendant. That is what is critical; it is that MERC is taking jurisdiction over the Supreme Court itself, not certain of its clerical employees.
Likewise, MERC’s argument in its brief is beside the point. There MERC argues that because Const 1963, art 4, § 48 does not specifically exclude Supreme Court employees but does exclude state civil service employees, by negative implication Supreme Court employees are included. Whether Const 1963, art 4, § 48 includes or excludes Supreme Court employees has nothing whatsoever to do with whether 1965 PA 379 should be, or can be, interpreted to give MERC judicial jurisdiction over the Michigan Supreme Court, in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers established by Const 1963, art 3, § 2.
In addition, the Legislature in enacting 1965 PA 379 pursuant to Const 1963, art 4, § 48, has not by specific reference included the Michigan Supreme Court. Since an inclusion to give such jurisdiction to MERC would contravene the requirements of Const 1963, art 3, § 2 and be unconstitutional, it would be normal interpretative practice to read 1965 PA 379 as not giving jurisdiction to MERC over the Michigan Supreme Court as in this case.
IV. Conclusion
We conclude that the Michigan Constitution does not, as a matter of interpretation or logic, authorize MERC to take jurisdiction over the Michigan Supreme Court. We have been cited no precedent to the contrary.
It is good common sense as well as good law that if a tribunal of the executive department would sit in judgment over the Supreme Court, with respect to the issue, the Supreme Court would no longer be functioning as the Supreme Court. That would erode a cornerstone of our Constitution and of our system of government. We therefore hold that Const 1963, art 3, § 2, considered with Const 1963, art 4, § 48, precludes MERC from taking jurisdiction over the Michigan Supreme Court.
MERC Case No. R77 L-572 is ordered dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. No costs, a public question.
Coleman, C.J., and Fitzgerald and Ryan, JJ., concurred with Williams, J.
Coleman, C.J.
I agree with the opinion of Justice Williams and write separately only to add another analysis in support of the same conclusion.
In December of 1977 Local 586 of the Service Employees International Union, AFL-CIO, petitioned the Michigan Employment Relations Commission, hereinafter MERC, for an election among employees of the Michigan Supreme Court for the purpose of being designated the exclusive bargaining agent for our employees, i.e., their union representative. As set forth in the petition the proposed bargaining unit included:
"All employees in the general list titles located in Lansing, Michigan. Court officers, custodians, multilith technicians, secretaries, toll terminal operators and receptionists.”
The MERC scheduled a pre-election conference for January 16, 1978. At the request of this Court the conference was postponed pending a determination by MERC as to whether the public employment relations act (hereinafter PERA), MCL 423.201 et seq.; MSA 17.455(1) et seq., is applicable to employees of the Supreme Court in light of Const 1963, art 3, § 2 and art 6, § 7.
On September 8, 1978, MERC issued an opinion holding that ministerial level employees of the Michigan Supreme Court have the right to organize and engage in concerted activity within the meaning of PERA. Accordingly MERC ordered that an election in the proposed bargaining unit should be conducted.
On October 5, 1978 we ordered MERC and the petitioning union to show cause why the Court should not order MERC to dismiss the petition for lack of jurisdiction.
The apparent basis for MERC jurisdiction is PERA, which provides for the resolution of disputes concerning public employees and specifically provides for the filing of petitions for elections to determine whether there shall be, and, if so, which organization shall be, the exclusive bargaining agent.
The statutory provisions of PERA, in turn, are authorized, in general terms, by Const 1963, art 4, §48:
"The legislature may enact laws providing for the resolution of disputes concerning public employees, except those in the state classified civil service.”
The employees of this Court are assuredly "public” employees and, as this Court is a court of record, they are not "in the civil service”. The Court’s employees are not, therefore, exempted from the provisions of PERA by the stated exception concerning civil service.
Thus, the ultimate basis for the apparent jurisdiction of MERC is the constitutional provision that the Legislature may by legislation regulate the employer-employee relationship where public employees, other than civil servants, are concerned. Pursuant to PERA, MERC has exercised jurisdiction over disputes concerning working conditions in general, and specifically over hours and wages, and the appointment and removal of employees.
The general provision in art 4, § 48 to the effect that the Legislature may by legislation regulate the employer-employee relationship of public employees conflicts with the following speciñc provision concerning employees on the staff of this Court in art 6, § 7:
’’The Supreme Court may appoint, may remove, and shall have general supervision of its staff. It shall have control of the preparation of its budget recommendations and the expenditure of moneys appropriated for any purpose pertaining to the operation of the court or the performance of activities of its staff except that the salaries of the justices shall be established by law. All fees and perquisites collected by the court staff shall be turned over to the state treasury and credited to the general fund.” (Emphasis supplied.)
The importance of constitutional questions and the frequency with which they have arisen in the various states and in the United States courts has resulted in the widespread acceptance of certain fundamental rules of construction which we apply hereafter.
First, that there is real conflict between these provisions regarding control over the limited number of public employees on the staff of this Court is clear and insurmountable when reasonable plain meaning is attributed to the words of each. Under art 4, § 48, PERA gives and MERC exercises jurisdiction over virtually all questions that may arise concerning "working conditions” meaning wages, hours, appointment, removal and general supervision practices. Art 6, § 7 specifically grants this Court the powers of appointment, removal and general supervision and it is difficult to find terms clearer than those of the article itself to express the intent to give this Court jurisdiction over all "working conditions”. A first principle of constitutional construction, to avoid finding conflict if possible, is therefore unavailing to solve the problem here.
A second rule, fundamental and well settled, is that where there is a conflict between general and specific provisions in the constitution, the specific provision must control, the specific provision being regarded as a limitation on the general provision’s grant of authority. McDonald v Schnipke, 380 Mich 14, 19-20; 155 NW2d 169 (1968); Hart v Wayne County, 396 Mich 259, 273; 240 NW2d 697 (1976). Application of this rule serves another important rule of construction consistently, because neither of the sections is by our construction, rendered void or ineffective: the general provision of art 4, § 48 is left controlling in all cases where the specific provision of art 6, § 7 and the specific exception in § 48 itself, concerning the civil service, do not apply. McDonald and Hart, supra.
In addition this construction conforms to the rule that requires attention and respect be paid to the intent of those who framed the constitution. That the framers specifically intended to grant this Court the power, within the budget provided to it by the Legislature, over the wages paid to its employees and to govern its own personnel matters, is specifically revealed in the legislative history of the constitutional convention. On the other hand, we find no evidence in the legislative history of art 4, § 48 to indicate that the framers were even aware of the latent conflict between that section and § 7 of art 6. For that oversight we express understanding and sympathy. In Board of Control of Eastern Michigan University v Labor Mediation Board, 384 Mich 561, 566; 184 NW2d 921 (1971), we made the same mistake in stating, by way of dictum, that the only exception to the exercise of legislative power given by art 4, § 48 was that of legislative power over the state classified civil service.
It is my conclusion that the provisions of PERA may not be extended to be applied to employees of the staff of this Court and, accordingly, I also would order MERC to dismiss, for lack of jurisdiction, the petition filed with it on December 27, 1977.
Kavanagh, J.
In December of 1977 Local 586 of the Service Employees International Union, AFL- CIO, petitioned the Michigan Employment Relations Commission, hereinafter MERC, for an election among employees of the Michigan Supreme Court for the purpose of being certified as the exclusive bargaining agent for our employees, i.e., their union representative. As set forth in the petition the proposed bargaining unit included:
"All employees in the general list of titles located in Lansing, Michigan. Court officers, custodians, multilith technicians, secretaries, toll terminal operators and receptionists.”
The MERC scheduled a pre-election conference for January 16, 1978. At the request of this Court the conference was postponed pending a determination by MERC as to whether the public employment relations act (hereinafter PERA), MCL 423.201 et seq.; MSA 17.455(1) et seq., is applicable to employees of the Supreme Court in light of Const 1963, art 3, § 2 and art 6, § 7.
On September 8, 1978, MERC issued an opinion holding that ministerial level employees of the Michigan Supreme Court have the right to organize and engage in concerted activity within the meaning of PERA. Accordingly MERC ordered that an election in the proposed bargaining unit should be conducted.
On October 5, 1978 we ordered MERC and the petitioning union to show cause why the Court should not order MERC to dismiss the petition for lack of jurisdiction.
Because the briefs and arguments of counsel have convinced us we were in error in our original position, we conclude that they did "show cause”. We should not, therefore, order MERC to dismiss the petition, and we should obey the order of MERC to hold an election.
Good faith and responsible discharge of our duty, however, oblige us to explain to our employees, the union, MERC, and the people wherein we erred and the reasoning which persuades us to correct our mistake.
Originally we believed that art 3, § 2 precluded the Legislature from exercising any authority over the employees of this separate co-equal branch of government. It reads:
"The powers of government are divided into three branches; legislative, executive, and judicial. No person exercising powers of one branch shall exercise powers properly belonging to another branch except as expressly provided in this constitution.”
We also felt that art 6, § 7 gave the Court total, exclusive and unalienable control over its staff. It reads:
"The supreme court may appoint, may remove, and shall have general supervision of its staff. * * *”
We were convinced that we had to construct an exemption for our staff comparable to the express exemption of classified civil service employees contained in art 4, § 48 in order to comply with art 3, § 2 and art 6, § 7. The section reads:
"The legislature may enact laws providing for the resolution of disputes concerning public employees, except those in the state classified civil service.”
We regarded the exemption for our staff necessary to resolve the apparent conflict of legislators exercising dominion over what we considered to be our constitutionally delegated responsibility— namely, regulation of the relationship of this Court and its staff. In other words, we perceived a violation of separation of powers and constructed an exemption to avoid it. We are now convinced that we were confusing two questions — the existence of legislative power and the scope of it.
In the opinion accompanying its decision MERC suggested that no separation of powers question was involved because the employees whose rights under PERA were sought to be enforced were performing ministerial, not judicial, duties, and they did not exercise the powers of one branch of government or another. We are not persuaded that this distinction is significant.
The separation of powers question is not involved because of the Constitution itself. Art 3, § 2 provides that "[n]o person exercising powers of one branch shall exercise powers properly belonging to another branch except as expressly provided in this constitution(Emphasis added.) Art 4, §48 provides that the "legislature may enact laws providing for the resolution of disputes concerning public employees” exempting only state classified civil service employees. We regard art 4, § 48 as the express exception contemplated in art 3, § 2. Therefore, applying PERA to our staff will not violate the separation of powers provision.
The question remains whether applying PERA to our staff will conflict with the power granted to this Court in art 6, § 7 to "appoint”, "remove”, and "have general supervision” of its staff. This constitutional power distinguishes our Supreme Court from other divisions of our "one court of justice”. We are convinced that there is nothing inherent in the collective bargaining process itself that would necessarily intrude upon the constitutionally specified power of the Supreme Court to hire, fire, and supervise its own staff. As MERC noted the scope of bargaining which would otherwise prevail under PERA may be limited by art 6, § 7.
The extent and effect of this limitation on our power to bargain is not before us in this proceeding. We simply acknowledge it and hold that a general duty to bargain does not necessarily involve an unconstitutional intrusion on judicial authority. We no longer view art 4, § 48 as in irreconcilable conflict with art 6, § 7.
With apology to our employees, the union, MERC, and the people for any inconveniences suffered on account of our original error, we would have today directed our staff to do whatever is necessary to comply with the MERC order of September 8, 1978.
Levin, J., concurred with Kavanagh, J.
Article 6, § 4, headed general superintending control over courts; writs; appellate jurisdiction, provides in pertinent part as follows:
"The supreme court shall have general superintending control over all courts * *
Article 6, § 1 headed judicial power in court of justice; divisions, provides in pertinent part as follows:
"The judicial power of the state is vested exclusively in one court of justice, which shall be divided into one supreme court * *
Article 4, § 48 reads:
"The legislature may enact laws providing for the resolution of disputes concerning public employees, except those in the state classified civil service.”
Entitled, "An act to amend the title and sections 1, 3, 6 and 7 of Act No. 336 of the Public Acts of 1947, entitled 'An act to prohibit strikes by certain public employees; to provide certain disciplinary action with respect thereto; to provide for the mediation of grievances; and to prescribe penalties for the violation of the provisions of this act,’ being sections 423.201, 423.203, 423.206 and 423.207 of the Compiled Laws of 1948; and to add 8 new sections to stand as sections 9 to 16; and to repeal certain acts and parts of acts.”
Ford Motor Co v State Tax Comm, 400 Mich 499, 518; 255 NW2d 608 (1977) (Williams, J., dissenting), citing State Bar of Michigan v Lansing, 361 Mich 185, 195; 105 NW2d 131 (1960).
MCL 423.212; MSA 17.455(12).
The classified state civil service positions are defined in Const 1963, art 11, § 5 and therein "employees of courts of record” are specifically excluded from the definition.
The title of PERA provides:
"An act to prohibit strikes by certain public employees; to provide review from disciplinary action with respect thereto; to provide for the mediation of grievances and the holding of elections; to declare and protect the rights and privileges of public employees; and to prescribe means of enforcement and penalties for the violation of the provisions of this act.”
See, generally, MERC Labor Opinions.
See, generally, 16 Am Jur 2d, Constitutional Law, §§ 58-100, pp 230-284.
"I think, really, all this section does that is at all startling or new is to adopt the concept that when the court has money appropriated to it for its operation by the legislature, once the money has been appropriated the court itself will have control over the amount of wages paid to its employees, and so on and so forth, within the limits of the budget.
"This would in some ways make it, as we are informed by representatives of that court, more readily possible for the supreme court to govern its housekeeping affairs and to handle matters of personnel over there. They have rather strange methods of obtaining assistance, and this would make it possible, for example, for them to attract people who are actually people with rather special training, and, in some instances, professional people that are on their staff.” (Emphasis supplied.) 1 Official Record, Constitutional Convention 1961, p 1308. | [
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The motion for stay filed by the Michigan Road Builders Association, Inc, is denied. A timely application for leave to appeal having been filed, the judgment order entered pursuant to the Court of Appeals opinion of March 30, 1979 has not been issued. People v George, 399 Mich 638 (1977). Consequently the stay of proceedings entered by the Court of Appeals on January 12, 1979 remains in effect. | [
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Rehearing granted. Appellant McWhorter and the Grievance Administrator may file additional briefs on condition that such briefs are filed and served on or before May 25, 1979. The clerk is directed to place this cause on the June 1979 Session Calendar for resubmission without further oral argument. | [
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Coleman, C.J.
(to reverse). After defendant had been given Miranda warnings on each of two occasions on February 16, 1973, he waived those rights and confessed to manual strangulation of Peggy Smith. The first waiver was to State Police Sergeant Ronald Beauchine, who administered a polygraph test to defendant at defendant’s behest, which, he said, was on advice of his lawyer. (In fact, he neither had retained counsel nor had he requested appointment of counsel, it was later discovered.) The second waiver immediately followed the polygraph test when defendant said he wanted to tell Officer Dean all about it. He again waived his Miranda rights.
The Court of Appeals (2 to 1) found that the brief exculpatory remarks made by defendant on and after January 31, 1973 were made after the investigation had focused upon defendant and should have been excluded sua sponte and that the trial judge erred in failing to grant the motion to suppress the two February 16 confessions. On motion of the defendant to suppress the confession, a Walker hearing had been held and the motion to suppress the confessions was denied. There was no motion to suppress the exculpatory statements and no objection to the admission at trial. Based in important part upon a misstatement of fact, the majority held that the "totality of circumstances * * * did not satisfy the letter or spirit of the Miranda commandment”. It reversed defendant’s conviction of second-degree murder. The people appealed. We find that the facts do not support either the conclusions of law or policy enunciated by the Court of Appeals majority and so reverse and reinstate the conviction.
I
The sequence of dates and pertinent occurrences are necessary to a viable conclusion. A careful reading of the record reveals these facts — which are not always precisely in accord with those appearing in the opinion of Justice Levin.
December 1, 1972: Peggy Smith was found dead, having been manually strangled while alive as evidenced by hemorrhaging on the skin, the protruding tongue, bleeding from the nose and the fractured cartilage below the voice box. There was, however, a rope around her neck.
December 8, 1972: Defendant came to the police station in response to a telephone request in a general inquiry of persons who had known the deceased. At this time, defendant gave his alibi. He said, in summary, he had been in Tawas for ten days. Because Mrs. Smith had a broken fingernail and some matter under the nail, defendant’s torso was examined. No marks were found; (Later, the lab reported that the matter was not skin.) Defendant said he would take a polygraph test. Note that the alibi was given in this non-custodial, pre-focus inquiry. Many acquaintances of the deceased were being questioned and offered polygraph tests. At least five such tests were given to others than defendant.
January 31, 1973 (morning): Defendant, in jail on several other unrelated charges, "had a statement to give” to Officer Dean regarding a juvenile in the unrelated matter. The officer "went over” to take the statement. At the end of the interview, Officer Dean "casually” asked if there was anything else defendant could tell him about Peggy Smith. (He had not seen Brannan in álmost two months.) Defendant said there was not. The officer left. This is said to be the first in-custody, warning-less interrogation about the Smith case. Officer Dean was never questioned as to whether he had advised the defendant of his Miranda rights at this discussion. As a result, the record is devoid of testimony on this point.
January 31, 1973 (afternoon): After leaving defendant, Officer Dean learned that defendant’s mother had advised the police that a clothesline was missing. (The missing rope was later proved not connected with the murder.) Officer Dean re ported this fact to defendant who said he knew nothing about the rope. Defendant was asked if he still was willing to take a polygraph test and he indicated negatively but would want to talk to a lawyer first. The officer promptly departed. This was designated the second in-custody questioning. (The officer denied that the investigation had fo-cused_ on defendant and the facts support such a denial.) The trial court record is unclear as to whether Officer Dean gave defendant Miranda warnings before this conversation. In preliminary hearing, the officer was asked if he had advised defendant of "any rights before [he] talked to him this second time”. The officer answered "yes”. Later, at a suppression hearing, defense counsel phrased his question differently and asked if the officer had advised defendant of his rights when he "talked to” defendant "regarding the Peggy Smith matter”. The officer indicated he had not.
February 7, 1973: Officer Dean merely asked defendant what his lawyer had advised regarding the polygraph test. Defendant said his attorney, Oscar Baker, Jr., had advised against it. Nothing more was said. The officer was not questioned as to Miranda "warnings”. This is designated the third warningless in-custody questioning.
February 15, 1973: Defendant was given a polygraph test at the State Police Post in Bay City on a charge unrelated either to the Smith case or the breaking and entering. He was questioned about another murder; Officer Dean went to listen. Defendant passed the test. At the end, Officer Dean asked for some details to check in defendant’s alibi in the Smith case. Defendant gave some "names”. Again the record is barren of inquiry as to whether the routine Miranda warnings were given prior to the state police polygraph. There was no question on the point — possibly because it did not seem important. The officer had tried to reach Mr. Baker and failed. The secretary knew nothing of defendant. (In fact, Mr. Baker knew nothing of defendant.) At this time, the police were trying to check out the alibi which they did not know either to be true or false. The record reveals no reason to have disbelieved the alibi or even to have found it shaky.
This was said to be the fourth in-custody inquiry without Miranda warnings or without a repeat of them, if given before the polygraph. This inquiry also was believed by the Court of Appeals to have been made after focus was upon defendant as the murderer, although Officer Dean denied this. Indeed, the police had not even been suspicious enough to match defendant’s fingerprints with those at the scene of the murder and were only commencing to check the alibi. Officer Dean also had not been suspicious enough to check on the rope. Polygraphs were being given to others and their stories also checked. Prime suspects apparently were the ex-husband of the deceased who had been at the house and with whom she had had intercourse on the evening of the murder, another whom deceased had telephoned and who had been in the house and one seen in the vicinity.
February 16, 1973: Officer Dean checked further on defendant’s alibi and asked for a lab check of defendant’s fingerprints. They matched those found on the premises. The time and date of the match were stamped on the lab report. This discovery was made after the inquiry above, lending credibility to the assertion that the focus had not evolved upon defendant at the time of the February 15 incident. There is no doubt, however, that defendant became suspect in the police investigation after his fingerprints were matched. In error, the Court of Appeals based its opinion of "focus” as of February 15 in great part upon the misbelief that Officer Dean knew of the fingerprint identification at that time. He did not. The prints had not been matched.
February 16, 1973 (later in the. day): Officer Dean was told that Brannan wanted to take a polygraph test. The prosecutor asked the officer to transport defendant to the Bay City State Police Post. There are no allegations that Officer Dean made any reference to the Smith case or polygraph during the transporting. (He said he did not.) He turned defendant over to Sergeant Ronald Beauchine, who testified in the suppression hearing as follows:
"I advised Mr. Brannan that he had a right to remain silent. I advised him that anything he said could be used against him. I advised him that he had a right to have an attorney present before any questioning. He could talk with an attorney before we — before I questioned him. I also advised him that if he could not afford an attorney one would be appointed to represent him at no cost before any questioning. I asked him — I also told him that he could stop talking to me any time he wanted to. I told him he could get up and leave the room at any time he wanted to. I asked him if he understood what his rights were. He stated that he did. And in regards to an attorney, he advised me that he had talked to a Mr. Baker, and Mr. Baker informed him to take the polygraph examination. He stated that he was willing to talk with me in regards to the murder of Peggy Smith.”
Defendant confessed to the murder. When Bran-nan said that he wanted to tell Officer Dean all about it, the officer repeated the Miranda warnings and defendant again confessed the murder.
II
The case has been cast in the perspective of defendant’s youth (defendant was 18 at the time of trial), his lack of a high school diploma, his propensity to lie and improper, coercive police interrogation. Defendant’s age, education and propensity to lie are not denied. (Appellate defense counsel claimed that defendant was a "pathological liar”.) On the other hand, the record discloses a person well acquainted with courts and police. Aside from his problems as a juvenile and his placement in a boy’s residential facility, he had been committed, for breaking and entering, to Camp Pugsley, an adult Corrections Department facility. The psychologist, Dr. Sophie Lovinger, testifying for the defense, stated regarding Brannan:
"He really doesn’t have a conscience. He has no feelings of guilt that most of us have that prevent us from doing the things that we know are wrong.”
In short, Mr. Brannan has been cast as a young, not highly educated, inexperienced innocent who was coerced by the police into making a confession. Also, the police somehow should have known that defendant was lying — first by telling Officer Dean about his attorney’s advice against a polygraph test and next by telling Sergeant Beauchine that his attorney advised him to take the poly graph when, in fact, he had retained no attorney nor had he asked that one be appointed — despite the several advisements of his right to retained or appointed counsel.
The "improper”, "coercive” activities of Officer Dean are easily summarized as:
1. He asked defendant if he could tell him anything else about Peggy Smith (upon initiation by defendant Officer Dean had just concluded an interview with Brannan on another matter. This was á casual question at the end.) Defendant said he did not. (Between December 8, 1972 and January 31, 1973, no further inquiry of defendant had been made so far as the record reveals.)
2. After defendant’s mother reported a missing clothesline, the officer told defendant about it. (Defendant said — truthfully—that he knew nothing about it.) The officer asked about the polygraph which defendant earlier had said he would take and the matter was dropped when defendant replied negatively, but left the door open for advice of a lawyer.
3. Officer Dean checked back to see if a decision had been made about the polygraph. Defendant said his attorney advised him not to take the test.
4. After defendant took (and passed) a polygraph test in Bay City in an Unrelated matter, the officer asked for some details of the alibi to be checked in the Smith matter. Defendant gave him some "names”.
The totality of these short remarks both by the officer and Brannan (two at the end of questioning on other matters) reveals no coercive behavior and no inculpatory statements. The officer claims, and the trial court found, that the investigation did not focus upon defendant until February 16 when his fingerprints were compared with those at the scene of the murder. After that, no questions were asked prior to Miranda warnings.
However, the Court of Appeals opinion misstates a crucial fact in finding that the defendant was "a prime suspect” before the inquiry in number 4 above. The majority opinion says:
"Palm prints of the defendant had been obtained at the scene of the crime. He must have been a prime suspect.”
The prints were not matched until after the last inquiry at the State Police Post.
The investigation appears to have been general, and routine. Polygraph tests were being given to a number of people and whereabouts of acquaintances were being checked. There is no reason to disbelieve the officer in charge or to second-guess the trial court. Defendant’s alibi as stated almost two months before he was in custody for the unrelated crimes was just being checked and his fingerprints compared after the last short inquiry noted above (after the unrelated polygraph test). As we stated in People v Reed, 393 Mich 342, 357; 224 NW2d 867 (1975), when determining when Miranda warnings must be given:
"[T]he 'deciding factor, in each case, is determined by examining the specificity of the investigation, i.e., whether the investigation has focused on one suspect.’ ”
III
This is not a case in which the police took a person into custody, failed to inform the person of his rights, questioned him insistently until incriminating evidence or some other lever was obtained and then belatedly gave the Miranda warnings just before the virtually foregone conclusion of obtaining a formal confession. The defendant voluntarily supplied the false alibi at the initial noncustodial, pre-focus general investigatory meeting on December 8. No further contact occurred until nearly two months later. The critical polygraph was not arranged until after the defendant had been given the time to consult an attorney and indicated he had. The police did not focus on the defendant until after the fingerprints were checked and matched on February 16 — two and one-half months after the initial non-custodial conversation — and from that point on full and complete Miranda warnings were given. There is no indication that the defendant was confronted with evidence contradicting his alibi or was in any other way coerced into taking the polygraph examination. That, examination was preceded by Miranda warnings as was his subsequent confession to Officer Dean.
The defendant’s initial false alibi was of his own doing and any connection between it and his ultimate confession was internally generated, not police-generated.
Nor is this a case in which the police have isolated the defendant from counsel or have grilled the defendant in such a way that the ultimate giving of the Miranda warnings prior to obtaining a confession was a meaningless gesture.
Westover v United States, 384 US 494; 86 S Ct 1638; 16 L Ed 2d 735 (1966), decided together with Miranda, is an example of the kind of case in which the giving of Miranda warnings is not enough to render a confession admissible. The defendant in that case was arrested at 9:45 p.m. by state authorities in connection with two local rob beries. He was jailed and interrogated that night and interrogated throughout the next morning until noon without any advice as to his rights. He was then turned over to Federal authorities for interrogation about a different crime. The Federal authorities did advise the defendant of his rights and obtained a confession a few hours later. The United States Supreme Court said the confession was erroneously admitted by the trial court because "we cannot find that Westover knowingly and intelligently waived his right to remain silent and his right to consult with counsel * * *. [F]rom Westover’s point of view the warnings came at the end of the interrogation process”. Id., 495-496. The Court added, however:
"A different case would be presented if an accused were taken into custody by the second authority, removed both in time and place from his original surroundings, and then adequately advised of his rights and given an opportunity to exercise them. But here the FBI interrogation was conducted immediately following the state interrogation in the same police station —in the same compelling surroundings.” Id., 496.
IV
In applying the Miranda decision, it is important to remember the context in which it was decided.
The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution assures us that "[n]o person * * * shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself’. In 1964, Manuel Escobedo had been denied a request to speak to his retained counsel (and vice versa) while the police interrogated him, handcuffed and standing for four hours until he confessed murder. The confession was admitted into testimony and Escobedo was convicted. The United States Supreme Court reversed, finding the confession inadmissible as being obtained under compulsion.
In speaking of the four consolidated cases which followed Escobedo, now generally known as Miranda, the Court noted that in each case, "the defendant was thrust into an unfamiliar atmosphere and run through menacing police interrogation procedures”. It also noted that "such an interrogation environment is created for no purpose other than to subjugate the individual to the will of his examiner”. It also said that the entire thrust of those warningless police interrogations was to "put the defendant in such an emotional state as to impair his capacity for rational judgment”. Emphasis was placed on the evils associated with persistent, continuous, incommunicado interrogation.
Those evils are not present in this case. The police questioned the defendant, but not in any continuous overbearing or menacing way. The discussions were separated by long stretches of time during which the defendant could contact friends, relatives or an attorney. He was given the time to seek the advice of counsel.
V
In summary, if there was a causal connection between the false alibi and the confession, it was self-generated, not police-generated. (There is no evidence of such a connection.) The alibi was given in a pre-custodial, pre-focus, general investigation of many people and cannot fairly be said to have resulted from either improper or coercive police conduct.
Examined separately, and collectively, the four short pre-confession, in-custody encounters of Brannan with the police while he was in jail for the unrelated crimes were at different times and one at a different place (Bay City). Two followed questioning concerning two other crimes and were short and not coercive or threatening. It is difficult to estimate with a high degree of accuracy but judging from the testimony, all pre-confession, in-custody conversations about the Smith case probably totalled no more than 20 to 30 minutes, at most. None of Brannan’s remarks were inculpa-tory. The investigation had not focused upon him.
After defendant’s palm prints were found by the lab to match some on the premises no more conversation was held with defendant excepting a general one while transporting defendant to the polygraph he said his attorney had advised him to take.
The Court of Appeals erroneously believed the palm prints had been matched before the February 15 conversation in Bay City and so found "focus” at that time. However, at no time after the lab results was there any inquiry or conversation with defendant about the Smith case until the Miranda warnings were given prior to the confessions.
The confessions were each made after receiving full warnings of his constitutional rights, including his right to stop the questioning at any time, consult a lawyer, or walk out of the room.
With discussion about counsel cited above, plus his considerable previous experience with the police and courts, it is not believable that defendant did not know he had a right to retained or ap pointed counsel. In fact, the defendant led the police to believe that he had sought the advice of a lawyer and was following his advice.
In total perspective, this is not the kind of police behavior addressed by Miranda and its progeny as causing a person to confess under compulsion.
Reversed and the conviction is reinstated.
Williams, Fitzgerald, and Ryan, JJ., concurred with Coleman, C.J.
Levin, J.
Herbert Steven Brannan was convicted of second-degree murder.
The victim’s body was found in her home on December 1, 1972. The cause of death was strangulation.
Between December 8, 1972 and February 15, 1973, Brannan, a 17-year old with a ninth-grade education, was questioned by a police detective five times without receiving Miranda warnings. All but the first interview took place in the county jail where Brannan was being held on an unrelated charge. Brannan was apprised of his Miranda rights during a sixth interview on February 16th, which took place at the state police post to which he had been taken for a polygraph test. During the examination, and again immediately thereafter, Brannan gave a confessional statement.
The Court of Appeals held that inculpatory and exculpatory statements given by Brannan, except during the first interview when he was not in custody, should have been suppressed, and remanded for a new trial.
In reversing, this Court states that "[i]n total perspective, this is not the kind of police behavior addressed by Miranda and its progeny as causing a person to confess under compulsion”.
Because the rule of law stated in Miranda applies without regard to whether a defendant’s confession is voluntary and that rule was violated, we would affirm the Court of Appeals and remand for a new trial.
I
Brannan, an acquaintance of the victim’s son and of the victim, received a telephone call from a police detective requesting an interview. At the police station on December 8, 1972, Brannan told the officer he had been out of town for the preceding ten days. What was thought to be skin had been found under the victim’s fingernails, and Brannan submitted to an examination of his upper torso. No scratches or other tell-tale marks were discovered. The detective asked Brannan to take a polygraph examination and Brannan said he was willing to do so. No Miranda warnings were given.
The second interview took place on the morning of January 31, 1973 in the county jail where Brannan was in custody on an unrelated possession of stolen goods charge. The officer, after questioning Brannan regarding the stolen goods charge, questioned him about the murder. Bran-nan reiterated that he was out of town and gave the names of persons who could corroborate his alibi. No Miranda warnings were given.
Later that day, the officer was informed by Brannan’s mother that a piece of clothesline fitting the description of the rope found around the victim’s neck was missing from the Brannan home. The officer returned to Brannan’s cell and confronted him with this evidence. Brannan claimed he knew nothing about the rope; it was ultimately determined that the rope around the victim’s neck was not the clothesline missing from the Brannan home. The officer renewed his suggestion that Brannan submit to a polygraph examination. Brannan told him that he wished first to consult with a lawyer. No Miranda warnings were given.
A fourth interview took place one week later, February 7, 1973, again in the county jail. Bran-nan informed the officer that his lawyer had advised him not to take a polygraph examination. Brannan named his lawyer, a prominent member of the local bar. Actually, Brannan had not consulted or retained a lawyer. No Miranda warnings were given.
The fifth interview took place February 15th. Brannan was asked "for more details and if he could be more specific” about his alibi. He supplied additional information. No Miranda warnings were given.
The detective testified that on the morning of February 16th he received a call from the prosecutor who told him that Brannan was now willing to take a polygraph examination. The record does not indicate how the prosecutor obtained this information.
Before administering the polygraph examination, a state police officer advised Brannan of his Miranda rights. During the examination, which lasted 2-1/4 hours, Brannan made inculpatory statements. He subsequently signed a waiver of rights and gave a confessional statement.
The trial judge denied a motion to suppress the confession, saying that Brannan was not a "firm suspect” until February 16th and had voluntarily waived his rights before confessing.
The Court of Appeals concluded that Brannan’s in-custody statements should have been suppressed because of the failure to give Miranda warnings until immediately before the polygraph examination.
II
The people contend that the investigation had not focused on Brannan until shortly before the polygraph examination and therefore there was no need to give Miranda warnings.
In People v Reed, 393 Mich 342; 224 NW2d 867 (1975), the defendant was questioned in his own apartment and the issue was whether he was in custody for Miranda purposes. In deciding that he was, the Court addressed the question whether the investigation had focused on the accused.
In this case, Brannan was in jail, although on another charge, when all the interviews but the first were conducted. The United States Supreme Court has held that Miranda applies although the defendant is being held on a charge other than the one about which he was questioned and gave a statement. "We find nothing in the Miranda opinion which calls for a curtailment of the warnings to be given persons under interrogation by officers based on the reason why the person is in custody.” Mathis v United States, 391 US 1, 4-5; 88 S Ct 1503; 20 L Ed 2d 381 (1968).
Ill
Brannan’s suppression motion was directed to the confessional statement, not specifically to the false alibi statements. The prosecutor contends that the Court of Appeals therefore erred in considering the alibi statements in deciding whether to suppress the confessional statements.
Brannan duly objected to the admission of the confessional statements. A Walker hearing was conducted. In assessing whether a confessional statement should be suppressed a court is obliged to consider all relevant evidence. The circumstance that some of that evidence consists of statements that might themselves have been suppressed but which were admitted at the trial without objection does not affect their relevancy or competency or abridge the scope of the record to be considered in deciding the admissibility of statements duly objected to.
While Brannan’s failure to object to the admission of the alibi statements might be regarded as a waiver of his right to object to their admission, the Court of Appeals did not err in considering those statements and the circumstances in which they were given in deciding whether the subsequent confessional statements should be suppressed.
IV
The prosecutor relies on cases where courts concluded that confessional statements need not be suppressed simply because the defendant had earlier, without being adequately warned of his rights, made incriminating statements. Mapys v United States, 409 F2d 964 (CA 10, 1969); Commonwealth v Greene, 456 Pa 195; 317 A2d 268 (1974); Commonwealth v Marabel, 445 Pa 435; 283 A2d 285 (1971); United States v Trabucco, 424 F2d 1311 (CA 5, 1970).
In United States v Trabucco the Court declared that a "significant causal relationship [between the pre-warning statement and the post-warning confession] will bring the confession within the Miranda exclusionary rule”. Id., p 1319. The issue was similarly analyzed in the other pertinent cases relied on by the prosecutor, where it was held only that a confession will not be suppressed because of pre-warning inculpatory statements absent such a significant causal relationship.
In the instant case the questioning at the county jail appears to have been a significant factor in bringing about Brannan’s confession. In the course of the warningless questioning Brannan gave a false alibi. During subsequent interrogations, upon the detective’s request, he elaborated, providing details. He knew that the alibi was false, and that ultimately the police would determine it was false unless they earlier became convinced of his innocence.
Brannan, although he had indicated a reluctance to do so, was persuaded to submit to a polygraph examination. Because of the falsity of his alibi it was unlikely that he would pass a polygraph examination. During the examination, Brannan was advised that he had not passed, and thereafter made false or inculpatory statements which were followed by a full confession.
While it does not appear whether the falsity of his alibi was revealed during the polygraph examination or whether it was some other discrepancy which caused the examining officer to advise him that he had not passed the examination, the false alibi appears to have played a significant role in Brannan’s decision to confess. In his closing argument the prosecutor said as much:
"We know now that on the 8th of December, thereabouts, he gave a false alibi as to where' he was. He informed the officer at that time, on first interview, that he was out of town for ten days and just got back. Ten days, of course, on the 8th of December being long enough to cover the date of the offense.
"Subsequently, on February the 15th, he elaborated on this alibi by providing persons that he was with, at least one person that he was with. It is interesting, in respect to that, and I kind of noted here that in respect to the defendant’s testimony, that [the detective] would find out about the false alibi and he seemed to, in some way, project this as somehow discovering the falsity of his confession, and I inserted it here because I suspect that it explains the confession.
"Knowing that on the 15th the officer has returned and asked him to detail about this alibi he had given him, being in Tawas on the 8th of December, that that is what he realized would be discovered, and the futility of denying his involvement in the death.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Our conclusion that there is a significant causal relationship between the pre-warning statements at the jail and the post-warning confessions makes it unnecessary for us to consider whether the warnings, given to Brannan after he had been persuaded to agree to speak, came too late.
V
Michigan v Tucker, 417 US 433; 94 S Ct 2357; 41 L Ed 2d 182 (1974), dealt not with the admissibility of a confessional statement obtained from the defendant, but the admissibility of the testimony of an alibi witness named by the defendant during the interrogation before he had been fully warned of his rights. The ádmissibility of a statement given by the defendant himself was not involved. "[T]he respondent did not [emphasis in original] accuse himself. The evidence which the prosecution successfully sought to introduce was not a confession of guilt by respondent, or indeed even an exculpatory statement by respondent [emphasis supplied], but rather the testimony of a third party who was subjected to no custodial pressures.” Id,, p 449.
In the instant case, in contrast with Tucker and Michigan v Mosley, 423 US 96; 96 S Ct 321; 46 h Ed 2d 313 (1975), where the Court emphasized the apparent good faith of the officer, there was uq advice whatsoever to Brannan of his rights. The failure to advise him of his rights does not seem to have been inadvertent. Brannan was questioned five times over a period of weeks by an experienced detective without any advisory warnings. It is difficult to imagine a more purposeful violation of the Miranda requirements.
Brannan’s statements that he had consulted counsel and that counsel had advised him not to take a polygraph examination, although false, indicate that he was reluctant to talk to the detective and to undergo a polygraph examination. Had he been fully advised of his rights he may have exercised them, thereby requiring the officer to suspend further questioning. Michigan v Mosley, supra.
While Brannan’s confession may have been voluntary in the traditional sense, a purpose of Miranda was to reduce the number of cases in which courts would be called upon to determine whether the pressures inherent in custodial questioning together with other factors such as the age and education of the defendant require suppression of a confessional statement on the ground that it was involuntary. Brannan, a relatively young man at the time, who had not graduated from high school, appears on this record to be particularly susceptible to the kinds of psychological pressures at which Miranda was primarily directed. The Court of Appeals correctly concluded that suppression of the statements was required by the policy and purpose of the Miranda decision.
We would affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals suppressing the confessional statements and remanding for a new trial, and directing that at a new trial such statements and other statements, inculpatory and exculpatory, given while Brannan was in custody without Miranda warnings, shall not be admitted.
Kavanagh, J., concurred with Levin, J.
Blair Moody, Jr., J., took no part in the decision of this case.
Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694; 10 ALR3d 974 (1966).
People v Walker (On Rehearing), 374 Mich 331; 132 NW2d 87 (1965).
Dr. Leaby’s testimony.
In his confession, defendant said he placed the rope around the neck in an effort to make the death appear to be suicide. He found the rope in the garage of the deceased. The fact that there was part of the bed sheet between the rope and the neck supported this statement.
Testimony of Patrick L. Dean in the hearing on the motion to suppress.
Brannan had been transported by the State Police.
For example, in court, defendant denied the truth of his confessions, saying he went to the house of deceased after his mother read to him the story of Mrs. Smith’s murder. To the surprise of counsel, he then changed his testimony. He said he went in before it was light (maybe 7 oi* 8 a.m.) and found her dead.
Escobedo v Illinois, 378 US 478; 84 S Ct 1758; 12 L Ed 2d 977 (1964).
Miranda, supra, 457, 465.
Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694; 10 ALR3d 974 (1966).
In reference to the first interview, at the police station on December 8, 1972, the detective said:
”Q. Therefore you did not advise him of any kind of Constitutional rights?
"A. No.”
In reference to the third interview (the second and third interviews both having taken place on January 31st), he said:
"Q. Had you advised him of his rights at this time?
"A. No.
”Q. This is the third time that he was — talked to you regarding the Peggy Smith matter and you still hadn’t advised him of any kind of rights?
"A. That’s correct.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Turning to the fourth and fifth interviews, it does not specifically appear that Brannan was not advised of his rights before the fourth interview, but that is a fair inference from the response regarding the fifth interview:
”Q. Now, this would be the fifth time you talked to him. At this time did you advise him of any rights?
"A. No.
"Q. Why not?
"A. I just wanted his alibi, where he had been at.”
It accordingly appears that the detective acknowledged specifically that he had not advised Brannan of his rights before the first, third or fifth interviews, and it is reasonable to infer that no such advice was given before the second and fourth interviews.
In Miranda the Court declared:
"* * * By custodial interrogation, we mean questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way.
"4This is what we meant in Escobedo [v Illinois, 378 US 478; 84 S Ct 1758; 12 L Ed 2d 977 (1964)] when we spoke of an investigation which had focused on an accused.” Id., p 444.
See, also, Michigan v Mosley, 423 US 96, 98; 96 S Ct 321; 46 L Ed 2d 313 (1975), where the Court declared that the defendant had been arrested in connection with certain robberies and subsequently was questioned solely about an unrelated murder for which he "had not been arrested”. The issue was whether a confessional statement regarding the murder was admissible. The Court held that although the defendant had invoked his Miranda rights when questioned about the robberies, under the circumstances of the case it was not a violation of Miranda to have subsequently questioned him, after full Miranda warnings, regarding the murder. The Court said:
"We therefore conclude that the admissibility of statements obtained after the person in custody has decided to remain silent depends under Miranda on whether his 'right to cut off questioning’ was 'scrupulously honored.’ ” Id., p 104 (emphasis supplied).
Implicit in the Court’s statement and analysis is that although Mosley had not been arrested on the murder charge, he was, for purposes of Miranda, in custody in respect to that or any other charge, and therefore he could not have been questioned on that charge without Miranda warnings.
For the reasons stated, we find it unnecessary to decide whether Brannan’s objection to the confessional statements encompassed the exculpatory statements.
People v Walker (On Rehearing), 374 Mich 331; 132 NW2d 87 (1965).
In those cases, the courts concluded that other factors caused the defendant to confess.
In Mapys v United States, 409 F2d 964, 966 (CA 10, 1969), "[h]is statements were made in an attempt to assist his brother and to avoid a prosecution in state court”.
In Commonwealth v Greene, 456 Pa 195, 198; 317 A2d 268, 270 (1974),
"appellant never suggested that her statement to Williams played any part in motivating her later admissions. On the contrary, it appears that the thing uppermost in her mind was remorse for her attack on Brock, whose death she learned about for the first time from McDonald. The minimal psychological impact of her statement to Williams can be gauged from the fact that at trial she could not remember what, if anything, she had told him when he appeared in her living room.”
In Commonwealth v Marabel, 445 Pa 435, 448; 283 A2d 285, 291 (1971),
"the record indicates the actual cause of appellant’s confession was the police confronting him with the information given by Cranshaw and Boyd which identified appellant as the driver of the getaway car (this was after he had been given proper warnings). Thus, the genesis of the confession was not the use of any illegally obtained statements from the appellant’s own lips, rather it was information obtained from a totally separate, independent, and legitimate source.”
In United States v Trabucco, 424 F2d 1311, 1319 (CA 5, 1970), the court said:
"We conclude that it was the discovery of the Sheraton stationery with Bravo’s name, irretrievably linking Trabucco to Bravo, that convinced him he might as well confess. Being caught in the prevarication, if a factor at all, was not significant.”
Since we conclude that in the instant case there was a significant causal relationship between the pre-warning statement and the post-warning confession, we need not consider whether in a case where there is no such significant causal relationship the confession must nevertheless be suppressed on Miranda grounds (fn 10, infra, and accompanying text) or on pre-Miranda involuntariness grounds. In this connection, we note that in distinguishing the cited cases from the instant case we do not necessarily adopt the analysis or decisions of those cases.
The Court states: "The defendant’s initial false alibi was of his own doing and any connection between it and his ultimate confession was internally generated, not police-generated.”
While Brannan’s "initial false alibi” was given before he was in custody, he then told the police only that he had been in Tawas. After he was in custody, in response to the detective’s questions, he gave the names of persons who could corroborate his alibi and at a subsequent interview supplied the detective with additional information.
While Brannan’s decision to respond and the nature of his response was indeed his, and is not attributable to the police except insofar as the detective questioned him after he was in custody without first giving Miranda warnings, the issue, as stated in United States v Trabucco, 424 F2d 1311, 1319 (CA 5, 1970), is whether there is a significant causal relationship between the pre-warning statement and the post-warning confession.
The elaborations on the alibi, made after Brannan was in custody, provided the police with information that would enable them to determine that it was false. Although the police did not generate Brannan’s "initial false alibi”, they did generate his providing an alibi and, after he was in custody and without first giving Miranda warnings, his providing elaborations on it. The "connection” between those elaborations and his ultimate confession is acknowledged in the prosecutor’s closing argument, quoted in the accompanying text, infra.
A number of other suspects had been given polygraph examinations.
The American Law Institute’s Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure (Proposed Official Draft, 1975), § 140.5, p 45, provides:
"No law enforcement officer shall seek to obtain information from an arrested person by using drugs or hypnosis, or a polygraph test or other such procedure designed to determine the truthfulness of statements by body reactions, unless, after such procedure has been proposed, such person has had an opportunity to consult with counsel for a period adequate to obtain advice concerning such procedure and has consented thereto.”
In Miranda v Arizona, supra, pp 461, 465, the Court declared:
"We are satisfied that all the principles embodied in the privilege apply to informal compulsion exerted by law-enforcement officers during in-custody questioning. An individual swept from familiar surroundings into police custody, surrounded by antagonistic forces, and subjected to the techniques of persuasion described above cannot be otherwise than under compulsion to speak. As a practical matter, the compulsion to speak in the isolated setting of the police station may well be greater than in courts or other official investigations, where there are often impartial observers to guard against intimidation or trickery.
"* * * The entire thrust of police interrogation there [in Escobedo], as in all the cases today, was to put the defendant in such an emotional state as to iihpair his capacity for rational judgment. The abdication of the constitutional privilege — the choice on his part to speak to the police — was not made knowingly or competently because of the failure to apprise him of his rights; the compelling atmosphere of the in-custody interrogation, and not an independent decision on his part, caused the defendant to speak.” (Emphasis supplied.)
In Westover v United States, a companion case decided with Miranda (Miranda v Arizona, supra, pp 494-497) the defendant was arrested by local police as a robbery suspect and interrogated without advisory warnings of any kind for a lengthy period. He was then interrogated by the FBI regarding the robbery of a savings and loan association and of a bank. After 2-1/2 hours he confessed. The Court concluded that the confession should be suppressed although there were two separate law enforcement authorities and the crimes were different. "[T]he impact on him was that of a continuous period of questioning”; "from Westover’s point of view the warnings came at the end of the interrogation process”; “the federal authorities were the beneficiaries of the pressure applied by the local in-custody interrogation.” The Court declared: “A different question would be presented if an accused were taken into custody by the second authority, removed both in time and place from his original surroundings, and then adequately advised of his rights and given an opportunity to exercise them.”
In Michigan v Mosley, supra, pp 106-107, the Court said that Westover was inapplicable because, among other factors, "full 'Mi randa warnings’ ” had been given to Mosley "at the very outset of each interrogation [emphasis supplied.]” "The cardinal fact of West-over — the failure of the police officers to give any warnings whatever to the person in their custody before embarking on an intense and prolonged interrogation of him — was simply not present in this case.”
See State v Callihan, 320 So 2d 155 (La, 1975); Fisher v Scafati, 314 F Supp 929 (D Mass, 1970).
Although Tucker was questioned before Miranda was decided, the police had advised Him that any statement he might make could be used against him in court. He was not advised that counsel would be furnished without cost to him if he could not pay for such services himself.
Mosley was given full Miranda warnings before each questioning session.
See, generally, Stone, The Miranda Doctrine in the Burger Court, 1977 Sup Ct Rev 99; Anno: The Progeny of Miranda v Arizona in the Supreme Court, 46 L Ed 2d 903.
Miranda v Arizona, supra, pp 456-457.
"Again we stress that the modern practice of in-custody interrogation is psychologically rather than physically oriented. As we have stated before, 'Since Chambers v Florida, 309 US 227 [60 S Ct 472; 84 L Ed 716 (1940)], this Court has recognized that coercion can be mental as well as physical, and that the blood of the accused is not the only hallmark of an unconstitutional inquisition.’ Blackburn v Alabama, 361 US 199, 206; 80 S Ct 274; 4 L Ed 2d 242 (1960). Interrogation still takes place in privacy. Privacy results in secrecy and this in turn results in a gap in our knowledge as to what in fact goes on in the interrogation rooms.” Id., p 448.
"The officers are told by the manuals that the 'principal psychological factor contributing to a successful interrogation is privacy — being alone with the person under interrogation.” Id., p 449 (emphasis in original).
"Even without employing brutality, the 'third degree’ or the specific stratagems described above, the very fact of custodial interrogation exacts a heavy toll on individual liberty and trades on the weakness of individuals.” Id., p 455.
"In these cases, we might not find the defendants’ statements to have been involuntary in traditional terms. * * * To be sure, the records do not evince overt physical coercion or patent psychological ploys. The fact remains that in none of these cases did the officers undertake to afford appropriate safeguards at the outset of the interrogation to insure that the statements were truly the product of free choice.” Id., p 457.
"This atmosphere carries its own badge of intimidation. To he sure, this is not physical intimidation, but it is equally destructive of human dignity. * * * Unless adequate protective devices are employed to dispel the compulsion inherent in custodial surroundings, no statement obtained from the defendant can truly be the product of his free choice.” Id., pp 457-458.
We note, although it is not pertinent to disposition, that on full examination of this record it appears that the evidence implicating Brannan is, to say the least, inconclusive. Also, there are a number of discrepancies between Brannan’s confession and the known facts. Some of the facts of which he was aware may have become known to him as a person who had been in the victim’s home a number of times, and a number of the details of the crime were a matter of local gossip in taverns frequented by Brannan and others. The considerations just mentioned have, indeed, no relevance in the disposition of this case. Cf. Haynes v Washington, 373 US 503, 518; 83 S Ct 1336; 10 L Ed 2d 513 (1963); Rogers v Richmond, 365 US 534, 541; 81 S Ct 735; 5 L Ed 2d 760 (1961). We advert to them simply to emphasize that this is not a case where one could properly say, whether or not pertinent, that the confessional statement bears its own earmarks of authenticity or that the defendant would have been convicted without the confession.
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Carpenter, J.
In the lower court plaintiff recovered a verdict and judgment in a suit brought upon a policy issued to him by defendant insuring against loss by fire a certain building and its contents. One of the grounds of error relied upon by defendant, viz., the fraud of plaintiff, is not open for consideration, because it was not set forth in the notice attached to its plea, as required by Circuit Court Rule No. 7, subd. 6. There is but one other ground, and that is this, viz., that the contract of insur •anee was void, because a mortgage of $1,000 upon the insured property was described in the application and the policy as a mortgage of $200. The testimony of plaintiff tended to prove that he correctly stated the amount of this mortgage to defendant’s agent, who filled out the application and the policy,- arid that plaintiff signed the application without reading it (indeed, he could not read English) and without its being read to him. If this testimony is true — and this was a question which was properly left for the jury to determine — the erroneous description of the mortgage did not avoid the policy. North American Fire-Ins. Co. v. Throop, 22 Mich. 146; Beebe v. Insurance Co., 93 Mich. 514 (18 L. R. A. 481); Russell v. Insurance Co., 80 Mich. 407; Richards v. Insurance Co., 60 Mich. 420; Crouse v. Insurance Co., 79 Mich. 249.
The judgment is affirmed.
McAlvay, C. J., and Grant, Blair, and Ostrander, JJ.3.concurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
On the 26th day of 'June, 1877, the defendant Jesse C. Tryon was owner of 117 acres of land in the township of Brady, Kalamazoo county. On this land, previous to the commencement of this suit, he gave the following mortgages: November 1, 1871, to F. W. Curtenius, $2500 ; April 5,. 1876, to William Jenkinson, $500; May 27, 1876, to Bradley S. Williams, $472; November 13,1876, to Scott & Sabin, $400 ; November 13, 1877, to Charles Gage, $600. The bill in this case is filed to foreclose the last-mentioned mortgage by Mrs. Gage, as administratrix of her husband’s estate.
On the 26th day of J une, 1877, aforesaid, Tryon and his wife made a quitclaim deed of the land to defendant William Jenkinson. On that day large amounts of unpaid interest had accumulated on these mortgages, and Tryon was further indebted to Jenkinson in items amounting to about the sum of $700. The mortgage given to Curtenius was subsequently assigned by him to Charles Bell, and is called in the pleadings in this case the Bell mortgage.
The bill was filed on the 30th day of October, 18S0, for the purpose of foreclosing the Gage mortgage, and for the further purpose of obtaining a personal decree against the defendant Jenkinson. The bill avers that at the time Jenkinson received said quitclaim deed of the mortgaged premises the purchase price agreed to be paid by him therefor was $G000, which, by the agreement between him and defendant Jesse Tryon, was to be paid and applied as follows : $2991 to the payment of the Bell mortgage; $561 to the payment of the Jenkinson mortgage; $523 to the payment of the Williams mortgage; $642.70 to the payment of the Gage mortgage; $672 to the payment of other indebtedness from Tryon to Jenkinson ; and for the payment of the balance of the $6000 said Jenkinson gave said Tryon his promissory note; that the conveyance from Tryon to Jenkinson was for such agreed consideration; and that the amount above stated of the purchase price was left in the hands of Jenkinson by Tryon, as aforesaid, in trust for the payment of the mortgages above mentioned, including the mortgage to the complainant’s intestate; and that Jenkinson became a trustee under such agreement to the amount of the Gage mortgage, and liable for the payment thereof. Complainant further avers that Jenkinson lias had the rents and profits of the farm ever since he received his conveyance from Tryon, and neglects to discharge his trusts by payment of the Gage mortgage; and that the defendant Thompson is Jenkinson’s lessee, and claims to be the owner of the Jenkinson and Williams mortgages. Complainant further avers that Jenkinson transferred his mortgage to Thompson, for the purpose of keeping it in existence as a prior mortgage to that represented in this suit by complainant.
The bill was taken as confessed by defendant Tryon, and Jenkinson and Thompson filed their several answers.
Thompson, in his answer, admits the deed from Tryon to Jenkinson ; denies upon information and belief that Jenkinson agreed with Tryon to pay $6000 for the farm, or that he was to pay the same as alleged in the bill of complaint; avers he is the owner of the Jenkinson and Williams mortgages, and has redeemed the premises from the lien of the Bell mortgage, and that they are all valid liens upon the property, the Bell mortgage being a first lien; that the mortgages amounted, at the time he purchased the Williams and Jenkinson claims, to more than the property was worth; that when he received possession of the farm of Jenkinson, he expected to buy in all the claims against the property if he could make the necessary arrangements therefor, and ultimately own the property; that he has no knowledge of the amount due or owing upon the Gage mortgage, but avers that he purchased the claims he has stated in good faith, and that they are prior liens to .the Gage mortgage, and insists that any decree for sale made in'this suit to satisf}7 the last-named mortgage must be subject to his aforesaid liens.
Jenkinson, in his answer, admits the Gage mortgage, and that he received from Tryon and wife the quitclaim deed mentioned in the bill, but denies that the purchase price agreed upon to be paid by him was $6000, when the deed was made, or that there was any agreement made by which he was to pay the outstanding mortgages, or any part thereof ; and avers that in taking the deed of the land from Tryon he purchased merely the equitj7 of redemption of Tryon in the same, and made no agreement to assume and pay off the incumbrances. And, further answering, Jenkinson avers that at the time he took said deed, Tryon was owing him, besides what was secured by his mortgage, upwards of $400, and was at the time insolvent, and that his object in purchasing the equity of redemption was to realize, so far as possible, the amount of said indebtedness. He further denies that by agreement with Tryon, or in any other way, he ever became liable to pay complainant’s mortgage, or any part thereof, and admits by an agreement in writing he did, after receiving the deed, let defendant Thompson in possession of the farm.
This statement from the pleadings is all we deem necessary for the consideration of the case as presented upon the record. It was heard on pleadings and proofs before Judge Mills, who after a careful examination of the matter entered the usual decree of foreclosure, and held Jenkinson not personally liable. We think his decree ivas right and ought not to be disturbed. The complainant appeals.
The personal liability of Jenkinson is the only question presented needing discussion. There is no covenant in Jenkinson’s deed or in writing anywhere by which lie agrees to pay the complainant’s mortgage or any of the incumbrances. Our statutes provide that “ If the mortgage debt be secured by the obligation or other evidence of debt of any other person besides the mortgagor, the complainant may make such person a party to the bill, and the court may decree payment of the balance of such debt remaining unsatisfied, after a sale of the mortgaged premises, as well against such other person as the mortgagor, and may enforce such decree as in other cases.” How.' Stat. § 6704. If a grantee accept a deed subject to mortgage incumbrances upon the property conveyed, containing a clause that he shall pay the.incumbrances, he will then become liable for the payment thereof, and a personal decree may be rendered against him upon a foreclosure. Crawford v. Edwards 33 Mich. 354; Miller v. Thompson 34 Mich. 10; Taylor v. Whitmore 35 Mich. 97; Carley v. Fox 38 Mich. 387; Hicks v. McGarry id. 667; Booth v. Connecticut Mut. L. Ins. Co. 43 Mich. 299; Townsend v. Tudor 41 Mich. 263. No such promise, however, is claimed to have been made by Jenkinson in writing, and no such agreement can be implied in the conveyance. The statute expressly prevents any such implication. The provision upon that subject says: “No covenant shall be implied in any conveyance of real estate, whether such conveyance contain special covenants or not.” How. Stat. § 5655; Brown v. Phillips 40 Mich. 267. And it is farther provided in this connection that “ No mortgage shall be construed as implying a covenant for the payment of the sum thereby intended to be secured; and where there shall be no express covenant for such payment contained in the mortgage, and no bond or other separate instrument to secure such payment shall have been given, the remedies of the mortgagee shall be confined to the lands mentioned in tile mortgage.” How. Stat. § 5656.
The practice in this class of cases of allowing a personal decree against even the mortgagor himself comes from no original equitable jurisdiction, but springs from quite recent statutory authority; and the enforcement of collateral obligations of third persons in a foreclosure suit is a still more recent innovation, and the jurisdiction given over the latter class of persons is permissive only, and not obligatory, and will not be enforced to their prejudice, unless by their own contract or agreement they have themselves made necessary or imperative such enforcement. Johnson v. Shepard 35 Mich. 115; MoCrickett v. Wilson 50 Mich. 513. There is no pretense in this case that the claimed liability of Jenkinson could be enforce'd at law. The only contract between the mortgagor and Jenkinson, except that contained in the quitclaim deed, rested in parol, as stated by the complainant in her bill; and counsel for defendant raises the question whether in this case, under such circumstances, Jenkinson, who is not a party to the mortgage, and who has never agreed in writing with any one to pay it, can be subjected to a personal decree for its payment.
"While as at present advised my mind inclines strongly to the negative upon this question, it is not necessary to decide that question now. The bill of complaint states a different and broader case, and if fully sustained by the proofs I am not prepared to say that the complainant would not be entitled to the relief prayed for. The complainant sets up a contract made by the mortgagor with Jenkinson, by which it is averred that Jenkinson bought the land for the sum of $6000; that that was the sum the latter promised to pay therefor, and in so doing agreed with the mortgagor that he would pay all the mortgages, discharge the mortgagor’s indebtedness to him, and give his (J enkinson’s) note to mortgagor for the balance; and that in pursuance of said contract he' had given his note for the balance, his own debt had become merged, and he had paid, or caused to be paid, one of the mortgages and had taken possession of the mortgaged premises under his deed, and was then in the possession of the receipts, rents and profits thereof. These facts present a case of parol contract, partly performed, about as strong as it can be made without being in writing, and while there can be no question about its legal or equitable effect between .the parties thereto, there still remains the question, how far it can be enforced between Jenkinson and this complainant, between whom there is no privity evidenced by any writing whatever.
The question might be one of some difficulty to dispose of if we were called upon to dispose of it in this case, as the authorities and dicta upon the question are not entirely harmonious. See cases cited and Burke v. Gummey 49 Penn. St. 518; Heid v. Vreeland 30 N. J. Eq. 591; Wilson v. King 23 N. J. Eq. 150; Bowen v. Kurtz 37 Ia. 239; 1 Jones on Mortgages §§ 740, 750; Shuler v. Hardin 25 Ind. 386; Braman v. Dowse 12 Cush. 227; Hoff’s Appeal 24 Penn. St. 200-204; Thompson v. Thompson 4 Ohio St. 349; Gilman v. Williams 7 Wis. 336; Mellen v. Whipple 1 Gray 317.
Wo have carefully examined the record and the testimony in the case, and without any discussion of it here, will only say further that we do not think it preponderates in favor of the averments contained in complainant’s bill, and we all think the decree of the circuit judge should be
Affirmed, and the defendants Jenkinson and Thompson will recover their costs.
Cooley, C. J. and Campbell, J. cóncurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
In the year 1882 the plaintiffs were copartners and mill-owners engaged in the manufacture of lumber for themselves and others, at the village of North Muskegon. The defendant had a large quantity of logs in the Muskegon river to be sawed, but no mill to saw them. The plaintiffs claim that on or about the 21st day of July, 1882, the defendant made a contract with them whereby he agreed to furnish to the plaintiffs, in the boom of the Muskegon Booming Company, for sawing, all the logs he had in the Muskegon river which should come down into the boom, under the control of that company, during the sawing season of that year, and that the plaintiffs agreed to saw and pile the same in flat piles on the dock for two dollars per thousand feet, or if they cross-piled the lumber they were to have twenty-five cents per thousand additional; that the contract was verbal, and upon the conclusion thereof the defendant gave the following written order to the plaintiffs :
“Muskegon, July 21, 18S2.
MusTcegon Booming Company:
Please deliver my logs to A. H. Petrie & Co.’s mill, and oblige,
Yours, etc.,
James M. Lane.”
that subsequently, in pursuance of this order, the Booming Company delivered to the plaintiffs 575 logs; that a few days thereafter the defendant took the logs out of plaintiff’s boom to another mill to be manufactured, and entirely refused to perform his contract for the balance of the season with the plaintiffs; that the defendant’s logs included in the contract amounted to 1,555,000 feet. This suit is brought to recover the damages the plaintiffs claim to have sustained by reason of the refusal of defendant to perform his alleged contract. The plaintiffs’ declaration is special upon the contract ; plea, general issue. The cause was tried in the Muskegon circuit befoi’e a jury, and the plaintiffs had judgment for $1309.56. The defendant denied the contract on the trial, but the jury found specially against him upon that point. The question was made upon the trial whether the plaintiffs had the facilities for doing the defendant’s work mentioned in the contract. The plaintiff Petrie went upon the stand as a witness for plaintiffs, and testified to the contract and the number of feet of lumber the parties expected to have sawed and piled under the contract; the defendant’s counsel then sought to show upon cross-examination the facilities plaintiffs had for doing the work mentioned. The court refused to allow counsel to make such inquiries.
These should have been allowed; they were both pertinent and material. The attempt to cure this error at a subsequent stage of the trial was not sufficient to remove the grounds of the mischief complained of. It is the privilege of cross-examination, kept within reasonable bounds, which secures to litigants the best means of ascertaining the reasonableness and truthfulness of the testimony given, and it is the right of counsel to make such' examination before the witness is discharged from the stand, after the direct examination has been concluded; and when he is deprived of this privilege it is error. The contract declared upon was not admitted by the defendant, and after it was testified to by the plaintiff • anything which would tend to show that it was unreasonable, or could not have been carried out by either party, was proper cross-examination. It was sought to be shown also by Petrie, upon ci’oss-examination, that the plaintiffs, a few days after the contract was made, left it discretionary with the defendant to rescind whatever contract had been made. This was proper, and its exclusion was also error.
Two other questions were presented for consideration upon the argument. The first relates to the rule of damages and the proofs offered upon that subject. It is sufficient to say upon this point no speculative damages can be allowed in the case. If the plaintiffs establish their contract, and the violation of the same by the defendant, such actxial damages as they can show they have sustained as the necessary consequence of the defendant’s non-performance they will be entitled to recover, and no other. The second relates to some alleged irregularities in receiving the verdict of the jury, and the direction given by the court at the time. As the case must go back for a new trial, and it is not likely the same question will recur, there is no occasion for considering this now.
For the reason above noticed the judgment must be set aside and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
In this case plaintiff recovered below upon an Auditor General’s deed purporting to be made under the Tax Law of 1882, for taxes returned under the laws previously existing for the year 1881. Testimony was introduced to show that of these taxes the highway tax was not returned delinquent by the highway officers, although included in the sale, and also that a bridge-loan tax was unauthorized by law, as not legally voted by the township. The court below refused to allow the tax deed to be assailed for those or any other causes, although it was admitted on the trial that valid objections existed if they could be shown, and ordered judgment for plaintiff.
This Court was equally divided upon the constitutionality of the Tax Law of 1882, authorizing proceedings on the equity side of the circuit courts to procure a sale. But the members of the Court who gave their opinion in favor of the statute expressed no opinion upon the conelusiveness of the title so given. This is the first case which has distinctly presented that question upon a trial in ejectment on such a deed.
But it is claimed by defendant that the sale itself is not so far covered by the law of 1882 as to give it the benefit of such presumptions. And while I adhere to my opinion that the tax law is invalid as to all the proceedings connected with the sale, yet even if that law were held good the other questions do not necessarily depend upon how that point is decided, if that statute is inapplicable to the tax returns of 1881.
Section 70 of the General Tax Law of 1882 does attempt to provide in terms that for such taxes sales shall be made under the new law. But it is insisted that this section fails to cover them — ¿first, because not within the title of the act; and second, because the old law was by another statute, supplementary but approved on the same day, kept in force as to old taxes.
The General Law (Act 9 of 1882) is entitled “ An Act to provide for the assessment of property and the levy and collection of taxes thereon.” This law is not either so drawn or so entitled as to indicate that it was meant to operate as a compilation or revision of the body of tax laws. Except in section 70 it contains no reference to existing laws, and does not by name or allusion modify or repeal them. Its provisions, with that exception, are prospective. Act number 7 covers the subject of the sale of State tax lands, by amendment of a law of 1881, and Act number 11 is an omnibus repealing act, including in its repeal all of the former general tax legislation, as well as several other statutes on similar subjects. This repeal, however, was not absolute, but qualified. The repealing clause declares that those laws “ be, and the same all are hereby repealed, so far as relates to the future assessment of taxes, and the steps to collect the same. They remain in force only for the completion of all proceedings heretofore begun for the collection of taxes, except as otherwise provided by law, and for the protection of all lights gained thereunder, and conveyance of all land heretofore sold or that may hereafter be sold, and all actions commenced and now pending under the provisions thereof.”
The title of Act number 9 in its ordinary meaning would not suggest to any one that it was intended to provide for any taxes not thereafter assessed, or that it was designed in any way to interfere with existing cases. The law of 1869, with a precisely similar title, was held in Clark v. Hall 19 Mich. 356, and in Smith v. Auditor General 20 Mich. 398, to be entirely prospective in operation, and in the hitter case the title was considerably discussed. That statute made no material change in the methods or conditions of sale, so that the present question was not involved, but it made important changes in regard to other rights of land-owners, which were held not within the title, and not therefore covered by the legal effect of the act. In the present case the language does cover the sale, but if the title and the rest of the act refer to the future only, this would not save it, because the Constitution itself invalidates all that is not fairly indicated by the title.
But we are not left to this alone. Act number 11 is by its title as well as its language made applicable to existing taxes, and the extent of the repeal must depend upon its terms. Whether treated as a subsequent statute, — as perhaps it should be, because not passed till afterwards by the Legislature, — or as a contemporaneous one, it cannot be supposed that the provisions of Act number 9 can invalidate any portion of it. If section 70 is in force, then so much of Act 11 as refers to future sales becomes entirely nugatory. There is no principle which can give to an earlier statute such an effect over one passed after the Legislature adopted it. By its express terms Act 11 repeals the old laws “so far as relates to the future assessment of taxes and the steps to collect the same.” It continues them in force for the protection of all rights accru-: ing, the completion of proceedings begun for collection, and , expressly for the “conveyance of land heretofore sold, or that may hereafter be sold.” If section 70 applies, no land could thereafter be sold under the old law at all.
The changes made are radical, not only as to the time and manner of sale, but as to the notice, and the right of redemption, and the power of the Auditor General to give relief. That such revolutionary changes should be looked for under a title which apparently had no bearing on them, would be beyond the ordinary rules of construction. That the Legislature had attention called to section 70 by the title, and yet immediately, with a comprehension of that fact, passed another law on a different theory, cannot be reconciled with probability. The main purpose of the constitutional clause invalidating so much of every statute as is not included within the title was to protect the Legislature from passing laws not fully understood. The insertion of section 70, and the passage of Act 11 as supplementary to the statute containing it, can only- be regarded as showing inadvertence somewhere.
I think the sale for taxes of 1881 was not within the legitimate purview of the provisions of Act 9 as contained in its title, and that the sale was unauthorized. If it could be made under that law, I have on other occasions given my reasons why it is invalid for other reasons. But I think it is not covered by that statute.
The judgment should be reversed and a new trial granted.
Sherwood and Champlin, JJ. concurred. | [
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Ostrander, J.
The bill is filed by a number of landowners to restrain defendant from flooding lands. The specific relief asked for is the lowering of a dam maintained by defendant Bank of Belleville 13 inches, the maintenance and operation in said dam of suitable flood gates. The dam is built in the Huron river on section 21, in Yan Burén township, Wayne county. The right of defendant to maintain the dam is not denied, nor the right to flow such lands and to such extent as they were flooded by a dam built about the year 1839, and known as the “Bell Dam.” Defendant claims no other or greater rights than were gained by prescription by the owners of the Bell dam, and denies that its dam does, in fact, flood more land than did the Bell dam. During its existence portions of the Bell dam were repeatedly washed away, and in 1894 a new dam, called Jbhe “Pelant dam,” was built some 100 feet above the site of the Bell dam. In the year 1900 the Pelant dam was, in turn, washed away, and the present dam, called the “ Coomer dam,” was constructed 70 rods below the site of the original or Bell dam. The Coomer dam was completed in November, 1900. In October, 1901, Coomer began the erection of a new mill, to be operated by the water power, and the mill was completed and in operation in February, 1902. The cost of the mill and machinery was a sum between $10,000 and $13,000.
Since the construction of the Coomer dam, the water above the dam has been uniformly higher than it was before, and the lands of complainants have been, to some extent, damaged by the higher water. This was the finding of the court below, and is one with which counsel for defendant agree.' But the court was of opinion that the Coomer dam did not cause the high water, and that it was due to the fact that there had been a larger rainfall and greater volume of water in the river since the year 1901 than there had been in previous years. The records of observations of the rainfall at various nearby points which were introduced irn evidence are, as would be expected, not in precise agreement. Those for Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti go back, some of them, for less than 20 years. The record of the United States Weather Bureau of the rainfall at Detroit from 1871 to 1904, .both years inclusive, shows a mean annual fall of 32.13 inches. The falls for the years 1900 to 1904, inclusive, are 31.45, 28.78, 35.53, 35.88, 28.32 inches. For these years the observations taken at the Detroit observatory at the University of Michigan are 26.17, 26.09, 41.50, 35.63, 28.21 inches, showing the effect in 1902 o£ a rain which perceptibly increased the volume of water in the Huron river, causing a portion of the abutment of the Coomer dam to be washed away. The observations at the University show rainfall for years 1895 to 1899, both years included, of 25.89, 32.27, 32.49, 31.63, 24.75 inches. The difference of some 10£ inches in these two five-year periods is found in the months of June and July, 1902, in both of which there was an excessive local rainfall. A careful study of those records and of the testimony of the witnesses leads to the conclusion that the rainfall indicated does not account for the increased height of water above the defendant’s dam. (
There is no evidence tending to prove that the Bell or the Pelant dams raised the water to its present height. Indeed, it is not contended that they did. The observation of the landowners and others, of the effect of the water upon the lands before and since the year 1901, the fact that tile drains and ditches which before that year performed their offices have since been covered or filled with water, and that this has not been and is not a mere temporary condition, strongly support the conclusion that the Coomer dam obstructs the flow of water past these lands to an extent unknown while either of the other dams was in existence. Defendant offered evidence to support the contention that it had, in fact, a dam no higher than the Bell dam. If that fact were established, it would not follow necessarily that it did not offer greater obstruction to the flow of water. Indeed, it is established that the Bell dam was very infirm, leaked badly, and was repaired annually. Turner v. Hart, 71 Mich. 128, 137, 138.
The present dam is some 70 rods farther down the stream, where there is a narrower channel. The fall in the bed of the river between these two points is not shown. There is some fall. There is positive testimony that the Coomer dam is some 13 inches higher than the Bell dam was, and equally positive testimony that its crest is little, if any, higher than that of the Bell dam. None of this testimony is convincing, unless we are able to find which one of two starting points for levels which were taken is shown to be the proper one. Various witnesses claim to have knowledge sufficient to enable them to tell where the top of the Bell dam was. These witnesses do not agree. It is shown that levels were taken from these (disagreeing) points to the Coomer dam, resulting in the demonstration that that dam is no higher (or that it is much higher) than the Bell dam was. It is clear that, if the crest of the Coomer dam is level with the crest of the Bell dam, the Coomer dam is higher than the Bell dam was. If, for example, the Coomer dam is built at a point two feet lower than the one where the Bell dam stood, and was built no higher than the Bell dam, its crest should be upon a level two feet below that of the crest of the Bell dam. We have read the record with care to discover the evidence upon which is based the assertion that these two dams were constructed of the same height. We do not find it. On the contrary, the testimony, other than that relating to the increased height of water, which seems to us to be most satisfactory upon this subject, leads to the conclusion that the Coomer dam is higher than the Bell dam was. We find this evidence in the testimony, meager as it is, of the actual measured height of these dams and the head of water. It is conceded that the Pelant dam was of the same height as the Bell dam. The evidence is, and it is not disputed, that the height of the Pelant dam was 5£ feet. The man who built the Pelant dam testified:
“The height of the water head was 5f feet in both the Bell and Pelant dams. I know because I took the level from the Bell dam when I built the Pelant. I mean by the head the crest.”
A measurement made December 9, 1902, by an engineer, showed, and no effort was made to dispute the fact, that the crest of the new dam above the apron is 6.45 feet. The same engineer, on the same date, found the head of water at the Coomer dam — from head water to tail water — 7.06 feet. A witness for defendant testified, and this is undisputed, that the apron of the Coomer dam was lli inches from top to bottom, and the posts, the upright pieces, which made the dam, were about 5 feet 10 inches long, the cap about 8 inches. If the ap'ron was entirely above the bottom of the river, we have a structure some 7 feet 5\ inches in height. Flash boards were used on the Bell dam. Assuming they were a foot in width, the actual height of both dam and flash board would not be equal to the height of the Coomer dam. There is other evidence, not here repeated, which supports the finding that the Coomer dam is, in fact, a higher and a more perfect structure, a greater obstruction to the flow of water, than was either the Bell or the Pelant dam, and that as a result the water in the river where the lands of complainants abut upon the same is caused to stand at a higher level than it used to stand. It would seem that the evidence of the precise height of these dams, and of the difference in elevation between the spot where the Bell and that where the Coomer dam was constructed, with specifications of the water which leaked through the old dams and flumes, should have been more certain. The evidence afforded preponderates in favor of the position of complainants. It is matter of common knowledge that lands may be damaged, even though not covered, by water which stands along them. We therefore necessarily ascribe some of the damage to complainants’ lands which is asserted to the obstruction of the water by de fendant’s dam, and, as defendant asserts no right to maintain the water at its present height, and does not attempt to fix the point to which, by prescriptive right, it might lawfully flood the lands, relief should be given as prayed, unless there is some satisfactory reason for refusing it.
It is urged that complainants have been dilatory in making their complaint, for which reason the court should hold them estopped to ask that the dam be lowered. The facts are that in December, 1902, the township brought suit against the owners of the dam, and that this suit was dismissed upon an agreement of the owners to cut the dam down 10 inches on the west and 13 inches on the east end thereof in default of having, before a day named, purchased the right of flowage or otherwise satisfied landowners on the river. Said dam owners also agreed to indemnify the township for any loss or damage in consequence of setting back the water. If, before the day certain, the dam owners succeeded in satisfying said landowners, so as to allow the dam to remain at its present height, then the township was to raise its bridge, a few feet below which the dam was built, three feet, and the owners were to properly construct the roadway affected. This agreement was not carried out for the reason that the owners of the dam became, as they claim, convinced that the survey which showed their dam to be too high was erroneous. The bill in the present case was filed in April, 1905. The agreement referred to fixed July 15, 1904, as the limit of time allowed to secure the necessary right of flowage. The suit was not discontinued until November, 1904. Meantime, in 1903, as appears from correspondence between counsel, the owners had put a waste gate in the dam which they asserted would take care of the surplus water, and had secured estimates, or an estimate, of the expense of cutting down the dam. There were, then, proceedings pending and an existing agreement, of which, we assume, complainants and others in the township had knowledge; the possible and probable result being an accommodation. Under such circumstances, it would be an extreme application of the doctrine of estoppel by nonaction to deny relief to which complainants are otherwise entitled. In this respect, the present suit and Blake v. Cornwell, 65 Mich. 467, and Miller v. Cornwell, 71 Mich. 270, should be distinguished. There is here nothing to indicate that complainants had reason to apprehend that the new dam would be so constructed as to affect their lands in any other or different way than former dams had done. Nor does it appear that the effects now complained of would become immediately noticeable. In the year 1902 the great rainfall may have been held responsible for conditions then appearing. The action of the township authorities, if successful, would amend the condition. Defendant is not in the position of one giving notice of the intention to raise the water to an unwarranted height; and even now asserts that it is exercising no more than its prescriptive rights.
Some evidence was given of the cost of cutting down the dam, to prove that the expense will be small, and some evidence, also, of the resulting damage to the mill-owner in loss of power. The millowner has no right to profit out of the water at the expense of those upper proprietors whose lands abut upon the stream. Moreover, it does not appear that the mill cannot be operated to its capacity with the head of water which will be afforded with a dam 13 inches lower. On the other hand, it appears that several hundreds of acres of complainants’ lands are injuriously affected, with a large aggregate annual loss;
The decree below is reversed, and a decree will be entered in this court requiring the defendant Bank of Belleville to lower its dam 13 inches at the east side and 10 inches at the west side, the crest to be made level, within 90 days from the entry of said decree, unless counsel shall agree that for any reasons this time should be extended, from and after which time said defendant will be perpetually enjoined from maintaining its said dam at its present, or at any, height above the level thereof so fixed. Complainants will recover of said defendant the costs of both courts.
McAlvay, C. J., and Grant, Blair, and Montgomery, JJ., concurred. | [
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Hooker, J.
The defendants have appealed from an order overruling a demurrer to a bill for specific performance of a land contract. ' The bill alleges that the complainants are copartners, engaged in the business of buying and selling land, and that their method is to secure options, and then seek purchasers, to whom they contract the land, afterwards completing their own purchase. In June, 1906, they made an option contract with the defendants, who are and were then husband and wife, to purchase at complainants’ option, to be exercised on or before November 1, 1906, at the price of $8,300, the defendants farm. The consideration paid at the time of making this agreement, which was in writing, was $1. A copy was attached to the bill:
“Option contract, between Sol. Mier Co., of Ligonier, Ind., party of the first part, and Samuel B. Hadden and Matilda A. Hadden, his wife, of Ontwa township, Cass county, Mich., party of the second part, to wit.
“In consideration of one dollar ($1.00) paid by party of the first part to party of the second part, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged and in consideration of the agreements hereinafter set out, said second party hereby sells to said first party for the sum of eighty-three hundred dollars ($8,300.00) to be paid to said second party as follows: Cash upon possession of land (less amount of liens and encumbrances on the real estate) upon execution to said first party of a warranty deed therefor the follow: ing real estate in Cass county, State of Michigan, viz.:
“ Fifty-seven (57) acres off the east side of the northwest quarter (•£•) of section seven (7) south of highway and thirty-three (33) acres off the west side of the northeast quarter (¿) south of highway in section seven (7) all in township eight (8) south of range fifteen (15) west containing ninety (90) acres more or less to be more accurate, described in deed.
“Party of the second part agrees to furnish abstract showing perfect title to said real estate, which title must be made satisfactory to said first party’s attorney, and second party agrees to convey said real estate to party of the first part by deed of general warranty. First party may demand the execution of said deed at any time within November 1, 1906, from the date hereof; and if second party fails or refuses to execute the same or fails or refuses to perform the stipulations hereof on his part, then first party may by suit enforce the specific performance by second party of this contract, and the execution of a deed for said real estate, or may, at his option, by suit, recover from said second party, with interest and attorney’s fees and without relief, whatever damage he may have suffered by reason of any default on the part of said second party.
‘ ‘ First party may refuse to purchase said real estate, and, if he does so, shall forfeit and pay to second party with interest and attorney’s fees and without relief, the sum of one dollar ($1.00) which shall constitute the only liability of first party for such refusal.
“This contract to be void unless the first party offers performance thereof on his part within said period of November 1, 1906.
“Deed to be made and delivered at the office of Sol. Mier Co., at South Bend, Ind.
“It is further agreed that the party of the second part reserve the tenant’s interest the one-half (J) of the wheat sown in the fall of 1906.
“Possession to be given March 1, 1907.
“Executed in duplicate this 21st day of June, 1906. “Sol. Mier Co.,
“By Leon Rose. “Samuel B. Hadden. “Matilda A. Hadden. "Seal.] Seal. ] [Seal.]”
The defendant Samuel B. Hadden still owns the premises, and the price was a fair one. The bill alleges that the complainants relied on the option, and have found a purchaser, and made a contract to convey the premises to him, and will be liable to him in damages if they shall fail to perform their contract. They elected to purchase the land, and so notified the defendants on or about October 1, 1906, when defendants informed them that they would not perform the contract made by them. "We have examined the bill in the record in the light of defendants claim that the contract is unconscionable and are of the opinion that it is not open to that charge. We shall therefore turn our attention to the legal questions raised.
Adequacy of Remedy at Law.
If-it were to be conceded that equity would never enforce specifically a contract for the purchase of land, where damages would afford an adequate remedy, we should, nevertheless, be justified in enforcing this, because of the contract obligations which have grown out of it. The complainants’ refusal or inability to perform such contracts would be likely to subject them to damages for nonperformance, and the danger that the damages recoverable upon this contract might not equal the sum that another jury might award upon that, to say nothing of the inconvenience and expense of two lawsuits.
Want of Mutuality.
(a) Options for the purchase of land, where based on a valid consideration, are valid contracts, and may be specifically enforced. See Gustin v. School District, 94 Mich. 502.
(6) It is claimed that .this contract cannot be specifically enforced, for the reason that the complainants have the right to refuse to purchase after they have accepted the option. We do not so construe the contract. This provision is essential to make the contract optional. -
(c) Another obstacle to specific enforcement is said to be a want of mutuality in the right of enforcement, for the reason that the complainants have choice of action at law or specific enforcement by the express terms of the contract, while the defendants have not, and the latter’s damages are stipulated, while those of the former are not. We see nothing in this that affects the question. It is a part of the provision Which constitutes the option.
Validity of the Contract.
It is said that the contract is void for want of witnesses, under 3 Comp. Laws, § 9035, which provides that:
“(9035) Section 1. The People of the State of Michigan enact, That contracts for the sale of land or any interest therein, shall be executed in the presence of two witnesses, who shall subscribe their names thereto as such, and the vendor named in such contract, and executing the same may acknowledge the execution thereof before any judge, or commissioner of a court of record, or before any notary public or justice of the peace within this State; and the officer taking such acknowledgment shall endorse thereon a certificate of the acknowledgment thereof, and the date of making the same under his hand.”
This is answered by 3 Comp. Laws, § 9051:
“ (9051) Sec. 4. No conveyance of land or instrument intended to operate as such conveyance, made in good faith and upon a valuable consideration, whether heretofore made or hereafter to be made, shall be wholly void by reason of any defect in any statutory requisite in the sealing, signing, attestation, acknowledgment, or certificate of acknowledgment thereof; nor shall any deed or conveyance, heretofore or hereafter to be made, designed and intended to operate as a conveyance to any religious or benevolent society or corporation, be wholly void by reason of any mistake in the name or description of the grantee, nor because of any failure of such society or corporation to comply with any statutory provisions concerning the organization of such society or corporation: Provided, Such society or corporation shall hereafter comply with the provisions of the statute touching the organization or incorporation of such societies; but the same, when not otherwise effectual to the purposes intended, may be allowed to operate as an agreement for a proper and lawful conveyance of the premises in question, and may be enforced specifically by suit in equity in any court of competent jurisdiction, subject to the rights of subsequent purchasers in good faith and for a valuable consideration; and when any such defective instrument has been or shall hereafter be recorded in the office of the register of deeds of the county in which such lands are situate, such record shall hereafter operate as legal notice of all the rights secured by such instrument.”
This section was applied to a contract in the case of Aultman, Miller & Co. v. Pettys, 59 Mich. 486, where it was held that the record of a contract having only one witness was constructive notice of a contract. This necessarily implies that the contract was not void, under section 9035, for otherwise the question of notice would have been unimportant, but Mr. Justice Morse expressly said:
“We think the agreement conveyed such an interest in land that it was entitled to record. It was something more than an executory contract for the sale of the land. It expressly gave the future wife such an interest, at once upon its execution and delivery, that Daniel Pettys could ,not sell or incumber it without being joined in the deed or mortgage by the defendant, Lucina. Pettys, and it was intended to-and did operate as a conveyance to her of a present interest in the premises; such an interest that, without her deed or lease, no possession could be given to any one.”
The contract there under consideration was a conditional contract to convey land. See, also, Chicago Lumbering Co. v. Powell, 120 Mich. 57.
Performance.
It is contended that the complainants have not performed the contract upon their part. They served notice in writing after having given oral notice of intention to take the land, and demanded an' abstract. Defendants had previously refused to perform the contract. The bill offers to pay the price, and to bring into court the amount thereof to be paid on delivery of a conveyance. We think this sufficient allegation of an offer to perform.
Renunciation.
Counsel claim that the defendants’ refusal to perform before the written demand was made was a renunciation of the contract, and effective to determine complainants’ rights to require performance. If this would be so as to a gratuitous option before acceptance of the offer therein contained, it is not so in this case, where a valuable consideration was paid for the contract. See Gustin v. School District, supra.
We think it unnecessary to further discuss the case.
The order is affirmed, with costs.
McAlvay, C. J., and Montgomery and Moore, JJ., concurred. . | [
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Ostbandeb, J.
(after stating the facts). There is nothing in the standard form of policy prohibiting the contract in question. In the absence of other provisions, the sixth exception found in the act of 1905 is broad enough in terms to permit it. Quinn v. Fire Ass’n, 180 Mass. 560. But there is another provision. The words employed in the said sixth exception, if literally construed and applied, would permit the standard form of policy to be used as a mere frame upon which to affix riders embodying the contract of the parties. We assume that the essential purpose of the legislation was to provide a standard policy, and that the exceptions mentioned are to be given a meaning, if that is possible, in harmony with this purpose. It is not to this sixth exception, but to the clause of the policy which permits the extent of the contribution to be made by the company in case of loss to be provided for by agreement, that we must look, other legislation aside, for permission to make the contract in question. This clause covers the subject, and is not enlarged by the exception referred to. That this clause was, under the law of 1881, modified by the act of 1895, is admitted. If the act of 1895 is alive, it modifies the same clause in the policy of 1905.
The act of 1895 applies to all policies issued by all companies doing business in the State. The commissioner of insurance and apparently the insurance companies have regarded it as in force. No good reason is shown for regarding it repealed. See Vorous v. Insurance Co., 102 Wis. 76. The question is: Shall it have the application which is contended for by relator ? Assuming the law to be valid, and no attack is made upon it, the case presented is not literally within its terms. The contract in question does not provide in terms that the liability of the company shall be limited or restricted by reason of the failure of the insured to insure the property for any certain amount or proportion of the cash value thereof. The liability of the company is fixed whether the insured does or does not procure any other insurance. The contract, so far as-the point in question is concerned, is to pay such proportion of any loss as the amount of the policy bears to 80 per cent, of the cash value of the property insured. But in effect the contract made by a rider in the statute form and the one made by a rider in the form used in this case is precisely the same. By this is meant that if the contract in the case presented was one requiring the insured to carry insurance equal to 80 per cent, of the value of the property, in default of which he should be regarded as a co-insurer to the extent'of the deficit, the result to the insured in case of loss would be the same. No one disputes this conclusion. The contract in one case as well as in the other provides, in fact, that the liability of the company to the insured — that is, the sum for which the policy is issued— shall be restricted if the insured does not insure the property for a certain proportion of' the actual cash value thereof. If - no distinction can be made between the method employed here and the literal statute method, if co-insurance was, as seems to be admitted, aimed at by the legislature, it would be a narrow construction which would regard the statute as applying to one case and not to the other, as a law to be evaded by mere phraseology. Although the statute imposes penalties for disobedience, it may be also regarded as a remedial statute aimed at a real or a supposed mischief. Counsel have pointed out no substantial distinction between co-insurance effected in one way ánd in the other, and have given no convincing reason for a construction which shall regard only the letter of the law of 1895. In many States there was in the years from 1893 to 1899 similar legislation, some of it more specific than our own, directed to preventing, or regulating, co-insurance. In many of these States the law has since been modified. For example, it is now the law of Wisconsin—
“No such company shall require the use of any such so-called co-insurance clause or rider to be attached or made a part of any policy except at the option of the insured, and every such company shall give to every applicant for insurance the rate of premium demanded with and without such clause or rider.” 1 Wis. Stat. § 1943a.
The necessity for a blanket policy of insurance which shall cover all of the property of large institutions, some of which have many buildings, with personal property moving constantly from one to the other and receiving an added value in each, is evident. No fluctuating rate of premium which is fair can be arranged for such a risk. Unless a contract may be made proportioning liability upon any policy by the actual value of all the property at risk, the premium must be fixed by the extreme hazard. The construction which the commissioner of insurance has given to the law of 1895 has permitted the use of such policies in certain cases, and has met the demand for the right to make such contracts of insurance. Such contracts are neither vicious in purpose nor fraudulent in effect so long as they are understood, and so long as the insured may choose them or the ordinary policies. But by the terms of the Michigan standard policy, if the extent of the contribution by the insurer in case of loss may be arranged by agreement, it may also be imposed as a condition. If it is lawful to impose such a condition, it may be imposed in all cases. The construction of the law contended for, if agreed to, leaves it entirely in the power of insurance companies to tender no other form of contract. I think the legislature intended to prevent such a condition of things, and, as it has not provided an alternative, the court may recognize none. It must be held that the contract in question was in violation of the act of 1895.
I dismiss the proposition that this construction of the law imposes an unconstitutional limitation upon the right to make contracts by saying that the power, which is not denied, to make a standard form of policy for use in the State involves the power, to make all of the terms of the policy. Examples of legislation similar in character are the valued policy laws of various States.
It is stated in the brief of the attorney general that inasmuch as the construction of the law made by the commissioner of insurance has been in good faith followed by insurance companies, including the Concordia Company, it is not insisted that there shall be an immediate issue of a peremptory writ of mandamus. As all matters connected with the enforcement of the law are by the law itself placed in the control of the commissioner and the attorney general, it is sufficient for the court to state a conclusion in the premises.
McAlvay, O. J., and Carpenter, Grant, and Blair, JJ., concurred. | [
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Blair, J.
The respondent was arraigned upon an information containing three counts, based upon' section 11562 of the Compiled Laws. Respondent moved to quash the information, and the first and third counts were quashed. The second count, upon which respondent was tried, is as follows:
“And the said prosecuting attorney, who prosecutes as aforesaid, further gives the said court to understand and be informed that heretofore, to wit, the 2d day of January, A. D. 1904, at the village of Marlette, and in the county aforesaid, one Clarence L. Messer, late of the village of Marlette aforesaid, being then and there an officer of a certain incorporated bank, to wit, cashier of the Marlette State Bank, a corporation before then duly organized and incorporated, and then existing under the laws of the State of Michigan aforesaid, and doing then and there, by virtue thereof, a general banking business, certain moneys to a large amount, to wit, to the amount of $2,635.50, of the value of $2,635.50, the money, property, and effects of, belonging to, and in the possession of the said Marlette State Bank, did, then and there, in the Marlette State Bank aforesaid, with intent then and there to injure and defraud the said Marlette State Bank, the owner of said money, property, and effects, feloniously embezzle and fraudulently convert to his own use; that so, the said Clarence L. Messer, said. cashier of the Marlette State Bank aforesaid, at the time last aforesaid, at the village of Marlette aforesaid, thereby in the manner and form aforesaid, the said money, property, and effects of,, belonging to, and in the possession of the aforesaid Marlette State Bank, to wit, $2,635.50, of the value of $2,635.50, in the said Marlette State Bank, feloniously did steal, take, and carry away; contrary to the form of the statute in such case made and provided, and against the peace and dignity of the people of the State of Michigan.”
A plea of not guilty was entered by direction of the court, and, respondent demanding a bill of specifications and particulars of the matters upon which the people intended to rely upon the trial of said cause, a bill of particulars was filed, containing many items, among which were the following:
“April 5, 1904. Currency obtained by respondent from the Commercial State Bank of Marlette, on behalf of the Marlette State Bank, in the sum of $1,000. It is claimed that this sum, the money and property of the Marlette State Bank aforesaid, was on, to wit, the said 5th day of April, 1904, appropriated by said respondent and converted to his own-use.
“January 2, 1904, $2,635.50 charged against savings account of J. D. Harris, No. 39, on the savings deposit ledger of the Marlette State Bank, but no corresponding entry appears in his savings pass book of that number.”
The Harris item was the first upon which testimony was given, and was followed by testimony as to many other items, including the item of April 5th. The testimony as to the item of April 5th was given by Mr. Merrill, the second vice president and assistant cashier of the Commercial State Bank of Marlette, and was, in substance, as follows: That it was the custom of respondent, as cashier of the Marlette State Bank, to come to witness’ bank to borrow currency for his bank.
“ Mr. Messer came into the bank shortly after 9 o’clock on the morning of April 5th, and asked if we had any currency to spare. I told him I didn’t know, but I would look. I looked in our safe, and came out and asked him how much he wanted. He said that a thousand would do, that they expected some in on the 10:20 train from Port Huron, and could replace it. I told him I could let him have that much, and I gave him a thousand, for which he gave me this check. On that date, April 5th, 1904, he did not have a private account in our bank. He left our bank with the thousand dollars in currency. I next saw Mr. Messer not until after he had returned from the western trip. * * * Mr. Messer had no private account in our bank at the date of April 5, 1904. He never had a private account in that bank. * * *
“ Q. Now, on the 5th day of April, 1904, when this paper was handed to you and you gave him the currency, what was done with the paper ? * * *
“A. I laid it back in the safe from where I had taken the currency. * * *
“ Q. What do those two letters there mean ?
“A. ‘ Cy ? ’
“ Q. Yes.
“A. Currency, I should judge.
" Q. That paper is drawn in the usual way for a private check ? * * *
“A. Checks paid over the counter and charged to commercial accounts are always signed with the full name. I never paid a check in that way. *, * * I can’t remember the exact time it was that Mr. Messer got the $1,000 that day. It was somewhere between 9 and 10 o’clock, or it might have been before 9. I didn’t look at the clock. It was that morning before the westbound train that went through at 10:20’.
“ Q. Before that day what had been the custom in reference to getting currency by the other bank for exigencies ? * * *
“A. The other bank, the Marlette State Bank, handled the stock business, and people getting checks on that bank would go in there and get the money, and perhaps come to our bank and pay some loans, and in that way they would be short of currency, and we would have more than we needed in the fall of the year or at any time when there would be stock shipping, and, to save us the expense of shipping the currency out, and the Marlette Bank shipping it in, why, they would come over and we would let them have the currency, and then oftentimes it would be the other way; it would be an accommodation to us — vice versa.”
The check given by Messer was as follows:
“ Mablette, Michigan, April 5th, 1904.
“Commercial State Bank, pay to Cy or order one thousand dollars, $1,000.
“ C. L. M.”
Respondent, after getting the $1,000, went to the Marlette State Bank — “ he just stepped inside an instant and stepped out again” — transacted no business in the bank; did not go behind the counter; paid no money into the bank; and, upon leaving the bank, immediately took a train and left the State. This item was paid by the Marlette State Bank and charged to respondent’s personal account. At the close of the proofs, the prosecution elected to go to the jury “ upon the thousand dollar item of April 5, 1904, and the Preston item of April 4, 1904, of $275.” The jury rendered a verdict “finding the respondent guilty of embezzling the sum of $1,000 claimed to have been obtained and converted under date of April 5, 1904.”
The case is brought to this court upon exceptions before sentence, and the errors relied upon are (1) the insuffi ciency of the information; (2) the erroneous admission of testimony; (3) improper opening statement, remarks, and arguments of the prosecuting officers; (4) failure of the court to give respondent’s requests to charge; and (5) errors in the charge of the court as given.
First. Respondent’s counsel argue that the information is bad because the statute upon which it is based, (a) either provides for the punishment of a single offense of which embezzlement is one of the constituent elements, and embezzlement is not properly charged; or (6) the statute covers two distinct offenses, viz., embezzlement in the legal sense and fraudulent conversion not necessarily comprising all of the legal elements of embezzlement, in which event the information is bad for duplicity. The view of this statute held by the trial judge was stated by him as follows:
“ Now, in relation to the second count, while there may be some doubt about it, I think the statement that Mr. Messer was cashier of that bank, that it was an incorporated bank, and that he is charged with the embezzlement and conversion of the funds owned or in possession of the bank, I think that is a clear statement of the fact that he had as cashier the control and custody of the funds in the possession of the bank. I can see no reason otherwise, and I find no case. While all the cases under consideration contain thatallegation, yet I can see no reason for it in the case of a cashier of a bank. Under the law organizing banks and defining the duties of the various officers of the bank, and under the civil cases which have defined the duties and relations of the cashier of a bank to the bank, the statement that he is cashier is a virtual statement that he is in possession and control of the funds of the bank. If that allegation had been in the information, there would have been the opposing statements, first, that he was in possession of these funds; and, second, that the bank was in possession of the funds.
“ It is not an inference or intendment, as we speak of it in the law, but a plain statement of fact, that he was cashier, and that statement involves the other fact that he was in possession of the funds and in control. I think the word ‘ embezzlement,’ as used there in the statute, has a plain and ordinary meaning, coupled with the other phrase ‘embezzle or convert to his own use.’ The two phrases may be taken together, and may be used in the information together, and mean that he has fraudulently converted the money of the bank to his own use simply.”
Under this interpretation of the statute the terms “embezzle” and “fraudulently convert to his own use” are equivalent or synonymous terms. In our opinion, it was the intention of the legislature, in enumerating the different acts in this statute which should be deemed to constitute larceny, to thereby create different species of larceny. The acts necessary to constitute one species of such statutory offense are described by the word “embezzle.” Those necessary to constitute another are described by the words “ fraudulently convert to his own use.” The terms are not synonymous. The act applies, not only to the officers and agents of the bank, but to its servants as well, and cases will readily suggest themselves where a prosecution would lie for fraudulent conversion when an indictment for embezzlement could not be maintained. Similar statutes have been thus construed. State v. Palmer, 32 La. Ann. 565; U. S. v. Harper, 33 Fed. 471; U. S. v. Northway, 120 U. S. 327; 5 Cyc. p. 585, and cases cited. We think the charge in the information is embezzlement larceny, and that the use of the words “and fraudulently convert to his own use ” did not make the count uncertain or double. Although the words used are also found in the statute as describing a different phase of the offense, they are also appropriate to the description of the offense of embezzlement; the usual form of information containing the charge, “ and the said money then and there fraudulently and feloniously did embezzle and convert to his own use.”
The only usual allegation lacking in this information is the one charging that the money came into the possession of the respondent by virtue of his office or employment, and it is contended that the omission of that allegation rendered the information void. The authorities fully bear out this contention, unless, as argued by counsel for the people, there is something to distinguish this case from the usual case of embezzlement. The general statutes relating to embezzlement contain in their enumeration of the facts constituting the offense the following or equivalent words, relative to possession of the property embezzled, viz.:
“ Any money or other property of another, which shall have come to his possession, or shall be under his charge by virtue of such office or employment.” Sections 11565, 11591, 3 Comp. Laws.
The provision as to possession of the property in the statute under consideration is th at it shall be in the ‘ ‘ possession of such bank;” and the only possession which could be stated in the information in compliance with the statute would be a concurrent possession by virtue of respondent’s position. It is argued by the prosecution that concurrent possession is involved in the respondent’s office and the allegation that he was cashier at the time he converted the money to his own use is as much a charge that the money was in his possession and under his custody and control by virtue of his office, as though the charge were inserted in express terms. As to the office of cashier, we are of the opinion that this argument is sound. Century Dictionary, definition of “cashier;” Kimball v. Cleveland, 4 Mich. 606; Peninsular Bank v. Hanmer, 14 Mich. 208; Merchants’ Bank v. State Bank, 10 Wall. (U. S.) 650; Taylor v. Commercial Bank, 174 N. Y. 181 (62 L. R. A. 783); 5 Am. & Eng. Enc. Law (2d Ed.), p. 761.
It is further contended that the court erred in permitting evidence of other acts of embezzlement committed within six months next after the time stated in the indictment under section 11782, 3 Comp. Laws, for the reason, first, because the intent of such section is to confine its terms to charges of embezzlement under the general statute; second, because section 11782 refers solely to embezzlement by a clerk, agent, or servant, which terms do not include the cashier or officer of a bank; third, be cause section 11562 refers to an embezzlement or conversion occurring in such bank; fourth, because section 11562 'embraces not only embezzlement, but fraudulent conversions, and section 11782 is not broad enough in its terms to include the offense of a fraudulent conversion. Com. v. Wyman, 8 Metc. (Mass.) 247; People v. McKinney, 10 Mich. 89. This precise question was before the court in Com. v. Wyman, under statutes substantially identical with our own, and it was there held, as stated in the syllabus of the case:
“ The officers of banks are not included in the Revised Statutes, chap. 133, § 10, which provide that in the prosecution of the offense of embezzling the money, etc., of any person by his clerk, servant, or agent, it shall be sufficient to allege generally in the indictment an embezzlement of money to a certain amount and to give evidence on the trial of any such embezzlement committed within six months next after the time stated in the indictment.”
In People v. McKinney, Mr. Justice Christianct, delivering the majority opinion of the court, said:
“ If, therefore, it was necessary for the information to identify the particular money embezzled by showing the kind of funds or from whom received, it must be because no conviction could be had under this statute without establishing such identity by the proof. The very able argument of the defendant’s counsel upon the necessity of specifying the kind of funds rests mainly upon the ground that, under statutes in reference to embezzlement by clerks, agents, and servants of private parties, this particularity was held to be necessary until statutes were passed dispensing with it, and that the only provisions of our statutes on this subject are section 5945, 2 Comp. Laws 1857, which is confined to clerks, agents, and servants, and section 6061, 2 Comp. Laws 1857, which applies only to the crimes of robbery and larceny.
“ We do not think this case falls within either of these dispensing provisions; but, on the other hand, we do not think it falls within that class of cases with reference to which they are held to be necessary. In the case of clerks, agents, and servants of private parties, there is always a principal capable of scrutinizing the acts of those in his service and whose private interest prompts him to vigilance, who has at all times power to direct and control the kind of funds to be received and to change this direction at pleasure, and the custody or management which those in his service may have of his money or property is, in general, but momentary or for a short interval, to be handed over to the principal from day to day or other short periods, or whenever he may choose to resume or assume its custody or management. The acts of such servant or clerk are generally performed under the direct supervision or control of the principal, who, therefore, has, or may at any time have, full and accurate knowledge of the character of the particular sums and from whom received, and possesses facilities for tracing out the facts while transpiring or recent.”
In People v. Bringard, 39 Mich. 22, it was held that a township treasurer was properly convicted of embezzlement under section 309, 1 Comp. Laws 1871, and section 7580, 2 Comp. Laws 1871 (section 11565, 3 Comp. Laws 1897), and that a general allegation of embezzlement was sufficient under section 7811; the court saying:
“It is also objected that the information is defective in not containing specific allegations of the sums embezzled. But the statute (2 Comp. Laws [1871], § 7811) expressly authorizes a general allegation without specifying particulars, and allows evidence thereunder of any embezzlement within six months of the day stated in the information. This objection, therefore, is groundless.”
See, also, People v. Butts, 128 Mich. 208; People v. Hawkins, 106 Mich. 479.
In State v. Kortgaard, 62 Minn. 7, the court also had substantially this same statute under consideration. The court said, in considering the interpretation of the statute:
“ The learned counsel is somewhat in error as to the history of this statute. As a matter of fact, we inherited it, or at least adopted it, from Wisconsin, of which we were formerly a part. Wisconsin presumably adopted it from Michigan, of which it was once a part. Michigan probably adopted it,- either mediately or immediately, from Massachusetts, which, so far as we are advised, was the first State to enact such a statute. An examination of the decision of the court in Com. v. Wyman will show that it was not made upon this section standing alone, or upon the ground that there was anything either in the language or in the purpose of the statute, considered by itself, which required any such construction. In fact, the court impliedly admits that, construed by itself, it would apply to officers of incorporated companies, including banks; but they arrived at the legislative intent from the position which the section occupied in the statutes, and from the existence of other provisions expressly and solely applicable to embezzlement by bank officers.
“Hence, whatever might have been urged in favor of this construction, did we retain the special and express provisions relating to embezzlement by bank officers corresponding to those of Massachusetts relating to the same subject, is deprived of all force, in view of the fact that these special provisions have all been repealed, and that subdivision 2, § 415, of the Penal Code (Gen. Stat. 1894, § 6709, subd. 2), has been enacted, which applies to all cases of embezzlement, and wipes out all distinctions which may have previously existed between embezzlements by officers of banks and by any other officer or agent. By thus doing away with all such distinctions, and enacting a single provision covering all embezzlements, and at the same time retaining in full force Gen. Stat. 1894, § 7262, the conclusion seems to us irresistible that the legislative intent was that this section should apply alike to all cases falling within the provisions of subdivision 2, § 415, of the Penal Code (Gen. Stat. 1894, § 6709, subd. 2). Its language is broad enough to include all such cases, and, when its purpose is considered, embezzlement by bank or other corporate officers is clearly within the mischief intended to be remedied. While all agents are not officers, yet all officers are agents.”
We have not the same reason for declining to adopt the construction placed upon this statute by the courts of the State from which we adopted it; but, on the other hand, the presumption that a statute adopted from a sister State is adopted with the construction placed upon it by the courts of that State does not apply to this statute. The decision in Com. v. Wyman was rendered at the October term, 1844, while the statute under consideration was adopted in this State at least as early as 1888, appearing in its present form in the Revised Statutes of 1838 as pt. 4, tit. 1, chap. 11, section 10, pp. 652, 653, while the statute as to embezzlement by bank officers appears on pages 629, 630, as section 25, in the same words as section 11562 of the present Compiled Laws. Our interpretation of the statute is therefore freed from the presumption arising from the adoption of a statute which had received an authoritative construction.
“An essential element upon which the presumption is based is that the statute has already received a known and definite construction. Decisions in the State or sovereignty in which the statute was originally enacted subsequent to the adoption of the statute by another State will not be controlling in the latter.” 26 Am. & Eng. Enc. Law, p. 702.
As said by the supreme court of Minnesota, ‘c while all agents are not officers, yet all officers are agents. ” As the statute includes bank officers within its terms, we see no good reason why it should not be held to apply to them. In our opinion, it was the intention of the legislature that this remedial statute should apply to every act of embezzlement which was fairly embraced within its terms, and we therefore hold that the circuit judge did not err in admitting evidence of embezzlements within the six months’ period.
There is nothing in the decision of this court in People v. McKinney which is inconsistent with this result. It. was there said that the statute providing for the punishment of embezzlements in the State treasury did not come within the provisions of the section under consideration, which related to private parties. The section under which respondent was prosecuted does relate to private parties, and does come within the provisions of section 11782.
This holding also disposes of the objection that the people should have been confined, in asking for a conviction, to the first act to which they directed their proofs.
Counsel for respondent also took exception and assign error upon the following statement in the argument of the prosecuting attorney:
“ We didn’t have any occasion before this case was here to know what Miss Hough’s knowledge of the books was. We didn’t know what she was going to swear to. How could we tell ? Didn’t she tell all about these transactions, willing to tell all she knew ? That’s the reason Mr. Bradford isn’t here. Mr. Bradford went through the books and furnished the information we desired, and I want to say further that' in every particular it corresponds with Miss Hough.”
Upon objection being made to this statement, the court said:
“A statement of what a witness might swear to who is not put on the stand is not legitimate.”
From the statement of the prosecutor it appears that his contention was that Bradford’s testimony would corroborate Miss Hough’s as to the showing made by the books, which were in court and would speak for themselves. This fact and the fact that the jury found respondent guilty of embezzling the $1,000 obtained from the Commercial Bank, which item was never put upon the books by Messer, and was not proved by the testimony of Miss Hough, but by the testimony of the assistant cashier, Merrill, convince us that respondent could not have been prejudiced by the error.
Respondent’s counsel also contend that the court erred in refusing to give respondent’s twelfth request to charge, which was as follows:
“The respondent has a right to rely upon the insufficiency of the people’s case, and, if he does this and does not take the stand in his own behalf, I charge you that no inference can be drawn against him because thereof.”
It is claimed by the prosecuting attorney:
“ The matter involved in this request was given to the jury by the court, but that it has been omitted from the printed record, and in our main brief, by inadvertence, the same was not referred to. The court instructed the jury upon this proposition during the course of the closing argument by Mr. Farr, prosecuting attorney, the same having occurred and was given in the manner following:
‘“Mr. Farr: Why, then, I ask you, Mr. Messer, was it on the morning of the 5th of April last that with the statement upon leaving the bank that he was going down to the elevator, was the occasion of saying to the bookkeeper that he was going to the elevator ? At that time, when at that time you knew that your intention was to take the 10:20 train out of there ? There is but one person on earth today that knows, and that is Messer. What was the occasion ? What was the reason ? Did that $4,000 bank stock—
‘‘ Mr. Walsh: Take exception for the defendant to that statement in reference to Mr. Messer.
“ ‘ The Court: It is possible the exception is taken on the ground that you are arraigning the defendant for not going on the stand. I will say to the jury that no stress whatever is to be laid upon the fact that the defendant did not go on the stand in this case, and no advantage can be taken of it. There is nothing to be considered in relation to that.
“ ‘ Mr. Walsh: That’s the reason I take the exception.
“‘Mr. Farr: There is no such intention at all to criticise the defendant because he didn’t go on the stand.’”
This request should have been given. People v. Provost, 144 Mich. 17. In that case, we held, after full consideration, that the respondent was entitled, as a matter of law, to have such a request given, and that it was reversible error to refuse it, although the attention of the jury had not been called to the fact that respondent had not taken' the stand. I do not think that the statement of the court, upon objection being made to the prosecutor’s argument, disposes of the question. The statement of the court might cure the error in the prosecuting attorney’s reference to the failure of respondent to take the stand, but I do not think it warranted the court in refusing the request on the ground that it was already covered, if that was the ground. In view of the fact that the attention of the jury had been called to the failure of the respondent to take the stand, he had a right to have an explicit instruction given, to insure that the jury should have a proper understanding of his statutory right.
It is also argued by counsel for respondent that the court erred in receiving evidence outside of the check for the purpose of showing that the check was a mere memorandum. The paper referred to was not a check, as commonly understood, and it was entirely proper to show the circumstances attending its execution. Even if it had been a check, the prosecution would not have been debarred from showing that its accomplished object was to obtain currency for the bank, and not for respondent. This was not a suit between private parties based on the so-called check.
Error is also assigned upon the refusal of the court to give respondent’s second request to charge, which was as follows:
“If you find that the respondent obtained the sum of $1,000 from the Commercial State Bank on the 5th day of April, 1904, in the manner shown by the evidence in behalf of the people, this would not constitute the offense with which the respondent is changed, if he, the respondent, at the time of receiving the money entertained the intent to then and there appropriate the same to his own use. Such conversion having occurred outside of the Marlette State Bank would not be the offense which is charged in this proceeding.”
We think this request was properly refused. If the money obtained from the Commercial Bank was the money of the Marlette Bank, and respondent converted it to his own use, outside of the premises of,the latter bank, such conversion constituted “larceny in such bank,” in the meaning of the law. People v. McKinney, 10 Mich. 54.
For the error above referred to, the judgment is reversed, and a new trial granted.
Montgomery, Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred. | [
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Ostrander, J.
(after stating the facts). The meritorious question is whether the use of this money in performance of the contract will be a diversion thereof which the common council could not by the vote given legally order. That the vote was not sufficient to create an obligation on the part of the city to be met by taxation, or to lay a tax, is clear. Unless it amounted to a mere distribution of funds already on hand to the purposes for which the funds were raised (Bishop v. Lambert, 114 Mich. 110; compare Tennant v. Crocker, 85 Mich. 328), .there was no proper action of the common council. The city had on hand no other money which was available for performance of the contract. Before determining this question, a contention made by counsel for the city will be noticed.
Defendants, in their answer, ask that the city may be required to carry out the contract. The court below took judicial notice of the fact that the city of Port Huron lies to the north of the city of St. Clair; that the territory referred to in the fifth.and sixth subdivisions of the contract above set out lies at and beyond the southern boundary of the city of St. Clair, and found that the grant in the contract of permission to erect poles, etc., is not merely the grant of a way to the city plant, but is the grant of a franchise through the city, to which extent the agreement is void as opposed to 1 Comp. Laws, § 3111, which provides that no such franchise shall be granted, except by a two-thirds vote of all the aldermen-elect. The suggestion of the court to counsel for defendants that the ruling would become noncontrolling if a disclaimer of franchise rights was made matter of record was not acted upon. In this court counsel for defendants have argued that the contract will not bear the construction that it confers a franchise, but the one only that it confers the right to bring to the place where it is to be delivered, namely, at the city plant, the current contracted to be delivered. We think the contract will bear the construction that a right of way through the city is intended to be given to defendants and tbeir successors and assigns. Whether the defendants and their successors would be bound by the construction they now assert, or whether they might waive this provision in their favor if the contract was otherwise valid, it is unnecessary to determine, for the reason that we think the contract is otherwise invalid.
The contract in terms requires the city to furnish certain apparatus; the clear inference being that performance of the contract by the defendants must await such action on the part of the city. The agreement is that such action shall be taken “ as soon as possible.” While the effect of the contract is to incur no direct indebtedness on the part of the city to defendants beyond the monthly payments due for the electrical current furnished, indirectly it involves, as has been pointed out, the present expenditure of more than $10,000 fora public improvement. In saying this, we find that, although the standpipe is not absolutely necessary to the operation of the waterworks under the contract, it is an essential part of the system which the city proposed to install and of the system, the economy of operation of which influenced the action of the common council which resulted in the contract. If the contract is enforceable, the city is, in any event, committed to the making of the specified improvements.
It is the contention of counsel for defendants that the money was lawfully borrowed to pay for an extension of the waterworks (1 Comp. Laws, § 3250), and that, if used as the contract contemplates, the result will be an extension of the waterworks. It is said that the electors determined only — that it is contemplated by the law that they shall determine only — the specific amount to be borrowed, the terms of the loan, and the general purpose to which the money shall be appropriated, and that the details, the method of accomplishing the general purpose, must be left to the common council. The soundness of the last proposition, as stated, may be admitted. City of Centerville v. Guaranty Co., 118 Fed. 332; Johnson v. City of Rock Hill, 57 S. C. 371. The statute provision is that, before any money shall be raised or expended for the purchase, construction, or extension of waterworks, the council shall direct the board of public works to cause to be made an estimate of the expense thereof, and the question of raising the amount required for such purpose shall be submitted to the electors. It is true that, after waterworks are constructed' by the city, the common council may then raise and expend, in making repairs and alterations or in extending the works, such sum as is deemed advisable without submitting the question to electors, provided the sum so raised does not, with other levies, exceed in one year 1£ per cent, of the taxable property of the city. In this case the money was not raised, but was borrowed, and must be used1 (section 3349) exclusively for the purpose for which it was borrowed. The common council, in securing funds, went to the people with a definite proposition. Pursuant to statute requirements, the board of public works had been requested to furnish estimates of the cost of supplying what the council had voted to be a necessity, viz., a larger boiler and pumps. Such estimate was furnished. The council voted to raise the necessary money for the particular purposes by'a loan. The contract obligation is to expend this money, not in installing a larger boiler and pumps, not in enlarging the waterworks plant, but in purchasing and installing apparatus which will make the city a mere merchant of electrical current, and which will require, at least render expedient, the maintenance of its present steam plant to answer emergencies. No estimate of the expense of this improvement was made by the board of public works before the money was borrowed. See Mills v. City of Detroit, 95 Mich. 422. The fact that, if the contract is executed, the pumping capacity of the plant will be increased, is not controlling. Assuming it to have been the general and the special purpose, at the inception of the proceedings, and down to the action resulting in the making of the contract, to increase the pumping capacity of the plant, and, to this end, to increase the steam capacity, that this purpose will be accomplished, and that the cost of the proposed improvement would have equaled the cost of the contract improvement, it remains that the proposition submitted to the electors, and the contract proposition are, in other respects, so different that it cannot be supposed that those voting for one would have voted for the other proposition. The statute empowers the city to own and operate an electric light plant in connection with the waterworks (section 3258) if the electors, having an estimate of the expense thereof and being willing to raise so much money, should, by two-thirds of those voting, so decide. The statute also provides that the common council may contract, from year to year, or for a period of not more than 10 years, for supplying the city and inhabitants with light. .Section 3265. The first of these methods was adopted by the electors of the city of St. Clair. The effect and purpose of the contract is to adopt the second method of providing lights for the city and the inhabitants, to shut down the electric light plant except as a place in which to transform and measure the current which is purchased, to make the city a buyer, instead of a manufacturer, of electricity. These results are not merely incidental to the disposition of money voted to be used in enlarging the waterworks, mere details in accomplishing the general purpose.
It is not intended to intimate an opinion concerning the power of cities owning waterworks and electric lighting plants to purchase power for their operation in the cheapest market. What is decided is that the common council of the city of St. Clair has, in fact, attempted to devote money borrowed for a specific purpose to another and different purpose, and that it may not do this by a tie vote of aldermen under a charter which requires that all moneys loaned or appropriated for the purposes of any particular fund shall be paid in and credited to such fund, and shall be applied to the purposes for which such mon eys were received and to none other. 1 Comp. Laws, § 3310. See Smedley v. City of Grand Rapids, 125 Mich. 424, 429.
The decree is affirmed, with costs.
McAlvay, O. J., and Montgomery, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred. | [
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Montgomery, J.
This is an action brought to recover upon a contract for indemnity. The plaintiff’s husband, John Frank, was employed by the defendant as a miner in the Newport mine in the city of Iron wood, and on the 23d day of December, 1905, he was killed by an accident occurring at the mine while in the discharge of his duties. At the time he entered the employ of the defendant there was in existence a benefit club, which continued during all the time that he was thus employed and of which he became and continued a member. The plan of the benefit company was stated in a printed poster put up on the defendant’s premises, and provided in a general way that all employés entering the employ of the mine should pay 30 cents a month into a fund, to which the company should contribute an aggregate equal to the amount received from the employés for that month. The provisions in regard to the disposal of this fund were as follows:
“This benefit fund, collected in accordance with the above provisions, shall be held by this company and paid out by it to those employés whom it shall be determined are entitled to it under the provisions herein set forth.
“ In case of death within six months following and from an accident sustained while a member is discharging his duties as an employé of this company, three hundred dollars will be paid from the benefit fund.
‘ ‘ The money provided by this rule to be paid in all cases of death shall not belong to the estate of the deceased, and shall not be liable to be attached, seized, or taken by or distributed to any creditor or creditors of the deceased; provided the deceased shall leave a living widow, a child or children, a father or mother, and the said money, and the whole thereof so to be paid in case of death as above set forth shall belong to and be the exclusive and absolute money and property of and shall be paid by the custodians of said benefit fund: First, to the widow of the deceased, if he should leave a widow surviving, then to his child, if he shall leave one surviving him, and, if more than one, then to all his children in equal proportions ; third, if he shall leave no widow or children, then to his father, if he be living; fourth, if he shall not leave a widow, child or children, or father living, then to his mother, if living; and, fifth, if'he shall not leave a widow, or child, or children, or father, or mother living, then the sum of money to be paid as aforesaid in case of death shall belong to the estate of the deceased, and shall be paid to the administrator thereof when duly appointed. All money paid under this rule will be paid to the person entitled, or to his or her agent duly authorized to receive the same, and, if a child or children under age shall be entitled to receive said money, or any part thereof, the same shall be paid to his, her, or their guardian when duly appointed, or to the agent of such guardian duly authorized to receive the same, and when so paid all obligations on the part of the benefit fund, and the custodian thereof, under the provisions of this rule, shall have been fully performed and shall cease.”
A further provision stated in this poster was as follows:
“ The receipt of relief from the benefit fund, in case of accident, relieves this company from all liability, and is in lieu of all damages, and said company reserves the' right to retain all sums due for indemnities until a release is properly executed by all persons interested in, or injured by the death or disability of such employé.”
In a statement preceding the statement of the general plan, but a part of the same poster, were the following statements:
“Employers cannot be considered legally responsible for the aid or support of those dependent upon any of the employés. All employés assume their own risk of accidents or illness from whatever cause.”
After the death of John Frank, plaintiff, who was his widow, demanded payment of the $300 indemnity provided in case of death, and payment was refused except upon condition that a release be obtained from those who would, under the death act, be entitled to share in any judgment recovered against the defendant in an action for damages for causing the death of John Frank. Plaintiff thereupon instituted this action and recovered judgment upon a finding of facts and law, the facts found being those above stated, and defendant brings error.
The defendant contends that, as this is an action based upon the contract, the terms of which contract must control, and that by the express and clear terms of the contract the indemnity payable to the plaintiff became due and payable only when a release should be executed by all persons interested in or injured by the death or disability of such employé, if such release should be required by the company, and that this language is susceptible of no other construction than that the company was entitled to demand a release executed by all persons who would, under the death act so-called, be entitled to share in the damages recovered for the wrongful act of defendant causing death. This is by no means a new question to the courts. A similar question has been dealt with in a number of the States in the following cases: Eckman v. Railroad Co., 169 Ill. 312 (38 L. R. A. 750); Pittsburgh, etc., R. Co. v. Moore, 152 Ind. 345 (44 L. R. A. 638); Chicago, etc., R. Co. v. Wymore, 40 Neb. 645; Chicago, etc., R. Co. v. Bell, 44 Neb. 44; Donald v. Railway Co., 93 Iowa, 284 (33 L. R. A. 492); Pittsburg, etc., R. Co. v. Cox, 55 Ohio St. 497 (35 L. R. A. 507).
The reasoning upon which they rest may be stated to be, briefly, this: The contract is not a contract relieving the defendant from the consequences of its own negligence, and, notwithstanding this contract, the party is entitled under the death act to sue and recover in case of death, or the party indemnified himself, if living, can maintain an action for damages as though this contract were not in existence; but the effect of the contract is to give to the party injured, if living, or to those entitled to take an indemnity under the contract in case of his death, an election, and either may, if he so elect, bring an action for the damages, ignoring the contract, or he may, if he can, comply with the conditions upon which the indemnity is payable, accept the indemnity, and upon doing so discharges wholly the right of action based upon the tort.
Construed in this light, these contracts have been sustained as in no way infringing any rule of public policy. The circuit judge was of the opinion in this case that the clause of the contract providing that the receipt of relief from the benefit fund should relieve the company from liability for damages and reserving the right to require a release by the persons interested in, or injured by, the death or disability of such employés could be construed as requiring such release only from those parties who were entitled under the contract of indemnity to take, or who were interested in or injured by the death or disabil ity by reason of such contract. While there is some plausibility in this contention, we feel constrained to hold that the clause, taken as a whole, and the connection in which the terms of the release which may be required are defined, leads to the conclusion that the parties must have intended that the release should include all those who were injured by the death of the employe and would be entitled to recover because of such injury. It is true that, in other portions of the poster or contract, it is provided that this money should be payable to the widow, and that the children dependent upon the deceased are excluded, and it is argued from this that an absolute right is vested in the widow to this fund, and that, therefore, to require a release on behalf of others who are not interested in this fund is to require of her an impossible condition to the exercise of an admitted right. There is some force in this contention,' but the contract must be construed as a whole,.and, if effect be given to the clause authorizing the defendant to require a release, this must act as a qualification of the widow’s right to receive the indemnity, and her right must be considered as a right to receive such indemnity only on condition that she secure a release from all persons interested in or injured by the death or disability of the employe. The case of O’Neil v. Iron Co., 63 Mich. 690, is cited, in which case it was held that a representation that the company could not be made liable for damages for injuries resulting to an employe in any case might be treated as a fraud. It is obvious, however, that this case cannot control here, as no effort is here made to avoid the contract in question, but the action is brought in affirmance of the contract.
. But it is further argued that, as this furnishes a statement of the basis upon which the parties contracted, it is not reasonable to suppose that after representing that there could be no liability for damages, yet the parties contemplated that the release mentioned in the contract would be a release from something which the parties understood could not exist. This is a forceful statement of the contention, and, if the terms of the contract were more doubtful, the consideration suggested might be controlling. But upon careful deliberation we are not able to say that this contract is ambiguous or uncertain in its terms. The defendant contributed to this fund. It had the right to provide for such terms as should afford protection to itself in case of injury to an employé resulting in death or otherwise. It results from what has been stated that the court was in error.
The judgment must be reversed, and judgment entered for defendant, with costs of both courts.
McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Grant, and Blair, JJ., concurred. | [
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Montgomery, J.
The relator applied to the circuit court for and was granted a mandamus requiring the respondent to permit relator’s reporters to examine the records of marriage licenses and returns showing marriages in the respondent’s office. The respondent has brought the case before us for review by certiorari.
The controlling question in the case is whether marriage licenses and returns, provided for by the statute (3 Comp. Laws, §§ 8604-8611) are public records open to inspection by those who have occasion to inspect them, or whether the clerk has a discretion to withhold such records from inspection when in his opinion the publication of the con tents is undesirable. It must be held that these records are public records. The statute (3 Comp. Laws, § 8612 et seq.) makes provision for withholding from the public information in certain cases where the marriage has been solemnized by the probate judge. This statute, so far as it throws light upon the subject, indicates that the legislative branch of the government understood that the record provided for by the preceding sections was public. Public records (other than court records, as to which see Schmedding v. May, 85 Mich. 1) are, under Act No. 76, Pub. Acts 1903, open to inspection for any lawful purpose. See Burton v. Tuite, 78 Mich. 363 (7 L. R. A. 73), and Day v. Button, 96 Mich. 600.
The order is affirmed.
McAlvay, C. J., and Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred. | [
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Rehearing denied.
Reported at 404 Mich 357. | [
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The complaint for
superintending control is considered and, pursuant to GCR 1963, 862.5(c), Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit shall hold a hearing in People v Noland (Recorder’s Court No. 76-06254) to determine whether plaintiffs attorney was given an opportunity to inspect the presentence information, including the “blue sheet”, relied on by the judge in sentencing the plaintiff. If he was not, plaintiff must be resentenced. We do not retain jurisdiction.
Case below, People v Noland, Court of Appeals No. 78-1252, order of June 7, 1978. | [
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Hooker, J.
The defendant is vice president of a corporation named Thompson Smith’s Sons. It owns the land abutting upon Duncan Bay, on Lake Huron, and claims exclusive fishing rights in the waters of the bay, under the provisions of section 5857, % Comp. Laws. The section provides:
“ (5857) Seo. 10. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons to put into any of the waters fronting or bordering land where fish are taken by the legal owner or occupant of such lands, any vessel or ship ballast, stone, sand, coal cinder, ashes, log slabs, decayed wood, bark, sawdust, or obstruction, or filth of any other description, or to place or drive any pound net piles or stakes, or any other piles or stakes, or posts, or build any platforms, or piers, or any species of seines or continuous trap nets, to the extent of the breadth of such legal owner or occupant’s lands so far as the channel banks of the rivers, and to one mile from the beach or shore, at low water mark of the lakes, straits, inlets and bays on said waters fronting such owner or occupant’s lands, and it shall subject any boat owner, or captain of any vessel, to a fine of not exceeding fifty dollars, who shall willfully run into or molest any pound net, trap, or other stationary nets, or fixtures set in the lakes for fishing purposes.”
Thompson Smith’s Sons had in previous years leased fishing privileges in this bay to the plaintiff, but at the time of plaintiff’s complaint they were leased to one Olmstead, who had complained to Thompson Smith’s Sons that others were fishing there and requested that it be stopped. Express notice was given to the plaintiff, and the master of his tug, to refrain and desist from placing nets in Duncan Bay, but the latter persisted, and set out a gill net, several miles in length, a portion of which was in Duncan Bay, and less than a mile from shore. Thereupon the defendant, acting for Thompson Smith’s Sons, caused that portion of the net in Duncan Bay to be removed. The plaintiff thereupon brought this action against the defendant personally to recover in trespass for his injuries, consisting of damage to the net, and loss of profits, and was permitted to recover a verdict and judgment. The defendant has appealed.
No claim is made that the statute is invalid, but plaintiff asserts that it has no application to gill nets. The questions raised by the record relate to the construction to be placed on section 5857 and the measure of damages. The nets mentioned in the act are “ any species of seines or continuous trap nets,” and it forbids the building of these. It also forbids the placing or driving “ any pound net piles, or stakes, or any other piles or stakes or posts.” A seine as used in the rivers and lakes is a long net, of sufficient width to extend from the surface of the water, usually to the bottom. It is strung on two lines of rope, one, the cork line, being provided with cork or wooden floats at short intervals, to make it float, the other, or lead- line, provided with leaden weights to sink it and hold it down, generally upon the bed of the stream or water, thereby spreading the net from surface to bed. It is generally used by drawing it, and surrounding and inclosing the fish. A gill net is much like a seine, except in its method, of use. Its meshes are made of a proper size to permit the head of the fish to pass through beyond the gills, which prevents the fish from withdrawing it, and it is thereby trapped and captured. While fishermen might be expected to distinguish between seines and gill nets, and pound or pond nets, calling each by its distinguishing name, if all might not be called by the generic name of seines, certainly the gill net is a species of trap net. It is urged that to bring a net within the prohibition of the statute it must be fastened to the ground by stakes driven into the bed. The evidence shows that each end of the net was anchored to the'ground by a stone and rope, and that it was thereby effectively prevented from drifting away. We have no doubt that the act was designed to protect abutting landowners against the use of nets by other fishermen, and not only is a gill net covered by the description “any species of seines or continuous-trap nets,” but to sustain plaintiff’s contention would practically deprive abutting owners of any benefit from the statute. The evidence shows a plain invasion of the rights of Thompson Smith’s Sons by the plaintiff, and it had the right to remove the nets, and this defendant, acting for the company and as its vice president, and at the request of Olmstead, its lessee, is not chargeable with trespass in so doing.
From our examination of the record we reach the conclusion that there is no necessity for discussing any other questions. ■
The judgment is reversed, and no new trial ordered.
McAlvay, C. J., and Montgomery, Ostrander, and Moore, JJ., concurred. | [
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Grant, J.
(after stating the facts). No attack is made upon the validity of the tax deed to O’Connor. The sole question is: Did Frank and Edwin Jerome comply with the statute so as to entitle them to a reconveyance from O’Connor ? The judgment of the court must be sustained.
The statute authorizes the register in chancery, to whom the returns of the sheriff must be made, and who is the custodian of the papers showing the amounts required to be paid, to receive the money from the original owner for the tax title owner. It also requires the register to at once notify the original owner of the deposit of the money with him. The owners of the original title in this case acted in good faith. They went to the proper officer in the proper office, asked for the amount due, relied upon the statement of the register, and paid it. Unless the owner in every case is required by the law to himself personally examine these documents, and ascertain the exact amount, the owners in this case complied with the law. Suppose the owner is blind, or his sight is so dim that he cannot see to read, or that he cannot read at all, is he obliged to employ some person to go with him to examine the papers ? We think not. When in good faith the owner has relied upon the statement of the register, who has the papers in his custody, he is justified in so doing. This case is ruled by Clippinger v. Auditor General, 135 Mich. 1. There the auditor general made the mistake. In this case the register in chancery made it. If the record showed the proper fees for the four publications, the owners should- be compelled to pay it. .
Judgment affirmed.
McAlvay; C. J., and Carpenter, Blair, and Ostrander, JJ., concurred. | [
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Hooker, J.
The relator and one Paquette were rival candidates for the office of county treasurer of Cheboygan county. The returns of the inspectors of the various precincts gave the relator a majority of 85 votes. When the board of county canvassers convened, Paquette presented a petition for a recount of the ballots cast in the townships of Ellis, Forest, Mackinac, Koehler, and Nunda. On this recount all of the votes cast in the townships of Ellis and Koehler were rejected, which changed the result, giving Paquette a majority of 56. The ballots cast in Ellis township were rejected because initialed in blue pencil, and not in ink; those in Koehler, because initialed in blue pencil, or lead pencil, and not in ink. The board continued in session from November 13th to November 24th. On November 24th they finally determined the facts as prayed for in the petition for recount. Thereupon, on application of the relator’s counsel, they adjourned to the following Tuesday, to hear a petition for recount to be presented on behalf of relator. On that day they were served with the order to show cause issued in this cause, and restraining them from issuing a certificate of election of Paquette.
Two questions were presented to the circuit court: (1) Is this a proper case for mandamus ? (2) If so, were the ballots properly rejected ? The court assumed that the remedy was a proper one, and held that the ballots were properly rejected, and the relator has brought the case here by certiorari.
Relator’s counsel say that only the latter question is before us, inasmuch as the circuit court passed upon it, and did not discuss the former. The assumption that mandamus was a proper remedy was equivalent to so deciding. If the judge was wrong in his conclusion upon the question of the invalidity of the ballots, it does not follow that his decision must be reversed and a writ granted, if in fact the remedy sought was an improper one. In such event the case would be affirmed, under the familiar rule that a case properly decided will not be reversed merely because an erroneous reason was given for the decision. We must hold, therefore, that the question of remedy is open, and is the first to demand attention.
We held in the cases of Packard v. Board of Canvassers, 94 Mich. 450, and Henderson v. Board of Canvassers, 94 Mich. 452, that where a board refuses to make a recount, it may be compelled to proceed and make such recount, but that when such board has acted, declared the result, and adjourned, a mandamus will not lie to compel them to reconvene, and declare some other result, which a-court of justice may determine to be a more just one. In other words, the courts will set refractory boards in motion, but will not control their action in recounting the votes over which they have jurisdiction by mandamus. If the recount is erroneous, the remedy by quo warranto is open. We do not overlook the case of Horning v. Board of Canvassers, 119 Mich. 51, where an order granted a mandamus in a case quite similar to this. Apparently the jurisdictional question was not raised by the assignments of error. Had it been, the case would have been ruled by Packard v. Board of Canvassers and Henderson v. Board of Canvassers, supra.
The order is affirmed.
Mo Alva y, C. J., and Carpenter, Montgomery, and Moore, JJ., concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
This is an action on the special case. The facts are in substance as follows:
In the year 1872, the plaintiffs erected on Cass street in East Saginaw a three-story brick building," which they have since that time occupied as a furniture warehouse.
In 1874 the plaintiffs sold to one Fish the one undivided half part of the north wall of their building, to be used, by Fish as a party wall,' and Fish did so use it in the construction of a store of twenty feet front, which he erected in 1874-5.
While Fish was putting up his building the First National Rank of Saginaw erected one for its purposes, occupying the whole space between the Fish building and Genesee street. The foundations for both these buildings appear to have been laid before Fisli purchased the half of the party wall, and the two went up together, and presented an appearance on Cass street of being one building. Each of the buildings was however under separate supervision in construction. The bank, for its purposes, constructed a very heavy vault, which was connected in foundation with its main building.
The substance of the plaintiffs’ complaint is that the foundation of the bank building was greatly defective and insufficient ; that it was negligent to construct .it as was done; that by reason of the defective foundation the bank building settled greatly, the walls cracked and were thrown out of perpendicular, and the whole building pressed south upon the Fish building, causing that building to press against the building of the plaintiffs, crack its walls and throw them out of perpendicular, break the glass in the windows and otherwise injure the building. The defendants contended and sought to satisfy the jury by evidence that the building-of the plaintiffs was substantially in the same condition before the bank building was.constructed that it is now, and consequently could not have been injured by that building in any manner. They also insisted that it fully appeared by the evidence that plaintiffs knew all about the foundation which had been prepared for the Fish and bank buildings before they sold half of the party wall to Fish, and understood its defects, but that by the sale they consented to the Fish and bank buildings being attached to theirs, and consequently were not now in position to be entitled to complain of any injurious results following the erection of those buildings which are traceable to the defective foundation.
On the trial of the case certain rulings of the judge on the admission of evidence were excepted to, but without, as we think, sufficient reason. As the decision upon none of these rulings would have value as a precedent, we pass them without further remark.
In submitting the case to the jury the judge said to them, among otliér things:
“Now, at the time the Feige Bros, sold to Mr. Fish the half of this party wall, they had seen the foundation of the bank building and of the Fish building. ' They knew the character of the soil, and they also knew .the size of the foundation, and the way in which it was put up. They testified that they had seen it and examined it. Now, they can claim nothing here on account of that foundation, that is, the foundation of the main building (I am not speaking of the vault, but of the regular foundation), because they saw that foundation, and with their eyes open made this contract, and allowed this building to be tied to their building, and therefore they can claim nothing of the foundation in and of itself. Neither can they claim anything if their building is affected by reason of the attachment of these buildings to it, — Ihat is, the attachment simply, because that they contracted might be -done when they sold one-lialf of the party wall; and they can claim nothing if their building is affected by the reason of the increase of height by reason of the Fish building being higher than the Feige building, for that they permitted to be done. They contracted for that, so that, in order to find for the plaintiff in this cause, you must find that the injury to their building resulted from the defective foundation' to the vault. I speak of this so you can keep it in mind.”
This instruction assumes that the plaintiffs in selling to-Fish, and thereby assenting to his making use of the wall as a party wall, assented also to the bank uniting with Fish in a party wall, and to all the consequences which would naturally follow from the two buildings being constructed together upon the foundation which had already been laid. But this was altogether too broad.
The plaintiffs entered into no contract relations with the bank, and were under no obligations to inquire into foundations which the bank had laid for its purposes. More than this: they had no business to interfere in any manner with the business of the bank, and any interference might have been resented as an impertinence. They might indeed have refused to sell to Fish unless he would agree to decline all connection between his building and that of the bank; but they had a right to assume that Fish would so decline unless the connection was made Safe, and that the bank itself would be guilty of no negligence to their prejudice. There is some evidence in the record that the question of the sufficiency of the foundation wras raised by them at the time, and that Mr. Judd who represented the bank in the construction, did not agree with the plaintiffs that there was any defect. But the plaintiffs never consented to be bound by Mr. Judd’s judgment if it should prove erroneous and prejudicial; the bank took the risk of that, and not the plaintiffs. If the bank, either intentionally or through negligence, saw fit to construct a building defectively, its managers were bound at its peril to make sure that the defects did not result in injury to others.
It is contended in the brief for the defense that this instruction, if' erroneous, can be seen from the record to have caused no injury, and therefore the judgment should not be reversed by reason thereof. The argument, as we understand it, is that the real contest before the jury was whether the building of the plaintiffs was £ ubstantially in the same condition before the bank building was put up as it was afterwards, the defendants contending that it was and the plaintiffs denying it. But the defendants further insist that such evidence as the plaintiffs produced tended to show that if plaintiffs’ building was injured in consequence of any defect in that of the bank, the injury was attributable to defective foundation of the vault, and not of the building proper; and as the jury were told the defendants were rpsponsible for any injury resulting from defect in the foundation of the vault, a verdict in their favor was in effect a verdict that plaintiffs had suffered no injury that was legally attributable to the defendants.
If there were no evidence in the case which would justify the plaintiffs in claiming before the jury that the defective foundation of the bank building proper caused at least some part of the injury of which they complain, the argument now made for the defense might be accepted as sound. But there was some such evidence, and the plaintiffs had a right to go to the jury upon it. Though it seems to have been somewhat weak, we cannot say it was worthless. And we cannot therefore with that certainty which we ought to feel to justify denying a new trial when a clear error is apparent, say that the error was without injury.
A new trial must be awarded.
Campbell and Sherwood, JJ. concurred. | [
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Moore, J.
This is an application for mandamus commanding the respondent to vacate an order made by him as circuit judge in the circuit court for the county of St. Clair, in chancery, on the 7th day of January, 1907, requiring the relator to pay alimony and expenses in a suit for divorce commenced in the circuit court for the county of Oakland, in chancery, wherein Elizabeth P. Bradfield (wife of relator) is complainant and the relator is defendant, for the reason that the respondent had no jurisdiction to make such order, because the order purporting to transfer said suit from the Oakland circuit court to the St. Clair circuit court was void, having been made without jurisdiction or authority. The wife of relator commenced a divoi’ce proceeding against him in the circuit court for the county of Oakland, in chancery. He caused his ap pearance to be entered therein and moved for a change of venue because (we quote from the affidavit) :
“Deponent further says that the complainant in said cause has an undue influence over the citizens of Oakland county.
“Deponent further says that an odium attaches to the defense of the defendant in said cause on account of local prejudice in Oakland county.
“Deponent further says that the judge of the circuit court for the county of Oakland is biased in favor of the complainant in said cause and prejudiced against this deponent, the defendant in said cause. * * *
“Deponent further says that an odium attaches to the defense of this defendant on account of local prejudice in some of the other counties in the eastern part of the State of Michigan, especially in the county of St. Olair. ”
The petition was to be heard November 12th. It was called up by the solicitors for complainant in the absence of the solicitor for the relator, and after a delay of more than an hour ank oral order was made transferring the cause to St. Clair county.
It was claimed by the solicitor for the relator that it was unfair in view of what occurred between coünsel to call up the motion in his absence, and that an arrangement was made that counsel would appear before the circuit judge who was then holding court at Lapeer, when counsel would agree upon the cause being- removed to some other county than St. Clair. The circuit judge does not remember this as does counsel, but says counsel appeared before him for the purpose of rehearing the motion, and.that it was reheard when an order as follows was signed:
“State of Michigan. — In the circuit court for the county of Oakland, in chancery.
“Elizabeth Palmer Bradfield,
“Complainant,
v.
“Thomas Parks Bradfield,
‘ ‘ Defendant.
“At a session of the circuit court for tne county of Oakland in chancery, continued and held on the 12th day of November, A. D. 1906, in the city of Pontiac.
“Present, Honorable George W. Smith, Circuit Judge.
“In the above cause a motion for a change of venue having been made and set for hearing on this day and no one appearing in support of the said motion, and George G. Moore, of Moore, Brown, Miller & Ladd, solicitors for the said complainant appearing in opposition to said motion, after due consideration being had, it is ordered and adjudged that the said cause be and the same is hereby transferred to the county of St. Clair for hearing.
“George W. Smith,
“ Circuit Judge.
“Filed November 19, 1906.
“George A. Brown,
“Register.”
Soon thereafter the files were transferred to St. Clair county. On the 11th of December counsel moved the circuit judge of Oakland county to vacate this order. This motion was overruled. No effort was made to review the action of the judge in overruling this motion. The complainant in the divorce moved the court in St. Clair county for an order for alimony and solicitor’s fees. The relator obje<3ted to this being done, claiming that the circuit judge of Oakland county had no jurisdiction to make the transfer, and that the circuit court in chancery for St. Clair county had no jurisdiction to make any order in the case. He also made a counter showing to the application for alimony, but it was agreed this was without prejudice to the question of jurisdiction.
The court thought it had jurisdiction to make the order, and made it. We are asked through the writ of mandamus to require the circuit judge to vacate the last-named order because the judge of the circuit court for the county of Oakland in chancery had no authority to make it. This would in effect vacate the order which the- judge of Oakland county refused to vacate, and which refusal was not sought to be reviewed in any direct proceeding. We think it would be anomalous for the circuit court of St. Olair county in chancery to refuse to take jurisdiction in a case transferred to it by the judge of another circuit when the order making the transfer was regular upon its face. The case of County of Montmorency v. Wiltse, 125 Mich. 47, is authority for the proposition that, if relator desired to. test the legality of the removal of the case from the Oakland circuit to the St. Clair circuit, it should have been done by the writ of mandamus when the judge of the Oakland circuit refused to vacate the order making the transfer.
Counsel say:
“After a cause has been actually transferred, and the records and files transmitted, the original court cannot resume jurisdiction by an order vacating the order changing the venue " — citing Stone v. Byars, 32 Tex. Civ. App. 154, and other, cases.
An examination of these cases will show that none of them was a case where it was claimed the order making the transfer was void for want of jurisdiction to make it.
Motion is denied.
Grant, Blair, Montgomery, and Hooker, JJ., concurred. | [
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Ostrander, J.
(after stating the facts). The case has been so fully stated in order that the scope of the attack which is made upon the act may be seen, and the points which we do not consider, as well as those which we consider, may be understood. We cannot avoid a consideration of the validity of the act to the point where we conclude that reason is shown for granting Or for denying the relief which is asked for. Beyond that point, we are not required to go.
It will be noticed that the constitutional amendment of 1893, like the one of 1899, while in some respects limiting the powers of the legislature, is not operative without legislative action. Unlike the last, the first amendment directs that county roads shall be under the control of a board of commissioners not exceeding five in number, who shall be elected by the people. The legislation which followed the first amendment was in conformity therewith. The system evolved by the legislature was a uni form one, with certain unimportant exceptions applicable to Wayne county only. With the adoption of the constitutional amendment of 1899, the act underwent considerable changes; the most of them, of importance, affecting Wayne county only. The legislature did not provide for ‘ ‘ one or more county road commissioners, to be elected by the people, or appointed,” but provided that in all counties excepting Wayne they should be elected by the people, and later, and in 1905, that in Marquette county they should be appointed by the board of supervisors. The powers confided by the legislature to county commissioners, in a system which required such officers to be, in all counties, elected by the people, were not modified after the adoption of the last amendment to the Constitution, and are substantially the same in counties where the commissioners are elected, and in Wayne county where they are appointed. Among the powers confided to them is the extraordinary one of taxation.
An office is created before it is occupied, or executed, and an appointment to a particular office is an appointment to exercise the powers of the office. The name given to these officers, the powers conferred, and the obvious purpose of the law support the conclusion that they are local public officers, to whom is delegated a portion of the sovereign power of the State. The statute empowers them to execute duties heretofore devolved upon highway commissioners. See Campau v. Highway Commissioner of Grosse Pointe, 132 Mich. 365, 369. The property of the county is taxed for county roads, the statute imposes upon counties the duty to maintain such roads, and imposes a liability for injuries received on account of their being out of repair. In the sense that township and city highways are matters of local concern, so county roads are of local concern; and this conclusion cannot be affected by the fact that aid in building roads may be obtained from the State, or the fact that counties have heretofore exercised few powers of a purely local nature. The language of the constitutional provision is:
“The legislature may also prescribe the powers and duties of boards of supervisors in relation to highways, bridges and culverts, and may provide for one or more county road commissioners to be elected by the people, or appointed, with such powers and duties as may be prescribed by law.”
The words “the people” can refer to none other than those of the county. If it was determined by the legislature that these officers should be appointed instead of being elected “by the people,” provisions for such appointment were required to be in conformity with the theory of local self-government. This conclusion may be rested as well upon mere construction of the language employed in the Constitution, as upon the idea that the source of the appointment must conform with the extent of the powers given. The power of appointment to public office belongs primarily to the people. The constitutional provision confers upon the legislature the power to determine whether the office shall be filled by election or by appointment, and, if by appointment, to prescribe the manner of appointment. The legislature did not appoint. It provided by whom appointments, and successive appointments, should be made. Relators were named according to the manner provided. In no sense, therefore, is it true that their appointments were provisional; and no person, officer, or body representative of the county made, or is charged with the duty of making, the appointments. Courts may not supply a method of appointment, since that would involve the exercise of legislative power. For the same reason, we are required to deny the soundness of the argument that because the board of supervisors of Wayne county have recognized the relators as officers, it would be held, in quo warranto proceedings, and upon the authority of People, ex rel. Attorney General, v. Lothrop, 24 Mich. 235, they are entitled to their offices. We conclude that the act, in so far as it provides for the appointment of county road commissioners for Wayne county, cannot be sustained?
The tax which makes the fund upon which the relators’ warrant is drawn was not laid by the board of supervisors, and was laid by the board of county road commissioners. We agree with the court below that the only rational conclusion to be drawn from the record upon this point is that the supervisors understood they had no power in the premises, and, in fact, exercised none. The power of the board of supervisors to lay a tax’ for such a purpose is found in section 9 of article 10 of the Constitution, and the limitation there found is not removed by the provisions of section 49 of article 4 without legislative action. The legislature has acted. The action taken does not give to the supervisors of Wayne county the power to levy a tax for county roads. Rather, as will be seen by reading section 20 of the act, the supervisors are denied any authority in the matter. It is clear, then, that the powers of supervisors to raise money for roads have not been expressly increased by the legislature, and that they are no greater than they would be if there was no legislation upon the subject, unless we are able to say that, because counties, including Wayne county, have been authorized to take charge of and control highways within their limits, this necessarily carries with it the power to raise money to an amount not exceeding the limitation expressed in section 49,.art. 4. It is a part of the argument advanced that, although the legislature has not expressly modified the powers of county road commissioners since the amendment of 1899, that amendment itself operates as a modification of such powers, and has the - effect to divest these officers of legislative, and to leave them clothed with executive, powers; that we should construe the act as if the road commissioners in Wayne county had been given no legislative powers. Undoubtedly, courts do, and should, if it is possible, sustain a statute by eliminating objectionable provisions, leaving those which are not objectionable to stand. The rule is:
“If, when the unconstitutional portion is stricken out, that which remains is compMte in itself, and capable of being executed in accordance with the apparent legislative intent, wholly independent of that which was rejected, it must be sustained. The difficulty is in determining whether the good and bad parts of the statute are capable of being separated within the meaning of this rule. If a statute attempts to accomplish two or more- objects, and is void as to one, it may still be in every respect complete and valid as to the other. But if its purpose is to accomplish a single object only, and some of its provisions are void, the whole must fail, unless sufficient remains to effect the object without the aid of the invalid portion. And if they are so mutually connected with and dependent on each other, as conditions, considerations, or compensations for each other, as to warrant the belief that the legislature intended them as a whole, and if all could not be carried into effect the legislature would not pass the residue independently, then, if some parts are unconstitutional, all the provisions which are thus dependent, conditional, or connected must fall with them.” Cooley on Constitutional Limitations (7th Ed.), pp. 247, 248.
There are many reasons why we may not so construe this statute. The method of appointing commissioners for Wayne county was fixed after the constitutional amendment of 1899 was in effect, the powers given to them are the same as those possessed by such commissioners in other counties, the legislative scheme for county control of roads is distinctly invaded if commissioners do not possess and exercise the statute powers, and. last, but not least, of reasons, the electors of Wayne county adopted the system as it was presented. Nor can we admit the soundness of the argument made, except by determining in effect that, without further legislation, the scheme may be carried into effect in Wayne county by merely advisory or executive action on the part of the road commissioners, leaving all necessary legislative action to the board of supervisors. We cannot so determine, because boards of supervisors possess, generally, only such powers as are expressly given to them, the legislature has not given to the supervisors of Wayne county the powers necessary to carry the act into effect in that county, and the Constitution cannot be held to be, in this regard, self-executing in Wayne county, and not self-executing in all other counties. The tax must stand or fall as one laid by the commissioners. Whether their acts, under color of office, in so far as they involve public and private interests, may be sustained, is a subject upon which we express no opinion. In doing this, we necessarily decline to consider the contention that the entire act is void. We have reached the conclusion that relators are not officers de jure. We infer that further legislation is to be sought.
We do not understand that any contract made by relators is involved in this proceeding, or will be affected by our decision. Nor is this a direct proceeding to test the right of relators to office, or to determine the validity of a tax.
We affirm the judgment of the court below, because we are of opinion that relators should be denied the right to disburse the fund which has been created. It is, at least, a serious question whether many of the powers confided by the act to the commissioners, other than the one to tax, are not legislative in character. In asking relief, relators are asserting the legal right to the office and to the money — the right to continue to exercise the powers of the office. Proceedings are pending to try their right to the office. There has been, so far, little action by the public or by public officers which can be said to amount to acquiescence in their claims, and great confusion is likely to result if it is held that warrants drawn by them must be paid. That the courts may, under the circumstances disclosed, exercise their discretion in determining whether the writ of mandamus shall issue, is not to be doubted. Lawrence v. Hanley, 84 Mich. 399; Board of Sup’rs of Cheboygan Co. v. Township of Mentor, 94 Mich. 386. And see Board of Park Com’rs of Detroit v. Common Council of Detroit, 28 Mich. 228.
McAlvay, C. J., and Grant, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred. | [
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Allen, P. J.
I. Factual Background.
These six consolidated class actions are de facto companions of (Sarah) Grigg v Michigan National Bank, 72 Mich App 358; 249 NW2d 701 (1976). Richard Grigg, one of the named plaintiffs in the present series of cases, is the husband of the plaintiff in Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra. Mrs. Grigg is employed by the attorneys who represent the plaintiffs in the six cases now before us.
Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra, sought recovery of allegedly excess finance charges paid by users of the Michigan BankAmericard ■ service operated by the defendant bank. This Court affirmed the trial court’s dismissal of the class action in Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra, primarily because use of the GCR 1963, 208, class action device would have imposed too great a burden upon the defendant and the judicial system as compared with thé benefits which might have been conferred upon members of the plaintiff class.
The trial judge in the present case deferred a ruling on the propriety of a class action format in order to first address the substantive questions raised by the complaints. We have serious doubts about the wisdom of that choice. If we were operating under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FR Civ P 23), the trial judge’s failure to consider the class action question would be clear reversible error. Eisen v Carlisle & Jacquelin, 417 US 156; 94 S Ct 2140; 40 L Ed 2d 732 (1974). Our own Rule 208, supra, was copied directly from an earlier version of FR Civ P 23, supra. But Michigan has not yet adopted the subsequent amendment to the Federal rule which Eisen interpreted as mandating that the propriety of the class action be considered before the merits in all cases. That failing at least left the door ajar for the procedure followed by the trial judge in the present cases. Northview Construction Co v St Clair Shores, 395 Mich 497; 236 NW2d 396 (1975), reversing 44 Mich App 614; 205 NW2d 895 (1973), reh granted 395 Mich 924 (1976), aff'd on reh, 399 Mich 184; 249 NW2d 290 (1976). We recognized precisely such a possibility in Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra.
"We hold that shortly after a class action is filed, and after discovery, a trial court should usually first determine whether a class action can be maintained before any findings on the merits. * * * There may, however, be instances where considerations of judicial economy will dictate that at least a partial ruling on the merits should precede certification of the class.” (Emphasis supplied.) 72 Mich App at 381-382.
But, even if the. opportunity theoretically exists, we believe, for reasons more fully outlined in Eisen, Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra, and Kass v H B Shaine & Co, Inc, 71 Mich App 101; 246 NW2d 396 (1976), that the trial judge abused his discretion by deferring the class action question in this case. However, in all fairness to plaintiffs we recognize that we have been presented with something of a fait accompli. Given the present posture of the case, we believe that the interests of justice will be better served if we address the merits of the case and resist the inclination to summarily reverse.
The defendants in the present cases are all large retail stores which make credit sales pursuant to revolving charge account agreements. The plaintiffs are seeking recovery of allegedly excess finance charges paid pursuant to those agreements since August 4, 1964. The plaintiffs contend that a monetary recovery is possible under MCLA 445.868; MSA 19.416(118) or one of several equitable causes of action. The trial judge appears to have recognized a combined statutory and equitable cause of action. We affirm that ruling — at least to the extent of authorizing recovery of excess finance charges. The August 4, 1964, date was apparently chosen in recognition of the six-year limitation period imposed by MCLA 600.5813; MSA 27A.5813. The complaints in these cases were filed in August and September of 1970.
Ignoring minor variations, there are four generally recognized methods of computing finance charges on revolving charge accounts. Those methods are ending balance, previous balance, average daily balance, and adjusted balance.
The defendants were using the previous balance method on August 4, 1964. At that time, there was no statute speciñcally regulating the amount of finance charges which could be imposed on revolving charge accounts. Michigan’s principal usury law, 1948 CL 438.51 (since repealed and replaced by MCLA 438.31; MSA 19.15[1]) provided that interest rates on loans of money could not exceed 5% for oral agreements, and 7% for written agreements; but the traditional rule has been that the usury laws controlled only "interest” and not "time-price differentials”,* ***5 the label applied to finance charges on retail credit sales. Keefe v Bush & Lane Piano Co, 247 Mich 82; 225 NW 585 (1929), Silver v International Paper Co, 35 Mich App 469; 192 NW2d 535 (1971). Since the revolving charge account is a comparatively recent innovation, no Michigan court has as yet expressly decided whether that traditional immunity from the usury laws extends to the time-price differentials charged on revolving accounts. Plaintiffs in these cases argue that the immunity is not so extensive and that on August 4, 1964 — and for some time before that — the defendants’ use of the previous balance method resulted in violations of the usury laws.
The next significant event occurred on March 10, 1967, the effective date of Michigan’s Retail Installment Sales Act (MRISA), 1966 PA 224; MCLA 445.851 et seq.; MSA 19.416(101) et seq. Unlike the old usury laws, MRISA was expressly designed to regulate finance charge rates on revolving charge accounts.
Section 12 of MRISA, MCLA 445.862; MSA 19.416(112), limited time-price differentials to "1.7% of the unpaid balance per month”. Plaintiffs in these lawsuits allege that beginning with the effective date of MRISA on March 10, 1967, the defendants were in violation of that limitation by virtue of their use of the previous balance method.
On August 11, 1970, in response to a legislative inquiry, the Attorney General released an opinion concluding that the previous balance method as then employed by the defendants and other retailers violated the maximum rate limitation in § 12 of MRISA. OAG 1969-1970, No. 4706, p 163 (August 11, 1970). The release of that opinion coincided with the filing of the first of the complaints in these consolidated actions. The Attorney General’s opinion also sparked a lawsuit in Ingham County Circuit Court by some of these defendants challenging the correctness of that opinion. Sears, Roebuck & Co v Attorney General, Ingham County Circuit Court No. 12204-C. That lawsuit was finally ended by a stipulation which (1) reached no conclusion on the legality of the previous balance method, (2) stated that the defendants’ use of that method had been in good faith, but that (3) the defendants would switch to the average daily balance method with a 30-day deferral feature as explained in fn 4, supra. The defendants switched from the previous balance method to the average daily balance method on various dates in 1971. Despite that switch, the plaintiffs contend that even the new method violates § 12 of MRISA because the defendants compound finance charges, i.e., if a finance charge for one month is not paid, it is added to the debit balance on which the next finance charge is calculated. The plaintiffs also contend that the defendants should not be allowed to include purchases made during the current month in their computations of daily balances.
The plaintiffs have consistently characterized these proceedings as equitable in nature, in part because of their requests for an injunction and an accounting, and also because of the analysis by Justice Williams in Paley v Coca Cola Co, 389 Mich 583; 209 NW2d 232 (1973), which traced the equitable origins of class actions. The defendants have also invoked equity jurisdiction. They argue that, even if they are found to be in technical violation of the law, various equitable principles preclude any monetary award. We accept the invocation of both equity jurisdiction and equity principles. Paley v Coca Cola, supra; GCR 1963, 12, 110.3, 203. At least since 1963, equitable and legal claims may be joined in a common complaint and equitable defenses can defeat legal claims.
After extensive preliminary maneuvering, both sides moved for summary judgment in the trial court. The trial judge granted summary judgment for the defendants on the first and third of the plaintiffs’ three theories of recovery; and he granted summary judgment for the plaintiffs on their challenge to the previous balance method. First, he ruled that the finance charges assessed prior to March 10, 1967, were not illegal because they were time-price differentials, not interest, and thus not subject to the limitations of the usury statute. Next, for purposes of evaluating the MRISA-based challenges to the previous balance method, the trial judge interpreted § 12 of MRISA as allowing an "effective yield” of 1.7% per month. He then tested both the previous balance method and the version of the average daily balance method adopted pursuant to the stipulation with the Attorney General by asking the following question: Assuming the worst possible timing of purchases and payments, is it ever possible that the method may produce effective yields in excess of 1.7% per month?
Applying the stated test, the trial judge found that the average daily balance method currently being used by the defendants was legal. However, he also held that the previous balance method was in violation of § 12 of MRISA from the March 10, 1967, effective date of that act until the defendants abandoned use of the previous balance method at various times in 1971. The judgment order provides that the plaintiffs may recover "damages” to the extent that the finance charges actually imposed on their accounts during that period exceeded the amount which would have been imposed if the defendants had been using the present average daily balance method. Since most of the defendants used a 1.5% rate in their average daily balance method computations, it is obviously possible that the damage formula might require them to return finance charges imposed in some months when their charges were legal even according to the trial judge’s effective yield test which used a 1.7% rate. We note the apparent incongruity; however, we believe that, in principle, the trial judge was acting within his equitable powers when he fashioned that remedy.
Neither the propriety of using the class action procedure nor the actual amount of damages has yet been determined. Therefore, the summary judgments granted by the trial court were necessarily partial summary judgments from which there would ordinarily be no immediate appeal. However, this Court granted the defendant’s application for leave to file an interlocutory appeal. GCR 1963, 806.2(2).
II. Issues Involved.
The combined appeals present at least 10 stated questions which we have consolidated into 4 as follows:
(1) Did the previous balance method of computing finance charges used by the defendants between August 4, 1964, and March 10, 1967, violate Michigan’s usury laws?
(2) Does the average daily method of computing finance charges currently being used by most of the defendants pursuant to the stipulation with the Attorney General violate MRISA?
(3) Did the previous balance method used by the defendants between March 10, 1967, and late 1971, violate MRISA?
(4) If violations occurred, what amount of damages should be awarded?
Question #1: Pre-1967 Usury Laws.
In answer to the first question, we affirm the trial court ruling that there has been no usury law violation because prior to the effective date of MRISA, there was no state law limiting the amount of time-price differential which might be charged for the privilege of paying for retail merchandise in one or more delayed installments. We agree with the plaintiffs’ statement that there is no real difference between time-price differentials charged on retail credit sales, and interest charges on loans of money. But this state’s policy has been to recognize a technical distinction in order to encourage the sale of retail goods on credit while simultaneously placing strict usury limits on outright loans of money. The trial judge correctly cited Keefe v Bush & Lane Piano Co, supra, and Silver v International Paper Co, supra, in support of his ruling. It is true that neither of those cases involved revolving charge accounts. But arguments raised by the plaintiffs would have been just as logically sound if made in either of those two cases. Thus, we must reject their proposed distinction.
Similarly, we cannot criticize the logic of the foreign jurisdiction cases cited by the plaintiffs, e.g., State v J C Penney Co, 48 Wis 2d 125; 179 NW2d 641 (1970). But the fact remains that Michigan has always allowed sellers to charge higher finance charges than lenders. Plaintiffs argue that the trend is in the other direction. However, that contention is rebutted by the fact that, simultaneously with the enactment of MRISA, the Legislature amended the general usury statute to clearly exclude time-price differentials from its lower rate limitations. 1966 PA 326; MCLA 438.31; MSA 19.15(1). There can be no doubt that the Legisla ture intended to continue observing the distinction between interest charged on loans of money and time-price differentials charged on retail sales.
For the reasons stated, we hold that the defendants’ use of the previous balance method of computing finance charges between August 4, 1964, and March 10, 1967, did not violate the then effective usury laws.
Question #2: Average Daily Balance Method.
The second question presented is whether the. average daily balance method currently being used by the defendants pursuant to the stipulation with the Attorney General violates § 12(b)-12(c) of MRISA. Specifically, the plaintiffs contend that the statute prohibits including current month purchases in the daily balance computations and prohibits compounding finance charges by adding unpaid finance charges to the balance upon which the next finance charge is calculated.
We hold that the defendants may include current month purchases in their computations of the average daily balance. Including of current purchases is expressly permitted by the Attorney General stipulation and it is not prohibited by § 12 of MRISA. Section 12(c) authorizes imposition of a time-price differential "for the privilege of paying in installments”. The crux of the plaintiffs’ argument is their belief that a customer does not exercise the privilege of paying in installments until he has received the first bill reflecting the current purchases and has failed to make a payment on the bill before the closing date of the next statement. We disagree. We hold that the phrase "paying in installments” refers to any transaction where full payment does not occur simultaneously with the transfer of the purchased goods. If a customer takes possession of the goods without paying, he has received a significant benefit for which the seller is expressly authorized to impose an additional charge.
Because the argument against compounding finance charges is directed against all methods used from 1964 through the present time, it must be analyzed in stages.
The Michigan cases cited by the plaintiffs for the proposition that finance charges may not be compounded were all decided at or before the turn of the century. See e.g., Hoyle v Page, 41 Mich 533; 2 NW 665 (1879). But the age of the authority is not the problem. Rather, the important point is that all of the cases deal with compounding of interest while, for reasons already stated, the finance charges imposed by these defendants are classified as time-price differentials. We again note the inherent logic of the plaintiffs’ argument against distinguishing those terms. However, at least in Michigan, a very real distinction exists. At least before March 10, 1967, there was no prohibition against compounding time-price differentials in this state.
The next question is whether compounding of time-price differentials is now prohibited by MRISA. Section 12(c), MCLA 445.862(c); MSA 19.416(112)(c), authorizes imposition of a time-price differential on "all amounts unpaid thereunder”. We read that language as permitting compounding of time-price differentials. We note that this will only occur if the customer breaches the financing contract by failing to pay at least the required monthly minimum.
Question #3: Previous Balance Method.
The third question posed by this appeal is whether the defendants’ use of the previous balance method between March 10, 1967, and late 1971 was in violation of MRISA. The trial judge ruled in the plaintiffs’ favor on this point. We are reluctant to express an opinion on this question because we are well satisfied with the terms of the stipulation signed by the Attorney General and several of the defendants. Were we seeking only to determine the fairest system for all parties concerned, the true average daily balance method of computation would be our choice. Because of its finance charge deferral and avoidance features, the hybrid method required by the Attorney General’s stipulation is even more favorable to customers. Our resolution of the next issue makes it unnecessary at this time to disturb the stipulated arrangement by expressing an opinion on the validity of the previous balance method under MRISA.
Question #4: The Damages Award.
The final and ultimately determinative question is whether — assuming that the previous balance method violates MRISA — the trial judge nevertheless erred by finding the defendants liable for damages. We conclude that several principles preclude a damage award at this time. Our conclusion is motivated by many of the same factors which led this Court to affirm the trial court dismissal of the class action in Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra. We suspect that the present actions would have been dismissed for the same reasons if the trial judge had not deferred considering the propriety of these class actions.
The present record does not permit precise computations of the amount of allegedly excess finance charges involved or the cost of computing and paying damages. It seems likely that although the total amount of finance charges was huge, the amount of allegedly excess charges collected was quite small even as measured by the effective yield test designed by the trial judge.
The trial judge found — and the Attorney. General stipulated — that the defendants’ use of the previous balance method was done in the good faith belief that it was legal in Michigan. We affirm that finding. This is not a situation like Hays v Regents of the University of Michigan, 393 Mich 756; 233 NW2d 276 (1974), in which the defendant should have been alerted to the clear illegality of its practices by earlier court decisions. In the present case, the most that can be said is that there is a split of opinion among the state and Federal courts which have considered the legality of the previous balance method under statutes similar to MRISA. Contrast Haas v Pittsburgh National Bank, 526 F2d 1083 (CA 3, 1975), and Partain v First National Bank of Montgomery, 467 F2d 167 (CA 5, 1972), with Zachary v R H Macy & Co, 31 NY2d 443; 340 NYS2d 908; 293 NE2d 80 (1972), Seibert v Sears, Roebuck & Co, 45 Cal App 3d 1; 120 Cal Rptr 233 (1975), Federated Department Stores, Inc v Pasco, 275 So 2d 46 (Fla App, 1973), Johnson v Sears, Roebuck & Co, 14 Ill App 3d 838; 303 NE2d 627 (1973).
As previously stated, we are dealing, at most, with excess charges collected during 1967-1971.* Those charges may amount to a significant sum in the aggregate, but they are insignificant when viewed as individual claims. Unfortunately, charges cannot be computed and paid in the aggregate. If damages are to be awarded, it will be necessary to review the activity in each individual account during the 1967-1971 period in order to determine the amount of excess charges. It seems likely that the total cost of calculating excess charges and paying individual claims would greatly exceed the amount of money actually paid to the individual plaintiffs. Since the class action certification question has been deferred, we have no access to the data which would allow precise computations. We are unwilling to blindly affirm a damage award without at least knowing the approximate cost of such an award. For that reason, we must assume the worst until contrary data is presented — preferably in a motion to certify the class and notify potential class members.
Plaintiffs argue that — whatever the cost — it is equitable to require the defendants to bear that cost as a punishment for their allegedly illegal past conduct. That argument is superficially sound; but it fails to trace those costs far enough to see who will ultimately pay them. The answer to that inquiry seems all too clear. Some day, in some way, the costs of calculating and paying damages will be borne by the defendants’ customers, i.e., the individual plaintiffs. And, given the grossly inefficient transaction costs involved in calculating the individual damages, the future costs to the customers will greatly exceed their damage recovery.
III. Conclusion.
All concerned concede that this action is subject to the rules of equity. Paley v Coca Cola Co, supra, GCR 1963, 12, supra. The merger of law and equity and the adoption of the clearly erroneous review standard in GCR 1963, 517.1, have not changed the rule that equity rulings by trial courts are reviewed de novo by this Court and the Supreme Court. For the reasons already stated, we are convinced that it would not be equitable to award damages in these actions at this time.
It might justifiably be argued that the result we have reached destroys the effectiveness of the class action device in precisely the type of case for which class actions were designed. The traditional wisdom is that class actions were created in order to allow recoveries for wrongs in situations where the individual recoveries would be so small that no one person could afford to bring a lawsuit. The lesson we draw from these cases and from Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra, is that the problem has not yet been completely solved. Where comparatively larger individual claims or comparatively fewer plaintiffs are involved, class actions function effectively as intended. But when it appears that the plaintiffs will not be the present or future beneficiaries of their action, the class action device is being abused. We, therefore, exercise our equitable powers to prevent that abuse.
If the plaintiffs wish to continue this lawsuit, we believe that the best approach would be to resolve the class action certification question first. The principles discussed in Grigg v Michigan National Bank, supra, will require the presentation of evi dence concerning the potential size and administrative costs of possible damage awards. That evidence will necessarily either confirm or refute the assumptions which underly our refusal to sanction a damage award at this time.
Affirmed in part, reversed in part.
We will use the term "finance charges” in the generic sense throughout this opinion. So used, the term encompasses several types of charges including "interest”, "time-price differential”, "service charge”, "delinquency charge” and others. The more precise terms are not always fungible. To avoid confusion, we will always speak of "finance charges” unless a choice between two more precise definitions is required.
In the ending balance method, the finance charge is assessed against the debit balance in a customer’s account on a designated closing day for the monthly statement. The finance charge is assessed in full even though the debit balance may have been created by a purchase as late as the statement closing date. The finance charge is then added to the debit balance and the total is reflected in the monthly statement as the amount due from the customer. If a company uses an ending balance method in its pure form, the customer cannot avoid paying a finance charge except to the extent that he makes payments on his account before the statement closing date. That means that the customer must pay for the purchases before he receives a bill if he wants to avoid finance charges.
The previous balance method is to some extent a modification of the ending balance method. The defendants say that it is the ending balance method with the addition of a 30-day grace period of potential free credit. The customer can avoid all finance charges by paying the previous month’s ending balance in full within 30 days after receiving a statement which includes that balance. The previous balance method imposes a finance charge at the end of month #2 on the ending balance from month # 1 unless a customer pays that balance in full at some time during month #2.
A true average daily balance method would assess a finance charge on the amount determined by averaging the debit balances in an account at the end of each day during the month covered by a statement. The daily balance changes from day to day to reflect purchases which increase the debit balance and payments which reduce that balance. Assuming a 30-day month, the average daily balance would be determined by summing the balance at the end of each of the 30 days and dividing by 30. The particular variant of the average daily balance method involved in this litigation includes a 30 day deferral feature like that which distinguishes the previous balance method from the ending balance method. In other words, a finance charge is calculated on the average daily balance at the end of month # 1, but the finance charge is not added to the debit balance in the account unless the customer fails to pay, before the end of month #2, an amount equal to the ending balance (not the average daily balance) from month # 1.
The adjusted balance method is a further modification of the previous balance method. Its attraction for the customer is that it allows him to avoid a part of the finance charge by making a partial payment even though his resources do not allow him to pay the previous balance in full. This is accomplished by reducing the previous balance by any payments made during month #2 (without adding purchases) before calculating the finance charge.
See in 1, supra.
The defendants argue that the 1.7% figure specified by the statute is a ''nominal” rate rather than an "effective yield” rate. See fn 10, infra. If a customer made a purchase on the last day of month #1 and paid almost but not all of his debit balance on the first day of month #2, imposition of a finance charge according to the previous balance method at the nominal 1.5% rate used by most of the defendants would result in an effective yield of approximately 45% per month as contrasted with the 1.5% per month nominal rate. (Debt owed for one day; 1.5% charge assessed; multiplied by 30 days in the month; monthly rate is 45%.) If the purchase were made earlier in month #1, the effective yield would decrease. If the purchase were made on the first day of month #1, the effective yield and the nominal rate would be identical. If the customer waited until the end of month #2 before making the partial payment, the effective yield would be .075%. If he made a full payment at any time in month #2, the effective yield would be 0%.
"(b) The buyer under the retail charge agreement shall promptly be supplied with a statement as of the end of each monthly period, which need not be a calendar month, or other regular period agreed upon in writing, at the end of which there is any unpaid balance thereunder, which statement shall recite the following:
"(1) The unpaid balance under the retail charge agreement at the beginning and at the end of the period.
"(2) The cash sale price of each purchase by the buyer during the period and, unless a sales slip or memorandum of each purchase is attached to the statement, the purchase or posting date, a brief description or identification of each purchase.
"(3) The payments made by the buyer and any other credits to the buyer during the period.
"(4) The amount, if any, of any time price differential for such period.
"(5) A statement to the effect that the buyer at any time may pay his total unpaid balance or any part thereof.
"(c) A retail charge agreement may provide for, and the seller or holder may then, notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, charge, collect and receive, a time price differential for the privilege of paying in installments thereunder, in an amount not exceeding 1.7% of the unpaid balance per month. The time price differential under this subsection shall be computed on all amounts unpaid thereunder from month to month, which need not be calendar months, or other regular periods; but if the regular period is other than a monthly period or if the unpaid amount is less than or greater than $10.00, the time price differential may be computed proportionately. The time price differential may be computed for all unpaid balances within a range of not in excess of $10.00 on the basis of the median amount within such range if as so computed such time price differential is applied to all unpaid balances within such range. A minimum time price differential not in excess of 70 cents per month may be charged, received and collected.”
See fn 4, supra.
A customer who obtains possession of goods without being required to pay for them immediately has, practically speaking, either borrowed money from the seller or been allowed to retain his own money for some additional period of time. We believe that it is fair to impose a charge for that privilege and that the charge should be directly and proportionately related to both the amount of money involved and the length of time for which it is held. Once a method of computation is selected, it is a simple task to regulate the amount of the finance charge by adjusting the nominal rate at which the charge is assessed.
And we do not adopt that test since we believe that the 1.7 percentage rate specified in § 12(c) of MRISA is intended to be a nominal rate, not an effective rate. The effective yield concept does not lend itself to statutory control since it will fluctuate wildly according to the customer’s timing of purchases and payments. See fn 7, supra.
Several class action decisions have denied recovery for amounts paid before the complaint was filed — 1970 in this case. See, e.g., Hays v Regents of the University of Michigan, 393 Mich 756; 233 NW2d 276 (1974). But that rule appears limited to the specific cases.
We reject any suggestion that the computation difficulties can be avoided by employing some variation of the "fluid class” concept. That idea was emphatically rejected by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in Eisen v Carlisle & Jacquelin, 479 F2d 1005 (CA 2, 1973). And while that decision does not control an interpretation of GCR 1963, 208, we are persuaded by its reasoning.
That inevitable fact might be deferred, but not forever. Complex limitations on price increases or stockholder dividends might possibly delay the impact. But even those limitations would have their own costly consequences for the defendants’ customers.
This would not be a concern if the lawsuit conferred some future benefit on the individual plaintiffs by forcing the defendants to switch to a more favorable method of computing finance charges. But Michigan’s elected Attorney General had already begun his ultimately successful effort to force such a change before these lawsuits were started. | [
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Per Curiam.
Defendant appeals as of right from his armed robbery conviction, MCLA 750.529; MSA 28.797. He alleges reversible error first, in the trial judge’s refusal to grant a mistrial on the ground of a newspaper headline which appeared on the evening of the second day of defendant’s trial. The newspaper headline stated, "Pizza Shop Hold-Up. I ought to kill you.” A poll of the jury showed that none of the jurors had read the article. Defendant contends that the viewing of the headline itself by four jurors caused prejudice in that the headline alone, without a reading of the article, may have been misleading. The statement "I should have killed you” was a part of the trial testimony. The jurors would have regarded that statement in the context in which they heard it at trial. They could not have been misled. The trial judge did not abuse his discretion in refusing to grant a mistrial. See People v Moore, 51 Mich App 48, 52; 214 NW2d 548 (1974), and cases cited therein.
Secondly, defendant contends that he was prejudiced by the prosecutor’s statement in closing argument that money found on defendant and his companion at the time of arrest "could just have easily have come, and probably did come, from other armed robberies * * * ”. The evidence discloses that approximately $165 was taken in the robbery of the pizza shop. When arrested, however, approximately $600 to $700 was recovered from the defendant and his alleged accomplice. During trial, the money was admitted into evidence.
It is indisputable that the prosecuting attorney has the right to draw inferences for the jury from the facts appearing in the record. People v Morlock, 233 Mich 284, 286; 206 NW 538 (1925). Not only may the prosecutor draw inferences but he may also comment upon the testimony in the case. People v Cona, 180 Mich 641; 147 NW 525 (1914). Moreover, the prosecutor may argue upon the facts and evidence that a witness is not worthy of belief. People v Couch, 49 Mich App 69, 72; 211 NW2d 250 (1973), lv den 391 Mich 755 (1973). In addition the prosecution may argue a case vigorously and even contend that the defendant is lying. People v Cowell, 44 Mich App 623; 205 NW2d 600 (1973).
A review of that portion of the prosecutor’s argument to which objection was made, when taken in its whole context, shows that he was debunking the defendant’s story on the grounds that the defendant had admitted telling a lie to the police; had four felony convictions for breaking and entering; and that defendant’s testimony was inconsistent with the testimony of many prosecution witnesses. The comment made by the prosecution merely suggested to the jury an alternate story which was equally plausible to defendant’s story as to why he and his alleged accomplice were carrying large amounts of cash on their persons. We find that such argument constituted a fair comment upon the defendant’s story. Furthermore, the prosecution’s closing argument must be read as a whole, People v Blake, 58 Mich App 685; 228 NW2d 519 (1975). The statement complained of here is the only impropriety alleged in the prosecutor’s argument. Even assuming the prosecutor’s comment to have been error, in light of overwhelming evidence of defendant’s guilt, the error, if any, was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt.
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D. C. Riley, J.
Plaintiff Burland, Reiss, Murphy & Mosher, Inc., (hereafter, "Broker”), secured a summary judgment in the lower court directing defendants, (hereafter, "Seller”), to pay $59,200 as a commission from the sale of certain realty owned by Seller.
The court below rested its decision on an October 15, 1974, contract under which Seller granted Broker "the exclusive right * * * for an unlimited period of time, to find a purchaser” for the property, subject to either party’s right to cancel the contract "by giving 30 days’ prior notice”. Seller further promised Broker that:
"[i]f a purchaser is obtained therefor, by you or by anyone for me, (including myself), during said period, at the stated price and terms, or upon any other price, terms or exchange to which I consent, or if said property is sold by me or for me, within (3) months after expiration of this Agreement, to a purchaser known to me to have been shown the property during such period, to pay you a commission of four (4) per cent of such sale price.”
On July 21, 1975, Seller notified Broker of its intention to cancel the contract, with cancellation effective August 24, 1975. Some time prior to the effective date of cancellation, one Sugarman, the eventual vendee, viewed the subject parcel, and on November 19, 1975, purchased it from Seller. The sale thus occurred after cancellation of the contract, i.e., after the listing period, but within the 3-month post-listing period.
Although informed of the sale prior to its occurrence, Broker did not attend the closing and did not request the 4 percent commission until after the property had been conveyed. Upon Seller’s refusal to pay, Broker instituted the present action and, as noted, met with success on a summary judgment. GCR 1963, 117.2(3).
Seller initially disputes the propriety of summary judgment, alleging that material issues of fact remain to be resolved. Based on the contract, the pleadings and the affidavits of the parties, we agree. In his opposing affidavit, Mr. Harry E. Schmidt, III, a defendant and general partner of Seller, expressed his understanding and intent
"that the extension clause contained in the Contract would entitle plaintiff to a commission only if the Property was sold during the extension period to a person to whom plaintiffs had shown the Property prior to cancellation of the Contract.”
This interpretation is not inconsistent with the language of the contract and thus should have been considered by the lower court. Union Oil Co of California v Newton, 397 Mich 486; 245 NW2d 11 (1976), Michigan National Bank of Detroit v Holland-Dozier-Holland Sound Studios, 73 Mich App 12; 250 NW2d 532 (1976). In our view, the commission clause of the contract raises more questions than it settles. The clause’s indiscrimi nate use of the phrases "said period” and "such period” fails to specify whether these words refer to the listing period, the post-listing period, both periods, or one or the other period depending upon the context. From the bare language of the contract, we have no way of knowing what the parties intended by the imprecise use of these terms; but by the same token, neither did the lower court on a motion for summary judgment. Since the cardinal rule of contract law is to effecuate the intent of the parties, and since summary judgment is inapplicable where the question of intent plays a leading role, Durant v Stahlin, 375 Mich 628, 652; 135 NW2d 392 (1965) (Souris, J., concurring), we hold the lower court erred reversibly in granting summary judgment to Broker.
Seller also argues that the Broker-Seller contract is unenforceable because it violates Administrative Code, 1973 AACS, R 338.2734(2) and R 338.2731 which provide:
"Rule 34. (1) * * * .
"(2) A listing agreement shall set forth a definite expiration date and shall not contain a provision requiring the party signing the listing to notify the broker of the party’s intention to cancel the listing upon or after the expiration date.”
"Rule 31. A broker or salesman who does not comply with these rules or any provisions of the act is presumed to be guilty of unfair dealing.”
In reliance on Brown v Marty, 172 Wis 411; 179 NW 602 (1920), Broker responds that the contract conforms with Rule 34(2) since the "definite expiration date” is 30 days after a cancellation notice has been sent to the other party. Brown involved a statute which required every contract for a real estate commission to describe "the period during which the agent or broker shall procure a buyer or seller”. There the Court held:
"[W]e think the contract in question is sufficiently definite in expressing the time of duration in that it provides a method by which the duration of the contract may be absolutely fixed, to wit, three months after the giving of written notice by the owner.” 172 Wis at 414-415; 179 NW at 603. (Emphasis added.)
Were we faced with language similar to the statute in Brown, we might well arrive at the same conclusion. Rule 34(2), however, is fundamentally different. It requires not a definable expiration date, but one that is definite; it mandates not a manner or method of ascertaining the contract’s expiration, but a date certain. We hold, therefore, that the Broker-Seller contract conflicts with the stricture of Rule 34(2).
This holding, however, avails Seller little. The general rule is that where, as here, a statute or regulation creates a duty unknown to the common law, the remedy provided therein for violation of the duty is exclusive. Pompey v General Motors Corp, 385 Mich 537, 552; 189 NW2d 243 (1971). Under MCLA 451.213; MSA 19.803, a broker’s violation of any duty imposed by this section or by its attendant rules permits the department of licensing and regulation to "deny, suspend or re voke” the broker’s license. While "[t]his act shall not be construed to relieve a person from civil liability * * * under the general laws of this state”, MCLA 451.213(k); MSA 19.803(k), one cannot be relieved of a liability that apart from this act does not exist. Accordingly, Broker’s violation of Rule 34(2) may not "bar recovery of an [otherwise] earned commission”. Greater Bloomfield Real Estate Co v Braun, 64 Mich App 128, 135; 235 NW2d 168 (1975).
We need not and do not address the other issues raised, given our resolution of the foregoing questions.
Reversed and remanded for trial on the merits. Costs to abide the result.
N. J. Kaufman, P. J., concurred.
The department of licensing and regulation is authorized "to enumerate by rule what conduct constitutes 'dishonest or unfair dealing’ as that term is used in [1919 PA 306, as amended, being MCLA 451.201 et seq.; MSA 19.791 et seq.]” McKibbin v Corporation and Securities Commission, 369 Mich 69, 75; 119 NW2d 557 (1963). In Ranke v Corporation and Securities Commission, 317 Mich 304; 26 NW2d 898 (1947), cited in McKibbin, supra, the Supreme Court upheld a prior, substantially similar version of Rule 34(2).
At common law, the failure to state a definite expiration date will not invalídate a contract for a real estate commission. Nolan v Swift, 111 Mich 56; 69 NW 96 (1896). | [
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Per Curiam.
Defendant appeared before the lower court on a motion to show cause why he should not be held in contempt for failure to make child support payments of $10 per week. MCLA 552.201; MSA 25.161. Defendant’s unemployment persuaded the court that he should not be held in contempt. However, the court refused to release defendant from liability for overdue payments, and ordered that defendant’s arrearage would continue to accrue at the rate of $10 per week for the duration of his unemployment. As long as he remained unemployed, defendant was to pay $5 per month for child support. Upon again finding employment, defendant was to resume payments of $10 per week, and was to pay an additional $5 per week to be applied to his accumulated arrearage. Defendant appeals from this order.
Defendant’s liability for support originated with a stipulation of paternity and an agreement to make support payments of $10 per week. An order of filiation to this effect was entered on February 11, 1975. At that time defendant was employed as a construction worker, with a net income of $190 per week. Defendant was married, and had two children of the marriage.
Defendant made support payments through March, 1975. On March 28th of that year defendant was laid off. Thereafter he made no support payments. From March of 1975, until March of 1976, defendant received unemployment compensation in the amount of $113 per week. When those benefits expired defendant began receiving ADC-U of $219 twice a month. He was receiving ADC-U at the time of the hearing, on April 22nd, 1976. At that time the accumulated support arrearage was $605.50.
I
Defendant first contends that the court’s order allowing the arrearage of $10 per week to accumulate and compelling him to pay $5 per month is in conflict with statutes prohibiting the alienation of unemployment compensation and ADC-U benefits, "by any assignment, sale, garnishment, execution or otherwise”. MCLA 421.30; MSA 17.532, MCLA 400.63; MSA 16.463.
By their terms the statutes prohibit only alienation of benefits. They do not preclude an order for future payment of child support from future wages. The court’s order did not require the arrearages to be paid, until defendant was again employed. Therefore, as to the arrearages, there was no conflict between the court’s order and the statutes.
That part of the order requiring defendant to pay $5 per month until he found employment was prospective only, and was given at a time when defendant’s right to unemployment compensation had expired. Our concern is therefore only with an alleged conflict between this order and defendant’s right to inalienable ADC-U benefits. As our previous construction of this statute indicates, this conflict exists only if defendant is forced to make payments for child support from ADC-U benefits. If defendant has other income which could be turned to this purpose, then there is no conflict between the court’s order and the inalienability statute.
Here, however, the record does not reflect that defendant had such other source of income. Nonetheless, defendant had twenty-odd work days available each month in which to seek whatever employment would be necessary to earn $5. Only if
this were found to be impossible, and defendant were found to be in contempt for refusing to pay the $5 in child support from funds identified as ADC-U benefits, would this Court be presented with the conflict which is said to arise here. It need not be resolved on the facts of this case.
II
Defendant next asserts that the trial court abused its discretion by not cancelling and forbidding the further accumulation of any arrearage in support payments, ánd by ordering him to make support payments while he was receiving ADC-U benefits.* Defendant argues, and we agree, that a court considering modification of a support order must take into account, among other factors, the father’s ability to pay. See McCarthy v McCarthy, 74 Mich App 105, 109; 253 NW2d 672, 674 (1977). Defendant further argues that when he lost his job and began receiving, first unemployment compensation, and then ADC-U benefits, he experienced a reduction in income which mandated a reduction in his required weekly payment. Finally, he argues that receipt of ADC-U benefits is prima facie evidence of his inability to make support payments. For the foregoing reasons defendant contends that the court’s order did not reflect what it had to, defendant’s incontrovertibly diminished ability to pay.
Defendant’s argument misconstrues the court’s order. Before the hearing in the instant case defendant was required, under penalty of contempt, to make weekly payments of $10 in child support. The court’s order reduced defendant’s obligation for current payments to $5 per month for the duration of his unemployment. We find that this more than adequately reflected defendant’s changed economic circumstances. See Baird v Baird, 368 Mich 536, 541; 118 NW2d 427, 429 (1962), Cymbal v Cymbal, 43 Mich App 566, 567; 204 NW2d 235, 236 (1972).
In the following terms the court clarified for defendant the reason for the order entered:
"Mr. LaFreniere, you have this continuing obligation just as much to support this child as the children that are at home with you. And I don’t think it is appropriate that you entirely forget it despite the fact that your income is less.”
We find no abuse of discretion.
Affirmed. No costs.
Indeed, our research indicates that defendant might find such employment without risking loss of ADC-U benefits, in whole or in part. Eligibility for those benefits requires, inter alia, that the father be unemployed, 42 USCA § 607(b)(1)(A); MCLA 400.56d; MSA 16.456(4), and that the dependent child be needy, i.e., without an income sufficient to provide "a minimum subsistence compatible with decency and health”. 42 USCA § 607(a); MCLA 400.56d; MSA 16.456(4), MCLA 400.56g(l)(b); MSA 16.456(7)(l)(b).
However, under 45 CFR § 233.100(a)(l)(i), an unemployed father is defined as one working less than 100 hours per month. This express and presumably controlling definition notwithstanding, the Michigan Legislature has imposed the additional requirement that the father not be employed for more than 64 hours in any consecutive two week period. MCLA 400.56d; MSA 16.456(4). Though the two provisions’ inconsistency is interesting, they manifestly allow defendant herein ample opportunity to earn the $5 per month without hazarding "employment”, under either the Federal or the state definition.
Defendant’s other concern might be that such earnings would result in a reevaluation of his dependents’ need and thus in a reduction or termination of ADC-U benefits without a corresponding increase in spendable income. This fear would appear groundless. By administrative regulation, the Michigan Department of Social Services has expressly adopted the Federal laws and regulations regarding what income is to be considered in determining an individual’s need. 1970-1971 AACS, R 400.12(24). The Federal regulations in turn provide that:
"[N]et income available for current use and currently available resources shall be considered; income and resources are considered available both when actually available and when the applicant or recipient has a legal interest in a liquidated sum and has the legal ability to make such sum available for support and maintenance.” 45 CFR § 233.20(a)(3)(ii)(D).
This regulation would seem to exclude from the computation of defendant’s available income any earnings which defendant is under court order to pay for child support. It would seem to follow that eligibility for ADC-U benefits would be unaffected by such earnings.
This Court is advised that, as a matter of "Departmental Policy”, the Department of Social Services disregards, in the computation of an individual’s available income, an amount equal to any court ordered payments for child support:
"When a recipient or applicant is under a court order for child support, and is making payments as directed by the court order for a child not in the eligible group, such amounts are not considered available income. In such cases, the amount of child support being paid by the recipient is deducted from the amount determined as his net income. This policy is applicable only for court orders for child support, but may be deducted from any type of income received by the person under the court order.” Assistance Payments Manual, item 330, p 9.
However, because the Department of Social Services has not complied with the requirements of the Administrative Procedures Act of 1969, this "Departmental Policy” is without the force of law. See MCLA 24.241; MSA 3.560(141), MCLA 24.242; MSA 3.560(142), MCLA 24.243; MSA 3.560(143), MCLA 24.246; MSA 3.560(146).
Defendant invites this Court to substitute its judgment for that of the lower court, and cites cases which state or imply that review here is de novo. See, e.g., Prettyman v Prettyman, 348 Mich 206, 211-212; 82 NW2d 475, 478 (1957), Cullimore v Laureto, 66 Mich App 463, 465; 239 NW2d 409, 410 (1976). It must be conceded that the de novo review which we are said to undertake seems inconsistent with the discretion said to be vested in the trial court. See Polley v Polley, 367 Mich 455, 457; 116 NW2d 924, 925 (1962), Spalding v Spalding, 355 Mich 382, 384; 94 NW2d 810, 811 (1959), Hagbloom v Hagbloom, 71 Mich App 257, 259; 247 NW2d 373, 374 (1976). See also MCLA 722.28; MSA 25.312(8).
The cases stress that "great weight is to be given to the trial judge’s findings of fact”, McCarthy v McCarthy, 74 Mich App 105, 108-109; 253 NW2d 672, 674 (1977), and that the trial judge will not be reversed unless the abuse of discretion is "clear”. Hagbloom v Hagbloom, supra, at 259; 247 NW2d at 374. We interpret this language as expressing a reluctance to displace the determination of a judge with immediate knowledge of the case. See Spalding v Spalding, supra, at 384; 94 NW2d at 811. It indicates that we do not, strictly speaking, hear this cause de novo. Rather, the lower court’s decision bears some presumption of validity, and appellant bears a correspondingly heavy burden of showing that decision to be "clearly erroneous”. See Cullimore v Laureto, supra, at 465; 239 NW2d at 410.
At the same time, we note that child support hearings are, historically, equitable in nature, and we are cognizant of the history of appellate review in equity cases, and the frequent references to de novo review found in those cases. See e.g., Oliver v Baldwin, 201 Mich 336, 360-361; 167 NW 910, 918 (1918). We conclude that their effect is to circumscribe the lower court’s discretion, so that it is narrower in this than in some other areas of decision, and yet not wholly overridden by the reviewing court. | [
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Allen, J.
Should United States Treasury bonds which were redeemed at par value by an executor in payment of Federal estate taxes be appraised for Michigan inheritance tax purposes at par value or at the lower discounted price quoted in over-the-counter bond markets on or near the date of decedent’s death? This question has never been addressed in Michigan. Other jurisdictions are almost evenly divided in their answer thereto.
The facts are simple and undisputed. Daisy Gertrude McCornack died May 20, 1970, leaving an estate of approximately $1,300,000. Among the assets were certain low interest United States Treasury bonds which were redeemed at par value in partial payment of the Federal estate tax liability. The bonds, popularly known as "flower bonds” are redeemable at par value by estate executors provided (1) the holder owns the bonds at the time of death; (2) the bonds are properly includable as an asset of the estate; and (3) the executor redeems the bonds with the United States Treasury Department and uses the proceeds to pay any Federal estate tax owed by the estate. The total par value of the redeemed bonds was $298,000. The over-the-counter value of the bonds on the Friday before and the Monday after decedent’s death was $234,065.93 according to the Wall Street Journal.
The probate court first appraised the bonds at their par value but, upon the executor’s petition for redetermination, reversed its earlier order and entered a final order evaluating the bonds at their over-the-counter value of $234,065.93. The Michigan Department of Treasury filed a claim of ap peal in the Circuit Court for Wayne County which, following a hearing, affirmed the final order of the probate court. On leave granted the case now comes to us for resolution.
Presently five states and the Federal courts assign flower bonds their par value and four states assign such bonds over-the-counter value when calculating state death transfer taxes. Those jurisdictions assigning par value fall into five categories. (1) States whose statutes specifically permit the probate judge to take into consideration "all factors and elements of value” when computing the value of estate assets; (2) States whose revenue departments have promulgated rules regarding evaluation which permit the probate court to take into consideration "all factors and elements of value” when computing the value of estate assets; 5(3) States which follow Federal tax law by interpreting state inheritance statutes according to the interpretation given similar Federal statutes by Federal courts; (4) States with a body of established case law holding that "fair” or "clear market value” may be interpreted broadly enough to permit the probate court to consider factors other than the open market price in evaluating estate assets; (5) States which, while relying upon one of the four justifications mentioned above, also adopt the "two market theory” by holding that where an executor of an estate possessing flower bonds wishes to sell, he may do so on one of two markets —the open market or the Federal redemption market — and the state properly should assign value on the basis of the higher of the two values.
The four jurisdictions which value flower bonds at the open market value at the time of decedent’s death are states which do not have statutes, regulations or case law specifically allowing the probate court to consider all factors or elements of value, and do not have an established policy of conforming state death taxes to the Federal tax scheme. In re Estate of Voss, 55 Ill 2d 313; 303 NE2d 9; 62 ALR3d 1266 (1973); In re Estate of Power, 156 Mont 100; 476 P2d 506 (1970); Department of Revenue v First National Bank of Oregon, 4 Ore App 477; 479 P2d 256 (1970); Estate of Aul v Haden, 154 W Va 484; 177 SE2d 142 (1970).
With this background we now turn to the question before us — which category of cases should Michigan follow? Appellee forcefully and eloquently argues that Michigan’s inheritance tax act prescribes "clear market value” as the standard of evaluation and, unlike the statutes in the par value states, does not authorize the probate court to look to "other relevant facts and elements of value” or "other proofs”. Consequently, says appellee, Michigan courts should adopt the rationale followed by Illinois and other jurisdictions operating under the "clear market value” standard. In rebuttal, plaintiff-appellant argues that both the spirit of the Michigan inheritance tax act and the express wording of § 13 thereof authorize "other proof’ of value, and that assignment of par value is not a violation of the clear market value standard since realistically par value is the true market value at the instant of death — there being two categories of flower bonds, viz: (1) Bonds which have satisfied all the requirements for estate tax redemption and for which the market price is their par value; and (2) Bonds which have not satisfied all of the requirements and can only be sold at the lower over-the-counter price.
Having examined all of the cases and the Michigan statute, it is our conclusion that Michigan should follow the majority rule and evaluate the bonds at their par value. We simply believe that the better logic and reasoning demand such a result even though the Michigan act is not identical to the statutes in the other majority jurisdictions. Flower bonds are purchased on the open market prior to the decedent’s death. At the time of purchase they command less than par value since it is only upon the instant of death that a second "market” at par value becomes available. The price quotations in the Wall Street Journal reflect the public open market. They do not reflect the specialized market which only trades with estates. Consequently, we find no violation of the statutorily prescribed "clear market value” standard in appraising these bonds at par value. Section 13 authorizes the probate judge to look to "other proof’. In our opinion the probate court, on redetermination, looked to the wrong market when it took the Wall Street Journal quotations. As was stated by the highly respected panel of Judges Hand, Swan, and Medina in Bankers Trust Co v United States, 284 F2d 537, 538 (CA 2, 1960), cert den 366 US 903; 81 S Ct 1047; 6 L Ed 2d 204 (1961):
"Ordinarily, of course, the Wall Street quotations of any particular class of bonds reflect the price at which the bonds 'would change hands between a willing buyer and a willing seller.’ In the sale of Treasury bonds of the class here involved the market quotation reflects the 'elements of value’ due to the fact that when the holder dies his executor may use the bonds at par value as a credit against his estate tax. But obviously such sales do not reflect the full value of such a bond to the estate of the particular holder whose death establishes the valuation date. Such a bond quoted in the market at less than par is clearly now worth par in the hands of the decedent’s executor.”
We acknowledge that Bankers Trust Co, supra, is distinguishable because the court referred to Treasury Department regulations which directed the taxing authorities to consider "all relevant facts and elements of value”. We believe, however, that this distinction played only a minor role in the court’s opinion and basically the court was motivated by the reasoning set forth in the quotation above.
Both parties refer to the dictionary definition of "clear market value” appearing in Black’s Law Dictionary. In his written opinion rejecting par value, the probate judge stated that since the United States Government was obligated by statute to purchase such bonds it was not "a willing buyer not obliged to buy”. The same point was made by the majority of the Illinois court in In re Estate of Voss, supra, and by the Supreme Court of West Virginia in Estate of Aul, supra. We do not agree. To conclude that the government is an unwilling buyer because Congress has by statute mandated purchase at par value is totally fallacious. Congressional action together with signature by the President indicate a voluntary decision to purchase a certain class of bonds whenever they become available. The same parties could change that policy at any time.
Nor can we agree that the Federal market is so special and limited that it may not be fairly characterized as a market. This argument, also advanced by the probate court, contains suggestions of the world of Adam Smith. While it may have been sound theory in the past century, it no longer is true in the modern state. In fiscal 1969, $420 million in estate taxes were paid with United States Government obligations. In Estate of Rosenfeld, 62 Cal 2d 432; 42 Cal Rptr 447; 398 P2d 783 (1965), supra, fn 4, the Federal market was recognized as a genuine and viable market.
"It is common knowledge that one of the chief reasons for the purchase of the type of bond here involved is the advantageous marketability at the death of the holder, the United States Government having created an additional market for the bonds in which the estate of the holder is assured of an opportunity to obtain par value to the extent there is federal estaté tax liability that may be extinguished by their surrender.” (Emphasis added.) 62 Cal 2d at 434.
Though the Michigan inheritance tax statute admittedly does not confer upon the treasury department or its officials the degree of latitude found in the majority states and the Federal government to look to all factors or other elements of value, neither is the Michigan act as restrictive as the minority states. Evaluation at par value is entirely compatible with the nature of the tax. The inheritance tax is a tax upon the privilege of receiving property by inheritance. In re Fox’s Estate, 154 Mich 5, 10; 117 NW 558 (1908), rev’d on other grounds 159 Mich 420; 124 NW 60 (1909). Evaluation at over-the-counter value is incompatible with the tax since it would allow the receipt of $63,934.07 inheritance-tax free. Had the executor received the lower value of $234,065.93 it would have had to sell other estate assets amounting to $63,934.07 and the "privilege of receiving property by inheritance” would have been diminished by $63,934.07. As was stated in In re Brackett Estate, 342 Mich 195; 69 NW2d 164 (1955), a decision involving construction of the Michigan inheritance tax:
"Nor will it be forgotten, in any question of statutory tax interpretation, that taxing is a practical matter and that the taxing statutes must receive a practical construction. While they will not be extended by implication * * * neither will the words thereof be so narrowly interpreted as to defeat the purposes of the act.” 342 Mich at 205. (Emphasis added.)
Applying this rule to the instant situation we find that as a practical matter a substantial market existed for these bonds at par value; that this market was the clear market value rather than a contrived or artificial value and that as a practical matter, the beneficiaries have enjoyed the privilege of receiving from said bonds $298,000. Under the statute this privilege is taxable in full rather than in part.
Nothing in our decision violates the "clear market value” rule laid down in In re Fish’s Estate, 219 Mich 369, 378; 189 NW 177 (1922), or, as appellee erroneously claims, opens the door to permit every probate judge to write his own regulations as to value. Our decision is limited to the factual situation involved in this case.
The orders of the Wayne County Circuit Court and the Wayne County Probate Court granting the petition for redetermination are reversed and the original determination of tax issued by the Wayne County Probate Court Decémber 13, 1974, is affirmed.
No costs, a public question being involved.
The Federal tax exceeded the total par value of the bonds. Thus there were no bonds "left over” which could only have been sold at the open market price. Flower bonds in an amount exceeding the tax assessed should obviously be evaluated at their over-the-counter value. In the instant case all flower fund bonds in the estate were used to pay the tax.
For an extended discussion of the nature of flower bonds see Annotation: Valuation of United States Treasury Bonds for State Inheritance or Estate Tax Purposes, 62 ALR3d 1272.
See In re Estate of Young, 16 Ohio Misc 332; 243 NE2d 123 (1969).
See Clapp v Cass County, 236 NW2d 850 (ND, 1975); Estate of Rosenfeld, 62 Cal 2d 432; 42 Cal Rptr 447; 398 P2d 783 (1965).
See In re Estate of Behm, 19 App Div 2d 234; 241 NYS2d 264, aff'd 14 NY2d 826; 251 NYS2d 475; 200 NE2d 457 (1963), which followed the Federal precedent in Banker’s Trust Co v United States, 284 F2d 537 (CA 2, 1960), cert den 366 US 903; 81 S Ct 1047; 6 L Ed 2d 204 (1960).
In re Estate of Eggert, 82 Wash 2d 332; 510 P2d 645 (1973).
See In re Estate of Young, supra, fn 3, and Estate of Eggert, supra, fn 6.
Two judges dissented on the grounds that other relevant factors might be looked at in determining value.
MCLA 205.201 et seq.; MSA 7.561 et seq.; especially MCLA 205.213; MSA 7.574.
The relevant portion of § 13 reads:
"The report of the appraiser shall be filed in the office of the judge of probate, and from such report and other proof relating to any such estate before the judge of probate, the judge of probate shall forthwith, as of course, determine the clear market value of all such estates as of the date of transfer, and the amount of tax to which the same is liable, or the judge of probate may so determine the clear market value of all such estates and the amount of tax to which the same are liable without appointing an appraiser.” (Emphasis added.) MCLA 205.213; MSA 7.574.
"With regard to inheritance tax, highest price obtainable. * * * sum which property would bring on a fair sale by a willing seller not obliged to sell to a willing buyer not obliged to buy, or fair market value, or cash value.” Black’s Law Dictionary (Rev 4th ed, 1969), p 318.
1971-1 United States Code Congressional and Administrative News, pp 957-973.
None of the over-the-counter jurisdictions had statutory provisions similar to Michigan’s § 13.
United States Treasury bonds issued after March 3, 1971, cannot be used to pay Federal estate taxes. However, as of January 31, 1975, in excess of 3.5 billion dollars of flower bonds were outstanding and may be used in the future to pay Federal estate taxes. | [
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N. J. Kaufman, J.
Defendant appeals as of right from his April 12, 1976 conviction by a jury on four counts of first-degree murder, contrary to MCLA 750.316; MSA 28.548.
The incident occurred on December 15, 1973. Four bodies were found in the living room of a dwelling at 9146 Oakland in Detroit. All had been shot in the head. One of the bodies had stab wounds in addition to the fatal gunshot wound.
Defendant raises seven issues on appeal, only one of which is necessary to the disposition of this case.
On three occasions, during the course of the trial, reference was made to defendant’s incarceration. After the first reference, defense counsel moved for a mistrial but also asked that the trial court take the motion under advisement. The trial court did so. After the second reference, the trial court gave a cautionary instruction to the effect that the jury should not consider the fact that defendant was in jail, as it did not relate to his guilt or innocence in this case.
The third instance occurred on direct examination of the parole officer assigned to the case of the key prosecution witness:
"Q All right. And have you ever recommended anything to the Parole Board on behalf of Mr. Wilson?
"A I recommended that he not be placed in the same block with Mr. Yarbrough.”
After the witness had finished testifying, there followed a long discussion as to the propriety of the question cited above. Defendant’s trial counsel argued that the question was another basis on which the trial court should declare a mistrial. The prosecutor argued surprise, but the trial court did not think it excused the error. The trial court stressed that the parole officer was not a hostile witness and noted that the repeated references to incarceration presented defendant with a Hobson’s choice regarding his right not to testify.
Defense counsel then asked if the trial court would take the motion under advisement. The prosecutor objected but the trial court took a recess with the motion under advisement.
After the recess, defense counsel announced that, after a conference with defendant, they were going to withdraw the motion. Defense counsel explained that he wanted the opportunity to make a motion for a directed verdict. The trial court questioned defendant on the record and defendant indicated his agreement. Although the trial court stated it was willing to grant a mistrial, the trial court allowed the motion to be withdrawn.
Defense counsel did make a motion for a directed verdict of acquittal, but the motion was denied. Defense counsel then renewed the motion for mistrial. However, the trial court ruled that the motion had been withdrawn.
The precise issue on appeal is whether the trial court was correct in ruling, in effect, that once a motion for mistrial is withdrawn, it cannot be renewed.
The foundation case in this area of the law is Bronson v The People, 32 Mich 34 (1875). In that case, a motion for mistrial was made after the trial was completed. However, the facts in support of the motion (voir dire irregularities) were known by defendant prior to the conclusion of the trial. Justice Cooley noted:
"Reliance is had upon the case of Hill v. The People, 16 Mich., 351, in which it was decided that where one of the jurors was an alien, which fact did not come to the knowledge of the defendant until after his conviction, a showing of this fact by the defendant entitled him to a new trial as of right, [sic] and that error would lie upon the refusal to grant it.” 32 Mich at 35.
Writing for a unanimous Court, Justice Cooley then held:
"The case is not parallel to this. Here the facts were all known to the party, and he made no seasonable objection. If he proposed to object, he should have done so then, instead of quieting the vigilance of the judge by leaving him to suppose that the proceedings were unobjectionable. Moreover, the objections in their nature are different. In Hill v. The People a person sat as a juror who was excluded by statute. There is no complaint that the two jurors who were accepted in this case were thus disqualified; the complaint is that the court erred in holding that their examination disclosed no definite opinion in their minds on the facts. The disqualification was absolute in the one case; in the other, it depended on a fact which is not found, and which we are asked to find on a review of the evidence. So far as concerns this question there can be no claim that the jury was not a lawful one on the judge’s ruling on the facts. It is not, therefore, a mistrial, and if the judge erred, his attention should have been particularly called to the error, by requesting him to note an exception.” Id.
That case has been cited, for the proposition that a trial court is not in error in refusing to grant untimely requests for mistrials. We have no quarrel with that holding. However, we still must decide what constitutes an untimely request.
Certainly, where the underlying facts are known to the defendant prior to the conclusion of the trial and defendant nevertheless waits until after the trial to make the motion, there is no doubt but that the request is untimely. But that factual setting is not present in this case. Defendant did not wait until after the case went to the jury before renewing his motion for mistrial. What, then, makes the request untimely?
Plaintiff argues that the renewal of the motion for mistrial was untimely because once it was withdrawn the motion could not be renewed, relying solely on People v Morgan, 50 Mich App 288; 213 NW2d 276 (1973), reversed on other grounds, 400 Mich 527; 255 NW2d 603 (1977).
In that case, one of the three defendants was not present at the preliminary examination in which an unproduced prosecution witness testified. Thus, when that testimony was read into evidence, the defendant’s right of confrontation was denied. Although ruling that the admission of that testimony was erroneous, this Court felt that reversal was not required, explaining:
"However, before the case was submitted to the jury the prosecution realized the possible prejudice and informed the court that he would agree to a severance and a retrial for Monroe. Monroe’s attorney, after a conference with the defendant, rejected the offer. As stated in People v Brocato, 17 Mich App 277, 305; 169 NW2d 483, 497 (1969):
" 'Counsel cannot sit back and harbor error to be used as an appellate parachute in the event of a jury failure.’ ” 50 Mich App at 291-92.
To properly discuss this case in terms of Morgan, it is necessary to make an examination of the purpose behind a motion for a mistrial. Through an analysis of that purpose, it is then possible to show that this case is wholly distinguishable from Morgan, supra.
Traditionally, a motion for a mistrial indicates that a party feels the conduct of the trial is such that the trier of fact, in this case the jury, is precluded from rendering an unprejudiced verdict. In Morgan, the fact that the trier of fact heard testimony to which the defendant could offer no cross-examination was significant. In this case, there were repeated references to defendant’s incarceration.
In Morgan, a mistrial was offered to defendant but he refused. In this case, a motion for mistrial was made, withdrawn, and made again. There lies the essential factual difference between the two cases. In the former, there was no motion. In the latter, a motion was offered.
However, as stated earlier, the prosecution contends that the withdrawal of the motion renders this case identical to Morgan. To accurately assess that claim, it is necessary to inquire why the motion was withdrawn. In this case, the motion for mistrial was withdrawn to allow defense counsel to move for a directed verdict. A motion for directed verdict indicates that a party thinks that there is insufficient evidence, as a matter of law, to support a verdict of guilty. It is evident that if the motion for directed verdict is denied, the taint which the party felt had suffused the trier of fact still exists. In fact, in a jury trial, the jury is totally unaware of the legal proceeding on the directed verdict. Conceptually, therefore, a motion for directed verdict to the trial court as a ruler of law, can have no impact — either favorable or unfavorable — on the underlying circumstances which factually support the motion for mistrial.
It is now possible to comprehend the essential legal disparity between this case and Morgan, supra. Prior to the jury deliberations in Morgan, there was no extant motion for a mistrial. This Court, following the rationale of Bronson v The People, supra (albeit without citation) properly affirmed. In this case, prior to the jury deliberations, there was a valid motion for a mistrial which should have been ruled upon. The trial court erred in refusing to consider the motion, cf. People v Howe, 392 Mich 670; 221 NW2d 350 (1974), and since the trial court expressed its willingness to grant the motion for mistrial, a remand for such a determination is unnecessary. We reverse and remand for a new trial.
Because of the disposition of the issue discussed above, it is unnecessary to discuss the remaining allegations of error raised by defendant.
Reversed and remanded.
It may be admitted that there is perhaps a visceral reaction against such logic, a feeling that somehow "defendant is getting away with something.” But it should be remembered that not all trial tactics are of the invited-error type. Where, as here, the legal proceeding has no effect on the underlying issue, it can hardly be said defendant has somehow gained an unfair advantage.
Certainly, it cannot be argued that whenever the trial court wishes, it can force defendant to make an election. There is a sound policy reason behind the rule forcing an election before the issue goes to the jury, the trier of fact. If the concern in a motion for mistrial is that the jury cannot reach an impartial verdict, defendant must decide prior to those deliberations. See Bronson v The People, supra. If, however, the trial court seeks to force an election long prior to the time the jury is told to begin deliberating, the trial court must justify its action. Irrelevant legal proceedings cannot provide that justification in this case. | [
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Per Curiam.
Plaintiff sued to recover damages allegedly caused by negligent diagnosis and treatment of a scalp laceration at Detroit General Hospital. Upon defendant’s motion, summary judgment was granted for defendant on the basis of governmental immunity. MCLA 691.1407; MSA 3.996(107).
That governmental immunity statute provides:
"Sec. 7. Except as in this act otherwise provided, all governmental agencies shall be immune from tort liability in all cases wherein the government agency is engaged in the exercise or discharge of a governmental function. Except as otherwise provided herein, this act shall not be construed as modifying or restricting the immunity of the state from tort liability as it existed heretofore, which immunity is affirmed.” "Governmental functions” immune under the statute include those governmental activities which were immune at common law at the time of the enactment of the statute. Thomas v Department of State Highways, 398 Mich 1; 247 NW2d 530 (1976), White v Detroit, 74 Mich App 545; 254 NW2d 572 (1977).
A long, unbroken line of cases have held that the operation of a community owned hospital is a governmental function. See, e.g., Snow v Freeman, 55 Mich App 84; 222 NW2d 43 (1974), White v Detroit, supra. That is not the end of our inquiry, however, because we must examine the specific complained-of activity and determine whether it is within "the exercise or discharge of a governmental function”. See Galli v Kirkeby, 398 Mich 527; 248 NW2d 149 (1976) (Williams, J.). In the instant case, the complained-of activity is the treatment and diagnosis of plaintiffs injury. This is within "the exercise or discharge of a governmental function”, White v Detroit, supra, just as, for example, tunneling was in Thomas, or hiring and firing employees was in Galli.
It is also implicit within the recent Michigan Supreme Court cases that the governmental immunity statute does not violate the equal protection or due process clauses of the United States or Michigan Constitutions. White v Detroit, supra. See Thomas v Department of State Highways, supra.
Summary judgment for defendant is affirmed. Costs to appellee. | [
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M. J. Kelly, P. J.
Defendant appeals his conviction for nonsupport charged to have commenced on or about May 28, 1974, and continuing thereafter, and leaving the state, contrary to MCLA 750.165; MSA 28.362, a felony. He was convicted by a jury and from a sentence of one to two years appeals of right.
Defendant raises four issues:
1. Did the appellant "leave the staté” after "refusing or neglecting” to pay support within the meanings of those phrases and in violation of MCLA 750.165; MSA 28.362?
2. Was the appellant’s inability to pay support a bar to prosecution under the statute and was the trial court in error by refusing to instruct the jury that "neglect” and "refusal” presupposes one’s having the requisite ability to pay?
3. Did MCLA 750.165; MSA 28.362 deny the appellant’s constitutionally guaranteed right to equal protection under the law because of its discriminatory application only to "husbands” and "fathers”?
4. The statute is unconstitutional because it inhibits defendant’s freedom of migration between the states.
The instant statute provides:
"Where in any decree of divorce, or decree of separate maintenance granted in this state, or by order entered during the pendency of any such proceedings, if personal service is had upon the husband or upon the father of any minor child or children, under the age of 17 years, or such husband or father shall have entered an appearance in such proceedings either as plaintiff or defendant, the court shall order such husband to pay any amount to the clerk or friend of the court for the support of any wife or former wife who by reason of any physical or mental affliction is unable to support herself, or father to pay any amount to the clerk or friend of the court for the support of such minor child or children, and said husband or father shall refuse or neglect to pay such amount at the time stated in such order and shall leave the state of Michigan, said husband or father shall be guilty of a felony: Provided, however, if at any time before sentence he shall enter into bond to the people of the state of Michigan, in such penal sum and with such surety or sureties as the court may fix, conditioned that he will comply with the terms of such order or decree, then the court may suspend sentence therein: Provided further, That upon failure of such person to comply with said undertaking he may be ordered to appear before the court and show cause why sentence should not be imposed, whereupon the court may pass sentence, or for good cause shown may modify the order and take a new undertaking and further suspend sentence as may be just and proper.” MCLA 750.165; MSA 28.362.
The statute has not been interpreted by an appellate court. In People v Steele, 219 Mich 44, 47; 188 NW 380, 381 (1922), it was held that there can be no conviction for desertion where "[t]he evidence is undisputed that his refusal and neglect to make provision for the support of the family took place some months after the separation * * * . In order to make out the offense under this statute, there must be coupled with the desertion, and at the very time of it, a failure to make provision.” We think the analogy carries over to the instant felony nonsupport statute and would require that the refusal or neglect be coupled with flight from the state. We are supported in this reasoning by an attorney general’s opinion, OAG, 1945-1946, No 0-3019, p 166 (January 9, 1945), which advises as follows:
"In order to constitute a complete crime, it would be necessary that the husband refuse to make the payments for support ordered by the court at or prior to the time of his leaving the State of Michigan and the act of leaving the State would complete the offense. This being true, the answer to your second question, in our opinion, would be that the crime would take place on the day of his leaving the state after having refused to comply with the order of the court. In this connection we are enclosing copies of our Opinions No 0-220 and No 0-2096. In addition to the authorities therein cited we would also refer you to the case of People v Steele, 219 Mich 44; also Gillespie’s Michigan Criminal Law and Procedure, pages 1034 and 1035.” Id. at 167.
In OAG, 1943-1944, No 0-220, p 352 (April 16, 1943), the Attorney General stated that a father cannot be considered a fugitive from justice and is therefore not subject to extradition under the instant statute unless his refusal or neglect to pay as required occurred before he left Michigan. The opinion states:
"If such father had not as yet violated the decree at the time he left this state and his neglect and refusal to pay as required by the decree occurred after he left the state of Michigan, then he has not committed the complete offense.” Id. at 353.
Although not bound by the attorney general’s opinion, David Walcott Kendall Memorial School v Grand Rapids, 11 Mich App 231; 160 NW2d 778 (1968), lv den, 381 Mich 765 (1968), we adopt the reasoning therein.
The questions of whether appellant departed the state in April of ’75 or in October of ’75 or both, and whether he was then in arrears (did "refuse or neglect to pay such amount at the time stated in such order”) we do not address because such are clearly questions of fact. Neither do we choose to rule on the effect of the payment in full of the arrearages before appellant’s final departure from the state on October 16, 1975. Because of the peculiar facts of this case where appellant made only five payments from the date of divorce until the date of trial, the jury could have determined that the corpus delicti of the crime existed notwithstanding the fact that subsequent untimely payments wiped out the arrearages. Since issue 2 is determinative of this appeal however, we find the date of defendant’s departure irrelevant to disposition of the appeal.
On this second issue defendant says that he had no income in 1975 and his total 1976 earnings through October were less than $1,400. He says he has been unemployed since the spring of 1976. Defendant says the court had uncontroverted evidence of his inability to pay and should have ruled it a valid defense to the charges.
The statute does not expressly provide for such a defense. Other Michigan criminal nonsupport stat utes make it necessary to show defendant’s ability to pay. MCLA 750.161; MSA 28.358 pertains to clesertion and nonsupport by a man of sufficient ability; MCLA 750.167; MSA 28.364 pertains to refusal or neglect to support one’s family despite sufficient ability to do so. Under the Uniform Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Act, MCLA 780.166(c); MSA 25.225(16)(c), ability to pay is a requisite for a contempt proceeding as is a like proceeding for failure to support under MCLA 552.201; MSA 25.161, see Borden v Borden, 67 Mich App 45; 239 NW2d 757 (1976), Sword v Sword, 399 Mich 367; 249 NW2d 88 (1976).
The difference between statutes referred to above and the instant statute turns on a defendant’s absence from the state. The Legislature intended to impose strict liability on a defendant who fled rather than pay support. Flight in the past was far more effective in avoiding obligations than it is today. In 1952 the Legislature enacted the Uniform Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Act, MCLA 780.151 et seq.; MSA 25.225(1) et seq. The preamble sets forth the following:
"An act relative to the extradition of persons charged with failure to provide support for dependents and to provide for the enforcement by circuit courts in chancery of this state of the duty of such persons to support their dependents in accordance with the requirements of the laws of other states or any foreign state having reciprocal legislation, and to grant to such courts power to enforce such obligations by procedures including contempt; and to prescribe the procedure to be followed by such court in case of proceedings to require enforcement of the duty to support residents of this state by those obligated to furnish such support through proceedings in courts of other states or any foreign state having reciprocal legislation; and to prescribe rules of evidence in such proceedings.”
Under the uniform act a procedure is set forth that penalizes those who do not comply with the court’s order. The provision mandates that the defendant prior to being punished must have sufficient ability to comply with the court order. The punishment under the statute is incarceration for contempt until the defendant complies, but in any event not to exceed one year. MCLA 780.166(c); MSA 25.225(16)(c). Forty-nine states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have adopted the uniform act. New York has a similar act which allows reciprocity between the states. Only the absconding parent who disappears or travels to a foreign country presents a major problem. In light of the uniform act the viability and utility of the felony statute, under which defendant was convicted, becomes questionable.
In Commonwealth v O’Harrah, 262 SW2d 385, 388 (Ky, 1953), the Kentucky statute making it a crime to fail to pay court-ordered child support was held unconstitutional. The statute did not make intent an element of the offense and did not make inability to pay a defense. In considering this latter omission, the Kentucky court noted:
"A father who can but will not take care of his child ought not be coddled by the law. But oppression ought not be practiced in the name of law and justice. Some observations may be made as to the severity of this statute.
"The accused delinquent parent may have been ever so willing and anxious to perform his natural duty and to comply with the terms of the civil judgment but was wholly unable to do so. Though he be a bedridden pauper and his child or its mother in affluent circumstances or have abundant means of support, the defendant is afforded no mitigation and is allowed no defense except that he has in fact paid, as here, the two monthly sums of $15 each.” The court observed, "[t]he cruelty of a debtor’s prison comes to mind”. Id.
In a later case, the Kentucky court reconsidered the O’Harrah decision and held that inability to pay must be considered a defense available under a statute of the same character. Commonwealth v Mason, 317 SW2d 166 (Ky, 1958).
The Michigan nonsupport statutes generally reflect the rule that the offense presupposes the ability to pay. People v Collins, 292 Mich 217; 290 NW 386 (1940), People v Coleman, 325 Mich 618; 39 NW2d 201 (1949). Moreover, in contempt proceedings, the party charged with paying child support must be allowed to explain why the order has not been obeyed. It is only "the wilful, the recalcitrant, the obdurate or deceitful” who are not excused from their legal obligations. Reed v Reed, 53 Mich App 625, 627; 220 NW2d 199 (1974).
We find no meaningful distinction between the statute in question and the statute found unconstitutional in Kentucky.
We hold that the trial court erred in ruling that ability to pay was irrelevant. The prosecutor offered absolutely no evidence on the issue. Appellant’s former wife admitted that she had no knowledge of his employment status. Defendant testified to lack of income, serious illness and inability to pay. He introduced his 1975 tax return and certain exhibits establishing earnings. We hold that inability to pay is a defense to the crime charged under this statute. We reverse the conviction and remand for proceedings consistent herewith.
Issues 3 and 4 were not raised below. The constitutionality of the statute was not challenged in the trial court and failure to raise the issues below precludes appellate review. Buxton v Alexander, 69 Mich App 507; 245 NW2d 111 (1976), lv den, 399 Mich 827 (1977). | [
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D. C. Riley, P. J.
Plaintiff, Edward R. Garcia, brings the present appeal challenging the promotion procedures of the defendant commission. A short summary of the facts is necessary.
Plaintiff joined the Warren Police Department in January, 1960. He worked continuously in that department until November, 1963, at which time he voluntarily resigned. He was rehired in January, 1965, and has served without interruption until the present time. He has achieved the rank of detective corporal.
In July, 1976, pursuant to the firemen and policemen civil service act, defendant commission established a list of police officers eligible for promotion to the rank of sergeant. Following statutory procedures outlined in MCLA 38.512; MSA 5.3362, the applicants, including plaintiff, were given a written and oral test to determine their respective qualifications for the promotion.
After calculating the test score of each person taking the test, the commission added to that score additional points based upon the applicant’s length of service in the department. This procedure is set forth in § 27 of the City of Warren Police and Fire Civil Service Rules, which reads in part:
"SENIORITY FOR PROMOTIONAL PURPOSES: Seniority for promotional purposes shall be awarded commencing with the date of hiring of an employee on a full time basis, and shall be computed at 1/2 point for each full year of service for policemen and 1 percentage point for each four months in grade for firemen. The seniority or continuous service, of employees who have resigned and who have been reinstated in accordance with Act 78, shall date from the time of reemployment.”
Under § 27 plaintiff was given point credit for his term of service from 1965 to the date of the test, but received no points for his employment between 1960 and 1963. Plaintiffs final point score placed him tenth on the list for promotions.
Plaintiff subsequently brought suit in circuit court seeking to have § 27 declared unconstitutional as a violation of equal protection, and to thereby have an additional 1.917 points added to his total score to reflect his employment from 1960 to 1963. The extra points would, if added to plaintiffs score, elevate him to fourth place on the promotion list and entitle him to immediate promotion.
The circuit court ruled in favor of defendants, finding that § 27 reasonably distinguished between continuous and interrupted service for purposes of seniority and promotions. Plaintiff now appeals from that decision.
Challenges to statutes or administrative rules based upon the constitutional guarantee of equal protection have traditionally been reviewed under a "two-tiered approach”. Manistee Bank & Trust Co v McGowan, 394 Mich 655, 668; 232 NW2d 636 (1975). If the interest affected by the legislation is fundamental, or the class of persons affected suspect, the reviewing court applies a "strict scrutiny” test, requiring the state to show a compelling interest justifying the classification. Manistee Bank v McGowan, supra at 668. If no fundamental interest or suspect class is involved, the Court reviews the legislation solely to see if there is a rational basis between the act and the classification.
In Manistee Bank, supra, the Michigan Supreme Court, per Justice Levin, set forth a third test, applicable in place of the "rational basis” analysis:
"The classification must be a reasonable one, and it must bear a reasonable relation to the object of the legislation.” Manistee Bank v McGowan, supra at 671.
In the present case no fundamental interest or suspect class is involved, so there is no need to show that a compelling state interest requires the distinction between continuous and interrupted service. Using either the traditional "rational basis” test or the Manistee Bank "reasonable relation to the object” test, we find that § 27 does not violate equal protection.
The object of Act 78, and of its implementation in § 27, is stated in its title:
"AN ACT to establish and provide a board of civil service commissioners in cities, villages and municipalities having full paid members in the fire and/or police departments; to provide a civil service system based upon examination and investigation as to merit, efficiency and fftness for appointment, employment and promotion of all officers and men appointed in said fire and police departments and respective cities, villages and municipalities; to regulate the transfer, reinstatement, suspension and discharge of said officers, firemen and policemen; and to repeal all acts and parts of acts inconsistent therewith.” (Emphasis added.)
The question before this Court is whether the favoring of continuous employment over interrupted employment is reasonable in relation to this object.
Plaintiff argues that the distinction is unreasonable in that the public benefit of a promotional system based in part on experience is in fact lessened when credit is denied for interrupted service. This argument is premised on the fact that any experience gained during the time prior to the interruption of employment is ignored, as is the duration and reason for the interruption. The end result may then be the promotion of less-experienced candidates for jobs of significant public responsibility.
However tempting this argument appears, it must fail for a number of reasons. First, the commission has a justifiable motive for seeking to encourage continuous service of police and firemen. The orderly and efficient operation of these public services depends upon the cooperative efforts of the individual members. It is not unreasonable for the commission to seek maximum efficiency through consistency and continuity in the work force.
Second, the granting of promotions is not the only area in which continuous service is favored over interrupted employment. MCLA 38.510(c); MSA 5.3360(c) states that if a person seeks to be rehired by the police or fire department following at least 10 years of employment and a voluntary resignation, the person can only be reinstated at the lowest rank of the department. This loss of rank clearly encourages continuous rather than interrupted employment. Additionally, as the trial court pointed out, a voluntary resignation in the department has customarily been treated as a waiver of seniority rights for the purposes of shift privileges, pension benefits, and other rights. It cannot be said that the encouragement of continuous employment for the purposes of promotions is thus an arbitrary classification.
We are aware that the Attorney General, in a similar case, has rendered an opinion that a distinction between continuous and interrupted employment violates equal protection. This Court is not required to follow the opinion. David Walcott Kendall Memorial School v Grand Rapids, 11 Mich App 231; 160 NW2d 778 (1968). In addition, the opinion itself states that the distinction may have a rational basis "in view of changing techniques”. Opinion No 5101, at 4. We find such a rational basis in the present case.
Affirmed. No costs, a public question being involved.
1935 PA 78; MCLA 38.501 et seq.; MSA 5.3351 et seq., hereinafter referred to as Act 78.
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P. R. Mahinske, J.
Defendant, convicted of alteration of a pistol in violation of MCLA 750.230; MSA 28.427, appeals claiming that he could not constitutionally be presumed to have altered the serial number of a gun merely because the gun was found in his possession. For the reasons outlined below, we agree. The remaining issues presented by defendant, dealing with his convictions for armed robbery, MCLA 750.529; MSA 28.797, and felonious assault, MCLA 750.82; MSA 28.277, are without merit and do not require discussion.
Defendant Bankston was apprehended by police who traced the path of his flight from the scene of a K-Mart robbery to a nearby house. Defendant was discovered hiding in a bedroom closet. A search of the closet revealed a blue steel snub-nosed revolver in the bottom of a garment bag. The serial number on this gun had been removed or obliterated.
The statute under which defendant was con victed, MCLA 750.230; MSA 28.427, provided at the time of defendant’s trial:
"Any person who shall wilfully alter, remove or obliterate the name of the maker, model, manufacturer’s number or other mark of identity of any pistol, shall be guilty of a felony, punishable by imprisonment in the state prison not more than 2 years or fine of not more than 1,000 dollars. Possession of any such ñrearm upon which the number shall have been altered, removed or obliterated, shall be presumptive evidence that such possessor has altered, removed or obliterated the same. ” (Emphasis added.)
In the case at bar there was no evidence introduced to show that defendant was the person who altered the serial number of the revolver found in the garment bag. Defendant’s conviction was thus based upon the statutory presumption of MCLA 750.230. Defendant argues that this presumption is violative of both the privilege against self-incrimination, US Const, Ams V and XIV; Const 1963, art 1, § 17, and the due process clause, US Const, Am XIV; Const 1963, art 1, § 17.
We do not agree that the presumption in question infringes upon defendant’s right against self-incrimination. See Barnes v United States, 412 US 837, 846-847; 93 S Ct 2357; 37 L Ed 2d 380 (1973), Yee Hem v United States, 268 US 178, 185; 45 S Ct 470; 69 L Ed 904 (1925), People v Kayne, 286 Mich 571, 578; 282 NW 248 (1938), People v Gallagher, 68 Mich App 63, 73; 241 NW2d 759 (1976), lv grtd, 399 Mich 827 (1977).
However, we do agree with defendant that the presumption of MCLA 750.230, is violative of the due process clauses of the Federal and state constitutions. We note that another panel of this Court has also struck down this presumption on due process grounds. See People v Moore, 78 Mich App 150; 259 NW2d 403 (1977). There is no rational connection between the fact proven (possession of a pistol with an altered serial number) and the ultimate fact presumed (alteration was done by the possessor), a requirement which must be satisfied before a statutory presumption can pass constitutional muster. Barnes v United States, supra, at 841-842, United States v Romano, 382 US 136, 139; 86 S Ct 279; 15 L Ed 2d 210 (1965), People v Kayne, supra, at 583, People v Serra, 55 Mich App 514, 527-528; 223 NW2d 28 (1974).
The presumption at issue here is arbitrary and irrational. In accord with common experience there are numerous ways in which a person may come into possession of a gun which has already been altered. One may unwittingly find, buy, or borrow such a weapon. The Legislature has not chosen to make knowing possession a crime; it is alteration which is forbidden. But it is no more reasonable to suppose that the possessor altered the gun than it is to suppose that the possessor merely acquired a gun which had been altered previously by someone else.
Accordingly, we hold that the last sentence of MCLA 750.230, which allows a presumption of alteration to be drawn from the fact of possession, is unconstitutional as violative of the due process clauses of the Michigan and United States Constitutions.
Defendant’s conviction for alteration of a pistol is reversed. The convictions for felonious assault and armed robbery are affirmed.
Amended by 1976 PA 32. The amended version differs from its predecessor in no respect material to this appeal. Our conclusions apply equally to the presumption contained in the last sentence of 1976 PA, 32, the present MCLA 750.230; MSA 28.427. | [
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Per Curiam.
The facts in this case are not in dispute. Plaintiffs filed amended Michigan income tax returns for calendar years 1968 and 1969 which showed a tax credit for income taxes paid by plaintiffs to the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Revenue Division of the Department of Treasury (hereinafter referred to as Department of Treasury) audited these returns and disallowed the claimed tax credit. The Department of Treasury then assessed plaintiffs a tax deficiency of $873.89, the amount of the claimed credit.
Plaintiffs appealed the assessment to the State Board of Tax Appeals (hereinafter referred to as the Board). The Board held that the claimed tax credit is not authorized by the Michigan Income Tax Act of 1967, MCLA 206.255; MSA 7.557(1255), and issued an order directing plaintiffs to pay the assessed deficiency.
Plaintiffs paid the deficiency and filed a complaint in the Michigan Court of Claims seeking the return of those taxes paid. The Court of Claims adopted the Board’s decision and entered an order accordingly. Plaintiffs appeal as of right to this Court from the decision of the Court of Claims.
Plaintiffs contend that pursuant to § 255 of the Michigan Income Tax Act of 1967 they should receive an income tax credit on their Michigan income tax for income taxes which they paid to the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Section 255 provides that:
"(1) A resident individual or resident estate or trust shall be allowed a credit against the tax otherwise due under this act for the amount of any income tax imposed on him for the taxable year by another state of the United States or a political subdivision thereof or the District of Columbia on income derived from sources without this state which is also subject to tax under this act.” MCLA 206.255; MSA 7.557(1255).
On its face, § 255 makes no mention of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and therefore it is difficult to see how this section could apply to income taxes paid to Puerto Rico.
However, plaintiffs direct us to the general definition section of the act, and more specifically to MCLA 206.20; MSA 7.557(120), which reads in part:
" 'State’ means any state of the United States, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, any territory or possession of the United States, and any foreign country, or political subdivision, thereof.”
Plaintiffs contend that this definition should be read into the word "state” when interpreting § 255, and, therefore, a tax credit should be allowed for income taxes paid to Puerto Rico. We disagree.
The § 20 definition of "state,” if used in § 255, would render the language of § 255 redundant. This Court believes that the language "state of the United States” was used in § 255 to expressly avoid the expansive definition of "state” as set forth in § 20.
The wording of § 255 seems clear, and in such a case the judiciary may not disturb the obvious intention of the Legislature. Dussia v Monroe County Employees Retirement System, 386 Mich 244, 249; 191 NW2d 307 (1971), Schigur v Secretary of State, 73 Mich App 239; 251 NW2d 567 (1977).
Assuming that the statute is unclear, it is the Court’s function to interpret it. The recent case of King v Director of Midland County Department of Social Services, 73 Mich App 253; 251 NW2d 270 (1977), summarizes some of the rules to be followed in interpreting an ambiguous statute:
"The primary rule of statutory construction is to determine and effectuate the Legislature’s intent. Williams v Secretary of State, 338 Mich 202; 60 NW2d 910 (1953), Chesapeake & Ohio R Co v Public Service Com mission, 59 Mich App 88; 228 NW2d 843 (1975). Toward that end, statutory language should be given a reasonable construction considering the purpose of the statute and the object sought to be accomplished. Schoolcraft County Board of Commissioners v Schoolcraft Memorial Hospital Board of Trustees, 68 Mich App 654; 243 NW2d 708 (1976), Royal Oak School Dist v Schulman, [68 Mich App 589; 243 NW2d 673 (1976)]. An act must be read in its entirety and the meaning given to one section arrived at after due consideration of other sections so as to produce, if possible, a harmonious and consistent enactment as a whole. Williams v Secretary of State, supra, Scholten v Rhoades, 67 Mich App 736; 242 NW2d 509 (1976). Statutes are to be construed so as to avoid absurd consequences. Williams v Secretary of State, supra, State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co v Kurylowicz, 67 Mich App 568; 242 NW2d 530 (1976).” 73 Mich App at 258, 259.
In order to ascertain the intention of the Legislature, we must examine the purpose of the statute.
An income tax credit is allowed for Michigan residents who earn income in another state. The purpose of such a credit is to avoid triple taxation of income. Without such a credit, the Michigan resident would first have his non-Michigan income taxed in the state in which it was earned. Then it would be taxed by the State of Michigan, and subsequently by the United States Government.
Such a state tax credit is not necessary to avoid triple taxation when the Michigan resident earns income in a foreign country. Under such circumstances, the income is first taxed by the foreign country in which it was earned, and it is then taxed by the State of Michigan. However, the Federal Government provides a tax credit for all income taxes paid by a resident to a foreign country similar to the credit available to Michigan residents who earn income in other states. Inter nal Revenue Code of 1954, § 901, 26 USC 901 [MCLA 206.255; MSA 7.557(1255)]. It should be noted that the Federal Government treats Puerto Rico as a foreign country for tax credit purposes.
By interpreting § 255 to exclude taxes paid to foreign countries, including Puerto Rico, the statute will provide for equal treatment of income derived from non-Michigan sources, either foreign or domestic.
The domestic non-Michigan income is taxed twice, first by the state in which it was earned, and then by the Federal Government. The foreign non-Michigan income is also taxed twice; first by the country in which it was earned, and then by the State of Michigan.
Viewing the tax effects of the credit, which the Legislature must have considered in enacting § 255, it seems quite clear that it would distinguish between taxes paid to another state and those paid to a foreign country.
We conclude that the Michigan Legislature did not intend to upset the fairly equal tax treatment of income earned outside of Michigan by allowing an income tax credit for income earned in Puerto Rico.
Affirmed. No costs, a public question being involved. | [
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J. H. Gillis, P. J.
On December 2, 1975, defendants, tried jointly, were convicted by a jury of first-degree murder. MCLA 750.316; MSA 28.548. Defendants, all brothers, appeal as of right.
At trial, each defendant was represented by separate counsel. On appeal, defendants Joe and Frederick are represented by one attorney, and defendant James by a different attorney. The three cases have been consolidated on appeal.
There is no dispute that the fatal shot came from the gun that was held by defendant James. Defendants Joe and Frederick were tried and convicted as aiders and abettors. MCLA 767.39; MSA 28.979.
On August 20, 1975, the day of the homicide, decedent, Shane Davis, had three encounters with defendants at or near the corner of Salliotte and 15th Streets in the City of Ecorse, Michigan. For convenience, we will refer to the first encounter as the fighting incident,, the second encounter as the B.B. gun incident and the third encounter as the homicide incident.
Shortly before the fighting incident, defendant Frederick’s girlfriend, Deborah Woods, after having passed Davis and Artie Coleman on the street, accused the two of calling her a name. Ms. Woods stated that she was going to get her man, and Davis told her to do so.
Ms. Woods returned with the three defendants. Defendant Frederick and Davis exchanged a couple of blows. At this point it is unclear exactly what happened. Coleman testified that defendant Frederick then chased Davis with a knife and that while the two were running defendant Joe stated: "It ain’t over with yet.” Other witnesses testified that they saw Davis running but did not see a knife. Regardless, after the fighting incident, defendants went into the Better World Motel which is located near the scene.
Shortly thereafter, Davis and defendants returned to the street. At this time, Davis chased at least one defendant with a B.B. pistol.
Defendants again returned to the motel for a short while. Defendants Joe and James then left the motel followed by defendant Frederick. Defendant James was carrying a pistol and defendant Joe was carrying a rifle. Defendant Frederick had no weapon. Although the record is not completely consistent regarding the homicide incident, the following is in our opinion a fair representation of the facts as testified to from the witness stand.
Davis had also returned to the scene. He walked toward defendants. Defendant James told Davis to freeze and hand it over. Davis put his hands up in the air. Defendant James grabbed Davis by the collar. Davis then moved his right hand toward his left side whereupon the fatal shot was fired hitting Davis in the chest. All three defendants fled the scene. Davis was taken to the hospital where he died a short time later.
Other testimony at trial revealed that Davis had left the vicinity in between the three encounters with defendants and that Davis was angry about the fighting incident and had bragged to others about chasing defendants with the B.B. gun. There was also testimony that at the time of the B.B. gun incident someone or possibly some people had yelled at Davis to shoot.
Although at least two witnesses testified as to having seen the B.B. gun in Davis’ possession just prior to the homicide incident, one having seen it in Davis’ waistband, it has never been found. The police did find a knife on the person of Davis. The autopsy revealed that Davis was mildly to moderately intoxicated at the time of his death.
Defendant James testified in his own behalf. He stated that after the B.B. gun incident someone had yelled up to the motel: "Come on down. If you don’t come down, we are going to come up there.” Defendant James further testified that they all decided to go to defendant Joe’s house and that they took guns for protection and that on the way Davis cut them off from getting to their car and said: "I want to blow your damn head off.” Defendant James said that when he saw a gun in Davis’ waistband, he drew his own gun and told Davis to freeze whereupon he grabbed Davis by the collar and called his brothers to come and get Davis’ gun. Defendant James went on to say that at that time Davis reached for his gun and that while trying to keep Davis from the gun his own gun went off. Defendant James claimed that the shot was not intentional and that the gun was fired accidentally.
One witness testified that he heard defendant James cock the pistol while approaching Davis.
Ms. Woods testified that prior to the homicide incident defendants Joe and James had stated that no one was going to hurt their brother, that all three defendants were in defendant Frederick’s and her room, that defendants Joe and James left the room and that a short time later defendant Frederick left to see where his brothers had gone, Ms. Woods also stated that at no time did she hear defendants discussing or planning to hurt anyone.
George Junior Drakeford testified that he found defendants James and Joe in his apartment on the day of the homicide assembling a shotgun and that they gave him $20 and took the gun. He further stated that defendants James and Joe also had a pistol.
Defendants collectively raise eight issues. We will discuss them individually. Additional facts will be related within the opinion where pertinent thereto.
I
Did the trial court err in denying defendants Joe and Frederick Lester’s motion to dismiss the information died against them?
Defendants Joe and Frederick claimed that the evidence at the preliminary examination failed to establish probable cause that they committed the charged crime. Defendants Joe and Frederick moved the trial court prior to trial to dismiss the information filed against them. The trial court denied the motion. Defendants Joe and Frederick allege error. This issue does not apply to defendant James.
Artie Coleman and Dr. Sabish Shah were the two witnesses who testified at the preliminary examination of defendants Joe and Frederick.
Dr. Shah testified that the cause of death was a gunshot wound and that the gun had been fired from close range.
Artie Coleman testified that there were two encounters between Davis and defendants on August 20, 1975. He stated that following the accusation by Ms. Woods she returned to the street with the three defendants, that defendant Frederick and Davis exchanged blows and then defendant Frederick chased Davis with a knife. Coleman further testified that defendant Joe then stated: "The shit is not over with now.”
According to Coleman, defendants then went into the motel and Davis proceeded to the store to purchase a package of cigarettes. A short time later, defendants returned to the scene. Coleman stated that defendant James was armed with a pistol and defendant Joe was carrying a rifle and that the three defendants were within a car length of each other. At that time, Coleman heard defendant James order Davis to stop whereupon defendant James aimed the gun and fired into Davis’ chest. Coleman further testified that Davis was trying to get away when he was shot and that defendants immediately left the scene.
At the preliminary examination, the people are required to show that a crime has been committed and that there is probable cause to believe that the accused committed the crime. People v Charles D Walker, 385 Mich 565; 189 NW2d 234 (1971). Positive proof of guilt is not required; however, there must be evidence on each element of the charged crime or evidence from which those elements may be inferred. People v Juniel, 62 Mich App 529, 536; 233 NW2d 635 (1975), lv den, 396 Mich 811 (1976), People v Martinovich, 18 Mich App 253, 257; 170 NW2d 899 (1969).
A reviewing court, even if it disagrees with the magistrate’s decision, may not reverse the magistrate’s determination of probable cause absent a finding of a clear abuse of discretion. People v Paille #2, 383 Mich 621; 178 NW2d 465 (1970).
Defendants Joe and Frederick were charged as aiders and abettors. Therefore, it was necessary for the prosecutor to establish probable cause to believe that they procured, counseled, aided, encouraged or induced in some way the commission of the crime and that they possessed the requisite intent or had knowledge of the intent to commit the crime. People v Palmer, 392 Mich 370, 378; 220 NW2d 393 (1974), People v Spry, 74 Mich App 584; 254 NW2d 782 (1977), People v Burgess, 67 Mich App 214; 240 NW2d 485 (1976), MCLA 767.39; MSA 28.979.
Defendants Joe and Frederick argue that the prosecutor failed to produce competent evidence at the preliminary examination from which an inference of premeditation and deliberation could be drawn. We disagree.
The testimony at the preliminary examination established that all three defendants were present at the initial confrontation with Davis, that the three went into the motel together and returned as a group armed, whereupon the homicide occurred.
The time that defendants spent in the motel was sufficient to formulate a plan to murder Davis. The fact that the three reappeared on the scene as a group, armed, further supports an inference of premeditation and deliberation. People v Hoffmeister, 394 Mich 155; 229 NW2d 305 (1975), People v Oster, 67 Mich App 490; 241 NW2d 260 (1976), lv den, 397 Mich 848 (1976). There was adequate testimony to support a finding of probable cause to believe that defendants acted with a common intent and purpose to effectuate the homicide of Davis and therefore aided and abetted in the killing. People v Akerley, 73 Mich App 321; 251 NW2d 309 (1977). The magistrate did not abuse his discretion.
II
Did the trial court err in denying defendants’ motion for a directed verdict of not guilty?
Defendants Joe and Frederick argue that there was no evidence adduced at trial to show that they aided and abetted in the charged crime and that the trial court erred in denying their motion for a directed verdict. Defendant James has not briefed this issue.
In ruling on a motion for a directed verdict of not guilty, the trial judge must consider the evidence in a light most favorable to the prosecution. People v Garcia, 398 Mich 250, 256; 247 NW2d 547 (1976) . The question' of sufficiency of the evidence is for the jury; therefore, if there is any evidence from which the jury could infer the elements of the alleged offense, the motion must be denied. People v Garcia, supra, People v Johnson, 397 Mich 686, 687; 246 NW2d 836 (1976).
Although the facts presented at trial were not entirely consistent with the preliminary examination testimony, see footnote 4, supra, the evidence relating to a group effort by defendants remains the same. We find as we did from the preliminary examination testimony that the evidence presented at trial supports an inference that defendants Joe and Frederick joined in a concerted action with defendant James for a common purpose and accordingly assisted in the perpetration of the crime. Defendants Joe and Frederick are therefore culpable for whatever crime defendant James could be charged with committing. People v Palmer, supra, People v Spry, supra, People v Akerley, supra, People v Burgess, supra.
We also reiterate what was said in issue one regarding the element of premeditation. Testimony was presented at trial that defendants had encountered Davis on two occasions that day, they proceeded into the hotel, returned with guns, that defendant James cocked his pistol and pointed it into Davis’ chest and then the gun was fired. The evidence does support the jury’s verdict. People v Hoffmeister, supra, People v Moss, 70 Mich App 18; 245 NW2d 389 (1976), lv den, 399 Mich 852 (1977) , People v Morrin, 31 Mich App 301; 187 NW2d 434 (1971), lv den, 385 Mich 775 (1971).
Ill
Did the trial court err in permitting a written statement, allegedly orally made by defendant Frederick to a police officer, to be read to the jury where defendant did not sign same?
At trial, a police officer testified that after the arrest of defendant Frederick he asked defendant Frederick questions regarding the incident. The officer further stated that he wrote defendant Frederick’s statement on paper, but that defendant Frederick refused to sign the statement.
Prior to trial, defendant Frederick sought to have the statement suppressed. A Walker* 7hear-ing was conducted and the trial court held the statement to be voluntary and therefore admissible.
At trial, the statement was read to the jury. An objection was made at that time on the grounds that the statement was involuntary because defendant Frederick did not understand the Miranda warnings due to his physical condition.
On appeal, defendants Joe and Frederick cite a different ground for inadmissibility by arguing that the statement was inadmissible because it constituted hearsay. See People v Rodgers, 388 Mich 513; 201 NW2d 621 (1972).
Evidentiary objections must be specific, citing the precise ground or grounds for the objection. Failure to state the proper reason for an objection precludes appellate review unless there is manifest injustice. People v Buero, 59 Mich App 670; 229 NW2d 880 (1975), People v Winfield, 39 Mich App 281; 197 NW2d 541 (1972), lv den, 389 Mich 766 (1973). The statement introduced in the instant case was not inculpatory regarding any of the defendants. We are unpersuaded that a miscarriage of justice has occurred. People v Galinski, 38 Mich App 214; 196 NW2d 21 (1972), lv den, 387 Mich 793 (1972).
IV
Did the trial court err in denying defendants’ motion for a mistrial on the grounds that a police officer unresponsively answered a question on cross-examination to reveal that narcotics were found in defendant Frederick’s room at the time of his arrest?
Officer Alvin Deming was called as a prosecution witness. He testified that he had arrested defendant Frederick in an upstairs apartment at the Better World Motel. During cross-examination by defendant Frederick’s attorney the following colloquy occurred:
"Q (By counsel for defendant Frederick) Did you prepare a police report on anything that you had done in the case?
"A Yes, we did.
"Q Do you know where that police report is?
"A No, I don’t.
"Q Beg your pardon?
"A No.
"Q Are you quite certain that you prepred [sic] a report?
"A My partner on the evening was actually off duty, but David Lundgran prepared a report. There was narcotic paraphernalia found in the apartment of Frederick Lester, and this was seized by the department.”
Immediately, defendant Frederick’s attorney requested that the jury be excused and moved for a mistrial on the grounds that the officer’s answers indicated the commission of another crime. The other two defendants joined in the motion. The trial court denied the motion on the basis that "the reason it came out is that you had your answer and you pursued it, and it came out”. Defendants claim error.
The general rule is that an unresponsive answer to a proper question is not error. People v Todaro, 253 Mich 367; 235 NW 185 (1931), People v Rimson, 63 Mich App 1; 233 NW2d 867 (1975), People v Measles, 59 Mich App 641; 230 NW2d 10 (1975), People v Histed, 56 Mich App 630; 224 NW2d 721 (1974).
In the instant case, the answer was made during cross-examination by the defense and was not elicited by the people. Defendants’ authorities refer to the latter situation. See People v Embry, 68 Mich App 667; 243 NW2d 711 (1976), People v McCartney, 46 Mich App 691; 208 NW2d 547 (1973), People v Page, 41 Mich App 99; 199 NW2d 669 (1972).
Considering that the complained-of comment constitutes one sentence in a transcript of 12 volumes and that the trial lasted some three weeks, along with the fact that the prosecution did not elicit the answer, we find that this isolated incident did not deny defendants a fair trial. People v Measles, supra.
V
Did the trial court err in refusing to give a requested instruction on the defense of accident?
All three defendants raise this issue. Although there is some question as to whether or not this issue is preserved, we will treat it as having been preserved.
The following instruction was submitted to the trial court with the request that it be given to the jury:
"A defense of accidental killing has been raised in this case. Such a defense of accidental killing to a prosecution for homicide denies that the killing was intentional, but does not throw upon or shift to the accused the burden of proving that the homicide occurred by accident or misadventure. It is the general rule that where the defense of accidental killing is set up, the burden rests upon the prosecution to show that the killing was wilful and intentional, or that it was due to the reckless disregard for the safety of others.”
The trial judge instructed the jury as to first-degree murder, MCLA 750.316; MSA 28.548, second-degree murder, MCLA 750.317; MSA 28.549, voluntary manslaughter, MCLA 750.321; MSA 28.553, and intentional aiming of a firearm with death resulting, MCLA 750.329; MSA 28.561. The trial judge did not give the instruction to the jury in requested form. The following are excerpts from the trial court’s charge to the jury:
"The defendant is not required to prove his innocence, but the People must establish his guilt beyond any reasonable doubt. This applies in all criminal cases to every material fact connected with the case.
"If, after all of the evidence is before you, you still have a reasonable doubt of the guilt of the defendant, it is your duty to acquit him.
"In every criminal case the burden is throughout upon the prosecution, and it is incumbent upon the prosecution to show under all circumstances that there is no innocent theory possible which will, without violation of reason, accord with the facts. The burden of proof, as I say, is upon the prosecutor, and the People must prove by legal testimony and beyond a reasonable doubt a state of facts which will justify a conviction.
"For murder in the first degree there must be an actual intention to kill; that is, the defendant must have consciously done the act intending that it resulted in death.
"For murder in the first degree there must be proof beyond a reasonable doubt that the killing was done premeditatedly, deliberately, wilfully. Premeditation means thought out beforehand or designed and planned. Deliberately means the defendant must have considered the pros and cons of that design to have measured and chosen his acts and the intent must be formed by a mind that is free from undue excitement.
"For murder in the second degree you must find that the defendant consciously and knowingly performed the act which caused death. The defendant must have intended to kill; that is, he must have done the act intending that it result in death, or he must have consciously created a very high degree of risk of death of another with the knowledge that it probably would cause death.
"Now, in addition to those three offenses that you may consider, murder in the first degree, intentional, wilful and premeditated killing with malice, or murder in the second degree, intentional killing with malice but without premeditation, or voluntary manslaughter, intentional killing before the blood had an opportunity to cool but without malice, in addition to that there is another statute that you may consider under the law. That law says that any person who shall wound, maim or injure any other person by the discharge of any firearm pointed or aimed intentionally but without malice at such person shall, if death ensued from such wounding, maiming or injury, be deemed guilty of the crime of manslaughter.”
We find that the above instructions are clear in advising the jury that "the burden rests upon the prosecution to show that the killing was wilful and intentional, or that it was due to the reckless disregard for the safety of others”, and that in essence, the requested instruction was given to the jury. GCR 1963, 516.7.
VI
Did the trial court err in failing to instruct the jury that even though defendants had interposed a defense of self-defense the burden remained on the prosecution to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the killing was not done in self-defense?
All three defendants have raised this issue on appeal. At trial, there was no request that the instruction be given and no objection that it was not given. Accordingly, the convictions cannot be reversed unless there is a showing that a miscarriage of justice has occurred. MCLA 769.26; MSA 28.1096, People v Alcala, 396 Mich 99; 237 NW2d 475 (1976).
We have reviewed the instructions in their entirety, People v Rogers, 60 Mich App 652; 233 NW2d 8 (1975). We find that the jury was adequately informed of the burden of proof regarding criminal cases and that the self-defense instructions, as given, were not erroneous. We do not find manifest injustice in the omission of the unrequested instruction.
VII
Did the trial court err in failing to instruct the jury that in a claimed self-defense situation a killing not legally self-defense can be manslaughter without a "state of passion”?
This issue is raised only by defendant James. As in issue six, there was no request for an instruction nor objection to the failure to give this type of manslaughter instruction. For the same reasons as stated within issue six there was no reversible error.
VIII
Did the trial court commit reversible error in refusing the jury’s request to have certain testimony reread?
After approximately four hours of deliberation, the jury delivered a note requesting "testimony of all witnesses from the time the Lester brothers came onto the street armed up to and including the shooting of Shane Davis”.
The trial judge responded to the jury:
"Now, let me start out by explaining to you all that there was some reference made to a transcript. Lawyers can always order small portions of the transcript. There is no transcript of the entire trial. It has not been typed up. It is all in the reporter’s notes.
"The only way to comply with that request at this time would be to have the reporter go through all his notes and read all his testimony back to you, because it has not been transcribed. That would probably take the better part of a day or two days to do.
"Because at this moment that I don’t have the transcripts, and I don’t think that it would be proper to ask him to hold you for approximately a day or two days to read all of the examination, cross-examination, redirect examination of the witnesses, I am going to ask you will you go back and try among the 12 of you to recall the testimony yourself rather than have it read, have all of this read back to you.
"It would take the reporter a long time to get those notes together, to furnish you what you want. Then he would have to read it all to you, which is, as I say, something that takes a day or two days.
"We were in trial for nearly three weeks, and I am not sure how long it would take. So, instead of doing that now, I am going to ask you to return to your jury room and continue your deliberations and see if you can resolve your factual dispute among yourselves in your deliberations.
"You may be excused.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Defendant James claims error. The remaining two defendants have not briefed this issue.
Defendant relies on People v Howe, 392 Mich 670; 221 NW2d 350 (1974). We find that the facts in the instant case more closely mirror Klein v Wagenheim, 379 Mich 558; 153 NW2d 663 (1967), and we therefore find no reversible error.
For the foregoing reasons, defendants’ convictions are affirmed.
Affirmed.
The testimony at trial established that Ms. Woods and defendant Frederick shared living quarters in the Better World Motel and that defendant James lived across the hall. Defendant Joe lived elsewhere.
There was testimony presented at trial that the B.B. gun looked very much like a real gun and that one could not tell the difference unless he or she was very close to the gun.
There were two preliminary examinations in this case. The one on September 18, 1975, was as to defendant James only. The preliminary examination of September 4, 1975 was as to defendants Joe and Frederick.
Although it is of no effect in reviewing the denial of defendant’s motion, we do recognize and point out that Coleman’s testimony at trial varied from his preliminary examination testimony. At trial, Coleman testified as to three encounters while at the preliminary examination he mentioned only two. Additionally, at the preliminary examination, Coleman denied seeing Davis with a gun and at trial admitted seeing Davis with the B.B. gun.
At trial, defendant James made a motion for a reduction of the charge. Our disposition of this issue regarding defendants Joe and Frederick would dispose of the issue as it relates to defendant James assuming it had been argued on appeal.
People v Walker (On Rehearing), 374 Mich 331; 132 NW2d 87 (1965).
Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694; 10 ALR3d 974 (1966).
We question defendant Joe’s standing to raise this issue as the statement did not inculpate him. | [
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Bashara, J.
Plaintiff appeals from an order denying its claim for surplus from a foreclosure sale of real property. Defendant, as first mortgagee, initiated the foreclosure action and was the sole bidder at the sale. Plaintiff contends that a surplus existed from that bid to which it is entitled as second mortgagee.
This case is submitted on a stipulation of facts. Defendant loaned $106,000 to husband and wife mortgagors. A first mortgage securing the loan was recorded on April 22, 1974. The mortgage contained the following future advances provision typed onto defendant’s printed mortgage form:
"NINTH. This mortgage shall also secure all other debts and loans of any kind or nature whatsoever covering any borrowed money by the mortgagors, or either of them, from the mortgagee for any purpose whatsoever whether the said mortgagors, or either of them, shall be the maker, endorser, guarantor or otherwise of any negotiable instrument or other form of indebtedness.”
A second loan of $24,000 was made by defendant, evidenced by a note dated August 25, 1974.* This note bore a handwritten notation "Added to Mtge #5576, 3/22/75”,* referring to the first mortgage held by defendant.
On October 15, 1974, the same mortgagors executed a mortgage to plaintiff, securing a loan of $66,895. This mortgage was recorded on November 12, 1974.
At the foreclosure sale defendant bid the amount originally advanced under the first mortgage plus the subsequent loan, along with accrued interest and costs allowed by statute. Plaintiff, in its claim of surplus, contended that the subsequent loan was not part of the first mortgage as of the date its second mortgage was recorded. Therefore, any amount bid which exceeded the initial advance under the first mortgage, plus accrued interest and costs, is surplus.
As support for its argument, plaintiff emphasized the fact that the form note evidencing defendant’s second loan bears the words "unsecured term note”. Plaintiff also argues that the handwritten inscription on the note indicates that if it is secured by the first mortgage, it did not become an advance thereunder until March 22, 1975, after the recordation of plaintiff’s second mortgage. Since optional advances under a mortgage are not secured thereby until made, it follows, according to plaintiff, that its mortgage is prior to any lien created by defendant’s second advance.
We resolve this case by reference to the various loan documents and Ladue v The Detroit & Milwaukee R Co, 13 Mich 380 (1865). Although of ancient vintage, Ladue. remains as the benchmark by which priorities of competing encumbrances are determined.
It is our conclusion that the defendant’s second loan was secured by the lien of the first mortgage as of the date advanced. Therefore, it had priority over the plaintiffs second mortgage. The result is that no surplus was created by the defendant’s bid at foreclosure.
The Ladue case recognized the validity of future advances clauses in land mortgages. Id. at 397. As to the effect of the mortgage as security, the Court stated:
"The instrument can only take effect as a mortgage or incumbrance from the time when some debt or liability shall be created, or some binding contract is made, which is to be secured by it.
"Though the question does not properly arise here, we take it for granted, for the purposes of this case, that the mortgage instrument may, if properly executed, go upon the record, and become effectual between the parties when the debt or liability contemplated shall have been created * * * . The record of such an instrument might be an intimation that advances and indorsements were contemplated as probable, and that they might, therefore, have been already made; and for this reason might, to this extent, properly put a purchaser or incumbrancer upon inquiry.” 13 Mich at 397-398.
We consider it irrelevant to the priority determination that the note evidencing the second loan stated that it was unsecured or contained the later notation that it was added to the first mortgage. It was the mortgage itself that was recorded, not any notes evidencing indebtedness. Plaintiff had con structive notice of the defendant’s mortgage, and the terms thereof, at the time the second mortgage was consummated. It was incumbent upon plaintiff to ascertain the status of the prior encumbrance before making its loan to the mortgagors. Having failed to do so, plaintiff cannot now complain that it was unaware of the second advance by defendant.
Affirmed. Costs to defendant.
The note was signed by the individual mortgagors as officers of a corporation. A guarantee of payment, appearing on the back of the note, was executed by the mortgagors in their individual capacity. This aspect of the case is not mentioned by the litigants. However, since guarantors' of payment are for all intents and purposes liable as co-makers, we decide this case as though the loan was made directly to the individual mortgagors. See National Security & Trust Co v Niles Invisible Door Check Co, 222 Mich 510; 193 NW 199 (1923).
The date of the notation is approximately one month after the due date for payment,
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Allen, J.
This appeal* presents two difficult questions of first impression of worker’s compensation law.
(1) When an employer or its insurer pays worker’s compensation benefits to an injured employee and the employee and his wife obtain a tort judgment from a third-party tortfeasor, does MCLA 418.827; MSA 17.237(827) authorize the employer to claim reimbursement or an advance payment credit from that portion of the judgment which compensates the injured employee’s wife for loss of consortium?
(2) When an injured employee successfully pursues a tort action against the third-party tortfeasor, and a portion of the judgment is treated as an advance payment credit against future worker’s compensation liability, is the employer required to pay a percentage of the employee’s attorney fees in recognition of the advance payment credit?
Facts
Plaintiff-appellee, Walter Lone, suffered an injury On June 30, 1972, while working for the Lardner Elevator Company of Detroit. Intervening plaintiff-appellant, Employers Commercial Union Insurance Company, (ECU) is Lardner’s worker’s compensation insurance carrier. From the date of the injury through August of 1975, ECU voluntarily paid compensation benefits totaling $25,867.13. Mr. Lone’s rights to further worker’s compensation are now being determined in contested proceedings before the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau.
On November 28, 1973, Mr. Lone and his wife, plaintiff-appellee Marnee Lone, filed a tort suit against defendants Esco Elevators and Yellow Freight System, alleging that those parties had tortiously caused the injury for which Mr. Lone was then receiving worker’s compensation benefits. Mr. Lone’s complaint sought damages for his injuries, loss of wages and pain and suffering. Mrs. Lone asked damages for loss of consortium. Neither individual could have sued Mr. Lone’s employer, Lardner Elevator Company, because worker’s compensation is the employee’s exclusive remedy against his employer and the employer’s insurance company. MCLA 418.131; MSA 17.237(131). That statute has also been interpreted as barring a loss of consortium suit by an employee’s spouse against the employer. Haddad v Justice, 64 Mich App 74; 235 NW2d 159 (1975), Balcer v Leonard Refineries, Inc, 370 Mich 531; 122 NW2d 805 (1963). But the suit against the two named defendants was authorized by MCLA 418.827(1); MSA 17.237(827X1):
"Where the injury for which compensation is payable under this act was caused under circumstances creating a legal liability in some person other than a natural person in the same employ or the employer to pay damages in respect thereof * * * the injured employee or his dependents or personal representative may also proceed to enforce the liability of the third party for damages * * * .”
The initial phase of the lawsuit ended with a settlement judgment entered on June 7, 1976. That settlement provided that Walter Lone would receive $65,000 from the defendants, and Marnee Lone would receive $60,000. At that point, ECU intervened to assert its rights under MCLA 418.827(5); MSA 17.237(827X5):
"Any recovery against the third party for damages resulting from personal injuries or death only, after deducting expenses of recovery, shall first reimburse the employer or carrier for any amounts paid or payable under this act to date of recovery and the balance shall forthwith be paid to the employee or his dependents or personal representative and shall be treated as an advance payment by the employer on account of any future payments of compensation benefits.” (Emphasis added.)
Before ECU could claim its share of the judgment, it was required to pay a percentage of the attorney fees charged by the Lones’ attorney and a percentage of the court costs.
"Expenses of recovery shall be the reasonable expenditures, including attorney fees, incurred in effecting recovery. * * * Expenses of recovery shall be apportioned by the court between the parties as their interests appear at the time of the recovery.” (Emphasis added.) MCLA 418.827(6); MSA 17.237(827X6).
The issues presented on appeal are completely framed by the quoted subsections (5) and (6) of MCLA 418.827; MSA 17.237(827) and the data in footnote 2, supra. The Lones’ position — which was adopted by the trial judge — is that ECU has no claim to any of Mrs. Lone’s $60,000 settlement judgment. The trial court held that Mr. Lone’s $65,000 judgment should be divided as follows:
65.000 (Mr. Lone’s 52% share of the total judgment)
—26,000 (40% contingent fee to Mr. Lone’s _ attorney)
39.000
— 628.53 (52% share of total litigation costs)
38,371.47
—25,867.13 (Reimbursement to ECU for bene_ fits already paid)
12,504.34 (Advance payment credit for future compensation liability)
On appeal, ECU first argues that the preceding distribution was incorrect because Mrs. Lone’s $60,000 share of the judgment should also be subject to a lien for past and future compensation payments. If that approach is used, the breakdown would appear as follows:
125,000 (Total judgment)
- 50,000 (40% contingent attorney fee)
75,000
- 1,208.72 (Total litigation costs)
73,791.28
25,867.13 (Reimbursement to ECU for benefits already paid)
47,924.15 (Advance payment credit for future compensation liability)
Mr. Lone’s judgment alone is large enough to fully reimburse ECU for the worker’s compensation benefits which have already been paid. The difference between the two methods is the amount of advance payment credit awarded to ECU. If the proceedings currently pending in the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau lead to a finding that Mr. Lone is still disabled and ECU is liable for continuing payments, no payments will actually have to be made until the total amount due exceeds the amount of the advance payment credit awarded in this action. This summarizes the first issue raised on appeal.
Since ECU benefits from the tort recovery, the statutes require that it reimburse Mr. Lone (or both Lones) for a portion of their attorney fees and litigation expenses. The percentage of fees and expenses which ECU must pay is determined from a fraction whose numerator is ECU’s interest "at the time of the recovery” (MCLA 418.827[6]; MSA 17.237[827] [6]) and whose denominator is the amount of the judgment subject to ECU’s lien (either $65,000 or $125,000). The crucial question is what the statute means when it says "interest at the time of the recovery”. ECU contends that its interest is a $25,867.13 refund which it will receive for benefits already paid. On the other hand, the Lones argue — and the trial judge agreed —that ECU’s "interest at the time of the recovery” is the total of the reimbursement and the advance payment credit. That ruling led to the following calculation:
25.867.13 (Reimbursement to ECU for past benefits paid)
+ 12,504.34 (Advance payment credit for future _ compensation liability)
37,371.47 (ECU’s "interest at the time of the recovery”)
Since ECU had a 59.03% interest in Mr. Lone’s $65,000 judgment, it was required to pay 59.03% of his attorney fees and litigation costs. This charge was assessed against ECU’s reimbursement for past benefits paid as follows:
25.867.13 (Reimbursement to ECU for past benefits paid)
— 15,718.50 (59.03% of $26,000 attorney fee and
_ $628.53 costs)
10,148.63 (Amount actually paid to ECU as full reimbursement for past benefits paid)
ECU argues on appeal that its "interest at the time of the judgment” was limited to the $25,867.13 which it had already paid in benefits. If that figure is adopted, ECU would be responsible for only 39.79% of Mr. Lone’s attorney fee and litigation costs. This interpretation would increase the amount actually refunded to ECU without diminishing the amount of its advance payment credit in the event that it becomes liable for future compensation benefits. This summarizes the second issue on appeal.
As mentioned, the trial judge adopted the Lones’ argument on both issues. We now consider the correctness of those rulings.
I. Is ECU entitled to any part of the proceeds from Mrs. Lone’s judgment for loss of consortium?
MCLA 418.827(5); MSA 17.237(827X5) defines the problem:
"Any recovery against the third party for damages resulting from personal injuries, or death only, after deducting expenses of recovery, shall first reimburse the employer or carrier for any amounts paid or payable under this act to date of recovery and the balance * * * shall be treated as an advance payment by the employer on account of any future payment of compensation benefits.”
We must decide whether Mrs. Lone’s judgment is "any recovery for damages resulting from personal injuries or death” as that phrase is used in the preceding quotation. We hold that Mrs. Lone’s judgment is not subject to ECU’s lien.
There is no authority directly on point in Michigan, although several cases have touched upon similar questions. In Hix v Besser Co, 19 Mich App 468; 172 NW2d 821 (1969), aff'd in part, vacated in part, 386 Mich 499; 194 NW2d 333 (1972), this Court held that the worker’s compensation insurance carrier was entitled to a lien on a wrongful death judgment obtained by the widow of an injured employee even though the judgment expressly stated that none of the recovery was for damages covered by worker’s compensation. On appeal, the Supreme Court reversed that result without commenting on this Court’s analysis. Hix v Besser Co, 386 Mich 499; 194 NW2d 333 (1972). The Supreme Court held that the carrier had waived all its claims by entering into a separate settlement agreement with the third party tortfeasor. The Supreme Court’s opinion in Hix undermines the precedential value of this Court’s Hix opinion. It should also be noted that in Hix the employee died; thus his widow, the plaintiff in the tort action, was a direct recipient of worker’s compensation benefits. The situation is different in the present case where Mr. Lone was injured and disabled, not killed. Here, the amount of the benefits have been increased because Mrs. Lone is conclusively presumed dependent on Mr. Lone; but she is not a direct recipient of benefits.
We also find some guidance in the more recent decision of Pelkey v Elsea Realty & Investment Co, 394 Mich 485; 232 NW2d 154 (1975). The specific issue addressed there was whether the compensation carrier was entitled to a lien on that part of the employee’s tort judgment which was specifically designated as damages for pain and suffering. The Court held that pain and suffering damages are included in damages for "personal injuries or death only”. MCLA 418.827(5); MSA 17.237(827X5). Without more, that holding would suggest by analogy that the damages for loss of consortium in the present case should also be subject to the carrier’s lien. However, the tort action in Pelkey also resulted in a recovery for loss of consortium by the employee’s spouse. While the carrier successfully sued to enforce its lien on the pain and suffering damages, it apparently made no effort to reach the spouse’s recovery for loss of consortium. The ma jority opinion makes no comment on the possibility of also reaching that portion of the judgment.
Justice Williams dissented in Pelkey. He argued that pain and suffering damages should not be available as reimbursement to the carrier since worker’s compensation benefits do not include anything for pain and suffering. His opinion also gratuitously addresses the loss of consortium question and states that, for similar reasons, the carrier has no claim on a loss of consortium judgment recovered by an employee’s spouse. As authority on the consortium question, Justice Williams cites Ginther v Petrolane Gas Service, Inc, 1972 WCABO 2527, a case in which the Appeal Board allowed a lien on pain and suffering damages but not against the spouse’s separate settlement for loss of consortium.
In Hakkinen v Northern Advertising Co, 38 Mich App 506; 196 NW2d 863 (1972), the employee and his wife settled their tort action in a settlement agreement which did not segregate damage elements. In later proceedings before the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau, the employer was awarded reimbursement and advance payment credits against the entire judgment. On appeal to this Court, the employee argued that the portion of the judgment which compensated his wife for loss of consortium should not have been available for the advance payment credit. This Court did not decide the question, finding instead that the settlement agreement had not segregated the damage elements and the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau had no power to do so. Since the appeál in Hakkinen, was from the bureau, this Court could not grant the requested relief even if the employee’s argument was correct.
Except for Hix v Besser Co, supra, whose precedential value is limited, none of the cited Michigan cases provide clear guidance on the question before us. Professor Larson is equally ambiguous. In one section, he states the general rule that the employee cannot place a judgment beyond the reach of his employer by arguing that some or all of it was accounted for by damages for pain and suffering. 2A Larson, Workmen’s Compensation Law, § 74.35, p 14-246. See also Pelkey v Elsea Realty & Investment Co, supra. However, he later presents another general rule for wrongful death actions in which he states that the employer can seek reimbursement only from the shares "of such dependents as have received compensation”. 2A Larson, Workmen’s Compensation Law, § 74.42, p 14-255.
Only one foreign jurisdiction case cited by Larson is directly on point. In Brocker Manufacturing & Supply Co, v Mashburn, 17 Md APP 327; 301 A2d 501 (1973), it was held that the compensation carrier was not entitled to any portion of the wife’s recovery for loss of consortium. The other cases cited by Larson are less helpful because they involve situations in which the employee was killed and one or more of the tort plaintiffs were direct recipients of worker’s compensation death benefits. Roughly analogizing the varied situations in those cases to the consortium issue in the present case, it appears that the majority of the decisions would not allow the compensation carrier to reach that portion of the judgment.References for Points in Headnotes
None of the previously cited authorities conclusively determine the question before us. Additional policy and statutory interpretation arguments could be made for both sides.* ***** But no definitive answer would ever emerge. After considering the competing arguments and policy considerations, we affirm the trial court’s ruling that ECU is not entitled to any portion of Mrs. Lone’s loss of consortium recovery.
II. Is ECU required to pay a portion of the plaintiff’s attorney fees for that portion of the judgment which is treated as an advance payment credit?
ECU concedes that it must pay a proportionate share of the attorney fees for the $25,867.13 which it will receive from the judgment as reimbursement for past benefits paid. However, the trial judge also required ECU to pay attorney fees for the $12,504.34 advance payment credit portion of Mr. Lone’s judgment. ECU contends that this was improper, especially since it is contesting its obligation to pay further compensation benefits and may never actually use the advance payment credit. The question of whether compensation carriers must pay attorney fees for advance payment credits was recently before the Supreme Court. Kroll v Hyster Co, 398 Mich 281; 247 NW2d 561 (1976). Unfortunately, only four justices participated in Kroll and those who did participate split 2-2. The only point which is conclusively established by Kroll is that the trial judge in the present case erred by requiring ECU to pay the attorney fees immediately. Two of the justices (Chief Justice Kavanagh and Justice Levin) would hold that the carrier is not required to pay any attorney fees for the advance payment credit. The other two participating justices (Justice Williams and Justice Coleman) would hold that the attorney fees should be paid in future installments as the carrier actually benefits from the advance payment credit.
This question will be resolved by the Supreme Court’s decisions in several cases which were argued before that Court on June 9, 1977. Those cases include two appeals from published opinions of this Court which held that the carrier was required to pay attorney fees in return for the advance payment credit. Schalk v Michigan Sewer Construction Co, 62 Mich App 658; 233 NW2d 825 (1975), lv granted 398 Mich 810 (1976), and Crawley v Schick, 48 Mich App 728; 211 NW2d 217 (1973), lv granted 398 Mich 811 (1976).
The two opinions in Kroll v Hyster, supra, established that both Crawley and Schalk will at least be reversed in part. We assume that the majority opinion in those cases will adopt one of the opinions in Kroll. But we have no present way of knowing which view will prevail and it will be some time before the Supreme Court decides those cases. Its decision will finally determine the outcome in the present case, but, in order to expedite this litigation, we adopt the reasoning of Chief Justice Kavanagh’s opinion in Kroll v Hyster, supra, and hold that ECU should not be required to pay attorney fees for that portion of the judgment which is treated as an advance payment credit. According to the statute, those fees are to be apportioned among the parties "as their interests appear at the time of the recovery”. MCLA 418.827(6); MSA 17.237(827X6). When judgment was entered in the present case, ECU had no fixed liability for future compensation payments. Therefore, its interest at the time of the judgment was limited to the $25,867.13 reimbursement for benefits already paid. The ruling of the trial court on this point is reversed.
Affirmed in part, reversed in part and remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion. No costs, neither party having prevailed in full.
The appeal is taken from judgment orders entered on June 7, 1976, and July 9, 1976, by Ingham County Circuit Judge Ray C. Hotchkiss.
The judgment totaled $125,000; $65,000 for Mr. Lone and $60,000 for Mrs. Lone. Their attorney was working under a 40% contingent fee agreement. The total court costs were $1,208.72. ECU had previously voluntarily paid compensation benefits totaling $25,867.13.
There are several possible permutations of this analysis, depending upon how we resolve questions (1) and (2). For example, if the entire $125,000 judgment is subject to ECU’s lien, and ECU must pay an attorney fee for its advance payment credit, then the amount of that fee will more than consume the $25,867.13 reimbursement for past benefits.
See also Kroll v Hyster Co, 398 Mich 281; 247 NW2d 561 (1976), and Schalk v Michigan Sewer Construction Co, 62 Mich App 658; 233 NW2d 825 (1975), lv granted 398 Mich 810 (1976).
Arnett v General Motors Corp, 22 Mich App 658; 177 NW2d 704 (1970), is similar in some respects. The employee and his wife there settled their tort claims in an agreement which did not segregate damages. The consortium question was never raised in that action, but it is worth noting that the employer was allowed a reimbursement and credit lien against the entire judgment.
The cases which would not allow recovery are Enghusen v H. Christiansen & Sons Inc, 259 Minn 442; 107 NW2d 843 (1961), Holley v Stansfield, 186 F Supp 805 (ED Va 1960), Anderson v Borough of Greenfield, 442 Pa 11; 273 A2d 512 (1971), Brocker Manufacturing & Supply Co v Mashburn, supra, and Maryland Casualty Co v Rowe, 256 Ark 221; 506 SW2d 569 (1974). The two cases which would allow recovery are Fisher v Missoula White Pine Sash Co, 164 Mont 41; 518 P2d 795 (1974), and Beam v Maryland Casualty Co, 477 SW2d 510 (Tenn, 1972).
There is a danger that attorneys or sympathetic juries will allocate a disproportionate amount of recoveries to the spouse’s loss of consortium damages. Trial courts and the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau should be alert to this possibility , and take appropriate actions to prevent it.
The trial judge reduced the reimbursement payment to ECU by its share of the attorney fees.
In Crawley, the appeal to the Supreme Court is from a July 7, 1975, unpublished Order of this Court, not from the published opinion which appears in Volume 48 of the Michigan Appeals Reports. | [
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V. J. Brennan, J.
Defendant Joseph Abadi appeals from a July 2, 1975, order of Oakland County Circuit Court Judge Robert Templin denying defendant’s motion to dismiss the complaint because of plaintiff Barbara F. Abadi’s failure to establish proper residency in this state. On October 4, 1973, plaintiff left the marital home in Wayne County, where she had lived with her husband since their marriage in 1969, and flew by commercial means to Virginia where she attended a class reunion. She returned to Michigan on October 8, 1973, and, according to her testimony, checked into a Holiday Inn in the city of Farming-ton in Oakland County. She was fearful of returning to the marital home because she might be subject to personal danger from her husband. The complaint for divorce was filed on October 19, 1973, and on October 20, 1973, plaintiff checked out of the Holiday Inn and returned to her parents’ home in the State of Virginia.
According to plaintiff’s testimony, she checked into the Holiday Inn in Farmington in hopes of finding a job as a key punch operator in Oakland County, and she divided her time between looking for a job and looking for a suitable apartment. She was unable to find an apartment, and on October 18, 1973, telephoned her brother in Virginia and indicated that she wanted him to help her in moving her belongings to Virginia. Plaintiff spent some further time attempting to look for an apartment, but finally gave up the search on October 20, 1973.
After hearing testimony, Judge Templin noted a discrepancy between plaintiff’s story while on the witness stand and the factual version she gave during an earlier deposition. However, Judge Templin felt satisfied that plaintiff was telling the truth while in his courtroom, and that any differences between her in-court testimony and that taken on deposition could be attributed to her nervousness at the time of the deposition. Therefore, he determined that plaintiffs testimony should be accepted as credible and that she had satisfied the 10-day residency requirement.
On appeal, defendant raises two allegations of error. We will speak to each in order.
Defendant first contends that plaintiff failed to satisfy the residency requirements which would enable the Oakland County Circuit Court to obtain jurisdiction. MCLA 552.9; MSA 25.89.
Michigan statute provides that a judgment of divorce shall not be granted by a court in this state in an action for divorce unless the complainant or defendant has resided in the county in which the complaint is filed for 10 days immediately preceding the filing of the complaint. MCLA 552.9; MSA 25.89. Calculation of those 10 days is ordinarily accomplished by excluding the first day and including the last. Beaudry v Beaudry, 20 Mich App 287, 288; 174 NW2d 28 (1969). Whethér such a residency requirement has been satisfied is a question of fact involving the intention of the person involved. Banfield v Banfield, 318 Mich 38, 41-44; 27 NW2d 336 (1947).
We recognize that the statute includes a primary requirement that the complainant or defendant reside in the state for 180 days immediately preceding the filing of the complaint. That requirement is intended to be jurisdictional, so as to prevent "forum shopping” by complainants who may live in states where divorces are more difficult to obtain than they are under the Michigan no-fault divorce law. See Sosna v Iowa, 419 US 393; 95 S Ct 553; 42 L Ed 2d 532 (1975).
However, we find the 10-day requirement with respect to the county in which the action is brought is a venue provision only. Regarding the present case, plaintiff has resided in this state since 1969; but the change in her marital status has unexpectedly disrupted her life style and prompted her to seek solace with her family outside Michigan. The 10-day residency requirement is not designed to bar persons such as plaintiff from dissolving their marital bonds in this state.
As divorce is an equitable action, trial of all questions of fact is reposed in the court without the assistance of a jury. Judge Templin properly held immediate trial on the disputed factual question of plaintiff’s residency and her intention with respect to residency during the 10 days immediately preceding the filing of the complaint. GCR 1963, 116.3. Having resolved the factual questions in plaintiff’s favor, the trial court properly denied defendant’s motion. We will not disturb such factual determinations on appeal. We find no error in Judge Templin’s disposition of this matter.
Defendant next alleges that the trial court abused its discretion in granting plaintiff’s motion for default in a contested divorce proceeding when defendant allegedly failed to produce documents, where the default was granted under GCR 1963, 313.2(2)(c).
Refusal to make discovery authorizes a default judgment under the present court rule. See GCR 1963, 313.2(2)(c). Washburn v Lake Diane Inc., 17 Mich App 704, 706; 170 NW2d 298 (1969). We realize that dismissing an action or rendering judgment by default for refusal to make discovery are drastic sanctions. Nevertheless, the ultimate power of the court to impose such sanctions is an appropriate remedy where such refusal is flagrant and wanton. We cannot say on review that the present case did not justify such drastic action.
The case had been pending for more than two years. Further, the trial court had entered an order requiring defendant to produce virtually the same documents on May 28, 1975. Plaintiffs attorney, justifiably apprehensive of ever receiving the documents in question, properly moved the court to enforce the 1975 order. As the trial date approached, and as the defendant clearly indicated that he would not be in court on the trial date, the trial judge was faced with no alternative but to take some drastic action. The arrest warrant issued after the alimony show cause hearing had not been served. The record was replete with both testimony and affidavit that the defendant was avoiding service. The transcript reveals that the attorney-client relationship between defendant and his attorney had broken down. Indeed, shortly before the trial date in this cause, defendant sought new counsel.
On these facts, we find the trial judge did not abuse his discretion in ordering entry of a default against defendant. Humphrey v Adams, 69 Mich App 577, 578-582; 245 NW2d 167 (1976), Bechtel v Bechtel, 33 Mich App 506, 507-509; 190 NW2d 248 (1971).
Defendant questions whether the trial court had adequate evidence to sustain a property division which awarded the plaintiff $150,000 cash and permanent alimony in the amount of $150 per week plus attorney’s fees in the amount of $19,075 as well as preserving prior orders of the court in a judgment of divorce granted June 14, 1976.
We will modify or reverse a judgment of divorce where the trial court commits an abuse of discretion in division of properties. Simmons v Simmons, 58 Mich App 480, 482; 228 NW2d 432 (1975). However, we also recognize that the trial court has great discretion in the adjustment of property rights. Division of property need not be equal because the distribution of property in a divorce action is not governed by rigid rules or mathematical formulas. Johnson v Johnson, 346 Mich 418, 431; 78 NW2d 216 (1956).
Even a short perusal of the divorce judgment reveals a substantial degree of fairness. We believe the trial court properly considered several factors. Specifically, testimony existed concerning the source of the property, contributions toward acqub sition, years of married life, and needs of the parties, the parties’ earning ability, and the cause for divorce. Having considered all of these factors, the trial judge properly awarded the settlement as he did. We find no abuse of discretion. Further, the trial court’s right to award permanent alimony in a divorce case is statutory. MCLA 552.23; MSA 25.103. Under the statute, the court may award to either party a part of the real and personal estate of the other, giving due regard to the various circumstances of the case.
Since the plaintiff was no longer working, had left Michigan, was going to school to attempt to better her station in life, and had evidenced certain medical problems arising from the strain of the divorce proceedings, we do not find the trial court abused its discretion in his award of alimony. The court had due regard for the condition and situation of the parties, health and age, and the past relations and conduct of the parties. He considered the needs and property of the wife, her ability to do productive work in keeping with the standard of living to which she had* become accustomed, and the husband’s ability to pay. Johnson v Johnson, supra at 426-428.
We also note that the allowance of expense money and amount of attorney’s fees rest in the sound discretion of the trial court. Metcalf v Metcalf 28 Mich App 442, 448; 184 NW2d 560 (1970). An award or refusal of expenses or counsel fees will be interfered with on appeal only where manifest abuse of discretion can be shown. Schilleman v Schilleman, 61 Mich App 446, 450; 232 NW2d 737 (1975), Pinney v Pinney, 47 Mich App 290, 293; 209 NW2d 467 (1973). We find no abuse of discretion in the trial court’s award of attorney fees.
Having reviewed the errors defendant alleges which we believe merit comment and finding none persuasive, we sustain the trial court.
Affirmed. | [
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Allen, J.
Plaintiff Jimmie L. Meads appeals from a 4-1 decision of the Workmen’s Compensation Appeal Board (hereinafter WCAB or Appeal Board) which ruled that he was not entitled to compensation payments for an occupational lung disease. MCLA 418.401 et seq.;* MSA 17.237(401) et seq.; GCR 1963, 806.2(1).
The plaintiff was born on July 7, 1900. He first worked for the defendant in 1926. Throughout his employment career, he worked mostly on grinding operations, forming and finishing engine parts. The plaintiff testified that his early jobs were "dry” operations which meant that the air was filled with smoke and particulate debris. The defendant had no witnesses who could testify about conditions during that period.
There was a conflict in the testimony about the conditions during more recent years. Both sides agreed that the operations were now mostly "wet”. But plaintiff says that the air was still dirty and dangerous whereas the defendant’s witnesses testified that the air was clean by modern factory standards and the purity level far exceeded all government and industry requirements. There is no indication that the plaintiff ever complained about the conditions or told any representative of the defendant that his lungs were being damaged by those conditions.
Plaintiff’s employment records show that, between 1954 and 1965, he applied for extended sick leave benefits on five occasions:
Year Duration Cause
1954 1 month influenza
1960 1 week influenza
1963 2 months influenza; bronchial asthma
1965 2 months pneumonia
1965 3 months pneumonitis; pulmonary
emphysema; bronchial asthma
In every instance, the records indicate that the disease was not occupational. The last sick leave ended on December 31, 1965. The plaintiff retired on January 1, 1966. He was then over 65 years old and eligible for normal retirement.
The petition for worker’s compensation benefits was filed nearly five years later on November 13, 1970. Plaintiff testified that he did not suspect a connection between his employment and his lung problems until shortly before the petition was filed.
A hearing before an administrative law judge was held on November 1, 1972. The judge found total disability from an occupational disease and ordered weekly payments at the maximum rate. That ruling was reversed by the WCAB on April 23, 1976. The WCAB affirmed the judge’s finding that the plaintiff is totally disabled by an occupational disease, but ruled that the plaintiff had forfeited his right to claim benefits because he had failed to give the defendant timely notice of his injury. The plaintiff now appeals to this Court by leave granted.
I. Disability
We affirm the ruling that the plaintiff is totally disabled by an occupational disease. The board made appropriate findings of fact which are supported by the record even though there is conflicting evidence. We are required to accept those findings of fact. Const 1963, art 6, §28, MCLA 418.861; MSA 17.237(861). Those findings support the board’s ultimate conclusion that the plaintiff is totally disabled by an occupational disease.
II. Employee’s Notice to Employer
The WCAB denied benefits because it ruled that the plaintiff had failed to give the defendant timely notice of his injury as required by the statutes. MCLA 418.381(1); MSA 17.237(381X1) states in part:
"(1) No proceedings for compensation for an injury under this act shall be maintained, unless a notice of the injury has been given to the employer within 3 months after the happening thereof and unless the claim for compensation with respect to the injury, which claim may be either oral or in writing, has been made within 6 months after the occurrence of the same; * ‡
In this case, the 3-month notice period is increased to 120 days by MCLA 418.441; MSA 17.237(441):
"The requirements of notice of occupational disease and death resulting therefrom and the requirements as to the bringing of proceedings for compensation for disability or death resulting from such occupational disease shall be the same as required in chapter 3, except that the notice shall be given to the employer within 120 days after the disablement.”
The WCAB found that plaintiff became disabled because of his occupational lung disease on October 1, 1965. Lewis v Chrysler Corp, 394 Mich 360; 230 NW2d 538 (1975), held that the various limitation periods begin to run against an employee’s claim only after:
"(1) the employee has knowledge or reasonable grounds for knowledge of this disability; and
(2) the employee has discovered or by reasonable diligence could discover that his disability may be work-related.” 394 Mich at 369.
See also Tillotson v Penn-Dixie Cement Corp, 47 Mich App 427; 209 NW2d 611 (1973).
The WCAB ruled that both Lewis requirements were met as of October 1, 1965. We affirm that ruling and its underlying findings of fact. Const 1963, art 6, § 28; MCLA 418.861; MSA 17.237(861).
III. Employer’s Notice to Bureau of Workers’ Compensation
Assuming arguendo our affirmance of the WCAB’s rulings in Section II of this opinion, the plaintiff nonetheless argues that his failure to give formal notice is excused by the last sentence of MCLA 418.381(1); MSA 17.237(381X1) which states:
"In a case in which the employer has been given notice of the happening of the injury or has notice or knowledge of the happening of the accident within 3 months after the happening of the same, and fails, neglects or refuses to report the injury to the bureau as required by the provisions of this act, the statute of limitations shall not run against the claim of the injured employee pr his dependents, or in favor of the employer or his insurer, until a report of the injury has been filed with the bureau.”
Plaintiff argues that the sick leave records described earlier in this opinion constituted sufficient notice to the defendant and that the formal notice and claim filed in 1970 were timely since the defendant had never notified the Bureau of Workmen’s Compensation (hereinafter Bureau) about the plaintiffs injury. The WCAB rejected that argument by concluding that:
"Nor may we cavalierly say that defendant knew as much as plaintiff, and that failure to report to the Bureau in accord with Norris v Chrysler, 391 Mich 469, tolls the statute as regards plaintiffs otherwise tardy notice and claim. The employer knew it had an employee with "bronchial asthma, pneumonitis, and pulmonary emphysema” who had filed for sick leave. Plaintiff does not claim to have told anyone in supervision about claimed causal relationship. This is not enough to put the employer on notice, per Norris, supra, unless we are to erroneously assume that Norris overturned its antecedents * * * .” (WCAB slip opinion P 14.)
The WCAB made its decision after interpreting Norris v Chrysler Corp, 391 Mich 469; 216 NW2d 783 (1974). Our task is to decide whether the board interpreted Norris correctly. We also must consider Krol v Hamtramck, 398 Mich 341; 248 NW2d 195 (1976), decided after the WCAB released its opinion.
The employee in Norris was struck by a car as he crossed the street which separated his employer’s plant from the parking lot in which he had left his car. A witness immediately informed a senior plant security officer. A co-worker immediately told the employee’s foreman about the accident. The Supreme Court held that the employer had sufficient notice to be required to file a report with the Bureau or risk an indefinite tolling of the limitation periods. The defendant had argued that, although it knew of the accident, the failure to report should be excused because it did not know that the injuries might be compensable. That argument was rejected.
"Defendant argues that under the state of the law at that time it did not receive notice of a compensable injury and therefore was not required to report. There are cases which do state that the employer must be informed of a 'compensable’ accident. However, close examination of the cases will disclose that this is a result of imprecise use of statutory language. The notice given must be sufficient to make the employer aware that an injury has been sustained. If, after inquiry, the employer does not believe the injury to be compensable, it need not report the accident. However, in not reporting the accident, the employer assumes the risk that the injury will be found to be compensable. If such a determination occurs, the employer’s penalty is a suspension of statutory limitations.” 391 Mich at 477.
But the Norris opinion goes on to distinguish Williams v Chrysler Corp, 29 Mich App 398; 185 NW2d 403 (1971), which denied benefits because the plaintiff failed to give timely notice. In Williams, the facts were very similar to Norris except that the employer knew only that the employee had been struck by a car; it did not know where or under what circumstances the accident had occurred. Norris distinguished Williams as follows:
"The facts of the instant case are quite different. The chief guard was told immediately after the incident. The foreman was told the same night. The company was put on notice that the accident occurred while plaintiff was reporting to work. We conclude that such notice was sufficient.” 391 Mich at 479-480.
It is very difficult to reconcile this last quotation with the earlier statement that the employer need only know that an injury has been sustained. 391 Mich at 477. In Williams, the foreman attended the employee’s funeral. He knew that the employee had died in an auto accident. He obviously knew that the employee had suffered an "injury”. Yet Norris did not overrule Williams; rather it distinguished the Norris facts because that employer knew that the employee had been injured while crossing a street adjacent to the plant on his way to report for work. This additional information served only to suggest that the injury might be compensable; without it, the employer still would have known "that an injury ha[d] been sustained”. 391 Mich at 477. The only conclusion that can be drawn from this apparent conflict is that parts of Norris are dicta and that something more than bare notice of an injury is required. Otherwise, Norris and Williams cannot stand together.
Both Norris and Williams were accidental injury cases; thus both employers indisputably had notice that, on a date certain, their employees suffered disabling injuries. Occupational disease cases are more complex because everyone occasionally suffers from minor illnesses which are "disabling” in the sense that a few work days are missed. But those illnesses are not compensable under workers’ compensation and we cannot believe that the Supreme Court intends to require a report to the Bureau everytime an employee takes a sick day. Any such system would place impossible burdens on employers and the Bureau. We doubt that the Supreme Court intended such a result.
However, it is not enough to merely draw a disease/accidental injury distinction between the present case and Norris. That easy distinction was ruled out by the more recent decision in Krol v Hamtramck, supra. The employer in Krol was notified that its employee had died from "Brain necrosis, questionable etiology”. 398 Mich at 344. The employee had worked for ten years on indoor spray painting work, thus exposing himself to paint and solvent fumes which are known to cause brain disorders. Noting that the employer had notice of "death and the cause of death”, the Court relied on Norris and ruled that the failure to file a report with the Bureau tolled the limitation periods and excused the surviving spouse’s failure to give timely proper notice.
Krol clearly applies Norris to disease cases. But exactly how far that application extends is still an open question.
The disability in Krol was death. The impact of that event leads to an intuitive feeling that Krol has more in common with the accidental injury cases than it does with cases of chronic illnesses like that involved in the present case. The fact that disability arises in a single dramatic event makes it much easier to excuse the failure to give formal notice to the employer.
Also, where the "injury” to the employee is caused by an occupational disease rather than an accident, the employer must know that the employee is disabled by the illness before the statute of limitations will be tolled; mere knowledge of the illness is not sufficient. Tomasini v Youngstown Mines Corp, 366 Mich 503; 115 NW2d 387 (1962), Carter v Kelsey-Hayes Co, 386 Mich 610; 194 NW2d 326 (1972). Disability in Krol was obvious. Defendant General Motors argues that the present case is distinguishable because it did not know that plaintiff Meads was disabled when he opted for normal retirement. He had taken extended sick leaves on several past occasions but had always returned to work. Defendant argues that it had no reason to suspect that the final leave period was any different.
The problem with that argument is that both the administrative law judge and the Appeal Board found that the plaintiff became disabled on the first day of his sick leave and had never recovered. Even if the defendant erroneously thought that the plaintiff recovered as of his retirement date, it still knew that he had not been able to work for the preceding three months. He clearly was disabled. If the disability was of a type that the defendant was required to report, then Norris and Krol would require us to hold that the statute of limitations never ran against the claim.
MCLA 418.381(1); MSA 17.237(381X1) states that all limitation statutes are tolled if an employer has notice of an "injury” within 3 months (120 days where the "injury” is caused by a disease) of its occurrence and fails to file a report with the Bureau as required by MCLA 418.805; MSA 17.237(805) and the Bureau’s Rule 408.31.
Did defendant General Motors have notice of an "injury” within 120 days after it occurred? For the reasons outlined below, we hold that it did not have the required notice and affirm the Appeal Board ruling that the plaintiff’s claim is barred by the limitation statutes.
The plaintiff in Norris v Chrysler, supra, was injured in an auto accident. The employer knew of the injury almost immediately. Krol v Hamtramck, supra, and the present case are more complicated because there are no traumatic injuries. We deal here with the special definition' of "personal injury” which converts certain illnesses into "injuries” for purposes of the workers’ compensation act. See MCLA 418.411; MSA 17.237(411) and MCLA 418.401(c); MSA 17.237(401)(c) which states:
" 'Personal injury’ shall include a disease or disability which is due to causes and conditions which are characteristic of and peculiar to the business of the employer and which arises out of and in the course of the employment. Ordinary diseases of life to which the public is generally exposed outside of the employment shall not be compensable.”
As we read MCLA 418.381(1); MSA 17.237(381X1) in combination with MCLA 418.401(c); MSA 17.237(401)(c), an employer is not required to report an illness to the Bureau unless he knows or reasonably should know that the disease is "due to causes and conditions which are characteristic of and peculiar to the business of the employer” and which arise "out of and in the course of the employment”. Any other interpretation would lead to absurd consequences as employers would be forced to report every absence and even trivial symptoms. Moreover, this interpretation is consistent with either of the two conflicting statements in Norris v Chrysler, supra, since both of those analyses begin with assumed knowledge of an injury. When dealing with an illness, knowledge of an employment-related cause is a prerequisite to knowledge of an injury. Defendant General Motors obviously knew that the plaintiff was sick. But, it did not know that the sickness was an "injury” which should have been reported to the Bureau.
Defendant knew that plaintiff was a 65-year-old man who opted for normal retirement at the end of a 3-month sick leave. The diagnosis of the illness which necessitated the sick leave was "pneumonitis; pulmonary emphysema; bronchial asthma”. There never was any suggestion at that time by the plaintiff or anyone else that the illness might have been caused by working conditions. Contrast Carter v Kelsey-Hayes, supra.
Absent any direct suggestion that the plaintiffs illness was related to working conditions in the defendant’s plant, the defendant was not required to report the illness to the Bureau unless it reasonably should have known from other information that what appeared to be a common ailment was actually a compensable "injury”.
The plaintiff worked on grinding operations, a factor which might suggest the danger of pulmonary diseases. However, those operations had been "wet” operations for most of the plaintiff’s career. Use of that technique greatly reduces the amount of irritants in the air and consequently reduces the danger of respiratory problems.
The diagnosis of the plaintiffs last sick leave illness is also important. Each of the three illnesses mentioned, pneumonitis, pulmonary emphysema and bronchial asthma, is common to the general population — especially older persons — and would usually be classed as an "ordinary disease of life” for which compensation is not payable. MCLA 418.401(c); MSA 17.237(401)(c). Persons who work in polluted atmospheres would be more likely to suffer these ailments. But, as noted in the preceding paragraph, the plaintiff’s working conditions were not especially bad.
The plaintiff’s medical history is also interesting. He had taken sick leaves on four previous occasions. The diagnoses on those occasions were: (1) influenza; (2) influenza; (3) influenza and bronchial asthma; (4) pneumonia. Influenza is caused by a virus and thus would usually be unrelated to particulate contamination of the working atmosphere. But it is a respiratory ailment. The plaintiffs history indicates three serious episodes of influenza within the ten years before his retirement. It would be reasonable to theorize that his respiratory system was damaged by those attacks.
The preceding paragraphs summarize the information which was available to the defendant. We affirm the Appeal Board finding that the defendant was not required to report to the Bureau. We would affirm whether the notice issue is treated as a question of fact, Carter v Kelsey-Hayes, supra, a question of law, Norris v Chrysler, supra, and Krol v Hamtramck, supra, or perhaps a question of jural relationship, Deziel v Difco Laboratories, Inc, 394 Mich 466; 232 NW2d 146 (1975). Any other result would create an impossible situation for employers and for the Bureau itself.
We believe that Krol v Hamtramck, supra, though also a disease case, may properly be distinguished on at least three grounds. First, the disease suffered in Krol, a suddenly disabling and fatal brain necrosis, is not commonly experienced by the general public. Second, Krol’s long career as an indoor spray painter who also made extensive use of solvents for removing paint might reasonably suggest a causal relationship with an unusual brain disorder. Third, Krol died from his illness whereas the plaintiff in the present case is still alive and reasonably active at age 77, almost 12 years after the onset of his disability.
The "knew or reasonably should have known” test which we have adopted is obviously similar to the one which Lewis v Chrysler, supra, applies to determine whether the employee was required to give notice of his injury to the employer. Since we have affirmed the Appeal Board finding that plaintiff Meads knew or should have known of the cause of his disability in 1965, we are obligated to explain why we also have affirmed the Appeal Board finding that defendant General Motors did not have the same knowledge. In our opinion, the key differentiating factor is Meads’ testimony that he knew for 10 or 15 years that the air in the plant was damaging his lungs and making him cough. This testimony shows that he was acutely aware of the causal relationship; he probably could sense increased difficulty in breathing when he entered the plant. Yet he never said anything to any representative of the defendant which might have alerted the defendant to the problem.
On balance, we are convinced that the plaintiff had greater knowledge of the extent of his disease and its probable cause. Hence our conclusion that the plaintiff — but not the defendant — knew or should have known of the employment related cause.
The order of the Appeal Board is affirmed.
This opinion will cite the present statutes in Chapter 418 of MCLA. The controlling provisions are substantially unchanged since the plaintiff’s disability date in 1965.
Plaintiff worked for Chevrolet Division for slightly less than 8 years between 1926 and 1942. That represented nine separate periods of employment, the longest being 2 years and 9 months in 1935-38. He worked for another division of defendant General Motors in 1942-45. He returned to Chevrolet in 1948 and worked continuously until his retirement in 1965. All of the testimony offered by the defendant dealt with post-1950 conditions.
The record entries were made by employees of the defendant. Neither party is able to say who actually made the determinations that the diseases were not occupational. The plaintiff does affirmatively deny that he was ever asked about the possibility of work related causes.
A disease caused by working conditions is an "injury” for purposes of the worker’s compensation law. MCLA 418.401; MSA 17.237 (401), MCLA 418.411; MSA 17.237(411).
398 Mich at 347. This use of the word "cause” is somewhat confusing in the context of a worker’s compensation case. It could mean either knowledge that the employee suffered from a diseased brain or knowledge [should have known] that the disease was caused by paint and solvent fumes.
Compare Lewis v Chrysler, supra.
Krol was decided after the briefs were filed in this case. Because neither party requested oral argument, we were not able to question them directly about the applicability of Krol. We therefore wrote to the parties requesting supplemental briefs directed to that question and two others. Those briefs were timely filed. We have reviewed them — and also the Supreme Court briefs filed in the Krol case — in reaching our determination that Krol does not require reversal here. | [
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Per Curiam.
On March 5, 1976, defendant Terry Wilson pled guilty to an added count of receiving and concealing stolen property, contrary to MCLA 750.535; MSA 28.803. Originally charged with felony murder and armed robbery, defendant was allowed to plead to the added count in exchange for testimony against codefendants in the same incident. On April 26, 1976, defendant was sentenced to 2-1/2 to 5 years in prison. On appeal, defendant argues that reversible error occurred due to the failure of the trial court to properly advise him of the presumption of innocence incident to a jury trial.
OCR 1963, 785.7(l)(g) (iii) requires in a guilty plea proceeding that defendant be advised by the trial court of the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt. See Guilty Plea Cases, 395 Mich 96, 122-123, 125; 235 NW2d 132 (1975). We find no such advice in the plea-taking record.
Under the circumstances, the Supreme Court has held that a conviction may not stand:
"In Howell, defendant pled guilty to the reduced charge of larceny from a person. Defendant was not advised of the presumption of innocence as required by 785.7(l)(d)(ii). That right is at the core of our criminal process and fundamental to defendant’s understanding of a trial.” Guilty Plea Cases, supra at 125.
Reversed and remanded. | [
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Per Curiam.
This action for writ of mandamus has been submitted on an agreed statement of facts. It involves the funding of Michigan Public School Employees Retirement System, and it seeks to compel certain action on the part of defendants with respect to funding the system.
By paragraph 32. of the agreed statement of facts, it is established that current service money in a large but undetermined amount has been used to pay some accrued unfunded liabilities. This is directly contrary to Const 1963, art 9, § 24 and will be stopped by this Court’s writ.
The foregoing answers plaintiffs’ second question which they state as follows:
"Does the Michigan Court of Appeals possess jurisdiction to require the public officials and bodies to adhere to the duties, obligations and prohibitions mandated by the people’s constitutional mandates and statutory requirements?”
The third question raised by plaintiffs is:
"May this Court require the governor and Legislature to reduce appropriations of non-constitutionally pro tected items, thus creating monies for the proper funding of the Public School Employees Retirement System?”
The answer is no. The power to raise money and to appropriate it is the province of the Legislature. It is not within the power or province of a court to order the Legislature how it shall perform these functions, Board of Education of the City of Deroit v Superintendent of Public Instruction, 319 Mich 436; 29 NW2d 902 (1947).
A writ may issue requiring Michigan Public School Employees Retirement Board to cease using funds derived from current service money to pay accrued unfunded liabilities. No costs, a public question is involved. | [
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Per Curiam.
Plaintiff sought review in circuit court of redeterminations of its franchise fees for 1972 and 1973, for which a total deficiency of $22,608 was assessed, and also sought to enjoin defendant from revoking plaintiffs certificate of authority to do business in Michigan. The trial judge treated defendant’s motion for summary judgment as a motion for accelerated judgment, which he granted on the ground that plaintiffs claim was untimely. From denial of plaintiffs motion for reconsideration plaintiff now appeals by right.
On October 1, 1974, defendant notified plaintiff that a field audit would be conducted on or about December 2, 1974, and that plaintiffs annual reports for the years 1970, 1971, 1973, and 1974 would be reviewed. On March 28, 1975, defendant issued determination No. D-30252 assessing a franchise fee deficiency in the amount of $31,536, plus interest, for the years 1971, 1972, and 1973. On April 24, 1975, plaintiff requested a redetermina tion of the deficiency assessments for the years in question, and on May 7, 1975, an order of redetermination was issued affirming the deficiency in the amount of $31,536 for the years 1971, 1972, and 1973.
Plaintiff failed to appeal from the May 7, 1975, redetermination within the 30-day period specified in MCLA 450.309; MSA 21.210, but it is clear that communications between the parties continued after that time. Shortly after the May 7, 1975, redetermination, on June 24, 1975, the Supreme Court decided Clark Equipment Co v Department of Treasury, Revenue Division, 394 Mich 396; 230 NW2d 548 (1975), in which a majority of the Court adopted Justice Levin’s opinion for affirmance in Borden, Inc. v Department of Treasury, 391 Mich 495; 218 NW2d 667 (1974). A further indication that the parties did not regard the May 7, 1975, redetermination as final is supplied by defendant’s reliance on the decision in Clark in its letter of February 24, 1976, notifying plaintiff that the department was dropping its demand for the 1971 deficiency:
"Our determination letter D-30252 was issued March 28, 1975 and redetermined May 7, 1975. A copy of the Redetermination is attached for your reference. The fees of $31,536 plus interest, cover the years 1971 through 1973. Since the Redetermination was issued, the Michigan Supreme Court stated in the Clark Equipment Case, that the Department cannot audit an accepted report.
"In checking your file, we find that the 1971 Report was accepted and we have cancelled that portion of the determination of $9,928.00. We must have the balance of $22,608.00 paid, plus interest and the 1975 penalty on or before May 15, 1976 or your authority to do business in Michigan will be automatically revoked on that date.”
The trial judge concluded that the May 7, 1975, notice and order of redetermination was a final determination:
"It is quite clear that the February letter only goes to the amount owed on the deficiency. There is no doubt that some was due. The only change of circumstance was the Supreme Court opinion in Clark Equipment v Department of Treasury, Revenue Division, 394 Mich 396 (1975). The opinion, of course, changed the operating procedure of the defendant but the merits of franchise fee determination remain unchanged. Further, the amount owed has in fact been reduced. As such, this Court is unable to find what prejudice would result from the February letter. The February letter was not a final determination, the merits were settled by the redetermination order of May 7, 1975. The appeal period should, therefore, be measured from that date.”
Accordingly, he concluded that plaintiff’s claim was untimely under "the 60-day appeal period of the Administrative Procedures Act”, and granted accelerated judgment for defendant.
The difficulty presented by this case is that quite clearly neither the May 7, 1975, nor the February 24, 1976, redetermination letters constituted a "final decision or order of the agency” within the meaning of the Administrative Procedures Act (APA), MCLA 24.304(1); MSA 3.560(204), since plaintiff failed to appeal from either redetermination to the corporation tax appeal board, as provided by MCLA 450.309(2); MSA 21.210(2). Thus the 60-day time limitation prescribed for petitions for review of final agency decisions or orders in APA, §104, MCLA 24.304(1); MSA 3.560(204) is inapplicable:
"The judicial review provisions and the 60-day time limitation contained in the Administrative Procedures Act are only involved if there has been a final decision in a contested case.” (Citations omitted.) Ajluni v West Bloomfield School District, 59 Mich App 213, 215; 229 NW2d 385 (1975), rev’d on other grds, 397 Mich 462; 245 NW2d 49 (1976).
This case is distinguishable from Ajluni, however, in a significant respect. There the case could not "qualify as a 'contested case’, as there was no opportunity for an evidentiary hearing”, and accordingly the time limitations of the APA did not apply. Ajluni, supra, at 216. In the present case, although the statute itself merely provides that the "appeal board shall recompute the liability of the taxpayer and shall notify the taxpayer and the department promptly on its decision”, MCLA 450.309(2); MSA 21.210(2), the department has provided by rule procedures for what is clearly an evidentiary hearing on appeal from a franchise fee redetermination. See 1973 AACS R450.51-450.74.
Plaintiff has failed to exhaust its administrative remedies by pursuing an appeal to the corporation tax appeal board, and has instead sought review by the circuit court of a "preliminary, procedural or intermediate agency action or ruling”, within the meaning of § 101 of the APA, MCLA 24.301; MSA 3.560(201). International Business Machines Corp v Dept of Treasury, 75 Mich App 604; 255 NW2d 702 (1977) (hereinafter IBM). Under that section, such actions or rulings are "not immediately reviewable, except that the Court may grant leave for review of such action if review of the agency’s final decision or order would not provide an adequate remedy”.
Unfortunately, the parties and the court below proceeded under the assumption that APA § 104 governed this proceeding. The circuit court erroneously concluded that the May 7, 1975, redetermination was a final order, and that therefore plaintiffs complaint was untimely. Faced with a nearly identical procedural problem, however, this Court has already held that exhaustion of administrative remedies is unnecessary when, as here, "plaintiff has never challenged the merits of the claimed deficiencies”, but, rather, "has consistently asserted that the Treasury lacked the power to reopen the issue of tax liability”. IBM, supra at 608.
"Exhaustion of administrative remedies is not an inflexible condition precedent to judicial consideration, however, and will not be required if review of the agency’s final decision would not provide an adequate remedy, MCLA 24.301; MSA 3.560(201), i.e., if it would run counter to the policies which underlie the doctrine. That is the case here. Plaintiff’s suit seeks to avoid the expenses of litigation and disclosure which would be incurred by submitting to the agency’s procedures for redetermination. The very harm that plaintiff seeks to avoid would inevitably occur if plaintiff were required to exhaust administrative remedies before access to judicial review. Moreover, the issue of the agency’s statutory authority is clearly framed for the court. Extensive fact findings are unnecessary, and the decision does not demand special technical expertise. Under these circumstances, the circuit court’s failure to recognize that judicial review of the Treasury’s actions required a grant of leave was harmless error.” IBM, supra at 610.
Here, as in IBM, supra, we hold that "the circum stances of this case justify a grant of leave for judicial review.”
The remaining questions cannot be answered on this record, but it is clear that the merits of the 1972 redetermination were settled, one way or the other, by the decision in Clark, supra. As this Court stated in IBM, supra, at 611, the rationale in Borden adopted by the Court in Clark,
"rests on the reasoned conclusion that the Treasury’s statutory authority is limited to computation of the franchise fee, 391 Mich 506-507; 218 NW2d 672-673, not on the fact that some of the Borden reports had been stamped 'accepted’ ”.
In the present case, the department’s attempt to eradicate the word "accepted” from the 1972 report notwithstanding, it appears from the dated, handwritten notations contained on the 1972 report that the department may have performed computations within the meaning of Borden, supra at 500:
"When, following receipt of the annual report of a corporation, the Franchise Fee Division 'computes’ the franchise fee of the corporation, it exhausts its author ity under the statute. The Division is not authorized to re-compute the fee if it subsequently obtains what it regards as more accurate information.”
Accord, IBM, supra, at 611. In the absence of any finding on this question by the trial court, however, we abstain on this undeveloped record from exercising our power to draw inferences of fact under GCR 1963, 820.1(6), and leave the question of whether the computation was performed, and the department’s authority exhausted, for resolution by the trial judge on remand.
Plaintiff does not contend that the department had performed the computations on the 1973 report prior to its redetermination, nor does there appear to be any basis for such contention. Two questions remain, however. First, the trial judge must determine whether the department arrived at its deficiency determination and notified the corporation "as soon as practicable of the computation”. See Borden, supra, at 504-505, fn 5. Secondly, and closely related to the first question as it may have some bearing on its resolution, the trial judge must determine whether the department had authority to conduct the field audit on which the 1973 redetermination was based. The department’s authority to conduct such audits, sharply drawn into question in Borden, supra, at 504-508, 509, has been complicated by the subsequent enactment of the 1975 PA 13, amending MCLA 450.309; MSA 21.210. IBM contains some dicta concerning the effect of that act, when the department has not yet computed the fee, see IBM, supra, fns 5 & 6, but we decline to express any opinion on this record, leaving it to the trial judge to determine, upon a fuller adversary presentation by the parties, the propriety of the 1973 redetermination.
Reversed and remanded, for proceedings consistent with this opinion. We retain no jurisdiction. No costs, a public question being involved.
The record does not contain all of the communications that ensued but defendant’s letter of February 24, 1976, refers to some of it. Defendant does not deny plaintiffs claim that, "During the period between May 7, 1975, * * * and February 24, 1976, * * * the parties were in communication concerning the substance of the department’s claim.”
Defendant’s contention that plaintiff may not seek relief in circuit court under the APA, MCLA 24.201 et seq; MSA 3.560(101) et seq. comes late in the day in view of the opinion of Justice Black in Detroit Edison Co v Department of Treasury, 382 Mich 497; 170 NW2d 39 (1969). See Borden, Inc v Department of Treasury, 43 Mich App 106, 108; 204 NW2d 34 (1972), aff’d, 391 Mich 495; 218 NW2d 667 (1974), International Business Machines Corp v Department of Treasury, 75 Mich App 604; 255 NW2d 702 (1977). No further consideration of this argument is necessary.
The trial court had before it the affidavit of plaintiffs attorney, which stated, in essence, that his inspection of the department’s internal records revealed that the 1972 report was shown as having been "accepted” on March 3, 1973.
If the trial judge determines that the department had not performed the computation on the 1972 report, he must consider these questions in relation to the 1972 report, as well.
We note that the question in this case is further complicated by the facts that, although the field audit was conducted pursuant to notice given October 1, 1974, the department’s redeterminations pursuant thereto were not computed until March 28, 1975, three days after the effective date of 1975 PA 13. | [
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Bronson, J.
Defendants were subpoenaed in 1973 to appear before a Wayne County Citizens’ Grand Jury and testify as to the solicitation of personal injury claims in connection with a particular law firm. Despite a grant of immunity, defendants refused to testify. They were then adjudged in contempt and sentenced to one year imprisonment. Defendants were later called again before the same grand jury and, after a refusal to testify, were convicted of contempt and sentenced to a second one-year imprisonment term. The second sentence was discharged in People v Walker, 393 Mich 333; 224 NW2d 879 (1975), as defendants had already served the statutory maximum one year in prison for contempts before a grand jury. See MCLA 767.19c; MSA 28.959(3). Subsequently, a new grand jury was empaneled to investigate automobile insurance fraud. Defendants were summoned before this grand jury. Again, despite a grant of immunity, defendants refused to testify, whereupon they were fined $10,000 and sentenced to prison until the expiration of the grand jury’s term or until they purged themselves of the contempt by testifying.
Defendants claim that the second grand jury asked the "same or similar” questions as the first grand jury and that therefore the total punishment cannot exceed the statutory maximum. In other words, defendants contend that the sentence for contempt for refusing to testify in response to the same or similar questions can never exceed one year and/or $10,000, even if the questions are propounded by different grand juries.
MCLA 767.19c; MSA 28.959(3) provides a maximum penalty for refusal to answer questions "before the grand jury concerning any matter or thing of which the witness has knowledge concerning matters before the grand jury”. That both grand juries were investigating substantially the same subject matter can be inferred from defendants’ grants of immunity. The prosecutor’s petition in support of the original grant of immunity states:
"The prosecuting attorney has reason to believe that said witness has knowledge of a matter before the grand jury, to wit: The solicitation by the witness, James Walker, Jr., of numerous personal injury claims for the law firm of Barbara and Wisok; the setting up of various fraudulent accidents and the attempts to obtain money in connection with these accidents and the complete operation of the J & W investigative firm and its associations with the law firm of Barbara and Wisok.”
The petition in support of the second grant of immunity states:
"The prosecuting attorney has reason to believe that said witness has knowledge of a matter before the Wayne County Citizens Grand Jury, to wit: The operation and maintenance of 'J & W Investigations’ along with the purported and actual purposes of said business; any arrangement between the witness and any other person for the purpose of furthering any form of tax fraud, possible obstruction of justice either by the witness in connection with other witnesses in pending criminal cases or by other persons in connection with the witness; possible perjury and/or subornation thereof by the witness or other persons; the solicitation of personal injury claims by the witness or other persons on behalf of the former lav/ firm of Barbara and Wisok P. C.; the knowing solicitation of false accident claims by the witness or by others on behalf of the abovementioned law firm for the purpose of obtaining money under false pretenses.”
Thus, we must decide whether MCLA 767.19c; MSA 28.959(3) applies to refusals to answer before different grand juries investigating the same subject matter.
This issue is one of first impression in Michigan. People v Walker, supra, at 340, n 3, expressly left open the question of whether punishment for contempt before different grand juries can exceed the statutory maximum.
The statutory language, while not dispositive, is helpful. MCLA 767.19c; MSA 28.959(3) provides a maximum penalty for the refusal of a witness "to appear or testify * * * before the grand jury * * * concerning matters before the grand jury”. (Emphasis added.) The focus on one particular grand jury indicates an intent not to apply the maximum penalty to different grand juries.
This interpretation is consistent with the rationale of People v Walker, supra, which was that allowing separate sentences up to the statutory maximum for each refusal to testify before the same grand jury could potentially be abused so as to render the maximum penalty virtually infinite. On the other hand, interpreting the statute to allow up to the maximum punishment for con-tempts before each grand jury presents less of a potential for abuse.
In addition, a new grand jury must start with a clean slate; testimony presented before one grand jury generally cannot be made known to a second grand jury. See MCLA 767.19f; MSA 28.959(6). It would hinder the lawful investigative functions of subsequent grand juries if witnesses’ testimony could not be coerced because they already had been sentenced to the statutory maximum penalty by a prior grand jury. See People v Walker, supra, at 340.
Thus, the statutory maximum penalty does not apply to separate refusals to testify before different grand juries.
Affirmed.
C. W. Simon, Jr., J., concurred.
The second grand jury’s term expired on May 6, 1976.
This was clearly civil contempt. The sole purpose of the sanction was to compel the witnesses to testify, not to punish them for refusing to testify. See Spalter v Wayne Circuit Judge, 35 Mich App 156, 160-161; 192 NW2d 347, 349 (1971).
At the least, defendants cannot be imprisoned for civil contempt beyond the life of the grand jury. Shillitani v United States, 384 US 364; 86 S Ct 1531; 16 L Ed 2d 622 (1966), Spalter v Wayne Circuit Judge, 35 Mich App 156; 192 NW2d 347 (1971). In addition, a grand jury investigation is not proper if there is no possible punishable crime to investigate, e.g., if the statute of limitations had run on all possible crimes. See People v Curtis, 36 Cal App 2d 306; 98 P2d 228 (1939).
We agree with Judge Burns that repeated contempt sentences may at some point become unduly oppressive. When such abuse of the grand jury process occurs, we should act to protect the due process rights of witnesses. But this issue is not before us in the instant case. | [
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T. M. Burns, J.
On November 15, 1974, General Telephone Company of Michigan filed an applica.tion with the Michigan Public Service Commission requesting changes in its rates and charges so as to increase its revenues in the amount of $12,793,-432 annually. The test period was the year ending September 30, 1974. On August 4, 1975, the commission granted rate and charge increases intended to increase the company’s annual revenue by $9,900,725, or $2,892,707 less than requested.
The company appealed to the Ingham County Circuit Court, and by opinion dated June 30, 1976, the circuit court affirmed in part and reversed in part the order of the commission, and directed the commission to delete the positive adjustment of $95,976 to the company’s operating income for increased advertising revenue from increased directory advertising rates and to increase the company’s rates and charges to recover the additional $95,976.
On October 25, 1976, the commission, pursuant to the circuit court order, authorized the company to revise its tariff to produce approximately $200,-206 in additional revenue, that being the amount necessary to produce $95,976 of net operating income, after paying income taxes.
The company filed this appeal of right from the circuit court’s order and the commission cross-appealed.
The initial question which this Court must address is whether the appeal has become moot because the rates established by the commission have been superseded by a January 24, 1977, order, as amended March 7, 1977, which established new rates and charges for the company based on a test year ending September 30, 1975, which will produce a decrease in annual revenue for the company of $2,158,475. The issue arises because on December 19, 1975, while the present matter was pending in the circuit court, plaintiff filed another application with the commission seeking an increase in its annual revenue of $10,228,517. It is the commission’s position that this Court could not now grant the company an additional rate increase based on the test year ending September 30, 1974, citing Michigan Bell Telephone Co v Public Service Commission, 315 Mich 533, 538, 544; 24 NW2d 200, 202, 204 (1946).
In that case the Supreme Court said the fundamental question was:
"Has the commission statutory power to order retroactively a refund to be made by the telephone company to its subscribers out of charges for services rendered (and in large part paid prior to the date of the order), such charges having been made in conformity with the existing rates fixed by the commission (or its predecessor) and in effect during the time the services were rendered?”
The Court ruled:
"We conclude that orderly protection of the rights of the parties concerned requires the holding in law that a lawfully established rate remains in force until altered by a subsequently established lawful rate.”
Later, in General Telephone Co of Michigan v Public Service Commission, 341 Mich 620, 632, 633; 67 NW2d 882, 887, 888 (1954), the Supreme Court said:
"This Court made it very clear in Michigan Bell Telephone Co v Public Service Commission, 315 Mich 533 (66 PUR NS 287), that the commission cannot establish a retroactive rate thereby correcting injustice caused by delay in establishing rates for. the past. When failure to provide adequate rates in the past cannot be remedied by retroactive orders, it follows that every reasonable effort should be made by the commission to eliminate unnecessary delay and to pass judgment on facts that will not only reflect upon the present but a reasonable period in the future. The commission failed to meet this test not only at its hearing but failed again when the testimony received before the court was transmitted to it, and it was in error in informing the court that the company’s 'remedy in this regard is simple and expedient, namely, the presentation of a new rate application to this commission for the proper determination of such facts affecting its revenues, expenses and services as have occurred since the close of the record upon which our order was based.’ The commission was in error in refusing to consider the testimony transmitted by the court, and the trial court properly held that the commission’s order of December 5, 1952, failed to meet statutory and constitutional requirements.
"The court by its decree did not establish a rate, but only provided, dependent upon final adjudication by the court, that the company could collect the charges it requested in its application as a trust fund under a bond of $1,000,000, and further provided that the com pany 'set up on its books and records a reserve to which it shall credit currently, as soon as practicable after the end of each calendar month, a gross sum equal to the difference between the revenues actually billed in such month and those revenues which would have been billed if the rates and charges prescribed in said rate order T552-52.ll.’
"We believe that the circuit court properly exercised its general equity jurisdiction to protect the company from confiscatory rates during the interval that the court realized must elapse between the time the commission refused to give consideration to the testimony regarding the impact of its order upon the company during 1952 and the time when said commission would give that consideration.”
The company concedes that the commission could not now change the rates and charges authorized in the August 4, 1975, order, which have been superseded by the 1977 orders. However, the company does contend that the same allegedly incorrect adjustments to its operating revenues were made in the January 24, 1977, order, as amended, and probably will be made in future rate cases until resolved by an appellate court.
In Regents of the University of Michigan v State of Michigan, 47 Mich App 23, 27; 208 NW2d 871, 873 (1973), this Court said:
"The courts of this state have long recognized that an appeal does not become moot, despite the change in position of the parties through the passage of time, when the issue is of public significance and is likely to recur.”
On appeal of the Regents case, 395 Mich 52; 235 NW2d 1 (1975), the Supreme Court said that while the challenges to the 1971 appropriations act tech nically were moot the Court would address those issues of continuing pertinence.
In Robson v Grand Trunk Western R Co, 5 Mich App 90; 145 NW2d 846 (1966), this Court stated that the question was not moot where the error complained of had occurred in the past and might continue in the future. See also Milford v People’s Community Hospital Authority, 380 Mich 49; 155 NW2d 835 (1968), and Dartland, ex rel De Motts v Hancock Schools, 25 Mich App 14; 181 NW2d 41 (1970).
In Milwaukee and Suburban Transport Corp v Public Service Commission, 268 Wis 573; 68 NW2d 552 (1955), the Wisconsin Supreme Court held that a controversy over the method of computation of depreciation presented a continuing controversy which was not ended by the September 17, 1953, fare order being superseded by the 1954 fare orders. The Court said that it considered the fact that the commission had a statutory duty to fix or approve fares which were "just and reasonable” conferred the right of judicial review over the method of computing depreciation in view of the contention advanced that the employment of such method necessarily resulted in unreasonable and confiscatory fares.
The Michigan Public Service Commission also has a statutory duty to provide just and reasonable rates. General Telephone Company of Michigan v Public Service Commission, supra. We think that the commission has erred in this case and that such errors are likely to recur in the future unless this Court addresses certain issues raised by the parties.
We will now consider the question of whether the commission erred in holding that the company had not sustained the burden of proving the reasonableness of its purchases from affiliates.
The commission said that the test to apply was whether the affiliates’ rate of return on the sales to the company exceeded the rate of return the commission had authorized for the company. In effect, the commission held that the company did not carry the burden of proof as to the reasonableness of its purchases from affiliates when those affiliates made more profit on the sales than the commission had authorized for the company. Specifically, the commission found that the affiliate, GTE Automatic Electric, Inc., which sold the company equipment, realized excess profits from those sales.
The commission relied on Detroit v Public Service Commission, 308 Mich 706; 14 NW2d 784 (1944), as authority for considering only excess profits in determining whether or not purchases from affiliates were reasonable. That case did not involve reasonableness of purchases from affiliates. Further, the question decided was whether the commission in passing upon a petition to reduce the rate charged the consumer by the public utility should consider and exercise its discretion in respect to the exclusion in whole or in part of excess profits upon which a 90% Federal profit tax had been paid. The commission disclaimed any power to consider the matter of excess profits. The Court held that the commission had within its discretionary authority the right to consider exclusion of all or part of excess profits, but that the fact that such proñts existed might or might not demonstrate that the earnings of the utility were excessive.
In the present case there is even less reason to rely solely on a test of excess profits or excessive rate of retorn on affiliates’ sales to the company. The affiliates have a risk factor which public utili ties do not and may therefore quite reasonably need a higher rate of return than a public utility. By limiting its test of reasonableness to the rate of return on the transactions, the commission ignored testimony that the sales were made at less than competitive prices.
We are impressed with the proposed opinion of the two administrative law judges on this issue, although it was not adopted by the commission. They said, in part, that it was clear from the evidence in the case that the price the company paid to its affiliate, GTE Automatic Electric, Inc., was the same, similar or lower than prices which the company would have paid to nonaffiliated companies for similar items and that the commission’s staff had not contested the reasonableness of the prices. Further, the administrative law judges noted that since 1971 Automatic’s return on equity had been below that authorized for the company. They also pointed out that it was apparent from the evidence that Automatic’s prices were determined by factors other than the profit needs of the parent corporation, and that it made substantial sales to non-affiliated companies.
Little would be gained at this time by a detailed review and evaluation of the evidence of reasonableness presented by the company as to each of the challenged transactions with affiliates. The commission cannot now adjust the specific rates in question. As to the future, we advise the commission that it may consider the rate of return earned on sales from affiliates as some evidence of the .reasonableness of the purchases, but not to the exclusion of other relevant evidence. Also in the future, the commission should state in its opinion its reasons for finding the company’s proofs as to reasonableness inadequate, if it does so find. This would assist in swifter, more meaningful judicial review of the commission’s determinations.
The other issue raised by the company is whether the circuit court erred in holding that the commission could adjust the company’s net operating income to reflect an alleged income tax saving from an imputed interest cost on pro forma financing using a 13-month average cost of debt capital.
The company can increase its operating income by income tax savings arising out of interest deductions, but in this case the company issued several million dollars worth of preferred stock and reduced its short term debt cost. The commission’s use of a 13-month average instead of a year end cost of debt capital resulted in a higher interest which in turn resulted in a greater income tax savings. Because of the dramatic change in the capital structure as a result of the issuance of the stocks, the trial court found no error in the commission’s use of the average instead of the year end cost of debt capital.
However, it is undisputed that the company’s stock issuance was authorized by the Public Service Commission, pursuant to MCLA 460.301; MSA 22.101. Further, it is undisputed that the company did not in fact derive the income tax savings imputed to it by the commission.
Again we are favorably impressed by the proposed opinion of the administrative law judges which states, in part, that the commission staff justified its position based on the commission’s practice set forth in Re Michigan Bell Telephone Company, 85 PUR3d 467 (1970), but that in that case the commission adopted a year end capital structure.
Additionally, the administrative law judges said it was improper to apply an average cost of debt capital to determine income tax savings due to pro forma financing when there has been a significant and material distortion of the capital ratios during the test year. The result in such an instance is not representative of the anticipated interest costs in the future. They point out that the major difference in the positions of the commission staff and the company results from the conversion of short-term debt, on which interest is paid which is deductible from income tax, to preferred stock on which dividends are paid which are not deductible from income tax. On this basis alone, they conclude that the position of the commission staff must be rejected. We agree.
In Public Service Commission v Indiana Bell Telephone Co, 235 Ind 1; 130 NE2d 467 (1955), the Court said that the commission could not arbitrarily disallow Federal taxes which the company had paid or was obligated to pay, by assuming a tax saving under a capital structure which did not exist.
In General Telephone Co v Public Utilities Commission, 174 Ohio St 575; 191 NE2d 341 (1963), the Court wrote that there was no tax advantage to the company because the Federal income tax law did not permit the deduction of hypothetical interest in computing income tax.
In Application of Diamond State Telephone Co, 51 Del 525; 149 A2d 324 (1959), the Court said the commission could not arbitrarily disallow actual expenses on the theory of reforming the company’s capital structure.
In the present case the commission should not have used a 13-month average cost of debt capital as the way to determine the interest cost for pro forma financing since it was not representative of anticipated interest costs. Again we are unable to grant the company any direct remedy since the rates in question have been superseded by subsequent orders of the commission. Nevertheless, we have considered this issue for the purpose of giving guidance to the commission in future cases.
The final question was presented in the commission’s cross-appeal. It is argued that the circuit court erred in holding that the commission could not adjust the company’s net operating income by $95,976 to reflect anticipated net increases in directory advertising occurring after the close of the test year because it failed to deduct related anticipated expenses.
Ordinarily, if anticipated increases in revenue are considered by the commission, anticipated increases in expenses should also be considered. Michigan Consolidated Gas Co v Public Service Commission, 389 Mich 624; 209 NW2d 210 (1973). However, it is the position of the commission in this case that the record only showed a possible wage increase and that this was uncertain in amount and thus too vague to be included.
In discussing this issue the circuit court wrote:
"In the present case the Administrative Law Judge[s] considered the expected increase in advertising revenue to be too speculative. The Commission nevertheless made an adjustment for the expected increase in revenue. In so doing it failed to consider an increase in wages under a labor contract that was to become effective at the end of the period it was considering for the additional directory revenues. Under the holding in Michigan Consolidated Gas (supra) this was arbitrary and unreasonable. The Commission erred in making a positive adjustment of $95,976 to Plaintiff’s net operating income.”
The company argues that the directory advertising contracts that were the basis of the projected increase in revenue were not in existence so the fact that the labor contracts were not in existence should not have precluded projecting an increase in labor costs. Further, the company contends that the whole subject of an increase in directory revenues beyond the test year is speculative and lacks sufficient support in the record to warrant any adjustment.
The company did not introduce evidence estimating the amount of the anticipated increase in labor costs. However, its operating vice president did testify that increases in direct labor costs were expected following contract negotiations scheduled for May, 1975.
We are inclined to think that the anticipated increases in directory advertising revenues extending beyond the test year were too uncertain to have been credited by the commission. The administrative law judges’ opinion stated that in view of the present economic conditions in Michigan, the conclusion that directory revenues will increase at the same rate as in the past was too speculative for adoption.
Also, we agree with the circuit court that once the commission did consider the anticipated increases in directory revenue extending beyond the test year, it should also have considered the anticipated wage increases for that same period even though they too were somewhat speculative. Therefore, we decline to set aside the circuit court’s disallowance of the $95,976 positive adjustment to the company’s operating income.
The circuit court is affirmed, except as modified herein. No costs, a public question being involved. | [
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Sharpe,. J.
This is an action in assumpsit to recover the purchase price of an airplane sold by the Parsons Company to defendant, O. C. Hall.
The negotiations for the purchase of the plane were conducted by telephone conversation between Mr. Parsons, an officer of plaintiff company, in Traverse City and defendant in Grand Bapids. The agreed price was $2,750 and defendant was to take delivery of the plane at the Traverse City airport. On November 5, 1945, defendant with one of his pilots flew to Traverse City to take delivery of the plane. When he arrived at the airport, he met Mr. Fisher, an agent of plaintiff company, and turned over to him a check for the purchase price. Defendant inspected the plane on the ground, including the running of the motor which appeared to be function^ ing in a proper manner. He found that the wing tank was filled with fuel; and that the gauge for the header tank showed there was fuel in the header tank. No inspection was made of the contents of the header tank. After warming up the plane, defendant commenced his flight for Cadillac. As soon as he was up in the air he started watching the gas gauge and since the wing tank gauge did not appear to go down, he turned the fuel valve parallel with the line. After flying with it in this position, he found that the gauge still did not go down; then he turned the valve crossways again. At this time the motor started to miss. He was then 15 to 20 minutes*out of Traverse City and, as the plane was losing altitude, he made a forced landing.. The plane was damaged in the landing. Upon examination he discovered that the wing tank was full of fuel; and that the header tank was empty.
The plane was disassembled the next day and taken to Grand Bapids and put in the repair department of the Northern Air Service. An examination of the fuel pump was made four or five days after the crash and it was found to be rusty and beyond repair. The day after the crash, defendant stopped payment on the check which he had delivered to Mr. Fisher at the time he took delivery of the plane.
Plaintiff commenced the present action and defendant filed a claim in the nature of a recoupment for the sum of $1,668.32 for the cost of repairs and damages for the loss of the use of the plane. The cause came on for trial before the trial judge, without aid of a jury; and a judgment was rendered in favor of plaintiff for the full amount of its claim.
Defendant’s defense to plaintiff’s action and claim for recoupment are based upon the theory that at the time of the purchase of the airplane plaintiff company agreed to secure the transfer of insurance before or upon delivery of the airplane, hut failed and neglected to have such insurance transferred; that at the time of the sale of the airplane, plaintiff represented that it was the owner of the airplane and would deliver to defendant a good record title as required by law for registration under the civil aeronautics act (49 USCA, § 401 et seq.) and the regulations thereunder, but that due to defects in the title defendant has been denied the use of and opportunity to resell said airplane; and that plaintiff warranted the plane to be in A-l mechanical and flying condition.
The judgmentln favor of plaintiff was based upon a written opinion filed by the trial judge in which he found that the testimony fails to substantiate defendant’s claim that plaintiff company agreed to transfer the insurance before or at the time of the delivery of the airplane to defendant; that at the time the airplane was sold, defendant knew the exact status of the registered title, that it was not in the name of plaintiff company, and that the laws and regulations with reference to the title and registration of airplanes have nothing to do with the validity of their sale; and that while plaintiff company-represented to defendant that the plane was in first-class condition, yet defendant did not prove that the pump was defective at the time he took delivery of the plane.
We are in accord with the trial court that defendant di¿ not substantiate his claim that plaintiff agreed to transfer the insurance before or at the time of delivery of the airplane.
We are not in accord with the trial court’s finding in regard to the record title. It appears that the sale of the airplane was made on November 5, 1945, and at the time of the sale all parties knew that the record title of the airplane was in the name of Union Airways, Inc.; that plaintiff perfected its record title on May 20, 1946, but refused to deliver the necessary papers properly indorsed to defendant until August 19, 1946, after the trial.
Plaintiff urges that on November 5, 1945, defendant got the file of documents pertaining to the airplane including a bill of sale from Union Airways, Inc., to plaintiff company; that no demand was made to complete the transfer of registered title to defendant ; that it was impossible for plaintiff to apply for the transfer of registered title to itself prior to February 14, 1946, that the registration transfer was delivered August 29,1946, and that there was no obligation upon plaintiff to transfer the record title until defendant had paid or tendered the purchase price.
We think there was an implied contract upon the part of plaintiff to deliver to defendant, a good record title as required by the civil aeronautics act,
Section 501 (a) of title 5 of the civil aeronautics act of 1938 (52 Stat. at L. 1005, 49 USCA, § 521) provides that:
“It"shall be unlawful for any person to operate or navigate any aircraft eligible for registration if such aircraft is not registered by its owner as provided in this section or * * * to operate or navigate within the United States any aircraft not eligible for registration. ’ ’
If defendant was to enjoy the use of his plane it was necessary that his title he registered. While plaintiff did eventually complete- the agreement to convey a good record title, .yet the trial court should have made a finding of fact to determine whether or not there was an unnecessary delay upon the part of plaintiff in completing the transfer of record title and, if so, what damages were suffered by defendant because of such delay. . • '
Defendant urges that the trial court was in error in finding that defendant had not maintained the burden of proof of his claim that the airplane was delivered with an inoperative fuel pump. There seems to be no question about the fact that the airplane was represented to be in first-class condition and if, at the time of the sale, the fuel pump was defective, there would be a breach of warranty. The condition of the fuel pump presents a question of fact.
The airplane in question has two fuel tanks, a header tank with a capacity of five gallons and a wing tank with a capacity of nine gallons. The gasoline is fed to the header tank from the wing tank by means of a fuel pump. If the fuel pump is operating properly, the header tank should be full so long as there is gasoline in the wing tank. It also appears that the average rate of consumption of gasoline of the airplane is four and a half gallons per hour with a minimum of 3.40 and a maximum of 5.53 gallons per hour.
There is evidence that when defendant took delivery of the plane he checked the gasoline supply in the wing tank and found it full. He checked the gauge for the header tank and found it indicated there was gasoline in that tank. He inspected the valve and found it crossways of the fuel line. Before taking off he ran the motor and found it functioning properly. As soon as lie was np in the air, he started watching the gas gauge and noticed that the wing tank gauge was not going down. Soon thereafter the motor started missing and he was compelled to make a landing. He was in the. air 15 or 20 minutes. While in the air he turned the fuel valve parallel with the line and later turned it crossways, hut neither position of the valve allowed sufficient gasoline to get to the header tank.
A few days after the forced landing, the fuel pump was disassembled and was found full of flakey rust and the diaphragm deteriorated. A witness testified that from his examination of the fuel pump, it had not been in operation for a period of approximately 30 days before the crash.
There is also evidence that the airplane was flown for a period of one hour on or about October 7th, for periods of one hour and of 30 minutes on October 28th, and of 30 minutes on November 2d; and that upon October 28th, after the hour flight, fuel was put into the header tank. It is an established fact that if the fuel pump' is working properly, it is not necessary to. put fuel in the header tank as long as there is any fuel in the wing tank. We recognize the rule that we. do not ordinarily substitute our judgment for that of the trier of the facts where the facts are in dispute, but this is hardly such a case.
Mr. Alto, plaintiff’s witness, testified that he flew the airplane three times within a month previous to the sale; that five gallons of gasoline would not hold him in the air for an hour without being supplied from the wing tank, but at no time did the flight last more than one hour. No explanation is offered why, upon one of these occasions, the header tank was filled, when it was only necessary to fill the wing tank if the fuel pump was in working condition. "
We note that the rate of consumption of gasoline in this type of motor is listed at four- and a fourth gallons per hour with a minimum of 3.40 and a maximum of 5.53 gallons per hour, and an average of four and a half gallons per hour at regular cruising speed. It is, therefore, not only possible, but probable that the gasoline in the header tank was sufficient to maintain the airplane in the air during any of the three occasions that Mr. Alto flew the- airplane.
The decision of the trial court was based upon the assumption that the pump might have become defective when the airplane made a forced landing or that the fuel valve was improperly manipulated. We are unable to find any competent evidence in the record to .support such assumptions. The record does furnish evidence that the fuel pump was.in an unworkable condition after the crash and probably had not been working properly at the time of the sale of the airplane. In our opinion the evidence preponderates in favor of defendant’s claim that the fuel pump was not working on the date of the purchase of the airplane.
Under such circumstances it beSomes our duty to reverse the finding of fact made by the trial court and remand the cause for the purpose of taking testimony on defendant’s claim of recoupment and enter judgment in favor of plaintiff for such amount as may be found due. Defendant may recover costs.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Bushnell, Boyles, Bexd, North, and Dethmers, JJ,, concurred. | [
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Butzel, J.
On October 20,1932, Philip A. Horsch received two tax deeds from the auditor general of Michigan, one for 80 and the other for 40 acres of land, the parcels consisting of the west half of the northeast quarter, and the southeast quarter of the northeast quarter of section 18, Greenleaf township, . Sanilac county, Michigan. Catherine Ritter appeared to be the record owner. At the time of the tax sale the notice of reconveyance as given by the tax purchaser, Philip A. Horsch, and the other documents showing the proceedings to perfect the title were filed with the Sanilac county clerk and the notice by purchaser under tax sale was recorded with the register of deeds on January 25, 1934. In September of 1934, Philip A. Horsch executed a warranty deed of the property to John C. Corkins, defendant herein, for $750. On September 20, 1933, five of the seven heirs of Catherine Ritter conveyed their interest in the property to Wellington W. Ritter, who also.was one of the seven heirs of Catherine Ritter. Washington Ritter,' one of the heirs, has an outstanding interest but is not a party to this suit. On July 13, 1938, Wellington Ritter and wife conveyed one-half of their interest to Arthur J. Bonninghausen, who, together with Wellington W. Ritter, are the plaintiffs in -this ejectment suit brought against John C. Corkins. Mr. Bonninghausen agreed to advance the costs and charges necessary in the • attempt to recover the farm for Wellington W. Ritter and himself.
John C. Corkins, after obtaining the title, built an eight-room house, garage and other buildings and made other improvements on the property, all at a cost of between $5,000 and $6,000. It is claimed that in 1944, when this suit was begun, the property was worth $6,500. Wellington W. Ritter who at one time owned a 6/7ths interest in the property, and who is one of the principal plaintiffs in the case, knew of the tax sale in 1932. He ascertained the amount of the delinquent taxes, but, notwithstanding an effort to secure a loan from the government and from a few of his neighbors, he was unsuccessful in raising the amount necessary to redeem the property from the tax sale.
Philip A. íiorsch; the original tax-title purchaser, engaged the services of the late William A. Burgess, then the prosecuting attorney of Sanilac county, to prepare the notice of reconveyance required under the tax law. Burgess had practiced law for a number of years in Sanilac county. The notice of reconveyance and the proceedings that' followed were fatally deficient. Although the property had been sold as two separate parcels, the total amount paid for both of them was combined in one amount in the notice of reconveyance, and the amount so stated was larger than the amount paid by the tax purchaser for both parcels. The publication of the notice was made for five weeks beginning November 10, 1932. The certificate of the sheriff shows that he did not receive notice for service until the 24th day of July, 1933, whereupon upon the same day he filed a certificate that he was unable to find the whereabouts or postoffice address of the persons appearing in the records in the office of the register of deeds to be the last “grantee” in the regula» chain of title. We need not set forth other defects claimed. The trial judge found that the proceedings to perfect the tax titlé were fatally defective and entered a judgment against defendant.
Defendant, as appellant, raises two questions:
‘ ‘ 1. Are tax deeds issued by the auditor general of the State admissible as prima facie evidence of title without proof of regularity of the tax proceedings through which the tax deed was issued?”
The tax deed was properly introduced and the failure to perfect the title was shown. Plaintiffs relied upon the strength of their own title and further substantiated the charge of the invalidity of defendant’s tax title. Plaintiff followed the proper procedure. Morrison v. Semer, 164 Mich. 208; Briggs v. Prevost, 293 Mich. 677; Smelsey v. Safety Investment Co., 310 Mich. 686.
The second question is whether Act No. 52, Pub. Acts 1939, which amended Act No. 206, § 73a, Pub. Acts 1893 (1 Comp. Laws 1929, §'3466 [Comp. Laws Supp. 1940, § 3466, Stat. Ann. 1946 Cum. Supp. § 7.119]) is applicable to the case at bar and should the case, in accordance therewith, be tried on the chancery side rather than on the law side of the court?
Prior to the enactment of Act- No. 52, Pub. Acts 1939, defendant Corldns had lost all interest in the property in question by virtue of the failure of himself and his grantor to serve a valid notice of reconveyance within five years after* the purchase of the tax deed. The trial court properly held that the law in effect from 1932 to the effective day of Act No. 52, Pub. Acts 1939, was specific in requiring that the tax title purchaser must serve a valid notice of reconveyance within five years from ,the time he became the owner of the tax deed and not merely make a bona fide attempt to serve such notice. Closser v. Abraham, 284 Mich. 272; Safety Investment Corp. v. State Land Office Board, 299 Mich. 599.
The trial court further held that defendant not having followed the statute in perfecting his tax title was not entitled to reimbursement for any improvements made upon the land. Cook Land, Construc tion & Producing Co. v. McDonald, 155 Mich. 175; McBride v. Closser, 208 Mich. 398; Brousseau v. Conklin, 301 Mich. 241; Adair v. Bonninghausen, 305 Mich. 137.
Defendant, however, claims that under Act No. 52, Pub. Acts 1939, he has a right to have the case transferred to the equity side of the court. The amendment provides that if within the specified period of five years, such tax title purchaser, his heirs or assigns,- has made a bona fide attempt to give the notices required by law for the reconveyance of the premises, neither the legality or sufficiency of such sale or notice, nor the bona tides of such purchaser in this attempt to give the statutory notice, shall be questioned, raised or adjudicated except in or by a suit in equity. The law further provides for the transferring of the suit to the equity side of the court. However, it further provides :
“That* nothing in this section contained shall be . deemed or construed, by implication or otherwise, to revive or give any effect to any such tax deed or certificate of purchase heretofore or hereafter barred or voided by operations of law or otherwise, and that all provisions of law in conflict herewith are hereby repealed.”
The ejectment case was tried'without a jury and when defendant asked that the case be transferred to the equity side of the court, the judge stated that testimony would be taken and he would decide later whether it could be. considered as a law o-r equity case. Defendant attempted to show that a bona fide effort had been made to give proper notice of reconveyance. Plaintiffs on the other hand showed that . the equities were not in defendant’s favor. The trial court held that there was not a bona fide effort to give proper notice. We need not discuss that-question as the trial court also properly held that the case must remain on the law side of the court. Defendant concedes that on the law .side of the court plaintiffs must prevail, as the notice of reconveyance and the proceeding’s that followed were fatally defective. Defendant, however, claims that Act No. 52, Pub. Acts 1939, amending section 73a of Act No. 206, Pub. Acts 1893, is merely remedial and changes the form of the remedy. Unfortunately for defendant, the law provides that the act shall not “revive or give any.effect to any such tax deed or certificate of purchase heretofore or hereafter barred or voided by operations of law or otherwise.” No proper notice of reconveyance in the time specified by law having been made prior to the effective date of Act No. 52, Pub. Acts 1939, plaintiffs must prevail. We limit our discussion entirely to questions involved as stated by appellant.
Judgment is affirmed, with costs to plaintiffs.
Carr, C. J., and Bushnell, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, North, and Dethmers, JJ., concurred.
See 1 Comp. Laws 1929, § 3535, as amended by Act No. 10, Pub. Acts 1932 (1st Ex. Sess.) (Comp. Laws Supp. 1935, § 3535, Stat. Ann. §7.198).—Repostes. | [
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North, J.
Prior to March, 1946, George T. Pox had a class 0 license under which he obtained the right to operate a bar in the city of Detroit. On or shortly after March 6, 1946, he received a letter or notification from the Michigan liquor control commission which contained the following: “We are in receipt of a violation report which alleges that a license was obtained by you and in your name for the use and benefit of Steve Kafkas, whose name did not appear on the license. This is in violation of your contract with this commission.” -In the same letter he was notified to appear at a specified time and place for a hearing on the above alleged violation. The hearing was had before Felix Flynn, a member of the commission. Witnesses were sworn from whose testimony it appears that at the time Fox obtained the license under which the bar was operated he did not obtain it solely for himself but instead through misrepresentation he obtained it for the benefit of himself and Steve Kafkas, as coparthers. At the conclusion of the hearing Commissioner Flynn found:
“There was a fraud in connection with the securing of this license by Mr. George T. Fox, who represented himself as being sole owner and the testimony now disclosed Mr. Steve Kafkas was one-half owner in the business.”
In consequence of the foregoing the commissioner ordered cancellation of the license held by Fox. ’ He thereupon asked for and had a hearing before the full commission. Fox was represented by an attorney at this hearing .as well as at the hearing before Commissioner Flynn. No further testimony was taken at the hearing before the full commission; and the commission on the record previously made upheld the revocation ordered at the earlier hearing. Fox then filed a petition for certiorari in the circuit court of Wayne county to review the action taken by the commission, alleging in his petition several grounds of review hereinafter noted. In return to the writ the commission filed in the circuit court a reply to the petition for certiorari. After hear-ing the circuit court affirmed the order of the commission revoking the license formerly issued to Fox and dismissed the certiorari proceedings. Plaintiff Fox has appealed.
At the outset it should he noted that by statute the right of review of a holding- of the liquor control commission in a proceeding of this kind is limited to certiorari. Act No. 8, §20, Pub. Acts 1933 (Ex. Sess.), as amended by Act No. 133, Pub. Acts 1945 (Comp. Laws Supp. 1945, §9209-35, Stat. Ann. 1946 Cum. Supp. § 18.991). The same section of the statute provides;
‘‘The commission shall have the right and power to suspend or revoke and any commissioner designated by the chairman shall, upon due notice and proper hearing, have the right and power to suspend or revoke any license upon a violation of any of the provisions of this act or any of the rules and regulations adopted by the commission hereunder.”
Appellant sought on certiorari to present to the circuit court and stresses on this appeal the following claims:
1. That the action of the commission in summarily revoking appellant’s license was unlawful, arbitrary and unjust because no complaint was filed against appellant and he was not advised of any specific charge against him which would constitute a violation of any law or any regulation of the com mission; and therefore he was unable to prepare a proper defense. Appellant’s license was not summarily. revoked. Instead he was afforded a full hearing. In presenting this phase of his appeal it is appellant’s contention that on the- hearing before the commission the proceedings should have been technically in accordance with the provisions of Act No. 8, § 5a, Pub. Acts 1933 (Ex. Sess.), as added by Act No. 133, Pub. Acts 1945 (Comp. Laws Supp. 1945, § 9209-20a, Stat. Ann. 1946 Cum. Supp. § 18.975 [1]). But it is sufficient to note that the procedural provisions in the cited statute pertain only to proceedings before the board of hearing examiners provided for in Act No. 133. At the time of appellant’s hearings the governor had not yet appointed a board of hearing examiners; and in the interim the liquor control commission continued to possess the power to hear and determine matters of this character. See Case v. Liquor Control Commission, 314 Mich. 632; Shinavier v. Liquor Control Commission, 315 Mich. 188. Appellant was .not prejudiced by the commission’s failure to comply literally with the statutory procedure which is made applicable only to the board of hearing examiners.
2. There is no merit to appellant’s claim that he was denied a fair hearing because he was not served with a copy of a complaint. We have already noted that prior to the hearing before Commissioner Flynn appellant was advised by written notice to appear in response to an alleged violation that he had obtained his license solely in his name when as a matter of fact it was obtained for appellant and Steve Kafkas, as copartners. And further prior to appellant’s hearing before the full commission the latter caused a subpoena to be served on Fox which plainly informed him to appear at a specified hearing “relative to obtaining a license for the use and benefit of a person whose name does not appear on the license, as provided for by Act No. 8, Pub. Acts 1933 (Ex. Sess.), as last amended by Act No. 133, Pnb. Acts 1945, and that you bring with you and then and there produce all books, papers, and records in your possession or under your control relating to the matter above referred to.” We think it quite conclusively appears from this record,! as it was also made to appear to the circuit court on the application and return in the certiorari proceedings, "that plaintiff, represented by counsel, had every opportunity for a'full and fair hearing both' before Commissioner Flynn and in the subsequent hearing before the full commission. Appellant’s cpntention to the contrary is without merit.’
3. Nor is there any merit to appellant’s contention that the action of the commission was based upon evidence unlawfully and illegally obtained in violation of appellant’s constitutional rights. In this particular appellant alleged in his petition for. certiorari that: ‘ ‘ The commission purported to act upon certain evidence-which was unlawfully and illegally obtained by an unreasonable search of-plaintiff’s premises at 5606 East McNichols Road by representatives of the respondent without a search warrant.” This contention is not sustained by the record. As a condition of securing his license appellant was required to tender a bond upon which the following appears:
“SEARCH AND SEIZURE”
“Agents of the liquor control commission and all law enforcing officers shall have the right to enter, examine, inspect and search, without a search warrant, any time during the twenty-four hours of any day, any and all parts of the licensed premises^ and to 'Seize any evidence of a violation of any law of this State and that such evidence may be used'in any trial or proceeding before any court of law or before the liquor control commission. ’ ’
4. Appellant further asserts that the circuit court, erroneously refused to ascertain whether the commission returned a complete record of the proceedings before the commission; and in that connection Fox asserted the right to take testimony in the certiorari proceedings. On certiorari there is review of questions of law only. Further from the return of the liquor control commission in the record it appears that a full and adequate return was made. Appellant has no reason for complaint in that respect. It is a fair inference from the record that in this connection appellant sought to get into the record testimony which he claimed would disclose that prior to his hearing before Commissioner Flynn, Fox had been promised, that the commission would approve a sale of his business and a transfer of his license -to one Carl Hewitt. In appellant’s petition he asserts: “The defendant commission has arbitrarily, unreasonably and unlawfully failed to keep i(ts said promise and agreement and it has failed to approve the said transfer.” In its return or answer to the petition for certiorari the commission denied that it had made the above promise, and in any event the alleged promise to 'transfer the license is wholly immaterial to the right of.the commission in its control of alcoholic beverage traffic in this State to confront appellant with the alleged violation and dispose of the same upon proper hearing, which was had.
5. There is np room for argument but that appellant in obtaining his license in his individual capacity rather than- for the partnership composed of himself and Kafkas perpetrated a fraud and violated the liquor control commission’s rules and regulations. Among such rules ■ and regulations is the following:
“No licensee shall sell or transfer his license; or any interest therein, without the consent of the liquor control commission. Nor shall any person or persons obtain a license in his or their name for the use and benefit of another person whose.name does not.appear on the license.” Administrative Code (1944), pp. 435, 437.
Further the statute provides:
“Any person who shall make any statement either orally or in writing to the commission for the purpose of inducing the commission to act or for the purpose of inducing the commission to refrain from taking action, which statement is false or fraudulent, and any person who makes any false or fraudulent statement for the purpose of enabling or assisting any person to evade the provisions of this act, shall be guilty of a violation of this act.” Act No. 8, § 45, Pub. Acts 1933 (Ex. Sess.) (Comp. Laws Supp. 1940, §9209-60, Stat. Ann. § 18.1016).
Further, on appellant’s application for his license there appears the following: ‘-‘If business is operated by a partnership, all parties in interest must sign application and bond.” And on the bond appellant tendered with his application is this printed notation: “INSTRUCTIONS:, '* * if 2. All copartners must sign the bond.” This record discloses that incident to the investigation made by the commission a statement under oath of Steve Kafkas was.taken and on the hearing before Commissioner Flynn, Kafkas testified to the same effect. We quote from the statement under oath:
“Q. You and George Fox were each investing half?
“A. Yes. Equal partners.
“Q. And you shared the profits of this Unique Bar since the license was granted as equal partners ?
“A. That’s right.
“Q. Why was it that you didn’t apply to go on the license along with Fox?'
“A. I was not eligible at that time. * * *
“Q. Has Fox been able to spend any time in the bar? >
“A. Not very .much.
“Q. You would do it more or less alone, is that right?
“A. That’s right, he attends that garage business of his.”
There was an abundant showing before the commission to justify its conclusion that Fox, in concealing the true (situation and in representing that he was the sole person interested as licensee, perpetrated a fraud which justified revocation of the license.
6. We find no merit to appellant’s complaint that neither in the notice served upon him nor in the subsequent proceeding was it made to appear that Commissioner Flynn was authorized by the chairman of the commission to hold the initial hearing. The statute contains no provision as to whether such designation. or appointment shall be in writing or oral. Further, appellant did not challenge the authority of Commissioner Flynn at’ the initial hearing nor did he question it on appeal to the full commission or in the certiorari proceedings in the circuit court. It cannot now be raised for the first time on this appeal. Likewise we find no merit to appellant’s complaint that the notice served upon him did not advise him that the proceedings might result in the revocation of his license. There is no provision for such notice either in the statute or the rules and regulations of the commission.
The holding of the circuit court affirming cancellation by the liquor control commission of the license issued to Fox and dismissing the certiorari proceedings is affirmed, with costs to appellee.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Bushnell, Sharpe, Boyles, and Reid, JJ., concurred. Dethmers, J., did not sit. | [
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Reid, J.
The defendant was charged in the recorder’s court for the city of Detroit upon two separate informations, in each of which the charge was assault with intent to do great bodily harm less than the crime 'of murder. The first information charged such an assault upon Barbara Wahler, age 11 years,' on October 3, 1946, and the other charged such an assault on Dorothy Wahler, age 2 years, on October 9, 1946. The cases were consolidated and tried together before a judge of the recorder’s court, without a jury; defendant was found guilty in both cases and appeals.
As to the case involving Barbara Wahler, there was testimony to show that on October 3, 1946, at about 1:30 a.m., defendant pulled Barbara out of her bed where she was lying half asleep and into her mother’s bedroom, and that he there hit Barbara with his fist in her face about four times. Barbara testified that defendant hit her because he didn*t like her. As a result of her being struck, she had black and blue bruises on her face, one cut over the right eye and one below her mouth on her chin.
As to the case involving Dorothy Wahler, Barbara testified that defendant dragged Dorothy from the outside back yard into the house, slapped her and threw her in bed, that he slapped her with his hands, causing black, blue and .red marks and bruises.
The grandmother of Dorothy Wahler testified that she saw Dorothy on October 10,1946, the morning after she was beaten up, that Dorothy’s face looked “awful bad,” and that she was vomiting and that that was why they had to take her to the doctor at receiving hospital. There was no testimony to show that the vomiting was caused by the beating that Dorothy received on October 9th. A police officer who received a call at 11:30 a.m. 'on October 9th testified that upon arriving at the house he saw the two girls, that they were beaten up very badly and that he saw bruises all over them.
There is some discussion in- a brief concerning testimony that three days after the alleged assault defendant was observed wearing a navy ring. This circumstance is not material to our decision because when the testimony was offered, no objection was made, the trial judge did not mentiofi it in his opinion and it is not specifically referred to in appellant’s questions on this appeal.
Defendant was' sentenced to serve 3 to 10 years in each ease, the sentences to run concurrently. Defendant’s counsel states in his brief that defendant has already been imprisoned more than four months.
The trial judge in denying a motion for a new trial was of the opinion, “that such a brutal assault as-was perpetrated upon helpless children of such tender years can have been’ done only with the intent to do great bodily harm. ’ ’
The bodily harm done to the two little, girls was not such great bodily harm as is contemplated in the statute under which the charges were laid.
We quote from the syllabus in People v. Ross, 66 Mich. 94:
“Where the intent in committing an assault is shown merely by the deed, it cannot very well be stretched beyond it.”
If defendant actually intended to inflict upon either of the two little girls great bodily harm less than the crime of murder, there seems to have been nothing to stop him from doing so. The great resentment that naturally springs up in the mind of any person seeing or being told of such assaults as were involved in these two cases can not supply or take the place of an intent to do any more bodily harm than the testimony shows was actually inflicted. The prosecution’s only proof of the intent lay in the nature of the injuries inflicted. The testimony in each case fell far short!of proving or tending to prove the crime charged.
In each case, the judgment and sentence is reversed and a new trial granted in which new trial there may be proof of the intent charged in the information.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Bushnell, Sharpe, Boyles, North, and Dethmers, JJ., concurred.
See Act No. 328, § 84, Pub. Acts 1931 (Comp. Laws Supp. 1940, § 17115-84, Stat. Ann. § 28.279).—Reporter. | [
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Carr, C. J.
Plaintiff in this case, as administrator of.the estate of Sarah Jane Maleo, brought suit in the circuit court to recover money alleged- to belong to the estate, said money consisting of the proceeds of a savings account in the Old Kent Bank of Grand Rapids. Mrs. Maleo died October 13, 1945. Prior to her death the account stood in the joint names of Mrs. Maleo and her daughter, the defendant in the case. After the mother’s death defendant drew from the bank the balance of $1,453.29 remaining in the account. Plaintiff alleged in his declaration that the money was the sole property of Mrs. Maleo and was not deposited with the intent that defendant should acquire any interest therein, but rather for the purpose of having defendant act as her mother’s agent in the withdrawal of funds for the use of the mother during her lifetime. Defendant in her answer denied any knowledge on her part of the intent on the part of Mrs. Maleo alleged in the declaration. Following the trial judgment was entered for defendant and plaintiff has appealed.
Defendant did not offer proofs in the circuit court, relying on 3 Comp. Laws 1929, § 12063, as amended by Act No. 286, Pub. Acts 1937 (Comp. Laws Supp. 1940, § 12063, Stat. Ann. 1943 Bev. § 23.303). Said section reads as follows:
“See. 3. When a deposit shall be made, in any bank by any person in the name of su,ch depositor or any other person, and in form to be paid to either or the survivor of them, such deposits thereupon and any additions thereto, made by either of such persons, upon the making thereof, shall become the property of such persons as joint tenants, and the same together with all interest thereon, shall be held for the exclusive use of the 'persons so named and may be paid to either during the lifetime of both, or to the survivor after the death of one of them, and such payment and the receipt or acquittance of the same to whom such payment is made shall be a valid and sufficient release and discharge to said banking institution for all payments made on account of such deposits prior to the receipt by said bank of notice in writing not to pay such deposit in accordance with the terms thereof.
“When a deposit has been made, or shall hereafter be made, in any banking institution transacting business in this State, in the names of two or more persons, payable to either or the survivor or survivors, such deposit or any part thereof or any interest or dividend thereon and any additions thereto, made by any one of the said persons, shall become the property of such persons as joint tenants, and the same shall be held for the exclusive use of the-persons so named and may be paid to any one of said persons during the lifetime of said persons or to the survivor or survivors after the death of one of them, and such payment and the receipt or acquittance of the same to whom such payment is made shall be a valid and sufficient release and discharge to said banking institution for all payments made- on account of such deposits prior to the receipt by said bank of notice in writing not to pay such deposit in accordance with the terms thereof.
“The making of the deposit in such form shall, in the absence of fraud or undue influence, be prima facie evidence, in any action or proceeding, to which either such banking institution or surviving depositor or depositors is a party, of the intention of such depositors to vest title to such deposit and the additions thereto in such survivor or survivors.”
Under the statute as amended the making of a deposit of the character here in question in the joint names of two or more persons is merely prima facie evidence of an intention to vest title in the survivor or survivors. It has accordingly been held by this Court in prior decisions that the making of a deposit, or deposits, in the manner indicated creates a rebut-table presumption, which may not be weighed against competent evidence. Thus, in Allstaedt v. Ochs, 302 Mich. 232, it was said:
“The creation of the, joint bank accounts by the deceased did not conclusively establish title thereto in -the survivor but merely created a presumption of ownership in the survivor which is rebuttable by competent evidence to the contrary. Van’t Hof v. Jemison, 291 Mich. 385. The presumption created by the statute has no weight as evidence when challenged by rebutting testimony. Hill v. Hairston, 299 Mich. 672.”
Of like import is Manufacturers National Bank v. Schirmer, 303 Mich. 598. In the absence of competent proof sufficient to permit the issue to be determined on the basis of the facts the presumption is controlling. Meigs v. Thayer, 289 Mich. 680; Frank v. Schultz, 295 Mich. 714; Maahs v. Maahs, 307 Mich. 549; Jakobowski v. Bacalia, 314 Mich. 678. The question in the instant case is therefore whether the competent evidence offered by plaintiff on the trial was of such character as to establish with the requisite degree of certainty that the deposit was made in the names of the parties jointly for the purpose claimed by plaintiff, and with the intention and understanding that defendant should have no interest therein.
An employee of the bank in which the account was carried testified, without objection, that under date of March 22, 1943, the sum of $1,560.25 was deposited in an account opened on that date in the names of Sarah Maleo and Mrs'. Isaac Wilton. This account was closed on May 28, 1945, at which time the balance was $1,562.29. On the same day that said account was closed the account in question ib this case was opened in the names of Sarah Jane Maleo and Mrs. Flora Williams, jointly, the amount of the deposit being identical with the final balance in the prior account. The witness further testified to two withdrawals from this account, one in the sum of $109 on October 8, 1945, and the other of the balance remaining on November 7, 1945, the la'st withdrawal being on a check signed by defendant. Thereupon the account was 'closed -by the bank.
Plaintiff also offered in his behalf the testimony of Mrs. Etta J. Wilton, previously taken in a proceeding before the probate court of Kent county, who testified that in March of 1943, an account was opened in the bank in the joint names of Mrs. Maleo and the witness, stating-that this was done at the request of Mrs. Maleo because the latter had some money that she wished to put . in the bank and desired to “fix it so we could draw the -money out for her, because she wasn’t always able to do it.” The witness further testified that Mrs. Maleo kept pos- - session of the bank book, except when she desired Mrs. Wilton and her husband to go to the bank and draw money for Mrs. Maleo. Although counsel for defendant objected, and the court indicated that he considered the objection well founded, Mrs. Wilton stated in substance that the money in the account belonged to Mrs. Maleo. Also received, but.as part of a separate record, was the testimony of this witness as to a conversation occurring about the 1st of December, 1944, between Mrs. Maleo and the defendant, and what the witness did pursuant to such conversation, said testimony being as follows:
“Mrs. Maleo then said to Mrs. Williams, ‘I was telling Mrs. Wilton that I thought maybe they better turn my book and will over, to you and let you look ■after it.’ Mrs. Williams said, ‘Why, aren’t they doing all right’? She said, ‘Certainly, but they are old and are not able to get out, they are not well, and they have no car, and have to pay bus fare, and you have a car; ’ and so then we went over the next week, December 5, 1944, and I took the bankbook and the will along, and -turned it over to her, and' that is the last I know about it.”'
The record indicates that the trial court did not consider that the testimony of Mrs. Wilton as to the character -of the arrangement between her and Mrs. Maleo was material or that the testimony as to the conversation between Mrs. Maleo and the defendant was competent. The objection to the latter was based on the ground that such testimony was hearsay. The trial court did not file a written opinion and, in announcing his decision from the bench, did not discuss the testimony offered by plaintiff. Obviously, it was his conclusion that the presumption as to the nature of the account- and the interest of the survivor therein was controlling..
Another witness for the plaintiff, Mrs. Anna Moose, testified that Mrs. Maleo stayed at the home of the witness for a few days shortly prior to Mrs. Maleo’s death on October 1.3, 1945. Apparently without objection, Mrs. Moose testified that in her presence Mrs. Maleo called the defendant by telephone with reference to obtaining money from the bank to pay the expenses of Mrs. Maleo. Shortly thereafter the husband of defendant brought $50 to the home of the witness, out of which the latter paid medical expenses in the sum of $6, leaving $44, which was turned over to defendant after Mrs. Maleo’s death. Objections to the witness testifying as to conversations between herself and Mrs. Maleo with reference to financial matters and instructions re- ' garding the disposition of certain papers were sustained. By stipulation there is also included in the record a transcript of testimony previously given by Mrs. Moose before the probate court, such transcript being made a part of the separate record. The witness stated therein that Mrs. Maleo, shortly before her death, gave the witness directions that “if anything happened to her” she should turn Mrs. Maleo’s effects over to defendant, and said further to the witness, “What is left after my expenses is paid, I want divided according to my will. ”
It may be noted in this connection that the will of Mrs. Maleo was executed on October 11,1944, during the time that the savings account in the bank stood in the .names of Mrs. Maleo and Mrs. Wilton. Said will directed that all debts and funeral expenses should' be paid in full from the bank account in the Old Kent Bank,- or any other bank. No claim is made that Mrs. Maleo at the time of her death, or prior thereto, had any account in any bank except the one designated. Counsel for defendant objected to the introduction of the will in evidence on the ground that the opening of the account in the names of Mrs. Maleo and theMefendant- operated to revoke the will. It appears from defendant’s brief in this Court that the objection was in fact based on the claim, that in opening the account with the defendant Mrs. Maleo had disposed of all of her property. The instrument was, however, received in evidence. In terms it gave the estate of the testator to three daughters, including defendant, share and share alike, subject to the payment of debts and devises of one dollar to another daughter and $100 to a granddaughter. The provisions of the will tend to corroborate the testimony of Mrs.. Wilton as to the nature of the deposit made in the name of herself 'and Mrs. Maleo.
Was the testimony of Mrs. Wilton as to the conversation between Mrs. Maleo and defendant competent? While occurring several months before the account was actually opened, it clearly indicates the nature of the understanding of the parties at the time they discussed the matter. There is nothing in the record to indicate a change in circumstances between the holding of this conversation and the actual opening of the account in May following. Had such conversation taken place contemporaneously with the deposit in the joint names of the parties there could be no serious question as to its-admissibility. Esling v. City National Bank & Trust Co., 278 Mich. 571, 581; Ford v. Ford, 270 Mich. 487. The fact that it occurred previously may affect the weight of the proof, hut does .not, under the facts of this case, render it incompetent. 31 C. J. S. p. 1009; Kessler v. Von Bank, 144 Minn. 220 (174 N. W. 839). The statements made by Mrs. Maleo on the occasion in question were directed to defendant, and were of such- a character as to indicate that for the reasons stated by her she desired defendant to do for her what Mrs. Wilton had been doing prior thereto. It is significant also that defendant raised no question as to the right ofdrer mother to make the proposed change. Apparently it was her thought that Mrs. Wilton had been rendering the services in a satisfactory manner and hence no change was necessary. This justifies the inference that defendant understood the nature of the arrangement that had been, in existence between her mother and Mrs. Wilton.
In view of the conversation between the mother and daughter it was proper for the plaintiff to show the.prior arrangement. In Churchill v. Mace, 148 Mich. 456, suit on contract was brought against co-partners to .recover for goods claimed to have been sold to them. Defendants asserted that the contract ' on which the suit was based, which was signed by one of the partners alone, was the individual contract of the signer and did not, in consequence, bind the copartnership. To rebut the inference arising from the manner in which the contract was executed, plaintiff was permitted to show that on a prior occasion the partner executing the agreement had signed a partnership contract in his own name. It was held that the evidence was competent for the purpose for which it was offered.
The testimony of Mrs. Moose as to statements claimed to have been made by Mrs. Maleo with reference to her will and the distribution of her property thereunder is subject to considerations different from those involving the admissibility of the testimony of Mrs. Wilton, above discussed. Said statements were made after the transaction in question here, did not directly refer to the intention or understanding of the parties at the time of making the deposit, and, if given the' interpretation contended for on behalf of plaintiff, were clearly in the nature of self-serving statements. If Mrs. Maleo and defendant had become involved in litigation with reference to their respective rights in the deposit, testimony as to statements of such character made by either not in the presence of the other would have been incompetent. We think the samé conclusion must follow under the circumstances of the present case. The testimony was not competent on the theory that it tended to show the relations of the parties at the time of the transaction in question, Pease v. Jennings, 180 Mich. 682, 689, nor was it within the scope of the rule suggested' in Whitney v. Wheeler, 116 Mass. 490 (quoted in Pease v. Jennings) as to admissibility of “evidence tending to show a .continuous and apparently fixed state of mind and purpose, inconsistent with such alleged gift, existing previously thereto.” Neither was it within the purview of the rule, recognized by some courts, that testimony of this, character may be received to contradict testimony offered by the opposite party. Apparently, the testimony of Mrs. Moose, here in question, was offered on the theory that the statements made by Mrs. Maleo legitimately tended to show the latter’s intention with reference to the deposit at the time it was made. For the reasons indicated we think that this testimony was not competent. Egan v. Grece, 79 Mich. 629, 640; Bunker v. Motor Wheel Corp., 231 Mich. 334; Elliotte v. Lavier, 299 Mich. 353, 357; Walkling v. Walkling, 162 Md. 188, 190 (159 Atl. 264); Steiner v. Fecycz, 72 Ohio App. 18, 22.(50 N. E. [2d] 617).
The competent evidence in the record indicates that Mrs. Maleo and Mrs. Williams, prior to the making of the deposit in question, had in mind an arrangement under which the daughter would "render to her mother the services that Mrs. Wilton had previously been performing. Mrs.#Maleo, because of her age and health, was apparently unable to go to the bank for the purpose of drawing out money to cover her expenses. She deemed it necessary to have some one whom she could trust perform/that service for her. She clearly stated to defendant the reasons why she wished the latter to act in place of Mrs. Wilton. It is evident that neither mother nor daughter considered that Mrs. Wilton had any rights of ownership in the deposit. It is riot disputed that the money Mrs. Maleo deposited was her sole property, and the evidence fully justifies the conclusion that she did not intend that such money should become the property of the defendant. The situation presented is analogous in many respects with that involved in Van’t Hof v. Jemison, 291 Mich. 385. We conclude that the evidence entitled to consideration is of sufficient strength and clarity to establish plaintiff’s claim as to the intention and understanding of the parties with reference to the deposit. It follows that plaintiff is entitled to judgment for the amount withdrawn by defendant from the account after the death of Mrs. Maleo, together with the sum of $44 turned over to defendant -by Mrs\ Moose following Mrs. Maleo’s death.
The judgment of the trial court is reversed and the case remanded with directions to enter judgment in accordance herewith, with costs to plaintiff.
Butzel, Btjshnell, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, North, and Dethmers, JJ.,’ concurred. | [
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North, J.
This appeal involves determination of the amount .of plaintiff’s corporation privilege fee for the year 1944. ' Prom the decision of the Michigan corporation and securities commission as affirmed by the corporation tax appeal board, plaintiff has appealed, leave having been granted. Plaintiff, the Chicago, Duluth & Georgian Bay Transit Company, is' incorporated under Indiana laws. As such foreign corporation, admitted to do business in Michigan, under the law of this State it is required to pay annually a corporation privilege fee. In part the statute reads:
“Sec. 4. Every corporation organized or doing business under the laws of this State (with specified exceptions) shall, * •* * for the privilege of exercising its franchise and of transacting its business within this State, pay to the secretary of State* an annual fee of two and one-half mills upon each dollar of its paid-up capital and surplus.” 2 Comp. Laws 1929, § 10140 as amended by Act No. 13, Pub. Acts 1933 (Ex. Sess.) (Comp. Laws'Supp. 1940, § 10140, Stat. Ann. § 21.205).
' As to the method of computing the amount of privilege fees, by statute it is provided:
“Sec. 5. * * * Such computation shall be made upon the corporation’s property, both tangible and intangible, owned or used in Michigan in the ratio that such property bears to the entire property of the corporation, and such ratio shall be applied by the secretary of State to determine the amount of authorized capital stock owned or used in Michigan, and to determine what portion of the corporation’s paid-up capital and surplus, severally, are owned or used in Michigan. * * * The term ‘surplus’ as used in this act, shall be taken and deemed to mean the net value of the corporation’s property, less its outstanding indebtedness and “Sec. 5. * * * Such computation shall be made upon the corporation’s property, both tangible and intangible, owned or used in Michigan in the ratio that such property bears to the entire property of the corporation, and such ratio shall be applied by the secretary of State to determine the amount of authorized capital stock owned or used in Michigan, and to determine what portion of the corporation’s paid-up capital and surplus, severally, are owned or used in Michigan. * * * The term ‘surplus’ as used in this act, shall be taken and deemed to mean the net value of the corporation’s property, less its outstanding indebtedness and
Hereinafter we refer to the above italicized portion of the statute as the 1929 amendment. Plaintiff’s principal business is the operation of two steamships on the Great Lakes between ports in New York, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota and the Dominion of Canada. The port of call or home port of plaintiff’s steamships is Michigan City, Indiana; and taxes- on the vessels are there paid. Plaintiff maintains a traffic office in Chicago. It has ticket offices at Chicago, Duluth, Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit and Mackinac Island. Its principal bank accounts are in Chicago. Its executive offices are in Detroit, Michigan. All of plaintiff’s officers are residents of Detroit; and with one exception its five directors likewise reside in Detroit.
The Michigan ports at which plaintiff’s vessels land are Detroit, Mackinac, Sault Ste. • Marie, Houghton and Isle Royale. But only a comparatively small part (2.98 per cent.) of plaintiff’s revenue is derived from its business between Michigan ports. Only 11.33 per cent.' of its passengers and 7.16 per cent, of its mileage are incident to plaintiff’s business between Michigan ports. It is conceded that the international boundary line is crossed by plaintiff’s ships on trips between some of the Michigan ports.
It is the contention of plaintiff-appellant that the Michigan corporation and securities commission and the corporation tax appeal board were in error when in the computation of plaintiff’s privilege fee there was included each of the following items:
(1) . $137,106.25, being 80 per cent, of the value of plaintiff’s two vessels, less depreciation;
(2) . $2,741, inventories of propellers located outside of Michigan;
(3) . $145,115.76, deposits in banks outside of Michigan.
The Michigan corporation and securities commission, and finally the corporation tax appeal board in including ■ each of the three above noted items in computing plaintiff’s privilege fee, held (1) that plaintiff had a business situs in Michigan, (2) that for the purpose under consideration all of plaintiff’s capital and surplus was located in Michigan, and (3) that none of the above noted items were “exclusively used in interstate commerce. ’ ’
As against the correctness of the commission’s determination, appellant makes the following contentions: (a) That the doctrine of commercial domicile has not been adopted by statute and does not prevail in Michigan, and that the business situs doctrine as adopted by statute in this State is limited to intangible property used in or acquired from Michigan business,; (b) that the value of appellant’s two vessels should be entirely excluded or at most included “in proportion to appellant’s interstate business” in computing the privilege fee because such vessels are used exclusively in interstate commerce and are continuously moving in and out of Michigan territory; (c) that item (2), $2,741 inventories of propellers, was erroneously included as a basis of computing appellant’s privilege fee, because this, item of tangible personal property has at all times been located outside of Michigan; and (d) that the commission erred by including in the computation of appellant’s privilege fee the $145,115.76, bank deposits outside of Michigan, because this item was not used in or acquired from appellant’s Michigan business.
At the outset it, may be noted that the following is settled law in this jurisdiction. An annual privilege fee levied upon a corporation is not a property tax. Instead, it is a tax on the franchise to do business as a corporation within this State. Union Steam Pump Sales Co. v. Secretary of State, 216 Mich. 261. And the tax imposed upon the intangibles of a corporation under this act is not a property tax but an excise tax in which the property is merely used as a yardstick or basis of computation. In re Truscon Steel Co., 246 Mich, 174.; In re Detroit Properties Corp., 254 Mich. 523. In view of the above it is obvious that Roberts v. Township of Charlevoix, 60 Mich. 197, which involved only the right to collect an ad valorem tax, is not controlling of the instant case. Likewise Graham v. Township of St. Joseph, 67 Mich. 652, involved only an ad valorem assessment under the general tax law and is not at all decisive- of the ease at bar.
Also at the outset, it is of prime importance to determine whether the record in the instant case discloses that plaintiff has a commercial domicile or a business situs as to its intangibles in Michigan. In Udylite Corp. v. Corporation & Securities Commission, ante, 1, we held that by the 1929 amendment to the statute hereinbefore quoted, the legislature of this State gave recognition' to the theory or doctrine of commercial domicile and of business situs for the purpose of computing and imposing franchise and privilege fees.' The theory and factual justification of such legislation has been stated as follows:
“We perceive the law to be that where the corporation has only a paper domicile, where the only function performed by the State of incorporation is to breathe life into the corporation, and where no substantial corporate activities are thereafter carried on in that State, then the law looks at such corporation and says that that State where, under the facts, the corporation receives its greatest protection and benefits, that State where the greatest proportion of its control exists, that State shall be the commercial domicile, with constitutional power to tax income from intangibles.” Southern Pacific Co. v. McColgan, 68 Cal. App. (2d) 48, 81 (156 Pac. [2d] 81).
See State v. First Bank Stock Corp., 197 Minn. 544 (267 N. W. 519, 269 N. W. 37); affirmed by the United States supreme court, 301 U. S. 234 (57 Sup. Ct. 234, 81 L. Ed. 1061, 113 A. L. R. 228). Also Memphis Natural Gas Co. v. Beeler, 315 U. S. 649 (62 Sup. Ct. 857, 86 L. Ed. 1090).
As to the factual aspect of the instant case, we have already noted that plaintiff’s executive 'offices are in Detroit, Michigan. All of its officers reside there. So do all of its directors with one exception. Its president, a vice president and treasurer have offices in the National Bank Building, Detroit. Its secretary and general counsel has an office in the Ford building. The somewhat voluminous correspondence in this record and all procedural papers concerning the controversy involved in the instant case, a matter affecting plaintiff’s general business, appear to have been exclusively in charge of the Detroit officers. At least one of such Detroit communications was from plaintiff’s “general auditor,” apparently also located there. It is of persuasive importance to note that plaintiff’s ships on their' regularly scheduled routes do not enter any port in Indiana, the State of plaintiff’s incorporation. Further, there is no indication in the record that plaintiff has headquarters for the management of its business anywhere outside of Detroit. Clearly plaintiff has its commercial domicile in Detroit, Michigan. See Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Fox, 298 U. S. 193 (56 Sup. Ct. 773, 80 L. Ed. 1143); and Udylite Corp. v. Corporation & Securities Commission, supra.
(1). Was Appellee in Error when in Computing Plaintiee’s Privilege Fee it Included the Full Vaule oe Plaintiee’s Two Vessels? As noted above the privilege fee is not a property tax. As heretofore stated, the property tax on its vessels is paid by plaintiff in Indiana. Nonetheless as a foreign corporation doing business in Michigan a privilege fee or tax may by statute be required of it as a condition of doing business in this State, providing an undue burden on interstate commerce is not thereby imposed. A like fee is required of domestic corporations, and hence there is no discrimination. However, these vessels are tangible personal property, and therefore they do not come within the 1929 amendment to' the statute which has to do with “intangible property” only. The manner of applying .the yardstick in computing the privilege fee is definitely provided in the statute as follows: ‘ ‘ such computation shall be made upon the corporation’s property, * * * owned or used in Michigan in the ratio that such property bears to the entire property of the corporation.” Because of this definite provision in the statute, the computation of the privilege 'fee, instead of having been made on the basis of the full value of plaintiff’s vessels, should have been made on the basis of “the ratio that such property (owned or used in Michigan) bears to the entire property of the corporation.” In the above respect we find that the commission’s computation was erroneous.
We are not in accord with appellant’s contention that its vessels are used exclusively in interstate or foreign commerce, and that since the quoted statute provides that in computing a corporation’s privilege fee “none of the capital or surplus of such corporation represented by property exclusively used in interstate commerce, shall in any case enter into the computation of the net amount of the authorized capital, or the capital and surplus, as the case may be, upon which the computation of the privilege fees shall be made,” there was error in considering the value of these vessels at all in computing its privilege fee. To the contrary .appellee asserts that since appellant’s vessels on their - regular routes travel from Michigan ports to Michigan ports they are not exclusively used in. interstate (or foreign) commerce; and therefore may be considered in the computation of appellant’s privilege fee. Under the record a question of fact was presented as to whether appellant’s vessels are used exclusively in .interstate or foreign commerce. While it is con ceded in the record “that the international boundary line is crossed at different points on a trip from Detroit to Mackinac;” and further, “This is tr,ue also on a trip between Detroit and Isle Boyale and also Houghton;” nonetheless there are other Michigan ports between which plaintiff’s boats ply, and that circumstance renders the above concession inconclusive. There was received in evidence written documents which emanated from appellant’s officers, among them the following. Appellant’s secretary and general -counsel wrote the commission a letter from which we quote:
“Actually by far the greatest portion of company’s business is interstate and foreign commerce. * * * Only a very small proportion of company’s business is intrastate in character, that is, comprised of transportation of passengers from one point in Michigan to another point in the same State over a route lying wholly within the State. * * * The actual trip mileage for each of company’s own vessels between consecutive Michigan ports where vessel has not meantime passed outside of Michigan territorial limits, is the following: (Here is inserted figures as to mileage, vessel tonnage, et cetera.) * * *
“It is thus apparent that said 25.39 per cent, is the outside maximum of company’s possible intrastate business from and relative usage of its said two vessels in Michigan. * * *
“I think the correct interpretation of section 5, Act No. 85 (being the statute hereinbefore quoted) above mentioned is to the same effect that this particular tax should be assessed only upon ‘the corporation’s property * * * owned or used in Michigan in the ratio that such property bears to the entire property of the corporation.’
“The statutory specification ‘owned or used in Michigan’ when applied to property constantly passing away from and subsequently returning to Mich igaii points, would not comprehend such property while^actually outside the State, and would therefore require some sort of an apportionment to represent the fair average of value constantly within the State.
“Under foregoing principles it is submitted that only such proportion of present company’s vessel property should be included in its capital for the computation of this tax which will correspond to the proportion of the Michigan intrastate usage thereof, not exceeding in any event the foregoing percentage basis of 20 per cent.”
A schedule prepared by plaintiff and received in evidence which purports to show the proportion of percentage of plaintiff’s Michigan business relative to its total business contains the following: “Percentage of intrastate to total,” passengers 11.33 per cent., revenue 2.98 per cent., mileage 7.16 per cent. In appellant’s brief hied herein it is stated:
“Appellant (in its report to the commission) solved the problem raised in the peculiar nature of vessel property by including in its computation of privilege fees a proportion of vessel value based on Michigan, business to interstate business. ’ ’
We would not be justified on the record before us in disturbing the finding of fact by appellee that appellant’s vessels are not exclusively used in interstate (and foreign) commerce. The contention of appellant that in computing its privilege fee the value of its vessels should be wholly disregarded is not tenable.
(2). Was There Error in the Computation oe the Privilege Fee by Including $2,741 Inventory Value oe Personal Property (Largely Propellers) Located at all Times Outside oe Michigan? These items of tangible personal property have at all times been located outside of Michigan jurisdiction. They have never been “used” in plaintiff’s business in Michigan. If they are ever used by plaintiff in its Michigan business, obviously it will be when, if ever, they become a part of plaintiff’s vessels, and enter into the computation of the privilege fee under our holding in (1) above. These items of tangible personal property should not have been included in the computation of plaintiff’s privilege fee. Our holding in this respect is necessitated by the express provision in the controlling statute, wherein it reads:
“None of the property or capital of any corporation subject to paying the privilege fee prescribed in section four which is located without the State of Michigan * * * shall in any case enter into the computation of the net amount of the authorized capital, or the capital and surplus, as the case 'may be, upon which the computation of the privilege fees shall be made.” 2 Comp. Laws 1929, § 10143, as amended by Act. No. 102, Pub. Acts 1935 (Comp. Laws Supp. 1940, §10143, Stat. Ann. § 21.208).
(3). ' "Was there Error in Computing Plaintiee’s Privilege Fee by Including in such Computation Plaintiee’s Bank Deposits Located Outside op Michigan? This item- differs materially from (1) and (2) above considered in that they consisted of tangible personal property and were not within the 1929 amendment to the statute which relates to intangibles only. Plaintiff’s bank deposits are intangible assets, and as such are within the terms of the italicized portion of the statute hereinbefore quoted. As to this item (3) the test is this: Are. plaintiff’s bank deposits outside of Michigan such that it can be said they are “used in or acquired from the conduct of its business in this State, irrespective of the domicile of the corporation.” Since, as we have already indicated, by reason of plaintiff’s having maintained its commercial domicile in this State through which its over-all business is transacted, it follows that its bank deposits derived from such business were “acquired” from its business conducted in Michigan. Further, the record fairly discloses that in the conduct of its over-all business from its Detroit headquarters, plaintiff uses its bank deposits regardless of whether such deposits are within or without Michigan. Hence all of these deposits are “used” in Michigan. Under the facts of the instant case we conclude that plaintiff’s intangibles consisting of deposits in banks outside of Michigan were properly included in the computation of its privilege fee. To the same effect see Udylite Corp. v. Corporation & Securities Commission, supra.
We are mindful it is conceded that plaintiff’s deposits in banks located outside of Michigan are “from the sale of tickets sold outside the State of Michigan;” and it is- not controverted “that expenses outside of Michigan are paid by check upon deposits in banks outside of Michigan.” Notwithstanding the manner in which plaintiff conducts the phase of its business just noted, still we are of the opinion that these intangible assets were properly included'as a basis of computing plaintiff’s privilege fee. Under the record it is not only a fair but almost an irresistible inference that all of plaintiff’s bank deposits, including tho.se outside of Michigan, are subject to the control and use of plaintiff’s officers who in fact are located in Michigan, and who . conduct and control plaintiff’s business in Michigan where plaintiff clearly has a commercial domicile. Under the facts here presented all of plaintiff’s bank deposits, including those outside of Michigan, are integrated in its general business, are part and •parcel thereof; and as such are used in the oveVall conduct of plaintiff’s business which is carried on by its officers and directors here in Michigan. Under such circumstances plaintiff’s bank deposits located outside of Michigan were properly used as a basis of computing plaintiff’s privilege fee. See Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Fox, supra.
Appellant also raises the issue as to whether the statutory imposition of the privilege fee,, as herein construed, does not violate the interstate commerce clause of the Federal Constitution or the due process clause of the State and Federal Constitutions. Nothing appears in the record from which it could be concluded that imposition of the privilege fee is an undue burden upon plaintiff’s interstate commerce business; and we do not understand that appellant so contends. If,- as we hold, the privilege fee is not shown by the record to be an undue burden upon plaintiff’s interstate commerce business, it is not in contravention of either Federal or State constitutional provisions. In Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. v. Tax Commission of Washington, 297 U. S. 403, 413 (56 Sup. Ct. 522, 80 L. Ed. 760; 105 A. L. R. 1), Justice Brandéis, speaking for the court, said: “a tax upon the local privilege only must be held valid in the absence of proof that it imposes an undue burden upon interstate commerce.” In an extensive note to the above case in volume 105 A. L. R. at page 39 it is said:
“State excise or privilege taxes upon foreign corporations engaged in both intrastate and interstate commerce are generally sustained, as against objections, based on the commerce clause, where the taxes are" measured by the local or intrastate .business, income, property or capital only.” .
We are of the opinion that the statutory provision for the privilege fee in this State is not violative of the interstate commerce clause of the Federal Constitution or of the due process clause of either the Federal or Michigan Constitutions.
The privilege fee as computed in this case by appellee is set aside and the case remanded to the Michigan corporation and securities commission for the purpose of recomputing plaintiff’s privilege fee under the statute and in accordance with our opinion herein. Neither party having fully prevailed, no costs are awarded.
Carr, C. J., and Bushnell, Sharpe, Boyles, and Reid, JJ., concurred. Butzel and Dethmers, JJ., did not sit.
The powers and duties of the secretary of State under this act were transferred to the corporation and securities commission by Act No. 13, § 3, Pub. Acts 1935 (Comp. Laws Supp. 1940, § 9769-3, Stat. Ann. § 19.783).—Reporter.
Foreign commerce is included in the term “interstate commerce” as used in the above quoted statute. Detroit International Bridge Co. v. Corporation Tax Appeal Board, 267 Mich. 384.
See U. S. Const, art. 1, § 8, elause (3).—Reporter.
See Mich. Const. 1908, art. 2, § 16.-—Reporter.
See TJ. S. Const. Am. 14, § 1.—Reporter. | [
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Carr, C. J.
Plaintiffs brought suit in» the circuit court for the recovery of certain moneys that they claimed to have paid to defendant as their agent in a real estate transaction. The declaration, which was in assumpsit, contained three special counts and, also, the common counts.' Defendant filed an answer admitting the receipt of the payments in question hut denying other material averments in the declaration. Defendant also filed and submitted a motion to dismiss, asserting, among other grounds, a misjoinder of parties plaintiff. The motion was sustained as to the first and third counts of the declaration and in part as to the common counts. Leave having been granted, plaintiffs Ilah I. Johnson and Noble M. Gilmer have appealed.
In determining the question presented on the appeal, the material allegations of fact properly pleaded in the declaration and inferences to be drawn therefrom must be taken as true and construed in the light most favorable to plaintiffs. American State Bank of Detroit v. Aaron, 271 Mich. 147 (100 A. L. R. 1266); Doyle v. Kammeraad, 310 Mich. 233. It appears from the pleading that on August 15, 1941, the plaintiffs Charles F. Gilmer and Ilah I. Johnson were the owners of two parcels of real estate in the city of Dearborn, said parcels being referred to in the record as the Tuxedo and Marvin Hotels. The defendant was a licensed real estate broker. Desiring to sell the property in question, the owners employed defendant, in conjunction with another real estate broker, to procure a purchaser. As a result of the brokers’ efforts a preliminary agreement for land contracts was negotiated with the Dix Realty Company. On the same day plaintiffs Johnson and Charles F. Gilmer executed their promise in writing to pay the said real estate agents or brokers the regular Detroit Real Estate Board commission, plus an amount equal to one instalment of taxes on the premises “under the so-called ten-year plan.” A copy of this under taking on the part of, plaintiffs is attached to the declaration as exhibit 1; and from notations thereon it appears that the amount of said commission was the sum of $5,150 and the additional payment was $150 per month. It does no.t appear that there is any dispute as to said amounts.
The land contracts contemplated by the preliminary agreement negotiated with the Dix Realty Company were delivered September 2, 1941. At that time plaintiffs Johnson and Charles F. Gilmer paid to defendant the sum of $2,575 as his one-half of the commission. Thereafter monthly payments in the sum of $75 were made by said plaintiffs to defendant until February, 1942, the aggregate sum of such payments being $375.
Under date of February 11, 1942, plaintiff Charles F. Gilmer executed to plaintiff Johnson a conveyance of his interest in the Tuxedo Hotel property and an assignment of his interest under the land contract with the Dix Realty Company; and at the same time said plaintiffs joined in a like conveyance of the Marvin Hotel to the plaintiff Noble M. Gilmer, and assigned to him their respective interests under the land contract for the conveyance of the property. Following such conveyances and assignments plaintiffs Johnson and Noble M. Gilmer paid to defendant, pursuant to the agreement evidenced by exhibit 1 attached to the declaration, monthly payments aggregating $975.
It is plaintiffs ’ theory, as indicated by the allegations of the declaration, that plaintiffs Johnson and Charles F. Gilmer were obligated for the commission under the agreement that they signed; that the payments made to defendant prior to the .conveyances and assignments in February, 1942, were joint payments; that as a result of the last-mentioned transactions Noble M. Gilmer was sub stituted for Charles F» Gilmer under the agreement for the payment of a commission to defendant; and that plaintiffs Noble M. Gilmer and Ilah I. Johnson thereafter jointly undertook and continued the performance of said undertaking, with the consent of the defendant. It is further alleged in substance that, by virtue of the agreement and the dealings between them, the agency relation existed as between defendant and all three plaintiffs.
Plaintiffs further assert as the basis for their rights of action against defendant that he 'breached the fiduciary duty that he owed to them, and each of them, as their agent. It is alleged in this regard that the Dix Realty Company had not been formally incorporated at the time of the execution and delivery of the land contracts, that on the date of such delivery the contracts were assigned to defendant Miller, Emanuel J. Harris, and Alice K. Harris, and that the assignments were executed on behalf of the corporation, or purported corporation, by Emanuel J. Harris as president and defendant Miller as vice-president. It is further asserted that defendant was at the time secretary of the Dix Realty Company. Based on these allegations it is the claim of plaintiffs that defendant was interested personally in the purchase of their property, which fact he failed to disclose to them. Plaintiffs aver, that they made the payments to defendant, which they seek to recover in this action, prior to any knowledge on their part of the deception practiced on them.
The first count of the declaration sets forth fully the claims of'the plaintiffs and seeks recovery for their benefit of the moneys joaid. The second count,which the order of the trial court permitted to stand, asserts a cause of action on behalf of plain tiffs Johnson and Charles F. Gilmer for payments made by them jointly; and the third count alleges a like cause of action on behalf of plaintiffs Johnson. and Noble M. Gilmer for the payments that they made subsequent to February, 1942. The trial judge concluded, as appears from his opinion, that there was no joint cause of action as between Noble M. Gilmer and either of the other plaintiffs, and that in consequence there, was a misjoinder of parties plaintiff. In accordance with such conclusion he struck out the first and third counts and limited the common counts to the joint claim of plaintiffs Johnson and Charles F. Gilmer. It should be noted in this connection that a bill of particulars was attached to the declaration setting up the various sums received by defendant under the agreement for compensation, prior to the conveyance made in February, 1942, as averred in count two of the declaration, and the payments made subsequent-to February, 1942, covered by count three. Obviously the incorporation of the common counts in the declaration added nothing to the preceding special counts. The bill of particulars limited the scope of permissible recovery thereunder in accordance with the general rule that such a bill may restrict, but not enlarge, the scope of recovery permissible under the declaration. Applebaum v. Goldman, 155 Mich. 369; Cook v. Dade, 191 Mich. 561.
Under the order of the trial court any claim on behalf of plaintiff Noble M. Gilmer is wholly eliminated from the case, and a like situation obtains as to any right of action, joint or several, on behalf of plaintiff Johnson for the payments made by her to defendant subsequent to February, 1942. In discussing the practical situation that may arise if the latter plaintiff institutes another suit, either alone or in conjunction with the other appellant, her counsel says in his brief:
‘ ‘ Since she was a party to the original contract of agency, another and separate action by her for the return of the commission paid by her to defendant after the assignments of the vendors ’ interest in the land contracts (she, herself, being one of the assignors but retaining,her interest in the recovery of any moneys paid under a claim of fraud practised upon her), according to all the decisions of this .Court, would be splitting her cause of action. If the lower court’s decision and order stand, that is the defense she will be met with upon the bringing of another action for that part of her payments made to her unfaithful agent after the time of the assignments. ’ ’ •
As stated by counsel, all payments by plaintiff Johnson to defendant were made under the terms of the written promise to pay the commission. Said plaintiff did not at any time, assign, or attempt to assign, any right that she had to recover the money so paid,, or any portion thereof. The declaration expressly' negatives any such assignment by plaintiff Johnson or by plaintiff Charles F. Gilmer. However, whether the defense suggested by counsel to an action by plaintiff Johnson to recover payments made by her after February, 1942, would suffice to defeat recovery is not directly involved in the ease at bar. Under the circumstances presented it is- not necessary to determine the question.
Counsel have called attention to 3 Comp. Laws 1929, § 13962 (Stat. Ann. §27.591), which reads in part as follows:
“The plaintiff may join in any one action, at law or in equity, as many causes of action as he may have against the defendant, but legal and equitable causes of action,shall not be joined; but when there is more than one plaintiff, the causes of action joined must be joint, and.if there be more than one defendant, the liability must be one asserted against all of the material defendants, or sufficient grounds must appear for uniting the causes' of action in order to promote the convenient administration of justice.”
The application of common-law principles in the instant case would require a determination that there is a misjoinder of parties plaintiff. 15 Encyclopedia Pleading & Practice, p. 540. The language above quoted from our present statute as to joinder of actions and parties is broad in its provisions and goes far beyond the practice previously observed. Otto v. Village of Highland Park, 204 Mich. 74, 81. It was construed by the Court in Goodrich v. Waller, 314 Mich. 456. Counsel for defendant points out that this was an equity ease. It will be noted, however, that the statute applies to actions at law as well as in equity. There, the plaintiffs had executed separate assignments of their respective interests in their brother’s estate. They joined in a suit to set aside said assignments on the .ground that they, and each of them, had been induced to execute the instruments because of fraudulent misrepresentations on the part of the defendant. It was contended by defendant that there was a misjoinder of parties plaintiff, that each plaintiff was ■concerned merely in having her assignment set aside to the end that she might recover her interest in the estate, and that neither plaintiff was interested in the alleged cause of action of the other.. It was held, however, that the causes of action could properly be joined under the statute, “in order to promote 'the convenient administration of justice. ’ ’
While each ease of this nature must be determined largely on its own facts (Torrent v. Hamilton, 95 Mich. 159), we think that the ends of justice in the case at bar will properly be served by permitting the plaintiffs to proceed to trial on the declaration as filed. It does not appear that defendant will in any Avay be thereby prejudiced. In fact, it would seem to be to his advantage to have the issues involved tried in one proceeding rather than in two or three separate suits. As before noted it is the claim of plaintiffs that the defendant was the agent of each and all of them, and that he breached the duty owing to all. The action is one to recover moneys paid by the plaintiffs under the same contract. The receipt of all payments claimed by plaintiffs to have been made by them to defendant is admitted by the answer; and the factual issues actually in controversy are not complicated. The rights of the parties may and should b,e determined in a single action. The facts clearly indicate that the “convenient administration of justice” will thereby be promoted. See County of Cass v. Shattuck, 288 Mich. 555.
The conclusion above indicated rests on the basis of the somewhat unusual factual situation involved in the case at bar. The question at issue is one that must be determined in each instance where it arises, in the light of the circumstances and in accordance with the purpose sought to be served by the statute above quoted. The case is remanded to the circuit court with directions to vacate the order from which the appeal has been taken. Plaintiffs will recover costs.
Butzel, Bushnell, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, North, and Dethmers, JJ., concurred. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the May 19, 2017 order of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court.
I, Larry S. Royster, Clerk of the Michigan Supreme Court, certify that the foregoing is a true and complete copy of the order entered at the direction of the Court. | [
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On order of the Court, the motion for reconsideration of this Court's December 27, 2017 order is considered, and it is DENIED, because it does not appear that the order was entered erroneously.
I, Larry S. Royster, Clerk of the Michigan Supreme Court, certify that the foregoing is a true and complete copy of the order entered at the direction of the Court. | [
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On order of the Court, the motion for reconsideration of this Court's November 29, 2017 order is considered, and it is DENIED, because it does not appear that the order was entered erroneously.
I, Larry S. Royster, Clerk of the Michigan Supreme Court, certify that the foregoing is a true and complete copy of the order entered at the direction of the Court.
Wilder, J., did not participate because he was on the Court of Appeals panel. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the May 12, 2017 order of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because the defendant has failed to meet the burden of establishing entitlement to relief under MCR 6.508(D).
Wilder, J., did not participate because he was on the Court of Appeals panel. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the August 8, 2017 judgment of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the August 1, 2017 judgment of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court. | [
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Per Curiam.
Defendant, Henry Anderson, appeals as of right his jury trial convictions of two counts of assault with intent to murder and two counts of carrying a firearm during the commission of a felony (felony-firearm). The trial court sentenced Anderson to 11½ months to 60 years' imprisonment for each assault-with-intent-to-murder conviction and to a consecutive term of two years' imprisonment for each felony-firearm conviction. We affirm. I. BACKGROUND
This case arises out of an incident that occurred on July 30, 2015, at approximately 5:30 a.m., in front of Anderson's home. Victor Stinson and Joshua Harris were working for Signature Recovery Service repossessing cars and had a repossession order for the Chrysler 300 parked in Anderson's driveway. After Stinson and Harris confirmed that the car was the correct vehicle, they backed their tow truck up to the rear end of the Chrysler 300 and got to work quickly, using the wheel lift equipment on the tow truck to grab the back end of the Chrysler 300 so they could tow it away. While the men worked in darkness using flashlights, Anderson heard a noise that woke him up. He looked out the window and saw Stinson and Harris preparing to tow his car away. Anderson asked his wife to call 911 and, armed with a loaded handgun, went outside to confront the men.
Harris noticed Anderson standing on the porch wearing only his underwear and alerted Stinson. Stinson approached Anderson, introduced himself, and explained that he had a valid repossession order for the Chrysler 300. Stinson told Anderson that he would give him the contact information for the finance company that ordered the repossession and started to walk toward the tow truck to get the paperwork. Harris continued securing the Chrysler 300 onto the tow truck. Instead of waiting for Stinson to return with the information, Anderson repeatedly told the men to "drop the car" and then brandished his weapon. Harris saw the weapon and yelled "gun" as Stinson was leaning into the cab of the tow truck to get the documentation off of a clipboard.
Harris immediately ran to the front of the tow truck to take cover. When Stinson turned around, he saw Anderson raise the weapon and then felt a bullet hit his leg and saw blood gushing out. Anderson fired his gun again, and the bullet hit the pavement not far from Stinson and Harris, who both saw it ricochet off Anderson's driveway. Leaning on the tow truck, Stinson limped to the far side of the truck and collapsed on the grass. Harris was able to get their cell phones from the truck and attempted to call 911. Anderson walked to the back of his house, then around the side of his house, and emerged approximately 30 to 45 seconds later at the top of his driveway where he fired another shot at Stinson and Harris before retreating into his house. The entire incident was recorded on Anderson's home security system.
When the police arrived, Anderson told an officer that the men were trying to steal his car, that they had no right to take his car, and that he had a right to protect his property. Anderson acknowledged to police that Stinson and Harris were "repo guys." By contrast, Anderson testified at trial that he heard a metallic sound, believed that Stinson had a metal rod or pipe in the cab of the truck, and feared for his life when he decided to open fire. Anderson admitted to firing three shots during the incident. He also maintained that the repossession was unlawful because he was up to date on his payments and insurance. Anderson was convicted as charged.
II. INEFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL
Anderson first argues that he was denied his constitutional right to the effective assistance of counsel and should be granted a new trial or an evidentiary hearing. "Whether a defendant has been denied the effective assistance of counsel is a mixed question of fact and constitutional law." "Generally, a trial court's findings of fact, if any, are reviewed for clear error, and questions of law are reviewed de novo." "When no Ginther[ ] hearing has been conducted, our review of the defendant's claim of ineffective assistance of counsel is limited to mistakes that are apparent on the record."
To establish that his or her lawyer provided ineffective assistance, a defendant must show that (1) the lawyer's performance fell below an objective standard of reasonableness under prevailing professional norms and (2) there is a reasonable probability that, but for the lawyer's deficient performance, the result of the proceedings would have been different. "A reasonable probability is a probability sufficient to undermine confidence in the outcome." In addition, "[e]ffective assistance of counsel is presumed, and a defendant bears a heavy burden of proving otherwise." The "[d]efendant also bears the burden of establishing the factual predicate for his claim."
Anderson first argues that defense counsel was ineffective for failing to request a jury instruction on the use of nondeadly force in self-defense, rather than the use of deadly force in self-defense. In support, Anderson maintains that the evidence clearly showed that he used nondeadly force when he fired his weapon because no one died as a result of the incident. We disagree. At trial, Anderson admitted to firing three shots at Stinson and Harris who were unarmed, nonconfrontational, and simply performing the duties of their repossession jobs. Record evidence, including video footage of the incident, confirms that Anderson fired three shots in the direction of Stinson and Harris during the course of the incident. One of Anderson's hollow-point rounds actually hit Stinson in the leg, causing him to collapse to the ground bleeding. While Stinson and Harris took cover behind the tow truck, Anderson had the opportunity to walk away, and he did so, but he then returned and chose to fire the third shot at Stinson and Harris. A gun is a deadly weapon and firing a deadly weapon at another person-once or several times-undoubtedly involves the use of deadly force, because it is an act for which "the natural, probable, and foreseeable consequence ... is death." We agree with the prosecution's contention that the fact that Anderson did not kill Stinson and Harris does not absolve him of using deadly force or show that he used nondeadly force. Because there was no basis for a nondeadly force instruction, trial counsel was not ineffective for failing to request that instruction.
Next, Anderson argues that trial counsel was ineffective for failing to argue that Stinson and Harris had breached the peace. Anderson contends that the self-help repossession statute, MCL 440.9609, provides that a secured party may take possession of collateral without judicial process if it proceeds without breach of the peace. Anderson's argument fails because he has not met his burden of establishing the factual predicate for his claim. The record evidence shows that Stinson and Harris had a valid repossession order for Anderson's vehicle, and in executing the directives of that order, Stinson and Harris worked swiftly, quietly, and under cover of darkness specifically to lessen the chances of confrontation with Anderson. To the extent that a breach of the peace occurred, it was a result of Anderson's decision to shoot at the victims, rather than a result of any conduct on the part of Stinson or Harris. Therefore, Anderson's argument fails. Once again, trial counsel was not ineffective for failing to raise a meritless argument.
Anderson next argues that trial counsel failed to investigate Anderson's neighbors to determine whether they saw anything and or his credit union to verify that the repossession was unlawful. The failure to reasonably investigate a case can constitute ineffective assistance of counsel. However, Anderson's argument fails because, once again, he has not established the factual predicate for his claim. Anderson provides no evidence in support of his assertions. On the record before the Court, it is just as likely that defense counsel did investigate these potential witnesses but found that their testimony would not be useful. With regard to the neighbors' observations, Anderson ignores the video evidence of the incident captured by his own home security system, which supported the victims' version of the events. With regard to the validity of the repossession order, Harris testified that the police allowed him to tow the vehicle away after the incident. This evidence clearly supports the conclusion that the repossession order was valid. Because no available record evidence establishes that trial counsel failed to interview or investigate potentially helpful witnesses, Anderson's claim necessarily fails.
Furthermore, "[t]he failure to call witnesses only constitutes ineffective assistance of counsel if it deprives the defendant of a substantial defense. Similarly, [t]he failure to make an adequate investigation is ineffective assistance of counsel if it undermines confidence in the trial's outcome." Anderson fails to explain how counsel's alleged failure to interview neighbors and credit union employees deprived him of either a substantial defense or evidence that could have been helpful to his defense. There is no basis for concluding that defense counsel failed to subject the prosecution's case to meaningful adversarial testing. Even assuming that Anderson's counsel did not investigate and interview witnesses, the record discloses that counsel extensively cross-examined the witnesses at trial and moved for a directed verdict, arguing that the prosecutor failed to offer sufficient evidence to present certain charges to the jury. Anderson's argument therefore fails.
III. GREAT WEIGHT OF THE EVIDENCE
Anderson next contends that his convictions must be overturned because the jury's verdict was against the great weight of the evidence. "The test to determine whether a verdict is against the great weight of the evidence is whether the evidence preponderates so heavily against the verdict that it would be a miscarriage of justice to allow the verdict to stand." When a defendant claims on appeal that his convictions were against the great weight of the evidence,
[c]onflicting testimony, even when impeached to some extent, is an insufficient ground for granting a new trial. [U]nless it can be said that directly contradictory testimony was so far impeached that it was deprived of all probative value or that the jury could not believe it, or contradicted indisputable physical facts or defied physical realities, the trial court must defer to the jury's determination. [ ]
Additionally, "[i]t is the province of the jury to determine questions of fact and assess the credibility of witnesses."
To prove assault with intent to murder, the prosecution must show "(1) an assault, (2) with an actual intent to kill, (3) which, if successful, would make the killing murder." Anderson argues that his convictions for assault with intent to murder were contrary to the great weight of the evidence, which clearly reflected that he did not have the intent to murder. According to Anderson, the evidence demonstrated that he reasonably acted in self-defense when confronted with unknown individuals in the dark who were in possession of tools he perceived to be weapons. In essence, Anderson urges this Court to conclude that his version of events was more credible than the evidence offered by the prosecution. We decline to do so.
"This Court has consistently observed that 'because of the difficulty of proving an actor's state of mind, minimal circumstantial evidence is sufficient.' " Additionally, the weight and credibility of evidence, and the inferences to be drawn from the evidence, are matters for the jury to resolve. In this case, there was sufficient evidence that Anderson acted with the requisite intent to kill, and the great weight of the evidence did not support Anderson's claim of self-defense. Anderson fired a total of three shots at close range in the direction of Stinson and Harris, Anderson used hollow-point bullets, which are designed to cause additional damage after striking a target. Further, after firing the first two shots, Anderson walked around his house and then emerged at the top of the driveway, aimed, and fired a third shot toward Stinson and Harris while they were both hiding behind the tow truck. Stinson had already been struck by the first bullet and was lying on the ground, bleeding, and unable to walk. While Anderson's own testimony suggested he was in fear of imminent harm from Stinson and Harris, the balance of the evidence negated his assertion. Anderson's home security system captured the entire incident on video and supported the victims' version of the incident. Neither Stinson nor Harris were armed and neither victim engaged in any sort of hostile action toward Anderson. Furthermore, when Anderson first spoke to the police after the incident, he acknowledged that he understood Stinson and Harris were "repo guys" and made no mention of seeing either victim with a weapon or being in fear for his life. It is clear from its verdict that the jury did not find Anderson's testimony or self-defense claim credible and, having reviewed the record, the jury's verdict was not contrary to the great weight of the evidence.
IV. SENTENCING
Finally, Anderson argues that he is entitled to resentencing because Offense Variable (OV) 6 was erroneously scored and because the sentences he received were unreasonable. "To preserve a sentencing issue for appeal, a defendant must raise the issue 'at sentencing, in a proper motion for resentencing, or in a proper motion to remand filed in the court of appeals.' " Anderson raised a challenge to the scoring of OV 6 at sentencing, but he did not object to his sentences on the basis that they were unreasonably excessive. Therefore, Anderson's challenge to the scoring of OV 6 is preserved, but his challenge to the reasonableness of his sentences is unpreserved.
In reviewing a trial court's calculation of a defendant's sentencing guidelines score, this Court reviews factual determinations for clear error, and factual determinations must be supported by a preponderance of the evidence. "Whether the facts, as found, are adequate to satisfy the scoring conditions prescribed by statute, i.e., the application of the facts to the law, is a question of statutory interpretation, which an appellate court reviews de novo." To the extent that this issue is unpreserved, our review is limited to plain error affecting substantial rights. "To establish entitlement to relief under plain-error review, the defendant must establish that an error occurred, that the error was plain, i.e., clear or obvious, and that the plain error affected substantial rights."
Anderson argues that the trial court erred by assessing 25 points for OV 6 (intent to kill or injure). Pursuant to MCL 777.36(1)(b), 25 points should be assessed for OV 6 if "[t]he offender had unpremeditated intent to kill, the intent to do great bodily harm, or created a very high risk of death or great bodily harm knowing that death or great bodily harm was the probable result." A sentencing judge is directed to "score this variable consistent with a jury verdict unless the judge has information that was not presented to the jury."
Anderson admits in his brief on appeal that the trial court's assessment of 25 points was consistent with the jury's verdict in this case. Nonetheless, he argues that OV 6 should not have been scored at 25 points because the trial court had information that was not presented to the jury. Specifically, Anderson asserts that the trial court was aware that Anderson was 70 years old, had no prior record, and was living a productive and law-abiding life. Anderson further asserts that the trial court had broad discretion and should have considered these factors as well as the fact that the offense was completely out of character. We disagree. The directive set forth in MCL 777.36(2)(a) dictates how the sentencing guidelines should be scored and is unambiguous. "If the statute's language is clear and unambiguous, we assume that the Legislature intended its plain meaning and we enforce the statute as written." The plain language of MCL 777.36(2)(a)
permits the sentencing court to consider information that was not presented to the jury, but nothing in the statutory language suggests that the court should take into account information that is not relevant to the variable in question. The information Anderson points to in this case is irrelevant to the scoring of OV 6, because Anderson's age, health, family status, and lack of a criminal record have no bearing whatsoever on Anderson's intent at the time he decided to open fire on Stinson and Harris. For these reasons, the trial court did not err with respect to OV 6.
Finally, Anderson argues that the sentences he received were unreasonably excessive. Anderson contends that the trial court should have taken into account the fact that, at the time of sentencing, he was 70 years old, married with four children, dealing with health issues, and caring for a dependent wife. The guidelines range for Anderson's assault with intent to murder convictions was 126 to 210 months in prison. The trial court sentenced Anderson at the low end of this range, imposing minimum sentences of 138 months' imprisonment for Anderson's assault with intent to murder convictions.
According to People v. Lockridge , this Court is required to review for reasonableness only those sentences that depart from the range recommended by the statutory guidelines. Because the trial court sentenced Anderson within the applicable sentencing guidelines range, this Court need not evaluate Anderson's sentences for reasonableness and must affirm his sentences unless there was an error in the scoring or the trial court relied on inaccurate information. For the reasons already explained, Anderson has not demonstrated any error in the calculation of his sentencing guidelines range. Likewise, there is no indication that the trial court sentenced Anderson on the basis of inaccurate information. Indeed, each of the factors Anderson points to as justifying a reduced minimum sentence was known to the trial court because it was identified in Anderson's presentence investigation report or otherwise discussed at sentencing. Accordingly, Anderson is not entitled to resentencing.
Affirmed.
Talbot, C.J., and Murray and O'Brien, JJ., concurred.
MCL 750.83.
MCL 750.227b.
People v. Solloway , 316 Mich.App. 174, 187, 891 N.W.2d 255 (2016).
Id. at 188, 891 N.W.2d 255.
People v. Ginther , 390 Mich. 436, 443-444, 212 N.W.2d 922 (1973).
People v. Mack , 265 Mich.App. 122, 125, 695 N.W.2d 342 (2005).
Strickland v. Washington , 466 U.S. 668, 688, 694, 104 S.Ct. 2052, 80 L.Ed.2d 674 (1984) ; People v. Trakhtenberg , 493 Mich. 38, 51, 826 N.W.2d 136 (2012).
Strickland , 466 U.S. at 694, 104 S.Ct. 2052.
People v. Putman , 309 Mich.App. 240, 248, 870 N.W.2d 593 (2015).
Id. (quotation marks and citation omitted).
M Crim JI 7.22.
M Crim JI 7.15.
See People v. Pace , 102 Mich.App. 522, 534, 302 N.W.2d 216 (1980) (rejecting notion that deadly force requires a resulting death and holding that "deadly force has been used where the defendant's acts are such that the natural, probable, and foreseeable consequence of said acts is death").
People v. Ericksen , 288 Mich.App. 192, 201, 793 N.W.2d 120 (2010) ("Failing to advance a meritless argument or raise a futile objection does not constitute ineffective assistance of counsel.").
Putman , 309 Mich.App. at 248, 870 N.W.2d 593.
Ericksen , 288 Mich.App. at 201, 793 N.W.2d 120.
People v. McGhee , 268 Mich.App. 600, 626, 709 N.W.2d 595 (2005).
Putman , 309 Mich.App. at 248, 870 N.W.2d 593.
People v. Russell , 297 Mich.App. 707, 716, 825 N.W.2d 623 (2012) (quotation marks and citation omitted) (second alteration in original).
People v . Musser , 259 Mich.App. 215, 218-219, 673 N.W.2d 800 (2003).
Id . at 219, 673 N.W.2d 800 (quotation marks and citations omitted) (second alteration in original).
People v. Lemmon , 456 Mich. 625, 637, 576 N.W.2d 129 (1998).
People v. Warren (After Remand) , 200 Mich.App. 586, 588, 504 N.W.2d 907 (1993).
Ericksen , 288 Mich.App. at 196-197, 793 N.W.2d 120 (citation omitted).
People v. Unger , 278 Mich.App. 210, 228-229, 749 N.W.2d 272 (2008).
People v. Clark , 315 Mich.App. 219, 223, 888 N.W.2d 309 (2016), quoting MCR 6.429(C).
People v. Schrauben , 314 Mich.App. 181, 196, 886 N.W.2d 173 (2016).
People v. Hardy , 494 Mich. 430, 438, 835 N.W.2d 340 (2013).
People v. Lockridge , 498 Mich. 358, 392, 870 N.W.2d 502 (2015).
Id . at 392-393, 870 N.W.2d 502.
MCL 777.36(2)(a).
People v. Weeder , 469 Mich. 493, 497, 674 N.W.2d 372 (2004).
Lockridge , 498 Mich. at 365, 870 N.W.2d 502.
See Schrauben , 314 Mich.App. at 196, 886 N.W.2d 173 ("When a trial court does not depart from the recommended minimum sentencing range, the minimum sentence must be affirmed unless there was an error in scoring or the trial court relied on inaccurate information."), citing MCL 769.34(10). | [
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McCormack, J.
At issue in this case is when the limitations period in the Whistleblowers' Protection Act (WPA), MCL 15.361 et seq ., begins running. The defendant Construction Code Authority (CCA) told the plaintiff, one of its inspectors, that he had been terminated by the defendants Imlay City and Elba Township when he showed up for work on March 31, 2014. It was the CCA's action on that day that triggered the running of the limitations period, not the defendants'
earlier decisions to terminate him, as no action was taken by any defendant to effectuate those decisions. We therefore reverse the Court of Appeals' holding that the alleged wrong triggering the running of the limitations period "occurred when the City and Township wrote the letters to the CCA directing the CCA to terminate plaintiff ...." Millar v. Constr. Code Auth. , unpublished per curiam opinion of the Court of Appeals, issued August 4, 2016 (Docket No. 326544), p. 6, 2016 WL 4162613. We further reverse the Court of Appeals to the extent that it held the plaintiff's WPA claim untimely "even if we were to assume that CCA's conduct was the allegedly wrongful conduct that commenced the 90-day clock," citing as the CCA's alleged wrongful act its "termination of plaintiff's assignments in the City and the Township on March 27, 2014." Id . On March 27, 2014, the CCA drafted its own letter to the plaintiff communicating the bad news from the city and township defendants, but as noted it did nothing to effectuate that decision until March 31. Id .
The statutory limitations period on the plaintiff's WPA claim therefore did not begin running until the CCA took action to alter the plaintiff's employment on March 31, 2014. Because his complaint was filed 87 days later, it was timely filed under MCL 15.363(1). We reverse the Court of Appeals' judgment in part, vacate the Lapeer Circuit Court's March 19, 2015 order granting summary disposition to the defendants, and remand this case to the Lapeer Circuit Court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
The plaintiff performed mechanical and plumbing inspection services for the defendant CCA, an inspection and development control agency. The CCA had contracts with, among others, the defendants Imlay City and Elba Township to provide licensed inspections, and the plaintiff had performed numerous inspections within those jurisdictions. On March 11 and March 20, 2014, the defendant city and the defendant township respectively wrote letters to the CCA directing it to terminate the plaintiff's inspection services within their communities. On March 27, the CCA drafted a letter to the plaintiff to do just that; the letter stated that the plaintiff would no longer perform inspections in those communities. But it was not until the plaintiff arrived at work on March 31 that he was given a copy of the CCA's letter notifying him of the decision to terminate his services in the defendant communities. As a result, that same day he was prevented from working in Imlay City.
The plaintiff filed a three-count complaint alleging violation of the WPA, wrongful termination in violation of public policy, and conspiracy to effectuate wrongful termination and violate the WPA. The trial court granted summary disposition on all counts to all the defendants. The court reasoned in relevant part that the WPA claim was time-barred because the WPA violation occurred, at the latest, on March 27, when the CCA drafted its letter, and therefore the plaintiff had filed his claim one day after the 90-day limitations period in MCL 15.363(1) had run. The trial court also concluded that the WPA preempted the plaintiff's public-policy claim. The Court of Appeals affirmed. The plaintiff appealed here, asserting his WPA and public-policy claims but dropping the civil-conspiracy claim. We ordered oral argument on the application and directed the parties to brief "whether the plaintiff's claim under the Whistleblowers' Protection Act was barred by the 90-day limitation period set forth in MCL 15.363(1)." Millar v. Constr. Code Auth. , 500 Mich. 992, 894 N.W.2d 600 (2017).
II. LEGAL BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
This case involves an issue of statutory interpretation, which we review de novo. Whitman v. City of Burton , 493 Mich. 303, 311, 831 N.W.2d 223 (2013). This means that we review the issue independently, without any required deference to the trial court.
The Whistleblowers' Protection Act, MCL 15.362, provides:
An employer shall not discharge, threaten, or otherwise discriminate against an employee regarding the employee's compensation, terms, conditions, location, or privileges of employment because the employee, or a person acting on behalf of the employee, reports or is about to report, verbally or in writing, a violation or a suspected violation of a law or regulation or rule promulgated pursuant to law of this state, a political subdivision of this state, or the United States to a public body, unless the employee knows that the report is false, or because an employee is requested by a public body to participate in an investigation, hearing, or inquiry held by that public body, or a court action.
MCL 15.363(1), the statute of limitations governing WPA actions, provides that "[a] person who alleges a violation of this act may bring a civil action for appropriate injunctive relief, or actual damages, or both within 90 days after the occurrence of the alleged violation of this act."
The question in this case is what constitutes "the occurrence of the alleged violation of this act" that triggers the running of the statutory limitations period. In Collins v. Comerica Bank , 468 Mich. 628, 664 N.W.2d 713 (2003), this Court held that the limitations period applicable to claims under the Civil Rights Act (CRA), MCL 37.2101 et seq ., did not begin running until the date the plaintiff was terminated. We rejected the Court of Appeals' contrary conclusion that the plaintiff's cause of action accrued on the last day the plaintiff worked, a date that preceded her termination.
By contrast, in Magee v. DaimlerChrysler Corp. , 472 Mich. 108, 693 N.W.2d 166 (2005), and Joliet v. Pitoniak , 475 Mich. 30, 715 N.W.2d 60 (2006), also CRA cases, this Court distinguished Collins and held that the plaintiffs' discrimination claims were untimely because the last date of the alleged discriminatory treatment, and not the employee's separation from employment, started the limitations period. Critical to our rulings in both of those decisions was the fact that neither plaintiff asserted a claim of discriminatory discharge. Magee , 472 Mich. at 112, 693 N.W.2d 166 (distinguishing Collins because it involved a claim of discriminatory discharge); Joliet , 475 Mich. at 36-37, 715 N.W.2d 60 (same).
In this case, the Court of Appeals erred by relying on Joliet to conclude that the alleged wrong occurred either when the city and township wrote letters to the CCA directing it to revoke the plaintiff's authority to work in their jurisdictions or when the CCA in turn drafted its letter to the plaintiff carrying out those directions. At the time each letter was written, the plaintiff had no actionable WPA claim because no allegedly discriminatory action had occurred; the defendants intended to curtail the plaintiff's employment responsibilities, but had not taken any action to implement that intent. It was not until that intent was effectuated on March 31, 2014, that the actionable "wrong" occurred and triggered the running of the 90-day limitations period in MCL 15.363(1). See Collins , 468 Mich. at 633, 664 N.W.2d 713 ("[I]f a discharge has yet to occur, it cannot be said that the last day worked represents the discharge date. Simply put, a claim for discriminatory discharge cannot arise until a claimant has been discharged."). While the plaintiff was not discharged from his employment on March 31 (his employment responsibilities were merely reduced), that fact does not change the conclusion that this case is more analogous to Collins than to Magee and Joliet . The plaintiff showed up for work on March 31 prepared to go perform inspections in Imlay City, in accordance with his typical employment responsibilities, but he was prevented from doing that when the CCA presented him with its March 27 letter. Nothing prevented the plaintiff from working up until that action, and the defendants do not argue that they did anything to implement the termination decision before March 31.
In other words, in order for an actionable wrong under the WPA to have occurred, an employer must have done more than simply make a decision to discriminate against an employee. Instead, the employer must have taken an adverse employment action against the plaintiff. It is the employer's action to implement the decision that triggers the running of the limitations period; not the decision itself. In this case, the CCA took no action to implement its decision to reduce the plaintiff's duties until it gave the plaintiff the letter instructing him to discontinue working in Imlay City and Elba Township.
The flaw in the Court of Appeals' reliance on Joliet is made plain with a simple illustration. The Court of Appeals held that the limitations period began running as to Imlay City on March 11, when it drafted its letter to the CCA directing the agency to terminate the plaintiff. But the plaintiff continued working in Imlay City until March 27. Plainly, no allegedly discriminatory action had "occurr[ed]" as of March 11, because the defendants had not altered the plaintiff's employment in any way. Under the Court of Appeals' view, the plaintiff could have brought suit against Imlay City on March 12 on the basis of the city's letter to the CCA, even though nothing whatsoever changed in the plaintiff's employment. We rejected such an approach in Collins .
Because "the occurrence of the alleged violation" of the WPA did not occur until the CCA allegedly discriminated against the plaintiff with respect to his terms of employment on March 31, 2014, the plaintiff timely filed his WPA claim. Accordingly, the lower courts erred by dismissing it.
III. CONCLUSION
We hold that the Court of Appeals erred by relying on our decision in Joliet to conclude that the statutory limitations period began running before March 31, 2014, the day of the "occurrence of the alleged violation of the act." Rather, the rule from Collins applies. We therefore reverse the Court of Appeals judgment in part, vacate the Lapeer Circuit Court's March 19, 2015 order granting summary disposition to the defendants, and remand to the circuit court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
Markman, C.J., Zahra, Viviano, Bernstein, Wilder, JJ., concur.
Clement, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
The plaintiff also argues that his wrongful termination violated public policy and, for the first time in this Court, that the lower courts abused their discretion by denying him an opportunity to amend his complaint. We deny leave to appeal with respect to those arguments because we are not persuaded that they should be reviewed by this Court.
The letter indicated that the plaintiff would still be retained to perform inspections in other municipalities. Because the plaintiff's workload directly affected his level of compensation, the defendants' actions negatively affected the plaintiff's terms of employment.
The plaintiff initially alleged that he received the letter "no sooner than March 28, 2014, and likelier the following Monday, March 31, 2014," but subsequently clarified that he received it on March 31. Even if this point was disputed, the discrepancy would not alter our legal analysis because the plaintiff's suit was filed 90 days after March 28, so it still would be timely filed if that were the relevant date.
The plaintiff's WPA claim alleged that he was "terminated" because of "and in retaliation for his pattern of fairly and honestly indicating his intentions to report and/or reporting violations of building codes, regulations, rules and statutes in accordance with his responsibilities as an employee and as a licensed Mechanical Inspector, Plumbing Inspector, Plan Reviewer, Certified Fire Inspector and Journey [sic] Plumber."
The court dismissed the plaintiff's conspiracy claim because his WPA and public-policy claims had been dismissed and civil conspiracy is not an independently actionable tort.
CRA claims are subject to the three-year period of limitations in MCL 600.5805(10), and the accrual of that limitations period is governed by MCL 600.5827, which provides, in relevant part, that a "claim accrues at the time the wrong upon which the claim is based was done regardless of the time when damage results." Because both MCL 600.5827 and MCL 15.363(1) tie the running of the statutory limitations period to the actionable wrong, CRA cases interpreting when the limitations period commences running are instructive in resolving the same issue in the WPA context.
In Magee , the plaintiff alleged sexual harassment ending on September 12, 1998, when she went on medical leave; the plaintiff resigned on February 2, 1999. Magee , 472 Mich. at 110, 693 N.W.2d 166. This Court rejected the latter date as the accrual date for her discrimination claims and concluded that September 12, 1998 (the last date of the alleged harassment) was the accrual date. Id . at 112-113, 693 N.W.2d 166. In Joliet , a constructive-discharge case, the plaintiff alleged harassment and discrimination occurring before her resignation on November 30, 1998. Joliet , 475 Mich. at 33, 715 N.W.2d 60. This Court held that the plaintiff's November 30, 2001 complaint was not timely filed because her claims all accrued when the alleged harassment and discrimination occurred-before November 30, 1998. Id . at 45, 715 N.W.2d 60.
Because the writing of the letters did not trigger the running of the limitations period, and the defendants do not allege that any other alleged act committed before March 31 started it running, we need not decide what specific act by the defendants on March 31 was the trigger. Specifically, we need not address whether the communication of the adverse decision to the plaintiff, the CCA's preventing the plaintiff from working in Imlay City on March 31, or some other action constituted the triggering act.
See Debano-Griffin v. Lake Co. , 493 Mich. 167, 175, 828 N.W.2d 634 (2013) ("Under the WPA, a plaintiff may establish a prima facie case by showing that (1) the plaintiff was engaged in protected activity as defined by the act, (2) the defendant took an adverse employment action against the plaintiff , and (3) a causal connection exists between the protected activity and the adverse employment action.") (emphasis added; quotation marks and citations omitted). | [
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On order of the Chief Justice, the motion to waive fees is considered and it is DENIED because MCL 600.2963 requires that a prisoner pursuing a civil action be liable for filing fees.
Within 21 days of the date of this order, appellant shall pay to the Clerk of the Court the initial partial filing fee of $9.00; submit a copy of this order; and refile the copy of the pleadings returned with this order. Failure to comply with this order shall result in the appeal not being filed in this Court.
If appellant timely files the partial fee and refiles the pleadings, monthly payments shall be made to the Department of Corrections in the amount of 50 percent of the deposits made to appellant's account until the payments equal the balance due of $366.00. This amount shall then be remitted to this Court.
Pursuant to MCL 600.2963(8) appellant shall not file a new civil action or appeal in this Court until the entry fee in this case is paid in full.
The Clerk of the Court shall furnish two copies of this order to appellant and return a copy of appellant's pleadings with this order. | [
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On order of the Chief Justice, the motion of defendant-appellant to file a supplement to the application for leave to appeal is GRANTED. The supplement submitted on June 4, 2018, is accepted for filing. | [
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On order of the Chief Justice, the motion of the Insurance Alliance of Michigan to file a late brief amicus curiae is GRANTED. The amicus brief will be accepted as timely filed if submitted on or before June 19, 2018. | [
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On order of the Chief Justice, the motion of plaintiff-appellee to extend the time for filing an answer, as directed by this Court in its order dated June 15, 2018, is GRANTED. The answer will be accepted as timely filed if submitted on or before September 7, 2018. | [
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On order of the Chief Justice, the stipulation signed by counsel for the parties agreeing to the dismissal of this application for leave to appeal is considered, and the application for leave to appeal is DISMISSED with prejudice. The motion for immediate consideration of the application is denied as moot. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the December 12, 2017 judgment of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the October 10, 2017 judgment of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the question presented should be reviewed by this Court. | [
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By order of May 25, 2018, this case was held in abeyance for People v. Tucker (Docket No. 152798), --- Mich. ----, 911 N.W.2d 466 (2018) and People v. Snyder (Docket No. 153696), --- Mich. ----, 911 N.W.2d 467 (2018). On the Court's own motion, we VACATE our abeyance order of May 25, 2018. The application for leave to appeal the February 27, 2014 order of the Court of Appeals is again considered. We direct the Clerk to schedule oral argument on whether to grant the application or take other action. MCR 7.305(H)(1).
The appellant shall file a supplemental brief within 42 days of the date of this order, addressing: (1) whether the requirements of the Sex Offenders Registration Act (SORA), MCL 28.721 et seq ., amount to "punishment," see People v. Earl , 495 Mich. 33, 845 N.W.2d 721 (2014), see also Does # 1-5 v. Snyder , 834 F.3d 696, 703-706 (C.A. 6, 2016), cert. den. sub nom. Snyder v. John Does # 1-5 , --- U.S. ----, 138 S.Ct. 55, 199 L.Ed.2d 18 (2017) ; and (2) whether the defendant's conviction pursuant to MCL 28.729 for failure to register under SORA is an ex post facto punishment, where the registry has been made public, and other requirements enacted, only after the defendant committed the listed offense that required him to register, U.S. Const., art. I, § 10; Const. 1963, art. 1, § 10. In addition to the brief, the appellant shall electronically file an appendix conforming to MCR 7.312(D)(2). In the brief, citations to the record must provide the appendix page numbers as required by MCR 7.312(B)(1). The appellee shall file a supplemental brief within 21 days of being served with the appellant's brief. The appellee shall also electronically file an appendix, or in the alternative, stipulate to the use of the appendix filed by the appellant. A reply, if any, must be filed by the appellant within 14 days of being served with the appellee's brief. The parties should not submit mere restatements of their application papers.
We direct the Clerk to schedule the oral argument in this case for the same future session of the Court when it will hear oral argument in People v. Tucker (Docket No. 152798) and People v. Snyder (Docket No. 153696).
The Criminal Defense Attorneys of Michigan and the Prosecuting Attorneys Association of Michigan are invited to file briefs amicus curiae. Other persons or groups interested in the determination of the issues presented in this case may move the Court for permission to file briefs amicus curiae. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the September 21, 2017 order of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court. | [
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On order of the Chief Justice, the motion of Richard D. Friedman to file a brief amicus curiae in support of the application for leave to appeal is GRANTED. The amicus brief submitted on June 25, 2018, is accepted for filing. | [
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On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the August 22, 2017 judgment of the Court of Appeals is considered. We DIRECT the Cass County Prosecuting Attorney to answer the application for leave to appeal within 28 days after the date of this order. Specifically, the prosecutor shall address: (1) whether the rape-shield statute, MCL 750.520j, barred evidence of the complainant's sexual activity with two classmates when offered as proof of an alternative cause of the possible scarring observed by the sexual assault nurse examiner, see People v. Shaw , 315 Mich. App. 668, 892 N.W.2d 15 (2016) ; (2) if so, whether that evidence was nevertheless admissible to preserve the defendant's constitutional rights to confrontation and to present a defense, see People v. Hackett , 421 Mich. 338, 365 N.W.2d 120 (1984) ; and (3) whether the defendant's former appellate counsel rendered constitutionally ineffective assistance by failing to raise these issues in the Court of Appeals.
The application for leave to appeal remains pending. | [
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Viviano, J.
The issue in this case is whether defendant can be convicted of election-law forgery under MCL 168.937. The Court of Appeals upheld defendant's convictions under that provision, holding that MCL 168.937 creates the substantive offense of election-law forgery. We disagree and hold that MCL 168.937 is nothing more than a penalty provision-it does not create a substantive offense. Because defendant cannot be convicted under a statute that does not set forth a crime, we reverse and remand for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Between November 2013 and January 2014, Edward Pinkney participated in a recall effort against the mayor of Benton Harbor, James Hightower. In order to force a recall election, defendant Pinkney needed to obtain 393 signatures on petitions supporting the recall. Defendant had a 60-day window within which to collect the required number of signatures. On January 8, 2014, defendant presented the Berrien County Clerk's office with 62 petitions containing 728 signatures supporting the recall election. The clerk's office certified 402 of these signatures and scheduled the recall election.
Prior to the election, the clerk's office transferred the petitions to the Berrien County Sheriff's Department for examination of perceived irregularities in the signatures on the petitions. After reviewing the petitions, the sheriff's department identified several signatures for which the dates appeared to have been altered. The Michigan State Police Crime Laboratory also examined the petitions and confirmed that five of the petitions contained signatures with altered dates. In each case, the dates had been altered so as to fall within the 60-day window for valid signatures.
Defendant was charged with five counts of election-law forgery under MCL 168.937 and six counts of making a false statement in a certificate-of-recall petition under MCL 168.957. After being bound over to the Berrien Circuit Court on these charges, defendant filed a motion to quash arguing, inter alia , that § 937 is a penalty provision, not a substantive, chargeable offense. The circuit court denied the motion to quash, and the case proceeded to trial. After an eight-day trial, the jury returned verdicts of guilty on the five felony counts and not guilty on the six misdemeanor counts. In a motion for a directed verdict, defendant again argued that § 937 is a penalty provision and not a substantive offense. The circuit court denied the motion and sentenced defendant to concurrent prison terms of 30 to 120 months.
On appeal, defendant argued, among other things, that § 937 does not create a substantive offense and that the admission of certain evidence under MRE 404(b) was improper and requires reversal. The Court of Appeals unanimously upheld defendant's convictions. Regarding § 937, the Court of Appeals held that the statute does create the substantive offense of election-law forgery. In reaching this conclusion, the panel relied heavily on the reasoning of People v Hall , which considered the same issue.
The Court of Appeals in Hall concluded that § 937 created a substantive offense for two reasons. First, the Court explained that interpreting § 937 as a penalty provision would render it surplusage because another provision, MCL 168.935, already sets forth an identical penalty for felonies under the Michigan Election Law, MCL 168.1 et seq . Second, the Court reasoned that interpreting § 937 as a penalty provision would contravene the Legislature's intent in enacting the Election Law, which the Court described as "ensur[ing] the fairness and purity of the election process in part by proscribing misconduct that would foster such unfairness and impurity." Based on this reasoning, the Hall Court determined that § 937 creates a substantive offense and is not merely a penalty provision.
The Court of Appeals in the present case adopted the Hall panel's reasoning and again held that § 937 constitutes a substantive offense. The Court further noted that interpreting § 937 solely as a penalty provision would create an absurd result. The Court explained:
[U]nder defendant's interpretation of MCL 168.937, only "[a]n inspector of election, clerk, or other officer or person having custody of any record, election list of voters, affidavit, return, statement of votes, certificates, poll book, or of any paper, document, or vote of any description," MCL 168.932(c), or "[a] person who is not involved in the counting of ballots as provided by law and who has possession of an absent voter ballot mailed or delivered to another person," MCL 168.932(e), could be guilty of election forgery. There is simply nothing-express, implied, or otherwise-in the Michigan Election Law to support the idea that the Legislature intended such a peculiar result. People v. Stephan , 241 Mich.App. 482, 503, 616 N.W.2d 188 (2000) (explaining that this Court will not read anything into a statute that is "not plainly expressed" by the Legislature). Furthermore, interpreting MCL 168.937 in that manner, that is, as only a penalty provision, would create an absurd result by permitting individuals who do not meet the definitions set forth in MCL 168.932 to commit common-law forgery in the election process without recourse under the Michigan Election Law. People v. Lewis , 302 Mich.App. 338, 341-342, 839 N.W.2d 37 (2013), quoting People v. Tennyson , 487 Mich. 730, 741, 790 N.W.2d 354 (2010) (" 'Statutes must be construed to prevent absurd results.' ").[ ]
The Court concluded that it could not interpret § 937 in a way that would render the provision surplusage and create such an absurd result.
The panel went on to reject defendant's arguments that § 937 violates the vagueness doctrine and the rule of lenity. The statute is not unconstitutionally vague, the panel explained, because it can be clearly understood by reference to the common-law definition of forgery. Similarly, the panel concluded that the statute does not implicate the rule of lenity because it is not ambiguous.
Defendant has now sought leave to appeal in this Court. We scheduled oral argument on the application, directing the parties to address:
(1) whether the trial court abused its discretion when it admitted evidence under MRE 404(b) that related to the defendant's political and community activities other than the mayoral recall effort for the purpose of showing the defendant's motive to commit the instant crimes, and (2) whether the Court of Appeals erred in determining that MCL 168.937 creates the substantive offense of election forgery and is not merely a penalty provision for the specific forgery offenses set forth in other provisions of the Michigan election law.[ ]
II. STANDARD OF REVIEW
This Court reviews questions of statutory interpretation de novo.
III. ANALYSIS
It has long been our rule that "[a] criminal statute ought to be so plain and unambiguous that 'he who runs' may read, and understand whether his conduct is in violation of its provisions." In this case, after reviewing the plain language of § 937, together with its context and history, we are convinced that § 937 does not create a substantive crime. Instead, it is an inoperative penalty provision. We reach this unusual conclusion for the reasons that follow.
A. ANALYSIS OF MCL 168.937
When interpreting a statute, "our goal is to give effect to the Legislature's intent, focusing first on the statute's plain language." "In so doing, we examine the statute as a whole, reading individual words and phrases in the context of the entire legislative scheme." "When a statute's language is unambiguous, ... the statute must be enforced as written. No further judicial construction is required or permitted."
The prosecution charged defendant with six counts of violating § 937, which reads:
Any person found guilty of forgery under the provisions of this act shall, unless herein otherwise provided, be punished by a fine not exceeding $1,000.00, or by imprisonment in the state prison for a term not exceeding 5 years, or by both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court.
Contrary to the Court of Appeals' conclusion that § 937 clearly sets forth the offense of forgery under the Election Law, nothing in the plain language of § 937 suggests that the Legislature intended it to be a chargeable offense. Instead, as defendant argued below, it reads like a penalty provision-i.e., a provision providing the penalty for the crime of forgery enumerated elsewhere in the Election Law. Section 937 does not set forth or describe any conduct that is prohibited. Instead, the Legislature's use of the past tense verb "found" (in the phrase "found guilty of forgery under the provisions of this act") presupposes that an individual has already been convicted of the crime of forgery under the Election Law. Consequently, by its clear terms, the provision does nothing more than provide the punishment for that already-committed offense. A review of its surrounding provisions further indicates that § 937 does not create a chargeable offense, but is instead one of a series of penalty provisions for offenses delineated elsewhere in the Election Law. The three sections of the Election Law immediately preceding § 937 provide as follows:
Any person who shall be found guilty of a misdemeanor under the provisions of this act shall, unless herein otherwise provided, be punished by a fine of not exceeding $500.00, or by imprisonment in the county jail for a term not exceeding 90 days, or both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court.[ ]
Any person found guilty of a felony under the provisions of this act shall, unless herein otherwise provided, be punished by a fine not exceeding $1,000.00, or by imprisonment in the state prison for a term not exceeding 5 years, or by both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court.[ ]
Any person found guilty of perjury under the provisions of this act shall, unless herein otherwise provided, be punished by a fine not exceeding $1,000.00, or by imprisonment in the state prison for a term not exceeding 5 years, or by both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court.[ ]
One treatise describes these provisions, along with § 937, as "penalties for offenses where no other penalty is provided by the Act[.]"
Certainly, no one would suggest that § 934 and § 935 create chargeable offenses for misdemeanors and felonies under the Election Law. Instead, they merely define the punishment for misdemeanor and felony offenses under the Election Law, where no penalty is "otherwise provided." Section 937 is nearly identical to §§ 934 and 935, except for the use of the word "forgery" in place of "misdemeanor" and "felony," respectively, thereby leaving no room to distinguish the provisions.
Section 936 is most akin to § 937, in that it specifies a penalty for a recognized type of crime-"perjury" rather than "forgery." Yet the Legislature described how an individual commits "perjury" in MCL 168.933, which reads:
A person who makes a false affidavit or swears falsely while under oath under section 848 or for the purpose of securing registration, for the purpose of voting at an election, or for the purpose of qualifying as a candidate for elective office under section 558 is guilty of perjury.
The only reasonable reading of these two provisions is that the Legislature intended § 933 to be the substantive offense of perjury and § 936 to set forth the punishment for a conviction of perjury under the Election Law. And, since it contains language nearly identical to § 936, it would be exceedingly odd to assume that the Legislature intended § 937 to operate not as a penalty provision like § 936, but as a provision creating the substantive offense of forgery under the Election Law. In short, the plain language of § 937, in context with its surrounding provisions in the Election Law, strongly indicates that it is only a penalty provision.
In reaching the contrary conclusion, the Court of Appeals erred by first looking to the purpose of the Election Law instead of focusing on its plain language. After noting that the purpose of the Election Law is "to regulate primaries and elections, provide for the 'purity' of the election process, and guard against abuse," the Court summarily concluded that interpreting § 937 as a substantive offense would further that purpose. The Court then made the rather remarkable assertion that it would be "peculiar" or "absurd" if someone could only be found guilty of election-related forgery if they engaged in conduct specifically prohibited by two other statutory subsections, MCL 168.932(c) and (e). However, "[t ]he Court of Appeals' reliance on the perceived purpose of the statute runs counter to the rule of statutory construction directing us to discern legislative intent from plain statutory language." We determine the scope of a statute based on its plain language-here, the words of § 937 give no indication that it was intended to cover all possible election-related forgery crimes.
B. INCORPORATING THE COMMON-LAW DEFINITION OF FORGERY
Our statutory interpretation would not be complete without consideration of whether it is possible to interpret the plain language of § 937 as creating a substantive crime by reference to the common law. The rule is well established that "[w]ords and phrases that have acquired a unique meaning at common law are interpreted as having the same meaning when used in statutes dealing with the same subject matter as that with which they were associated at the common law." Therefore, "[w]here the statutory provision describes by name, but does not clearly and explicitly state the definition of a criminal offense, courts will construe the statutory crime by resorting to the common-law definition." In this case, however, the statutory text contains no evidence that the Legislature intended to incorporate the common-law definition of forgery when the previous version of § 937 was first enacted or when it was recodified. As noted above, the statutory text does not use the term "forgery" to describe a type of conduct that is prohibited. Instead, it describes the punishment for someone who has already committed the crime of forgery. In other statutes that we have found to codify a common-law crime, the commission of the common-law crime itself is the subject of the statute, which generally expressly criminalizes the crime; the common-law term is simply a shorthand for how the crime is committed. Here, by contrast, the statute's subject is an individual "found guilty" of a crime, and the statute itself merely prescribes the punishment for such an individual; it does not mention the commission of forgery or state that a person who forges "is guilty" of a crime.
Simply plugging the common-law definition of "forgery" into § 937 does not transform the provision into a substantive offense. While the common law can provide the definition of "forgery," the common law cannot supply the elements of "forgery under the provisions of this act ." In other words, a reader of the statute who sees "forgery under the provisions of this act" would not assume that "forgery" means common-law forgery. Instead, a reasonable person would believe that "forgery under the provisions of this act " suggests that he or she could only be found guilty of a forgery crime defined elsewhere in the Election Law.
A review of the statutory history of the Election Law provides further support for our conclusion that § 937 is a penalty provision. For more than 80 years, the only statute in Michigan criminalizing election-related forgery was narrowly drawn to prohibit falsification of a "register of electors" (later called a "registration book"). In this statute, the Legislature confusingly combined two offenses in one statute: the first was labeled "larceny," and the second was labeled "forgery." The penalty for these crimes was included at the end of the section, making both crimes felonies. Notably, the statute was designed to protect a document that was in the custody of election officials.
In 1917, the Legislature made two changes to this statute that are of note. It dropped the "larceny" label from the first grouping of prohibited conduct, and instead provided that a person who violated that clause "shall be deemed guilty of a felony." And it deleted the penalty provision from the statute defining these substantive offenses and created a separate penalty provision for the crime of election-related forgery. The latter provision was nearly identical to § 937, the present-day penalty provision at issue in this case. In 1948, these provisions were recodified as 1948 CL 195.8 and 1948 CL 198.3, respectively. During a rewrite of the Election Law in 1954, the Legislature expanded the scope of this election-related forgery prohibition when it enacted MCL 168.932(c), which essentially combined the two offenses from 1948 CL 195.8 into one. But § 932(c) continued to focus (now explicitly) on the actions of election officials and those who have custody of election records-it applies to "[a]n inspector of election, clerk, or other officer or person having custody" of the enumerated documents. In addition, instead of applying only to "a registration book or copy thereof filed for preservation" like its predecessor, the new offense was expanded to cover "any record, election list of voters, affidavit, return, statement of votes, certificates, poll book, or ... any paper, document, or vote of any description, which pursuant to this act is directed to be made, filed, or preserved ...."
Finally, the new statute dropped the reference to "forgery," presumably because the newly combined statute also includes some of the former so-called "larceny" activities, so it no longer made sense to use the term "forgery." Perhaps because of this change, the statute also now makes it clear (in its introductory clause) that a person who violates § 932(c) "is guilty of a felony." This, of course, obviated the need for § 937, since the general felony penalty provision (§ 935) applies as the penalty provision. Despite these changes, the 1954 amendments recodified 1948 CL 198.3 as § 937. Thus, the Legislature retained § 937, but omitted the only provision in the Election Law to which it pertained.
To summarize, the previous statute defining "forgery"-1948 CL 195.8-was extremely limited, applying only when an individual falsified a registration book. In 1954, the Legislature combined two offenses into one, dramatically expanded the scope of documents covered, dropped the label "forgery," and made the combined offense a felony (thus obviating the need for a separate forgery penalty provision).
At the same time, the Legislature enacted another statute, MCL 168.957, with potential applicability to the conduct at issue in this case. And, as noted above, the Legislature also recodified a provision making it unlawful to affix a forged name to an initiative or referendum petition. See MCL 168.484. Finally, in 1995, the Legislature added another narrow forgery offense to the Election Law. In that provision, MCL 168.759(8), the Legislature provided that "[a] person who forges a signature on an absent voter ballot application is guilty of a felony."
Why, one might ask, would the Legislature go to all this trouble if it intended to transform § 937, the prior penalty provision, into an omnibus forgery offense covering all election-related documents? And would the Legislature really choose to create such a vast and far-reaching offense in an existing penalty provision by (drumroll please) ... making no substantive changes to its language?
We think it unreasonable to conclude that the Legislature signaled its intention to convert § 937 from a penalty provision to a stand-alone crime by making no meaningful changes to its language. Instead, our review of the statutory history of § 937 confirms that it was previously, and remains now, a penalty provision.
C. THE CANON AGAINST SURPLUSAGE
The Court of Appeals also declined to read § 937 as a penalty provision because of its fear that doing so would render it "mere surplusage." That is, § 937 would be a penalty provision without a crime. This is a serious concern because, as a general rule, "we must give effect to every word, phrase, and clause and avoid an interpretation that would render any part of the statute surplusage or nugatory." Thus, the Court of Appeals was justifiably reluctant to declare an entire statutory section meaningless. But we are even more reluctant to use the surplusage canon to create a crime when a plain-language reading of the statute and consideration of its history provide no evidence that the Legislature intended to do so.
The canon against surplusage is not an absolute rule. As Justice THOMAS COOLEY explained 150 years ago:
The rule applicable here is, that effect is to be given, if possible, to the whole instrument , and to every section and clause . If different portions seem to conflict, the courts must harmonize them, if practicable, and lean in favor of a construction which will render every word operative, rather than one which may make some idle and nugatory.[ ]
More recently, our Court has stated that "[w ]hen possible , we strive to avoid constructions that would render any part of the Legislature's work nugatory."
Logically, "the canon against superfluity assists only where a competing interpretation gives effect to every clause and word of a statute." However, in this case, construing § 937 as creating the separate offense of forgery appears to render all or part of two other statutory provisions surplusage. Both § 932(c) (prohibiting most of the forgery-type conduct contained in 1948 CL 195.8, the previous election-law forgery offense) and § 759(8) (prohibiting forgery of a signature on an absentee voter ballot application) prohibit forgery of certain Election Law documents. Section 932(c), in particular, prohibits forgery of an expansive list of documents by certain election officials or other persons having custody of such documents. But if the Legislature intended § 937 to be a general forgery provision prohibiting forgery of any document in the Election Law, why would it have included two other forgery provisions describing how forgery is committed? There would, of course, be no need to do so because § 937 would cover all such conduct. Therefore, reading § 937 as creating a substantive offense of forgery renders all or part of §§ 932(c) and 759(8) surplusage. As a result, the canon against surplusage cannot help us, because both proffered interpretations of the text leave some sections of the Election Law without meaning.
As noted above, the Court of Appeals' interpretation is not based on the plain language of § 937-instead, it is an attempt to salvage that provision and give it some current legal effect. But this goes beyond the work of the surplusage canon. Using the surplusage canon-or any rule of construction-to create a criminal offense is impermissible.
Even though interpreting § 937 as a penalty provision means that it lacks effect because it has no corresponding substantive offense, we cannot disregard the historical textual clues and supplement the otherwise plain text of § 937 to reach a different result. This is true even when enforcing the plain language of the statute may frustrate its purpose.
Even if we believed-contrary to the analysis above-that the Legislature mistakenly omitted a forgery offense from the Election Law, it is not the job of a court to supply the omitted provision. And this is true even if interpreting the statute according to its plain language, context, and history leads us to the conclusion that it is inoperative.
But alas, it does not appear to us that the Legislature left something out when it overhauled the Election Law in 1954; instead, it appears that it left something in-a penalty provision that was no longer needed. Regardless, courts do not have the power to rewrite statutes to ensure they have some substantive effect. After focusing on the plain language, context, and history of § 937, we conclude that it is nothing more than an inoperative penalty provision.
As noted at the outset, we recognize that our conclusion that § 937 is an inoperative penalty provision is an unusual one, and it is not one that we reach lightly. To be clear, a statute should only be deemed inoperative after the most careful consideration of alternative interpretations and rigorous application of the interpretative tools at our disposal, including the necessity of "reading individual words and phrases in the context of the entire legislative scheme." This finding has historically been-and will continue to be-exceedingly rare. Indeed, as we have already stated, "[e]very word of a statute should be given meaning and no word should be treated as surplusage or rendered nugatory if at all possible ." Ultimately, however, we must here, as in every case, give effect to the will of the Legislature by scrupulously examining the statutory text to determine its plain meaning.
IV. CONCLUSION
We hold that § 937, by its plain language, does not set forth a substantive offense. As a result, defendant was not properly charged under § 937 with the substantive offense of election-law forgery. Therefore, his convictions must be vacated and the charges dismissed. We reverse the Court of Appeals' holding to the contrary and remand to the trial court for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
CLEMENT , J., took no part in the decision of this case.
Under MCL 168.961(2)(d ), signatures on a recall petition are not valid if obtained "more than 60 days before the filing of the recall petition."
People v. Pinkney , 316 Mich.App. 450, 461, 891 N.W.2d 891 (2016).
Id . at 462, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Id . at 462-465, 891 N.W.2d 891.
People v. Hall , unpublished per curiam opinion of the Court of Appeals, issued October 23, 2014 (Docket No. 321045).
"Any person found guilty of a felony under the provisions of this act shall, unless herein otherwise provided, be punished by a fine not exceeding $1,000.00, or by imprisonment in the state prison for a term not exceeding 5 years, or by both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court." MCL 168.935.
Hall , unpub op at 6. The Legislature has directed that the act containing our election laws "shall be known and may be cited as the 'Michigan election law.' " MCL 168.1.
Id . at 7.
Following this decision, the Hall prosecutor appealed a separate, unfavorable ruling in our Court. In response, the defendant did not challenge the Court of Appeals' holding that § 937 created a substantive offense, but instead argued that the Court of Appeals correctly held that the prosecution could only charge him with violating MCL 168.544c (falsifying electoral nominating petitions) and not MCL 168.937. Accordingly, in deciding the case, we declined to reach this question and instead presumed, for purposes of the appeal, that § 937 did create a substantive offense. See People v. Hall , 499 Mich. 446, 449 n 2, 453, 456, 461, 884 N.W.2d 561 (2016). Then, we reversed the Court of Appeals, holding that the prosecutor had discretion to charge the defendant under both § 937 and § 544c. Id . at 449, 884 N.W.2d 561.
Pinkney , 316 Mich.App. at 463-465, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Id . at 464, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Id .
Id . at 465, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Id . at 466, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Id . We need not address defendant's vagueness and rule-of-lenity arguments in light of our holding that MCL 168.937 does not create a substantive offense; however, we will discuss whether the statute may be understood as incorporating the common-law definition of forgery because we believe that is important to determine its meaning.
People v. Pinkney , 500 Mich. 990, 990-991, 894 N.W.2d 592 (2017).
People v. Miller , 498 Mich. 13, 16-17, 869 N.W.2d 204 (2015).
People v. Ellis , 204 Mich. 157, 161, 169 N.W. 930 (1918). The phrase "he who runs may read" is derived from the Bible, Habakkuk 2:2, and has been interpreted by a leading scholar of the early 20th century to mean "[w]rite plainly ... that it may be read runningly, i.e. without pause and hesitation." Brief Communications, He Who Runs May Read , 40 J Biblical Lit 166, 181 (1921).
Madugula v. Taub , 496 Mich. 685, 696, 853 N.W.2d 75 (2014) (quotation marks and citations omitted ).
Id .
Id . (quotation marks and citations omitted ).
This accords both with logic and the Legislature's usual practice-when the Legislature uses the phrase "found guilty" in a statute that does not describe the prohibited conduct, the statute typically prescribes penalties or consequences for conduct that is criminalized or made punishable elsewhere. For example, MCL 600.3830(2) states, "Any person found guilty of maintaining a nuisance under the provisions of this chapter shall forfeit the benefit of all property exemptions ...." Nothing in that provision could reasonably be construed as suggesting that it creates a general crime of nuisance. Instead, an individual trying to determine how to commit a nuisance "under the provisions of this chapter" would have to look elsewhere in the chapter. Unsurprisingly, MCL 600.3801 specifically provides what conduct constitutes a nuisance, and further explains that "[a] person ... who owns, leases, conducts, or maintains a building, vehicle, or place described in subsection (1) is guilty of a nuisance." Thus, based on its plain language, MCL 600.3830(2) is exactly what § 937 appears to be-a penalty provision. See also, e.g., MCL 28.468 (criminalizing conduct in Subsection 1 and providing, in Subsection 2, that "a person that is found guilty of a violation of this act shall be required to reimburse the appropriate governmental agency"); MCL 28.723a(1) ("If an individual pleads guilty to or is found guilty of a listed offense ...."); MCL 32.1085 (describing the offense of "desertion" and then providing, in a separate subsection, that "[a] person found guilty of desertion shall be punished as a court-martial directs"); MCL 752.102 ("Any person ... who shall be found guilty of a violation of the provisions of section 1 of this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor ...."). According to at least one commentator, this is a preferred practice. See 1A Singer & Singer, Sutherland Statutory Construction (7th ed ), § 20:18, p 147 ("The better practice [when drafting criminal penalties] is to place a general penalty section at the end or near the end of the act and provide that any violation of the provisions of the act is punishable according to the terms of the penalty section.").
MCL 168.934.
MCL 168.935.
MCL 168.936.
3 Gillespie, Michigan Criminal Law & Procedure (2d ed ), § 71:18, p 555.
See Madugula , 496 Mich. at 696, 853 N.W.2d 75 ("As with any statutory interpretation, our goal 'is to give effect to the Legislature's intent, focusing first on the statute's plain language.' ") (quotation marks and citation omitted ).
Pinkney , 316 Mich.App. at 463-464, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Id . at 464, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Perkovic v. Zurich American Ins Co , 500 Mich. 44, 53, 893 N.W.2d 322 (2017).
Cf. People v. Boscgalia , 419 Mich. 556, 563-564, 357 N.W.2d 648 (1984) ("There is no indication that the present statute was intended to cover all the possible crimes dealing with transfer of title or theft of automobile parts. To the contrary, this statute is only one part of an overall statutory scheme dealing with automobiles and stolen goods in general.").
In its opinion, the Court of Appeals did state that "the meaning of [§ 937] can be fairly ascertained by reference to the common law." Pinkney , 316 Mich.App. at 466, 891 N.W.2d 891. See generally 2B Singer & Singer, Sutherland Statutory Construction (7th ed ), § 50:1, p 143 ("All legislation is interpreted in the light of the common law ...."). However, as noted above, the Court of Appeals made this observation only after concluding that § 937 created a substantive offense. See note 15 of this opinion.
People v. Reeves , 448 Mich. 1, 8, 528 N.W.2d 160 (1995), superseded by statute on other grounds by 1996 PA 20. See also MCL 8.3a (instructing that while statutory terms generally are accorded their ordinary meaning, "technical words and phrases, and such as may have acquired a peculiar and appropriate meaning in the law, shall be construed and understood according to such peculiar and appropriate meaning."); and People v. Covelesky , 217 Mich. 90, 100, 185 N.W. 770 (1921) ("A well recognized rule for construction of statutes is that when words are adopted having a settled, definite and well known meaning at common law it is to be assumed they are used with the sense and meaning which they had at common law unless a contrary intent is plainly shown."), superseded by statute on other grounds as recognized by People v. Williams , 491 Mich. 164, 171-173, 814 N.W.2d 270 (2013).
Reeves , 448 Mich. at 8, 528 N.W.2d 160.
The statutory history of this provision is discussed in detail below.
By comparison, the general forgery statute, MCL 750.248(1), clearly sets forth the conduct (i.e., "a person who ... forges") and enumerates documents that, if forged, can result in a conviction under MCL 750.248(1). Likewise, every other forgery statute contains a description of what is necessary to commit forgery under those acts-and what documents are covered. For example, MCL 432.30(1) of Michigan's Lottery Act, MCL 432.1 et seq ., provides, "A person, with the intent to defraud, shall not falsely make, alter, forge, utter, pass, or counterfeit a state lottery ticket or share." And, not surprisingly, the provision is followed by a penalty provision akin to § 937-"A person convicted of violating this section is guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment for not more than 5 years or by a fine of not more than $1,000.00, or both." MCL 432.30(3). See also MCL 205.428(7) ("A person who falsely makes, counterfeits, or alters a license, vending machine disc, or marker ... is guilty of a felony punishable by a fine of not more than $5,000.00 or imprisonment for not more than 5 years, or both."); MCL 257.310(7) (subjecting to punishment "a person who intentionally reproduces, alters, counterfeits, forges, or duplicates a license photograph, the negative of the photograph, image, license, or electronic data contained on a license ...."); MCL 257.905 ("Any person who shall forge, or without authority, sign any evidence of ability to respond in damages as required by the secretary of state ... shall be guilty of a misdemeanor ...."); MCL 257.222(6) ("A person who intentionally reproduces, alters, counterfeits, forges, or duplicates a certificate of title ... shall be punished as follows ...."); MCL 259.176a(a) (allowing the punishment of an individual under the act who "[k]nowingly forges, counterfeits, alters, or falsely makes a certificate authorized to be issued under this act or the rules promulgated under this act"); MCL 324.52908(5) ("A person who forges a bill of sale or other evidence of title prescribed by the department or the federal agency that has jurisdiction is guilty of a misdemeanor, punishable by imprisonment for not more than 90 days, or a fine of not more than $100.00, or both."); MCL 324.80319(1)(a) ("A person shall not ... [a]lter or forge a certificate of title ...."); MCL 324.81112(4) (subjecting to punishment "[a] person who intentionally reproduces, alters, counterfeits, forges, or duplicates an [off-road vehicle] certificate of title"); MCL 333.7407(1)(c) ("A person shall not knowingly or intentionally ... [a]cquire or obtain possession of a controlled substance by misrepresentation, fraud, forgery, deception, or subterfuge."); MCL 333.17766(c) (stating that a person is guilty of a misdemeanor if he or she "[f]alsely makes, utters, publishes, passes, alters, or forges a prescription"); MCL 436.1919 ("A person who falsely or fraudulently makes, simulates, forges, alters, or counterfeits a document, label, or stamp prescribed by the commission under this act ... is guilty of a felony ...."); MCL 168.759(8) ("A person who forges a signature on an absent voter ballot application is guilty of a felony."); MCL 28.422(14) ("A person who forges any matter on an application for a license under this section is guilty of a felony ...."); MCL 28.295(1) (subjecting to punishment "[a] person who intentionally reproduces, alters, counterfeits, forges, or duplicates an official state personal identification card photograph"); MCL 324.43558(1)(f) ("A person is guilty of a misdemeanor if the person ... [f]alsely makes, alters, forges, or counterfeits a sportcard or a hunting, fishing or fur harvester's license ....").
An example is the manslaughter statute, MCL 750.321, which provides, "Any person who shall commit the crime of manslaughter shall be guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment in the state prison, not more than 15 years or by fine of not more than 7,500 dollars, or both, at the discretion of the court." Because the term "manslaughter" is not statutorily defined, this Court found it appropriate to incorporate its common-law meaning into the statute. See People v. Couch , 436 Mich. 414, 419-420, 461 N.W.2d 683 (1990). The focus of that statute is criminalizing the commission of certain conduct. Another example is MCL 750.356(1), which states that "[a] person who commits larceny by stealing any of the following property of another person is guilty of a crime as provided in this section ...." The statute makes the commission of larceny a crime, i.e., an individual who commits larceny "is guilty of a crime." Because there is no full statutory definition, the common-law definition is used to help describe how an individual commits larceny. See People v. March , 499 Mich. 389, 399-400, 886 N.W.2d 396 (2016).
As we noted in Hall , " '[t ]he common-law definition of forgery is a false making, or a making malo animo of any written instrument with intent to defraud.' " Hall , 499 Mich. at 456, 884 N.W.2d 561, quoting People v. Warner , 104 Mich. 337, 340, 62 N.W. 405 (1895).
Emphasis added.
The Court of Appeals in Hall , unpub op at 9, interpreted "forgery under the provisions of this act" to mean forgery of documents "required to be submitted under the Michigan election law." Even assuming the statutory text could bear this meaning, it would not be a reasonable interpretation, for the reader would first need to incorporate the common-law definition of "forgery" and then canvass the entire Election Law to determine what conduct could potentially result in a felony conviction. This construction is far from the clear and concise delineation of the elements of a crime that the Legislature is required to provide. People v. Goulding , 275 Mich. 353, 359, 266 N.W. 378 (1936).
Unlike legislative history, statutory history-the narrative of the "statutes repealed or amended by the statute under consideration"-properly "form[s] part of the context of the statute ...." Scalia & Garner, Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts (St. Paul: Thomson/West, 2012), p 256.
That statute, 1859 PA 177, § 20, provided as follows:
Whoever shall willfully cut, burn, mutilate or destroy any such register of electors, or copy thereof filed for preservation, or shall unlawfully take and carry away the same, or unlawfully conceal or refuse or neglect to surrender the same, with intent to prevent its being used as authorized by law, shall be deemed guilty of larceny; and whoever shall falsify any such register or copy, by unlawfully erasing or obliterating any name or entry lawfully made therein, or by unlawfully inserting therein any name, note or memorandum, with intent thereby to influence or affect the result of any election or to defraud any person of an election to office, shall be deemed guilty of forgery; and the person so offending shall, for every such offence, be punished by imprisonment in the State Prison not more than five years, or by fine not exceeding five hundred dollars and imprisonment in the county jail not more than one year, nor less than ninety days.
See 1859 PA 177, § 1 (imposing a duty on city and township officials to provide one register or book of electors for each township or ward ); 1917 PA 126, ch 2, § 5 ("The registration book or books of any township or city shall remain in the custody of the township or city clerk, as the case may be, at all times except when they are in use by boards of registration or boards of inspectors of an election or an official primary election, as provided by this act.").
That statute, 1917 PA 126, ch 2, § 8, provided as follows:
Whoever shall wilfully cut, burn, mutilate or destroy any registration book, or copy thereof filed for preservation, or shall unlawfully take and carry away any such registration book or copy, or shall unlawfully conceal or refuse or neglect to surrender the same with intent to prevent its being used, as authorized by law, shall be deemed guilty of a felony. Whoever shall falsify such registration book, or copy thereof, by unlawfully erasing or obliterating any name or entry lawfully made therein, or by unlawfully inserting therein any name, note or memorandum, shall be deemed guilty of forgery.
See 1917 PA 126, ch 2, § 8 (substantive offense); 1917 PA 126, ch 11, § 7 ("Any person found guilty of forgery under the provisions of this act shall be punished by a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the State Prison for a term not exceeding five years, or by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court.").
In another public act passed the same year, Public Act 203, the Legislature enacted a penalty provision identical to the one in 1917 PA 126 except for the amount of the fine. 1917 PA 203, ch 25, § 16. It appears that this penalty provision was unaccompanied by any substantive offense, as PA 203 nowhere defined forgery. The Legislature corrected this oversight by combining multiple election provisions into a more comprehensive scheme a few years later in 1925 PA 351. That act defined the substantive offense of forgery, 1925 PA 351, part 5, ch 1, § 8, just as it had in 1917 PA 126. The act also provided the penalty for forgery-in the chapter called "Penalties"-using the same structure as the penalty provisions in 1917 PA 126 and 203. 1925 PA 351, part 5, ch 4, § 3.
Another election-related forgery statute, 1941 PA 246, § 14 (later codified at 1948 CL 200.14), made it unlawful to affix a forged name to an initiative or referendum petition. Id . (retained as MCL 168.484 after 1954 PA 116 and repealed by 1965 PA 312, § 2). While 1948 CL 200.14 did mention forgery, it has no relationship to § 937 because it provided its own punishment. See id . ("Any person found guilty of violating the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.").
See 1954 PA 116. As enacted, MCL 168.932(c) provided:
No inspector of election, clerk or other officer or person having custody of any record, election list of voters, affidavit, return or statement of votes, certificates, poll book, or of any paper, document or vote of any description, in this act directed to be made, filed or preserved, shall wilfully destroy, mutilate, deface, falsify or fraudulently remove or secrete the whole or part thereof, or fraudulently make any entry, erasure or alteration therein, or permit any other person to do so.
This statute, which has since been amended in style but not substance, does not list all of the same items as its predecessor. Thus, for example, it does expressly prohibit cutting, burning, or unlawfully taking and carrying away a registration book. And it adds some items to the list that were not included previously, such as "deface" and "alter[ ]." But, especially as it relates to the forgery-type conduct, the new statute appears to encompass most, if not all, of the same conduct.
Our conclusion that § 932 is a direct descendant of the original, independent substantive forgery offense is further confirmed by the official compiler's notes to its predecessor, 1948 CL 195.8. Those notes indicate that 1948 CL 195.8 originated in 1917 PA 126, ch 2, § 8, the first statute in which the substantive forgery crime was independent of the penalty provision. In other words, § 932(c) hails from the original substantive forgery offense. While the compiler's notes are not necessary to our conclusion, which follows from the plain text, the notes offer a form of support contemplated by the Legislature, which instructs that official compilations shall include "notes, references, and other materials" the compiler "considers necessary." MCL 8.41(3) ; cf. Camaj v. SS Kresge Co , 426 Mich. 281, 289, 393 N.W.2d 875 (1986) (noting that marginal notations in a statute can provide persuasive, but not conclusive, proof of meaning).
MCL 168.932(c).
Id .
See 1954 PA 116.
See 1954 PA 116. MCL 168.957, which governs the conduct of petition circulators, was amended by 1976 PA 66 and currently provides:
A person circulating a petition shall be a qualified and registered elector in the electoral district of the official sought to be recalled and shall attach thereto his certificate stating that he is a qualified and registered elector in the electoral district of the official sought to be recalled and shall state the city or the township wherein he resides and his post-office address; further, that signatures appearing upon the petition were not obtained through fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation and that he has neither caused nor permitted a person to sign the petition more than once and has no knowledge of a person signing the petition more than once; that all signatures to the petition were affixed in his presence; and that to the best of his knowledge, information, and belief, the signers of the petition are qualified and registered electors and the signatures appearing thereon are the genuine signatures of the persons of whom they purport to be. A person who knowingly makes a false statement in the certificate hereby required is guilty of a misdemeanor.
Defendant was acquitted of six misdemeanor counts under this statute for allegedly permitting six individuals to sign the recall petition twice. He was convicted of five felony counts under MCL 168.937 for altering the dates of some petition signatures so they would count for the recall. Amicus curiae the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan makes the interesting point that § 957 may also be a potential avenue of prosecution for altering dates. We, of course, offer no opinion on the validity of this argument because the issue is not before us and involves a matter of prosecutorial discretion.
See note 47 of this opinion.
See 1995 PA 261. MCL 168.759(8), like § 932(c), does not rely on § 937 to define the scope of the punishment for a violation of its provisions. Instead, it also designates the forgery offense it creates as a felony, making it punishable under the general felony penalty provision (§ 935), not under § 937.
If it is true (and we think it is) that "a change in the language of a prior statute presumably connotes a change in meaning," Reading Law , p 256, the converse seems even more obviously true: namely, that no change in the text connotes no change in its meaning.
In particular, the Court of Appeals opined that interpreting § 937 as a penalty provision would render it surplusage because § 935 already "sets forth the penalties for a felony conviction under the provisions of the Michigan Election Law ...." Pinkney , 316 Mich.App. at 464, 891 N.W.2d 891.
Miller , 498 Mich. at 25, 869 N.W.2d 204 (quotation marks and citation omitted ).
Cooley, Constitutional Limitations (1868), p 58 (some emphasis added ). The roots of the surplusage canon may be traced even further. See 2 Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, pp. *379-380 ("That the construction be made upon the entire deed, and not merely upon disjointed parts of it. 'Nam ex antecedentibus et consequentibus fit optima interpretatio .' And therefore that every part of it, be (if possible) made to take effect; and no word but what may operate in some shape or other.").
People v. Seewald , 499 Mich. 111, 123, 879 N.W.2d 237 (2016) (emphasis added ). Although we have sometimes stated the canon in absolute terms, see, e.g., Miller , 498 Mich. at 25, 869 N.W.2d 204, we have also articulated the canon in nonabsolute terms, see, e.g., Seewald , 499 Mich. at 123, 879 N.W.2d 237 ; State Bd. of Ed. v Houghton Lake Community Sch. , 430 Mich. 658, 671, 425 N.W.2d 80 (1988) ("[E]very word of a statute should be given meaning, and no word should be treated as surplusage or rendered nugatory if at all possible .") (emphasis added ); Baker v. Gen. Motors Corp. , 409 Mich. 639, 665, 297 N.W.2d 387 (1980) ("Every word of a statute should be given meaning and no word should be treated as surplusage or rendered nugatory if at all possible."). The latter formulation comports with the canon's historical roots, the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, and outside authorities. Marx v. Gen. Revenue Corp. , 568 U.S. 371, 385, 133 S.Ct. 1166, 185 L.Ed.2d 242 (2013) ("The canon against surplusage is not an absolute rule ...."); Lamie v. United States Trustee , 540 U.S. 526, 536, 124 S.Ct. 1023, 157 L.Ed.2d 1024 (2004) ("Surplusage does not always produce ambiguity and our preference for avoiding surplusage constructions is not absolute."); Reading Law , p 174 ("If possible , every word and every provision is to be given effect[.]") (emphasis added; formatting altered ).
Microsoft Corp. v. i4i Ltd. Partnership , 564 U.S. 91, 106, 131 S.Ct. 2238, 180 L.Ed.2d 131 (2011) (quotation marks and citations omitted ).
Section 932(c) is discussed in detail in Part III(B) of this opinion.
See Microsoft Corp , 564 U.S. at 106, 131 S.Ct. 2238.
See Connecticut Nat'l Bank v. Germain , 503 U.S. 249, 253-254, 112 S.Ct. 1146, 117 L.Ed.2d 391 (1992) (stating in relation to the surplusage canon that "canons of construction are no more than rules of thumb that help courts determine the meaning of legislation, and in interpreting a statute a court should always turn first to one, cardinal canon before all others. We have stated time and again that courts must presume that a legislature says in a statute what it means and means in a statute what it says there. When the words of a statute are unambiguous, then, this first canon is also the last: judicial inquiry is complete.") (quotation marks and citations omitted ).
Goulding , 275 Mich. at 359-360, 266 N.W. 378 ("The statute may not be extended beyond its plain terms by judicial construction, and defendant convicted, by showing acts which ought to have been within the terms of the statute but are not. There are no constructive criminal offenses .") (emphasis added ).
Another lens through which to view this case is the unintelligibility canon. That canon applies when statutory language makes no sense because it is intractably ambiguous or because two provisions are irreconcilable. Reading Law , pp. 134-135. In such cases, the unintelligible text is inoperative and cannot be given effect because it is meaningless. In this case, § 937 has a clear semantic meaning-it is a penalty provision. When viewed in its larger statutory context, however, it could be considered meaningless because, as a penalty with no corresponding substantive offense, it has no effect. Considered thusly, we agree with Justice Scalia and Professor Garner that "[t ]o give meaning to what is meaningless is to create a text rather than to interpret one." Id . at 134. Although the unintelligibility canon contains parallels to this case, we take no position on whether it applies here because no party has raised the issue.
See People v. Oakland Co Bank , 1 Doug 282, 287 (1844) ("We cannot, in order to give effect to what we may suppose to be the intention of the legislature, put upon the provisions of a statute a construction not supported by the words, though the consequence be to defeat the object of the act[.]"). See also King v. Barham , 108 Eng. Rep. 980, 982; 8 B & C 100 (1828) ("Our decision may, perhaps, in this particular case, operate to defeat the object of the [statute]; but it is better to abide by this consequence than to put upon it a construction not warranted by the words of the Act, in order to give effect to what we may suppose to have been the intention of the Legislature.").
See Malpass v. Dep't of Treasury , 494 Mich. 237, 251, 833 N.W.2d 272 (2013) (" '[T]o supply omissions transcends the judicial function.' "), quoting Iselin v. United States , 270 U.S. 245, 251, 46 S.Ct. 248, 70 L.Ed. 566 (1926). See also Hobbs v. McLean , 117 U.S. 567, 579, 6 S.Ct. 870, 29 L.Ed. 940 (1886) ("When a provision is left out of a statute, either by design or mistake of the legislature, the courts have no power to supply it. To do so would be to legislate and not to construe."); Jones v . Smart , 1 Term Rep. 44, 52 (1785) ("[W]e are bound to take the act of parliament, as they have made it: a casus omissus can in no case be supplied by a court of law, for that would be to make laws; nor can I conceive that it is our province to consider, whether such a law that has been passed be tyrannical or not."); Crawford v. Spooner , 18 Eng. Rep. 179, 6 Moore, PC 1 (1846) ("The construction of the Act must be taken from the bare words of the Act. We cannot fish out what possibly may have been the intention of the Legislature; we cannot aid the Legislature's defective phrasing of the Statute; we cannot add, and mend, and, by construction, make up deficiencies which are left there."); Reading Law , p 93 ("Nothing is to be added to what the text states or reasonably implies (casus omissus pro omisso habendus est ). That is, a matter not covered is to be treated as not covered.") (formatting altered ); Crawford, Construction of Statutes (1940), § 169, p 269 ("Omissions in a statute cannot, as a general rule, be supplied by construction. ... As is obvious, to permit the court to supply the omissions in statutes, would generally constitute an encroachment upon the field of the legislature.").
See Endlich, Commentary on the Interpretation of Statutes (1888), § 22, p 29 ("It has been seen that the plain meaning of the language used in a statute will not be departed from in its construction, though the purpose of the enactment be defeated by following it. Upon the same principle, courts cannot supply legislative defects and omissions, although, by reason of such, the statute becomes, in whole or in part, practically unenforceable or inoperative."), citing In re Willis Ave. , 56 Mich. 244, 250, 22 N.W. 871 (1885) (holding that a statute, through the oversight of the Legislature, failed to provide a procedure to effectuate the expressed intent of the statute, rendering that portion of the statute inoperative). See also C.N. Ray Corp. v. Secretary of State , 241 Mich. 457, 461, 217 N.W. 334 (1928) (holding that an act that expressly purported to repeal prior statutes failed to repeal anything because it lacked a necessary repealing clause); People v. Boothe , 16 N.Y.3d 195, 944 N.E.2d 1137, 919 N.Y.S.2d 498 (2011) (holding that where the legislature added a new definition of criminal conduct without amending the substantive provision to make that conduct unlawful, no crime was created and the charges were properly dismissed ); Farmers' Bank of Fayetteville v. Hale , 59 N.Y. 53, 57-58 (1874), overruled on other grounds by Hintermister v. First Nat'l Bank of Chittenango , 64 N.Y. 212 (1876) ("It is said that this [interpretation] renders the statute inoperative, and that this result must be avoided. This is a plausible but not a valid or sound position. There is nothing in the Constitution nor in any legal principle to prevent the legislature from passing an act with provisions which render it inoperative. When different constructions may be put upon an act, one of which will accomplish the purpose of the legislature and the other render the act nugatory, the former should be adopted; but when the provisions of an act are such that to make it operative would violate the declared meaning of the legislature, courts should be astute in construing it inoperative.").
Madugula , 496 Mich. at 696, 853 N.W.2d 75.
Baker , 409 Mich. at 665, 297 N.W.2d 387 (emphasis added ).
Because we hold that § 937 does not create a substantive offense, we do not reach defendant's argument that the trial court improperly admitted other-acts evidence under MRE 404(b). Additionally, because we hold that § 937 unambiguously sets forth a penalty provision and not a substantive offense, we do not reach defendant's additional arguments that the rule of lenity precludes enforcement of § 937 against defendant or that § 937 is void for vagueness. | [
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Boonstra, J.
Following a bench trial, defendant appeals by delayed leave granted his sentences for convictions of third-offense domestic violence, MCL 750.81(4), and witness intimidation, MCL 750.122(7)(b). The trial court sentenced defendant as a fourth-offense habitual offender, MCL 769.12, to concurrent prison terms of 2 to 12 years for each offense. We affirm.
I.
PERTINENT FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
On appeal, defendant challenges only his sentence, not his convictions. Defendant's domestic-violence conviction arose from an incident in which he repeatedly punched his girlfriend in the face. His witness-intimidation conviction arose after he placed a call to the victim from jail, while he was awaiting trial, during which he told the victim not to come to court for his trial. This call was recorded and admitted into evidence. It was undisputed that defendant had two previous domestic-violence convictions and that he had committed a sufficient number of prior felonies to be charged as a fourth-offense habitual offender. Defendant does not contest these facts on appeal.
At sentencing, defendant argued that his sentences should only be enhanced to maximum terms of 15 years as a result of his habitual-offender status. Defendant further argued that his witness-intimidation sentence should be based on the underlying offense of domestic violence without any habitual-offender enhancements. The trial court rejected both arguments, holding that defendant's habitual-offender status warranted an enhancement of his maximum sentence for domestic violence to life imprisonment and indicating that it would proceed on that basis. And the trial court based its sentence for witness intimidation on the underlying crime of third-offense domestic violence as enhanced by defendant's habitual-offender status.
The trial court sentenced defendant as described. This appeal followed.
II. DOMESTIC-VIOLENCE SENTENCE
Defendant argues that he is entitled to resentencing because his sentence for domestic violence was erroneously enhanced under both the domestic-violence statute and the habitual-offender statute. We disagree. Defendant's argument presents a question of statutory interpretation, which we review de novo. See People v. Flick , 487 Mich. 1, 8-9, 790 N.W.2d 295 (2010).
At the time defendant was sentenced, MCL 750.81 provided, in pertinent part:
(2) Except as provided in subsection (3) or (4), an individual who assaults or assaults and batters his or her spouse or former spouse, an individual with whom he or she has or has had a dating relationship, an individual with whom he or she has had a child in common, or a resident or former resident of his or her household, is guilty of a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment for not more than 93 days or a fine of not more than $500.00, or both.
***
(4) An individual who commits an assault or an assault and battery in violation of subsection (2), and who has 2 or more previous convictions for assaulting or assaulting and battering his or her spouse or former spouse, an individual with whom he or she has or has had a dating relationship, an individual with whom he or she has had a child in common, or a resident or former resident of his or her household, under any of the following, is guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment for not more than 5 years or a fine of not more than $5,000.00, or both:
(a) This section or an ordinance of a political subdivision of this state substantially corresponding to this section.
(b) Section 81a, 82, 83, 84, or 86.
(c) A law of another state or an ordinance of a political subdivision of another state substantially corresponding to this section or section 81a, 82, 83, 84, or 86.[ ]
MCL 750.81b(b) requires that a defendant's prior domestic-violence convictions be established at sentencing. As stated, it was undisputed that defendant had two prior convictions for domestic violence, and he does not challenge his conviction of third-offense domestic violence. Rather, defendant argues that the domestic-violence statute contains a method for enhancing his punishment based on recidivism and that his sentence should therefore not also be enhanced by the habitual-offender statute, MCL 769.12, which provides in pertinent part:
(1) If a person has been convicted of any combination of 3 or more felonies or attempts to commit felonies, whether the convictions occurred in this state or would have been for felonies or attempts to commit felonies in this state if obtained in this state, and that person commits a subsequent felony within this state, the person shall be punished upon conviction of the subsequent felony and sentencing under section 13 of this chapter as follows:
***
(b) If the subsequent felony is punishable upon a first conviction by imprisonment for a maximum term of 5 years or more or for life, the court, except as otherwise provided in this section or section 1 of chapter XI, may sentence the person to imprisonment for life or for a lesser term.
(c) If the subsequent felony is punishable upon a first conviction by imprisonment for a maximum term that is less than 5 years, the court, except as otherwise provided in this section or section 1 of chapter XI, may sentence the person to imprisonment for a maximum term of not more than 15 years.
In other words, defendant argues that the "first conviction" for the purposes of his habitual-offender enhancement should be taken to mean a conviction for a first offense of domestic violence, which is a misdemeanor. MCL 750.81(2). Misdemeanors are not subject to enhancement under the habitual-offender statute, which enhances a defendant's sentence based on prior and subsequent felonies . MCL 769.12.
The primary goal in construing a statute is "to ascertain and give effect to the intent of the Legislature." People v. Pasha , 466 Mich. 378, 382, 645 N.W.2d 275 (2002) ; People v. Morey , 461 Mich. 325, 329-330, 603 N.W.2d 250 (1999). In doing so, this Court must begin by examining the plain language of the statute itself. Pasha , 466 Mich. at 382, 645 N.W.2d 275. If the language of the statute is clear and unambiguous, it is assumed that the Legislature intended its plain meaning, and the statute is enforced as written. People v. Stone , 463 Mich. 558, 562, 621 N.W.2d 702 (2001). We avoid "literal constructions that produce unreasonable and unjust results that are inconsistent with the purpose of the act" in question. People v. Fetterley , 229 Mich.App. 511, 526, 583 N.W.2d 199 (1998).
The Legislature has demonstrated its ability to exclude certain categories of felonies from the sentence-enhancement provisions of the habitual-offender statute when it intends to do so.
People v. Bewersdorf , 438 Mich. 55, 72, 475 N.W.2d 231 (1991). In this case, however, nothing in the habitual-offender statute or the domestic-violence statute indicates an intent by the Legislature to exclude third-offense domestic violence from the enhancement provisions of MCL 769.12. The plain language of the relevant statutes thus does not aid defendant's argument.
Further, "[w]here the legislative scheme pertaining to the underlying offenses elevates the offense, rather than enhances the punishment, on the basis of prior convictions, both the elevation of the offense and the enhancement of the penalty under the habitual offender provisions is permitted." Fetterley , 229 Mich.App. at 540-541, 583 N.W.2d 199. In Fetterley the Court examined the reasoning in People v. Brown , 186 Mich.App. 350, 354-357, 463 N.W.2d 491 (1990), and approved the Brown Court's analysis and its decision to uphold the defendant's convictions because the retail-fraud statutory scheme does not "provide for gradations of punishment. Rather, it punishes the commission of a second-degree retail-fraud offense by a person with a prior conviction for a subsection 2 offense as a separate substantive offense." Fetterley , 229 Mich.App. at 536, 583 N.W.2d 199 (quotation marks and citation omitted). Our Supreme Court has held similarly with regard to statutory schemes in place regarding the operation of a motor vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor (OUIL) offenses, Bewersdorf , 438 Mich. at 68-72, 475 N.W.2d 231, and failure to comply with the sex offenders registration act (SORA) offenses, People v. Allen , 499 Mich. 307, 310-311, 884 N.W.2d 548 (2016). In all three of those cases, the reviewing Court concluded that a statutory scheme similar to the domestic-violence statutory scheme did not merely enhance punishment based on recidivism but instead created separate substantive crimes and that the habitual-offender sentence enhancement applied to those offenses. In fact, the Supreme Court in Allen stated, albeit in dictum, that "[t]his is likewise true of other statutory schemes of commonly charged offenses, such as domestic violence, MCL 750.81(2) to (4)." Allen , 499 Mich. at 325, 884 N.W.2d 548.
Our caselaw is clear. There is no qualitative difference in the domestic-violence statutory scheme, which elevates an offense from a misdemeanor to a felony and increases the penalty for repeat offenses, that compels a different outcome than those reached in Allen , Bewersdorf , and Fetterley . Cases cited by defendant are distinguishable. In People v. Honeycutt , 163 Mich.App. 757, 760-763, 415 N.W.2d 12 (1987), this Court held that a conviction for possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony (felony-firearm) was not subject to habitual-offender enhancement because the felony-firearm statute imposes mandatory determinate sentences for its violation. The Supreme Court agreed with Honeycutt . Allen , 499 Mich. at 325 n. 51, 884 N.W.2d 548. Fetterley involved the interplay of the public health code and the habitual-offender act. The Fetterley Court merely interpreted the plain meaning of MCL 769.12(1)(d) ("[i]f the subsequent felony is a major controlled substance offense, the person shall be punished as provided by part 74 of the public health code") and concluded that subsequent major controlled substance offenses must be enhanced as directed by the public health code, not by the habitual-offender statutes. Fetterley , 229 Mich.App. at 540-541, 583 N.W.2d 199. Finally, defendant is of course not aided by his reference to People v. Allen , 310 Mich.App. 328, 348-351, 872 N.W.2d 21 (2015), inasmuch as the case was reversed by Allen , 499 Mich. at 311, 327, 884 N.W.2d 548.
The domestic-violence statute does not impose mandatory determinate sentences for its violation, nor is it explicitly excepted from the habitual-offender act. Rather, the domestic-violence statute contains the type of "statutory scheme[ ] of commonly charged offenses," Allen , 499 Mich. at 325, 884 N.W.2d 548, that courts have repeatedly found to be subject to habitual-offender enhancement. The trial court therefore did not err by enhancing defendant's sentence for third-offense domestic violence under the habitual-offender statute. Defendant further argues, however, that even if the trial court was permitted to enhance his sentence, it erred by determining that the maximum sentence it could impose was life imprisonment, rather than a prison term of 15 years. Defendant thus argues that he is entitled to resentencing based on the trial court's misunderstanding of the law. We disagree.
Defendant contends that the trial court should have based its enhancement of his sentence on the maximum penalty for a first-offense conviction for domestic violence (93 days in jail). Had the trial court done so, it would have concluded that the offense being enhanced by defendant's habitual offender status was "punishable upon a first conviction by imprisonment for a maximum term that is less than 5 years" and thus could only be enhanced to a maximum of 15 years. MCL 769.12(1)(c). We disagree. Defendant was convicted of violating MCL 750.81(4), not MCL 750.81 generally. Third-offense domestic violence is, as discussed earlier in this opinion, a separate offense arising after two previous convictions; third-offense domestic violence is punishable by a maximum of 5 years' imprisonment. Therefore, the trial court's application of MCL 769.12(1)(b) was appropriate, because the subsequent felony (that constituted third-offense domestic violence) was "punishable upon a first conviction by imprisonment for a maximum term of 5 years or more or for life...." See Allen , 499 Mich. at 322, 884 N.W.2d 548 (applying the same rationale to second-offense failures to comply with SORA). The trial court did not err by recognizing that it was authorized to enhance defendant's sentence to a maximum of life imprisonment.
III. WITNESS-INTIMIDATION SENTENCE
Defendant also argued that the trial court erred by basing his sentence for witness intimidation on an underlying conviction of third-offense domestic violence as enhanced by the habitual-offender statute. We disagree. Defendant's argument involves a question of statutory interpretation, which we review de novo. Flick , 487 Mich. at 8-9, 790 N.W.2d 295.
The witness intimidation statute, MCL 750.122, provides, in pertinent part:
(7) A person who violates this section is guilty of a crime as follows:
(a) Except as provided in subdivisions (b) and (c), the person is guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment for not more than 4 years or a fine of not more than $5,000.00, or both.
(b) If the violation is committed in a criminal case for which the maximum term of imprisonment for the violation is more than 10 years, or the violation is punishable by imprisonment for life or any term of years, the person is guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment for not more than 10 years or a fine of not more than $20,000.00, or both.
(c) If the violation involves committing or attempting to commit a crime or a threat to kill or injure any person or to cause property damage, the person is guilty of a felony punishable by imprisonment for not more than 15 years or a fine of not more than $25,000.00, or both.
Defendant argues that the underlying "violation" in the instant case is a first-offense violation of MCL 750.81, i.e., a 93-day misdemeanor. For the reasons stated earlier in this opinion, however, the trial court correctly determined that the underlying offense was third-offense domestic violence, MCL 750.81(4), as enhanced by the habitual-offender statute. The act of witness intimidation was thus "committed in a criminal case for which the maximum term of imprisonment is more than 10 years, or ... imprisonment for life." MCL 750.122(7)(b). Although defendant argues that this reading will produce absurd results, we see nothing absurd about the Legislature's determination to structure the level of punishment for witness intimidation according to the severity of the underlying offense.
Affirmed.
Meter, P.J., and Borello, J., concurred with Boonstra, J.
People v. Stricklin , unpublished order of the Court of Appeals, entered March 20, 2017 (Docket No. 335616).
At the time of defendant's sentencing on May 9, 2016, the applicable subsection of the statute was MCL 750.81(4). See 2012 PA 366, effective April 1, 2013. However, as of July 25, 2016, the statute was amended, and the third-offense domestic violence provision now falls under MCL 750.81(5). See 2016 PA 87 (effective July 25, 2016).
The trial court acquitted defendant of interfering with an electronic communication, MCL 750.540(5)(a).
The trial court did not actually sentence defendant to a maximum sentence of life imprisonment; indeed, the maximum sentence imposed was less than the 15-year maximum sentence advocated by defendant.
The trial court concluded that a sentence imposed under the witness-intimidation statute must reflect the severity of the underlying offense.
As amended by 2012 PA 366. | [
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Boonstra, J.
Defendant pleaded guilty to armed robbery, MCL 750.529, breaking and entering a building with intent to commit a felony or larceny therein, MCL 750.110, and attempted possession of a firearm by a felon, MCL 750.224f. The trial court sentenced defendant to concurrent prison terms of 225 to 480 months for the armed-robbery conviction, 60 to 120 months for the breaking-and-entering conviction, and 18 to 30 months for the attempted-felon-in-possession conviction. Defendant filed a delayed application for leave to appeal with respect to his sentence for the armed-robbery conviction only, which we granted. We affirm.
I. PERTINENT FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Defendant provided a factual basis for his pleas at his plea hearing, admitting that on December 16, 2014, he and his accomplice entered a Rite Aid store located in the city of Oscoda with the intent to rob the store, that he brandished and pointed a knife at the clerk and demanded money from the cash register, and that the clerk handed him money. Defendant then fled the premises with the money. Defendant further testified that later that day, after the robbery at the Rite Aid, he broke into the Mai Tiki Resort with the intent to steal, taking various hand tools and an air compressor from a storage unit, placing them in his vehicle, and leaving the premises. Finally, defendant testified that on September 17, 2015, he attempted through text messages to buy a handgun from an undercover police officer. Defendant admitted that he knew that he was a felon and could not legally possess a handgun. Defendant went to the designated sale location with $200 in order to complete the sale but was arrested by police officers for his attempted purchase of the handgun.
As part of defendant's plea bargain, defendant and the prosecution agreed that Offense Variable (OV) 19 (interference with the administration of justice), MCL 777.49, would be assessed zero points for the armed-robbery and breaking-and-entering convictions. However, after the plea hearing but before sentencing, defendant attempted to smuggle controlled substances into jail, and when discovered, defendant allegedly struck and injured another inmate who defendant believed had informed jail authorities of his smuggling scheme. At sentencing, defendant recognized that the trial court could no longer assess zero points for OV 19, but defendant argued that OV 19 should be assessed at 15 points because "the incident that was alleged to have occurred at the jail allegedly required medical attention, and did allegedly disrupt the criminal justice system or the pursuance of criminal justice." See MCL 777.49(b). The prosecution argued that OV 19 should be assessed at 25 points because the conduct "threatened the security of a penal institution or court." See MCL 777.49(a). The trial court assessed 25 points for OV 19.
Based on the OV 19 score and the other OV and prior record variable ("PRV") scores that are not being challenged on appeal, defendant was subject to a guidelines minimum sentence range of 135 to 225 months. The trial court sentenced defendant to 225 months to 480 months' imprisonment, with credit for 334 days served.
After sentencing, defendant moved to correct his OV 19 score and for resentencing, claiming that the trial court had improperly assessed 25 points for OV 19 when it should have assessed zero points. Defendant argued that because OV 19 "only applies to the sentencing offense," and because the charge of assault of an inmate had been dismissed and the controlled-substance smuggling was not connected to the sentencing offense, OV 19 should have been assessed at zero points. With an OV 19 score of zero points, defendant's guidelines minimum sentence range would have changed to 126 months to 210 months. The prosecution argued that defendant's interference with the administration of justice was connected to the sentencing offense because "the reason ... he was in jail in the first place was because of the underlying armed robbery charge...." The trial court denied defendant's motion, concluding that because defendant's conduct of smuggling drugs and allegedly assaulting an individual in jail "threatened the security of the penal institution ... while he was in there awaiting [sentencing]," it was "connected enough." Further, the court noted that defendant's sentencing occurred after People v. Lockridge , 498 Mich. 358, 391-392, 870 N.W.2d 502, cert. den. --- U.S. ----, 136 S.Ct. 590, 193 L. Ed. 2d 487 (2015), that the advisory guidelines therefore only had to be taken into account, and that, given defendant's prior record and the seriousness of this offense, even if OV 19 were to be assessed at zero points, the sentence imposed was reasonable and resentencing would not be required.
This appeal followed. On appeal, defendant challenges the scoring of OV 19 at 25 points as well as the reasonableness of his armed-robbery sentence.
II. OV 19
Defendant argues that the trial court erred by scoring 25 points for OV 19 because the alleged subsequent actions in jail were not connected to the sentencing offense. We disagree. Defendant preserved this issue by moving the trial court for resentencing. See People v. Kimble , 470 Mich. 305, 310-311, 684 N.W.2d 669 (2004). With regard to sentencing guidelines, we review for clear error a trial court's factual determinations; those factual determinations must be supported by a preponderance of the evidence. See People v. Hardy , 494 Mich. 430, 438, 835 N.W.2d 340 (2013). However, "[w]hether the facts, as found, are adequate to satisfy the scoring conditions prescribed by statute, i.e., the application of the facts to the law, is a question of statutory interpretation, which an appellate court reviews de novo." Id .
"Offense Variables are properly scored by reference only to the sentencing offense except when the language of a particular offense variable statute specifically provides otherwise." People v. McGraw , 484 Mich. 120, 135, 771 N.W.2d 655, 664 (2009). The sentencing offense is defined as "the crime of which the defendant has been convicted and for which he or she is being sentenced." Id . at 122 n. 3, 771 N.W.2d 655. The calculation of an OV 19 score is governed by MCL 777.49, which provides:
Offense variable 19 is threat to the security of a penal institution or court or interference with the administration of justice or the rendering of emergency services. Score offense variable 19 by determining which of the following apply and by assigning the number of points attributable to the one that has the highest number of points:
(a) The offender by his or her conduct threatened the security of a penal institution or court ...................... 25 points
(b) The offender used force or the threat of force against another person or the property of another person to interfere with, attempt to interfere with, or that results in the interference with the administration of justice or the rendering of emergency services ..................... 15 points (c) The offender otherwise interfered with or attempted to interfere with the administration of justice .................... 10 points
(d) The offender did not threaten the security of a penal institution or court or interfere with or attempt to interfere with the administration of justice or the rendering of emergency services by force or threat of force...../ 0 points
"The aggravating factors considered in OV 19 contemplate events that almost always occur after the charged offense has been completed." People v. Smith , 488 Mich. 193, 200, 793 N.W.2d 666 (2010). As stated in Smith ,
It is axiomatic that every defendant charged with a felony must, at a minimum, enter a court in order to have his criminal charges resolved. And while not every criminal defendant is required to confront a penal institution in consequence of his felonious activity, by the time a defendant encounters either a courthouse or a penal institution, the sentencing offense has long been completed. The express consideration of these events explicitly indicates that postoffense conduct may be considered when scoring OV 19. [ Id . (citation omitted).]
We disagree with defendant's argument that his smuggling of controlled substances and assault of an inmate do not sufficiently relate to the underlying sentencing offense of armed robbery to justify the trial court's reference of those events when calculating defendant's OV 19 score. OV 19 explicitly contemplates postoffense conduct. Id . The underlying offense need not itself, involve a court, jail, or correctional facility; in other words, the sentencing offense need not, itself, involve a threat to the security of a penal institution or court. Id . Rather, our Legislature has "specifically commanded that OV 19 be scored for every category of felony." Id . Defendant, by virtue of his plea to the sentencing offenses, was in custody awaiting sentencing for those offenses when he threatened the security of the jail facility by attempting to bring controlled substances into it and by attacking another inmate. Defendant was thus in the "administration of justice" phase of the sentencing offense when his conduct threatened the security of a penal institution. See id . at 202, 793 N.W.2d 666 (noting that the administration-of-justice process "is not commenced until an underlying crime has occurred, which invokes the process"). The trial court did not err by determining that defendant's conduct at the jail should be considered in calculating his OV 19 score.
Further, defendant's conduct in attempting to smuggle drugs into the jail and assaulting another inmate who defendant believed had informed the authorities of his conduct clearly threatened the security of a penal institution. The smuggling of controlled substances into a jail is certainly a threat to the security of a penal institution because of the dangers of controlled substances to the users and those around them. People v. Ward , 483 Mich. 1071, 1072, 765 N.W.2d 881, 881 (2009) (YOUNG, J., concurring) ("It is hard to believe that anyone could sincerely dispute that the presence of illicit drugs 'threaten[s] the security of a penal institution.' "). And, quoting MCL 777.49(a) (alteration in Ward ). And even if a fight between inmates might be found insufficiently related to the security of the penal institution at large, defendant's retaliatory attack on an inmate who he believed had informed on him definitely threatened the security of the jail by causing disruption within the jail and by potentially discouraging other inmates from coming forward about security breaches they might witness.
Finally, defendant's Lockridge argument is meritless because defendant was sentenced after Lockridge was issued and the trial court was fully aware of the advisory nature of the guidelines. See Lockridge , 498 Mich. at 388-389, 392 n. 28, 870 N.W.2d 502.
The trial court did not err by assessing 25 points for OV 19.
III. REASONABLENESS OF SENTENCE
Defendant also argues that his sentence at the top of the recommended guidelines range for armed robbery was unreasonable. Because we conclude that defendant's sentence was not a departure, we disagree.
If the "defendant's sentence is calculated using a guidelines minimum sentence range in which OVs have been scored on the basis of facts not admitted by the defendant or found beyond a reasonable doubt by the jury, the sentencing court may exercise its discretion to depart from the guidelines range." Lockridge , 498 Mich. at 391-392, 870 N.W.2d 502. "A sentence that departs from the applicable guidelines range will be reviewed by an appellate court for reasonableness." Id . at 392, 870 N.W.2d 502. However, if the defendant's sentence is within the recommended guidelines range, resentencing is not required unless there is a scoring error that changes the guidelines range or the trial court relied on inaccurate information in sentencing the defendant. See People v. Francisco , 474 Mich. 82, 89, 711 N.W.2d 44 (2006) ; People v. Sours , 315 Mich.App. 346, 350, 890 N.W.2d 401 (2016).
As discussed, we hold that the trial court properly assessed 25 points for OV 19. Defendant has not challenged any other offense variables or otherwise presented evidence that the trial court relied on inaccurate information in sentencing him; rather, he merely argues that if fewer than 25 points were assessed for OV 19, his sentence then would be a departure from the guidelines, one that should be held to be unreasonable. Because defendant's sentence was within the recommended minimum sentencing guidelines range, he has not established his right to resentencing. See Francisco , 474 Mich. at 89, 711 N.W.2d 44 ; Sours , 315 Mich.App. at 350-351, 890 N.W.2d 401.
Affirmed.
Meter, P.J., and Borrello, J., concurred with Boonstra, J.
People v. Carpenter , unpublished order of the Court of Appeals, entered December 16, 2016 (Docket No. 335383). | [
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On order of the Court, the motion for leave to file a brief amicus curiae is GRANTED. The application for leave to appeal the October 12, 2017 judgment of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court. | [
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Cameron, P.J.
Defendants, Carl J. Trupp III and Jennifer M. Trupp, appeal by leave granted the circuit court's May 26, 2016 order affirming the district court's January 22, 2016 order denying their motion for offer-of-judgment sanctions against plaintiff, Simcor Construction, Inc. We reverse and remand.
I. BACKGROUND
This case arises out of plaintiff's breach-of-contract claim against defendants, which originated in district court. Pursuant to a contractual provision, the district court ordered the parties to arbitration on September 18, 2014. Defendants made an offer of judgment in favor of plaintiff for $2,200 on November 6, 2014. Plaintiff rejected the offer and made a counteroffer of judgment for $9,338.39. The parties did not reach a settlement, the case went to arbitration, and the arbitrator dismissed plaintiff's claim "with prejudice and without costs."
On February 17, 2015, the district court denied plaintiff's motion to vacate the arbitration award, confirmed the arbitration award in favor of defendants, and entered "a Judgment of No Cause of Action" that was "in favor of Defendants and against Plaintiff." On March 9, 2015, the district court denied defendants' motion for offer-of-judgment costs and attorney fees under MCR 2.405. On June 8, 2015, the circuit court affirmed the district court's denial of plaintiff's motion to vacate the arbitration award. On October 7, 2015, the circuit court held a hearing on defendants' appeal of the district court's denial of their motion for offer-of-judgment costs. The circuit court remanded the case to the district court to allow it the opportunity to more thoroughly explain its reasoning under MCR 2.405(D) regarding the "interest of justice" exception.
On remand, the district court granted costs to defendants under MCR 2.405(D). On January 22, 2016, the district court held a hearing on plaintiff's motion for reconsideration. After some confusion as to the scope of the remand from the circuit court, the district court changed course and entered an order concluding that MCR 2.405(D) did not apply, relying heavily on Kequam ex rel. Macklam v. Lakes States Ins. Co. , unpublished opinion per curiam opinion of the Court of Appeals, issued April 11, 1997 (Docket No. 189433), p 1, 1997 WL 33352794, and held that the confirmation of the arbitration award did not constitute a "verdict" under MCR 2.405(A)(4). The circuit court affirmed the district court's order, concluding that the confirmation of an arbitration award does not constitute a "verdict" within the meaning of MCR 2.405(A)(4) because a court that confirms the arbitration award is essentially acting in an appellate capacity and not rendering a "verdict." Defendants sought leave to appeal the circuit court's order affirming the district court's order. On appeal, defendants argue that the circuit court erred when it affirmed the district court's order denying defendants' motion for offer-of-judgment sanctions. First, defendants claim that they are entitled to offer-of-judgment costs because the district court's judgment confirming the arbitration award constitutes a "verdict" under MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c). Second, defendants claim that if offer of judgment costs apply, plaintiff cannot prove an "interest of justice" exception that would nonetheless prevent the imposition of costs.
II. STANDARD OF REVIEW
Generally, this Court reviews de novo "[t]he interpretation of statutes and court rules."
Estes v. Titus , 481 Mich. 573, 578-579, 751 N.W.2d 493 (2008). Additionally, this Court reviews "de novo the interpretation and application of the offer of judgment rule." Marilyn Froling Revocable Living Trust v. Bloomfield Hills Country Club , 283 Mich.App. 264, 297, 769 N.W.2d 234 (2009). We review "for an abuse of discretion the trial court's decision regarding whether to refuse to award attorney fees under the interest-of-justice exception." AFP Specialties, Inc. v. Vereyken , 303 Mich.App. 497, 516, 844 N.W.2d 470 (2014) (citation omitted). "An abuse of discretion occurs 'when the trial court's decision is outside the range of reasonable and principled outcomes.' " Id . at 517, 844 N.W.2d 470, quoting Smith v. Khouri , 481 Mich. 519, 526, 751 N.W.2d 472 (2008).
III. ANALYSIS
Defendants first claim that MCR 2.405 applies to the district court's confirmation of the arbitration award, and therefore, offer-of-judgment costs are merited. We agree.
"Generally, the rules governing statutory interpretation apply equally to the interpretation of court rules. If the plain meaning of the language of the court rule is clear, then judicial construction is neither necessary nor permitted, and unless explicitly defined, every word or phrase should be accorded its plain and ordinary meaning, considering the context in which the words are used." Castillo v. Exclusive Builders, Inc. , 273 Mich.App. 489, 492, 733 N.W.2d 62 (2007) (citations and quotation marks omitted).
" MCR 2.405(D) provides for the imposition of costs following the rejection of an offer to stipulate the entry of a judgment ...." Castillo , 273 Mich.App. at 491, 733 N.W.2d 62. This is known as "the offer of judgment rule." Froling Trust , 283 Mich.App. at 297, 769 N.W.2d 234. "The purpose of MCR 2.405 is 'to encourage settlement and to deter protracted litigation.' " Luidens v. 63rd Dist. Court , 219 Mich.App. 24, 31, 555 N.W.2d 709 (1996), quoting Hamilton v. Becker Orthopedic Appliance Co. , 214 Mich.App. 593, 596, 543 N.W.2d 60 (1995). MCR 2.405(D)(1) provides, in relevant part:
(D) Imposition of Costs Following Rejection of Offer. If an offer is rejected, costs are payable as follows:
(1) If the adjusted verdict is more favorable to the offeror than the average offer, the offeree must pay to the offeror the offeror's actual costs incurred in the prosecution or defense of the action.
As stated by this Court, MCR 2.405(A)(4) previously provided that "the term 'verdict' " was "defined as 'the award rendered by a jury or by the court sitting without a jury, excluding all costs and interest.' " Parkhurst Homes, Inc. v. McLaughlin , 187 Mich.App. 357, 362, 466 N.W.2d 404 (1991), citing former MCR 2.405(A)(4), effective March 1, 1985. MCR 2.405(A)(4) has since been amended and currently states:
(4) "Verdict" includes,
(a) a jury verdict,
(b) a judgment by the court after a nonjury trial,
(c) a judgment entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the offer of judgment.
Plaintiffs argue that MCR 2.405 does not apply to arbitration disputes, such as this case, because the district court's judgment confirming the arbitration award is not a "verdict" under MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c). Determining whether MCR 2.405 applies to the district court's confirmation of the arbitration award is a two-step analysis. First, we must address whether the district court's judgment confirming the arbitration award is a "judgment" under MCR 2.405, and if it is, then we must address whether the judgment was "entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the offer of judgment." MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c). We conclude that defendants have met both requirements.
To first determine whether the judgment confirming the arbitration award falls within the provisions of MCR 2.405(A)(4), we examine the relevant arbitration provisions. MCL 691.1702 of the Uniform Arbitration Act, MCL 691.1681 et seq., states:
After a party to an arbitration proceeding receives notice of an award, the party may move the court for an order confirming the award at which time the court shall issue a confirming order unless the award is modified or corrected under [ MCL 691.1700 ] or [ MCL 691.1704 ] or is vacated under [ MCL 691.1703 ].
MCR 3.602(J)(5) provides, "If the motion to vacate is denied and there is no motion to modify or correct the award pending, the court shall confirm the award." As to judgments relating to arbitration, MCR 3.602(L) states:
Judgment. The court shall render judgment giving effect to the award as corrected, confirmed, or modified. The judgment has the same force and effect, and may be enforced in the same manner, as other judgments.
Plaintiff contends that the district court's ruling was correct because both MCR 3.602 and MCL 691.1702 do not expressly refer to MCR 2.405, and therefore, MCR 2.405 is inapplicable to judgments confirming arbitration awards. This argument lacks merit. Under MCR 3.602(L), judgments confirming arbitration awards carry "the same force and effect ... as other judgments" and "may be enforced in the same manner." MCR 3.602(L). Under MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c), a verdict is "a judgment entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the offer of judgment." (Emphasis added.) There is nothing that excludes judgments confirming arbitration awards from the provisions of MCR 2.405, and we see no reason to do so in light of MCR 3.602(L). The only restriction under MCR 2.405 is stated in Subrule (E): "Costs may not be awarded under this rule in a case that has been submitted to case evaluation under MCR 2.403 unless the case evaluation award was not unanimous." Thus, only unanimous case evaluations are outside the scope of MCR 2.405 because MCR 2.403 governs such cases. The drafters could have excluded from MCR 2.405 judgments confirming arbitration awards, yet no such provision exists. The plain language in MCR 3.602, MCL 691.1702, and MCR 2.405 is clear, and we need not look further to reach this result.
Because we conclude that the district court's judgment confirming the arbitration award constitutes a "judgment" under MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c), the next question is whether the judgment was "entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the offer of judgment." MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c). There is no dispute on appeal that plaintiff rejected defendants' offer of judgment or that the district court denied plaintiff's motion to vacate the arbitration award, confirmed the arbitration award in favor of defendants, and entered a judgment "in favor of Defendants and against Plaintiff." After plaintiff rejected defendants' offer of judgment, the district court entered a judgment in favor of defendants "as a result of" its ruling on plaintiff's motion to vacate the arbitration award, thereby satisfying the second requirement under MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c), i.e., that the judgment be entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the offer of judgment.
We find instructive the Michigan Supreme Court's holding in Acorn Investment Co. v. Mich. Basic Prop. Ins. Ass'n , 495 Mich. 338, 342, 852 N.W.2d 22 (2014). In Acorn , the Court analyzed the availability of case evaluation sanctions under MCR 2.403(O)(1) and (O)(2), stating that MCR 2.403(O)(2)(c) defines "verdict" as "a judgment entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the case evaluation." Acorn , 495 Mich. at 350, 852 N.W.2d 22 (quotation marks omitted). The definition of "verdict" provided by MCR 2.403(O)(2)(c) is nearly identical to the definition of verdict provided by MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c), with the exception of the last portion of each rule referring respectively to a case evaluation or an offer of judgment. In Acorn , the Michigan Supreme Court first inserted the definition of the term "verdict" as defined by MCR 2.403(O)(2)(c) into the language of MCR 2.403(O)(1), which resulted in the following rule:
If a party has rejected an evaluation and the action proceeds to a judgment entered as a result of a ruling on a motion after rejection of the case evaluation , that party must pay the opposing party's actual costs unless the verdict is more favorable to the rejecting party than the case evaluation. [ Acorn , 495 Mich. at 350, 852 N.W.2d 22.]
While Acorn concerned case evaluations and the interpretation of MCR 2.403(O)(2)(c), we find its analysis persuasive, considering that the definitions of "verdict"
found in MCR 2.403(O)(2)(c) and MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c) are virtually identical. In Acorn , the Court held that a motion for entry of judgment of an appraisal panel's award satisfied the definition of verdict under MCR 2.403(O)(2)(c) because it was "the court, not the appraisal panel, that made the final determination of the parties' rights and obligations." Acorn , 495 Mich. at 351, 852 N.W.2d 22. The Court explained that the trial court "would still have had matters to attend to, including awarding interest under MCL 500.2006 for [the] defendant's failure to pay in a timely fashion." Id . at 351-352, 852 N.W.2d 22.
In this case, it was the district court, not the arbitrator, that made the final determination of whether to confirm, correct, modify, or vacate the arbitration award. See MCL 691.1702. The district court still had to determine whether it should modify or correct the award under MCL 691.1700 and MCL 691.1704, or to vacate the award entirely under MCL 691.1703. Because the court had the final determination as to the arbitration award, the judgment constitutes a verdict. Thus, we hold that if a party rejects an offer of judgment, an arbitrator enters an arbitration award, and a judgment is entered as a result of a ruling on a motion to vacate the arbitration award, then the rejecting party must pay the opposing party's actual costs unless the judgment affecting the arbitration award is more favorable to the rejecting party than the offer of judgment. Plaintiff rejected defendants' offer of judgment in the amount of $2,200. At the arbitration, the arbitrator dismissed the case, finding no cause of action. The district court confirmed the arbitrator's decision, which was an outcome less favorable to the rejecting party. Therefore, the district court's judgment falls within the plain meaning of "verdict," as defined by MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c), and the circumstances in this case mandate the award of offer-of-judgment costs to defendants.
We note that the district court denied defendants' motion for offer-of-judgment costs because "[t]he arbitrator specifically did not grant any costs or attorney fees to either party." Additionally, plaintiff argues that the arbitrator ruled that "[a]ll claims not expressly granted herein are hereby denied," and therefore, allowing the district court to impose costs contravenes the arbitrator's award. Under MCR 2.405(D)(1), "costs are payable" if "the adjusted verdict is more favorable to the offeror than the average offer ...." Until the arbitration award was confirmed by the district court, there was no "verdict," and the issue of offer-of-judgment costs was not before the arbitrator. Plaintiff also fails to acknowledge that the arbitrator ruled that "[t]his Award is in full settlement of all claims submitted to this Arbitration ." (Emphasis added.) The claim for offer-of-judgment costs was not submitted to arbitration, and no such claim existed at that time because there was no verdict. To that point, plaintiff concedes on appeal that the arbitrator did not consider the issue of offer-of-judgment costs.
Further, MCR 3.602 defines an arbitrator's power to impose costs. MCR 3.602(M) states, "The costs of the proceedings may be taxed as in civil actions, and, if provision for the fees and expenses of the arbitrator has not been made in the award, the court may allow compensation for the arbitrator's services as it deems just." The use of the term "proceedings" refers to the arbitration proceedings over which the arbitrator presides. The offer of judgment is not part of the arbitration proceedings, and any costs involving the offer of judgment are outside the scope of the arbitrator's power to impose costs. Therefore, plaintiff's argument fails, and the district court erred to the extent that it concluded that the arbitration award barred defendants' motion for offer-of-judgment costs. The district court also expressly found Kequam persuasive in its order denying defendants' motion for offer-of-judgment costs because, in that case, an arbitration award did not satisfy the definition of "verdict" in MCR 2.405(A)(4). Kequam , unpub. op. at 2. Not only is Kequam nonbinding authority under MCR 7.215(C)(1), its holding pertained to the former version of MCR 2.405(A)(4) and therefore was entirely irrelevant to the current version of MCR 2.405(A)(4). The prior version did not contain MCR 2.405(A)(4)(c), which is the controlling provision at issue here. Therefore, the district court erred when it relied on Kequam .
Finally, defendants contend that the "interest of justice" exception under MCR 2.405(D)(3) does not apply here. MCR 2.405(D)(3) states as follows:
(D) Imposition of Costs Following Rejection of Offer. If an offer is rejected, costs are payable as follows:
* * *
(3) The court shall determine the actual costs incurred. The court may, in the interest of justice, refuse to award an attorney fee under this rule.
This Court has held that "the interest of justice exception should be applied only in unusual circumstances." Stitt v. Holland Abundant Life Fellowship (on Remand) , 243 Mich.App. 461, 472, 624 N.W.2d 427 (2000) (citation and quotation marks omitted). "[T]he unusual circumstances necessary to invoke the 'interest of justice' exception may occur where a legal issue of first impression is presented, or 'where the law is unsettled and substantial damages are at issue, where a party is indigent and an issue merits decision by a trier of fact, or where the effect on third persons may be significant ....' "
Haliw v. City of Sterling Hts. (On Remand) , 266 Mich.App. 444, 448, 702 N.W.2d 637 (2005) (quotation marks and citations omitted).
The district court's order does not address this exception. " '[A] court speaks through its written orders and judgments, not through its oral pronouncements.' " City of Sterling Hts. v. Chrysler Group, LLC , 309 Mich.App. 676, 682, 873 N.W.2d 342 (2015), quoting In re Contempt of Henry , 282 Mich.App. 656, 678, 765 N.W.2d 44 (2009) (alteration in original). Because the district court did not reach the issue of whether the "interest of justice" exception applies in its order, we cannot determine whether the exception in MCR 2.405(D)(3) applies to the facts of this case. For that reason, we must remand the case to the district court for a determination of the applicability of the exception and to articulate the basis for its decision. If the exception does not apply, the district court must impose offer-of-judgment costs.
Reversed and remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. We do not retain jurisdiction.
SERVITTO and GLEICHER, JJ., concurred with CAMERON, P.J.
On August 10, 2015, plaintiff sought leave to appeal the circuit court's affirmance of the district court's denial of plaintiff's motion to vacate the arbitration award. This Court denied plaintiff's application for leave to appeal on February 4, 2016. Simcor Constr., Inc. v Trupp , unpublished order of the Court of Appeals, entered February 4, 2016 (Docket No. 328731).
There was confusion at the district court's hearing on the motion for reconsideration as to whether the district court was to address the applicability of MCR 2.405, or if the circuit court had already ruled on that and the only question was whether an "interest of justice" exception applied under MCR 2.405(D)(3).
The current version of MCR 2.405(A)(4) came into effect on October 1, 1997. See 454 Mich. cxxii, cxxxiv (1997).
The circuit court erred when it held that the district court's confirmation of the arbitration award was not a "verdict" because it was acting as an appellate court in the arbitration proceedings and not entering a "judgment" as that term is used in MCR 2.405. MCR 3.602(L) expressly states that a judgment confirming an arbitration award has the same force and effect as any other judgment, and we conclude that a judgment, as described in MCR 3.602(L), falls within the provisions of MCR 2.405. | [
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On April 12, 2017, the Court heard oral argument on the application for leave to appeal the June 16, 2016 judgment of the Court of Appeals. By order of July 7, 2017, the parties were directed to file additional supplemental briefs. On order of the Court, the supplemental briefs having been received, the application is again considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court.
Zahra, J. (dissenting ).
I respectfully dissent from the majority's order denying leave in this case. This action arises from a claim brought under the Michigan Whistleblowers' Protection Act (WPA), a law enacted to protect employees from adverse employment consequences that result from the employee's reporting of actual or suspected violations of law. The issue presented in this case is whether an employee is reporting suspected illegal activity to a public body under MCL 15.362 -a protected activity under the WPA-when that employee merely informs her private attorney about another person purportedly violating a personal protection order (PPO). The trial court granted summary disposition to defendant on the ground that plaintiff had not reported a suspected illegal activity to a public body under the WPA. The Court of Appeals reversed, holding that plaintiff's private attorney, as a mandatory member of the State Bar of Michigan, is a "public body." Following oral argument on defendant's application for leave to appeal, this Court ordered supplemental briefing on whether plaintiff's communication with her attorney amounted to a "report" under the WPA. I conclude that this communication is not a "report" based on the plain and ordinary meaning of that verb, particularly when it is considered within the context of the WPA and the sui generis nature of the attorney-client relationship. Accordingly, I would reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and remand this case to the Court of Appeals for further proceedings.
I. FACTS AND PROCEEDINGS
Plaintiff Tammy McNeill-Marks began working for defendant MidMichigan Medical Center-Gratiot (MMCG) in February 2012. Prior to this time, plaintiff had adopted two children and had a third child placed in her custody. Each child has the same biological mother: Sandi Freeze, plaintiff's second cousin. Marcia Fields, Freeze's mother and the children's biological grandmother, suffers from several psychiatric disorders. After plaintiff took custody of the children, Fields began a pattern of threatening conduct toward plaintiff, which included threats to kill her and her adopted and biological children. This behavior led plaintiff to seek multiple PPOs against Fields.
On January 14, 2013, the Gratiot Circuit Court entered an amended PPO that prohibited Fields from engaging in "stalking" as defined in MCL 750.411h and MCL 750.411i. Fields continued to violate the PPO. On December 27, 2013, plaintiff filed a motion through her attorney, Richard Gay, to extend the PPO. The circuit court granted the motion ex parte. The PPO prohibited the same conduct as the previous PPO and remained in effect until December 31, 2014.
While at work on January 13, 2014, plaintiff unexpectedly encountered Fields at MMCG. Plaintiff said "hello" to a then-unknown person being transported down a hallway in a wheelchair. The person responded, "Hello, Tammy" in what plaintiff described as "[a] little sing-songy voice" that plaintiff immediately recognized as Fields's voice. Plaintiff testified that she did not know Fields was an inpatient at that time. There was no further interaction between plaintiff and Fields at MMCG.
Plaintiff called her attorney, Richard Gay, after her encounter with Fields. Plaintiff testified that she was only returning a missed call from Gay from over the weekend. Plaintiff told Gay that "[Fields] showed up today at my workplace." According to plaintiff, she did not tell Gay whether Fields was a patient at the hospital. Likewise, plaintiff expressly told Gay not to serve Fields with the PPO at MMCG because she had previously been told by Fields's daughter at a funeral that Fields was "really, really ill" and would require heart surgery, which was also confirmed in her family members' Facebook posts.
Nevertheless, later that evening Fields was served with the PPO at MMCG. According to plaintiff and Gay, Fields was served at MMCG as a matter of coincidence that bore no connection with plaintiff's encounter with Fields earlier that day. Apparently, Gay's secretary happened to be at MMCG visiting another patient when she saw Fields there. Gay's secretary had informed her boyfriend, Gay's process server, about Fields's presence at MMCG. Gay's process server went to MMCG, asked for and received Fields's room number, and then served her with the PPO in her hospital room.
Fields reported the incident to defendant as a suspected violation of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). In reaction to Fields's HIPAA complaint, defendant began an investigation into plaintiff's conduct. Following defendant's investigation, its privacy officer concluded that plaintiff had violated HIPAA and defendant's internal privacy policies by "disclos[ing] that the patient [Fields] was ... at the hospital," which was "protected health information." Plaintiff was terminated on February 14, 2014. The "Corrective Action and Disciplinary Form" cited plaintiff's telephone conversation with Gay as a "severe breach of confidentiality and violation[ ] of HIPAA privacy/practices" and as the reason for her termination.
Plaintiff brought the instant action against defendant, claiming that her termination violated the WPA and Michigan public policy. Following discovery, defendant moved for summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(10). The trial court granted defendant summary disposition as to both claims. With regard to the WPA claim, the trial court ruled in part that plaintiff's conversation with her attorney was not a report to a public body. The trial court also ruled that plaintiff failed to demonstrate that defendant requested her to conceal or hide the existence of a crime in violation of public policy. Plaintiff appealed.
The Court of Appeals reversed the trial court's ruling regarding the WPA violation and remanded for further proceedings. The panel held that plaintiff's phone call with attorney Gay regarding her encounter with Fields was a report to a public body and thus a protected activity under the WPA. The panel specifically stated that plaintiff's attorney, as a member of the State Bar of Michigan (SBM), was a member of a "public body" under MCL 15.361(d)(iv ). The panel thus concluded that plaintiff presented sufficient evidence to establish a prima facie case under the WPA. Defendant sought leave to appeal in this Court. We directed the Clerk of this Court to schedule oral argument on whether to grant the application or take other action. Following oral argument on the application for leave to appeal, we directed the parties to file additional supplemental briefs addressing the following issues:
[W]hether the communication from the plaintiff to her attorney regarding Marcia Fields's presence at MidMichigan Medical Center-Gratiot amounted to a "report," as that word is used in Section 2 of the Whistleblowers Protection Act (WPA), MCL 15.362. In answering this question, the parties shall, at a minimum, address whether: (1) the plaintiff's communication must be to an individual with the authority to address the alleged violation of law; (2) the WPA requires that a plaintiff employee specifically intend to make a charge of a violation or suspected violation of law against another; and (3) privileged communications between a client and his or her attorney can constitute a report under the WPA.[ ]
II. STANDARD OF REVIEW
The interpretation of the WPA presents a statutory question that this Court reviews de novo. We also review de novo a trial court's grant of summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(10).
III. ANALYSIS
The WPA states, in pertinent part:
An employer shall not discharge ... an employee ... because the employee, or a person acting on behalf of the employee, reports or is about to report, verbally or in writing, a violation or a suspected violation of a law or regulation or rule promulgated pursuant to law of this state, a political subdivision of this state, or the United States to a public body....[ ]
MCL 15.361(d) broadly defines the phrase "public body" as follows:
(d) "Public body" means all of the following:
(i ) A state officer, employee, agency, department, division, bureau, board, commission, council, authority, or other body in the executive branch of state government.
(ii ) An agency, board, commission, council, member, or employee of the legislative branch of state government.
(iii ) A county, city, township, village, intercounty, intercity, or regional governing body, a council, school district, special district, or municipal corporation, or a board, department, commission, council, agency, or any member or employee thereof.
(iv ) Any other body which is created by state or local authority or which is primarily funded by or through state or local authority, or any member or employee of that body.
(v ) A law enforcement agency or any member or employee of a law enforcement agency.
(vi ) The judiciary and any member or employee of the judiciary.[ ]
The Court of Appeals relied on Subparagraph (iv ) to conclude that the SBM is a "public body" under the WPA. The panel then concluded that plaintiff's attorney, as a mandatory member of the SBM, is a member of a "public body." Assuming without deciding that plaintiff's attorney is a member of a "public body" under MCL 15.361(d)(iv ), this Court must consider whether plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was "reporting" under the WPA.
A. "REPORT" UNDER THE WPA
Statutory interpretation begins with an examination of the statutory text. We give the words used in a statute their ordinary meaning, unless the statute specifically defines a given term. When a statutory definition is provided, that definition controls over any ordinary or plain meaning that may otherwise apply to the term or phrase defined by statute. "The primary rule of statutory construction is that, where the statutory language is clear and unambiguous, the statute must be applied as written." "A necessary corollary of these principles is that a court may read nothing into an unambiguous statute that is not within the manifest intent of the Legislature as derived from the words of the statute itself." When engaging in statutory interpretation, courts must construe the text as a whole.
A statutory term or phrase cannot be read in isolation, but must be construed in accordance with the surrounding text and statutory scheme. The WPA prohibits an employer from firing an employee "because the employee, or a person acting on behalf of the employee, reports or is about to report ... a violation or a suspected violation of a law ... to a public body...." The subject of this dependent clause is the whistleblower employee or "a person acting on behalf of the employee" (discussed more below). At issue here, the Legislature uses the term "report" as a transitive verb, which means something must be reported. That something-a direct object-is "a violation or suspected violation of a law" (for short, the "illegality"). The illegality, as a direct object, provides meaning to the verb "report." The receiver of the reported illegality-an indirect object-is a "public body" defined under MCL 15.361(d). The Legislature's express designation of a "public body" as the receiver of the reported illegality presumes that the governmental entity can address or cure the illegality through some governmental function.
The term "report" is undefined in the WPA and, accordingly, must be interpreted in light of its context within the WPA. If a statute does not define a term, it is appropriate to consult dictionary definitions to determine the plain and ordinary meaning of the term. The term "report"-like most words in the English language-is polysemous. For illustration, a dictionary contemporaneous with the WPA's enactment provides 13 definitions of the verb "report" (both transitive and intransitive). The multitude of meanings for "report" underscores the importance of reading "report" in the context of the WPA. Reading the WPA as a whole, the most pertinent definitions of the verb "report" are "to denounce to a person in authority" or "to make a charge of misconduct against." These definitions comport with the sentence structure of MCL 15.362 : the whistleblower employee (subject) must report (transitive verb) an illegality (direct object) to a public body (indirect object). Thus, the ordinary meaning of "report" under the WPA requires that the whistleblower employee intend to denounce an illegality or make a charge of misconduct to a "public body."
The Court of Appeals failed to give meaning to the term "report" under the WPA. The panel assumed that plaintiff's communication with her attorney was reporting. "It is undisputed that Gay was a licensed Michigan attorney and a member in good standing of the [SBM] when plaintiff called him and reported her contact with Fields." But an employee that simply communicates an illegality to a person falling under the broad definition of "public body" has not engaged in protected activity under the WPA. Giving the term "report" such broad meaning would ignore the textual requirements for a protected activity and would not further the purported purposes of the WPA. The WPA contains no textual basis for adopting the broadest definition for the undefined term "report."
Other Court of Appeals panels have properly given meaning to "report" under the WPA. In Henry v. Detroit , the Detroit Police Department formed a review board to investigate the highly publicized death of Malice Green. The department's internal policy defined the role and obligations of the board, but the police chief gave orders effectively precluding the board from performing its obligations. The plaintiff police commander gave deposition testimony in a civil suit brought by another officer that the board was not allowed to perform its obligations. Shortly thereafter, the plaintiff was given the "choice" of either a demotion or taking an early retirement. The plaintiff brought a WPA action against the city and the police chief, in which the jury found that the defendants had retaliated against the plaintiff for his deposition testimony. The Henry panel, characterizing the plaintiff as a "type 1 whistleblower," stated: "On the basis of the plain language of the WPA, we interpret a type 1 whistleblower to be one who, on his own initiative, takes it upon himself to communicate the employer's wrongful conduct to a public body in an attempt to bring the, as yet hidden, violation to light to remedy the situation or harm done by the violation. In other words, we see type 1 whistleblowers as initiators...." The panel held that the plaintiff's deposition testimony was not a report because the plaintiff "took no initiative to communicate the violation to a public body" and "was deposed in a private civil suit previously filed by a fellow officer."
Another illustrative case is Hays v. Lutheran Social Servs. of Mich. The plaintiff employee worked as a home-healthcare provider. During her work, the plaintiff encountered a client that smoked marijuana in his home and within her presence.
The plaintiff called the police inquiring about potential criminal consequences of failing to disclose another person's illegal drug use. When the police asked if she wanted to take any action, the plaintiff declined to do so. She was subsequently fired by her employer for violating her client confidentiality agreement. The Hays panel held that the plaintiff's communication with the police was not "reporting" under the WPA. The panel used the dictionary definition of the noun "report," which is " 'a detailed account of an event, situation, etc., [usually] based on observation or inquiry.' " The panel analyzed the plaintiff's communication as follows:
[P]laintiff called the ... officer to inquire about her potential liability if Client A's behavior was discovered, not to report any illegal behavior. Plaintiff did not provide any particulars or otherwise convey information that could have assisted the ... officer in actually investigating any wrongdoing. There is no evidence that plaintiff identified herself, Client A, or Client A's location, nor did she provide any sort of detailed account of the situation. She did not even appear to specify the type of "illegal drugs" at issue. Thus, rather than providing a "detailed account of an event, situation, etc.," plaintiff was merely seeking to obtain information and advice. [ Hays , 300 Mich. App. at 60, 832 N.W.2d 433.]
Although it erred by using the nounal definition of "report," the panel correctly examined the meaning of "report." Specifically, the panel understood that a whistleblower employee's communication with a public body is not enough for reporting an illegality under the WPA. These illustrative cases support my conclusion that "report" under the WPA requires that the whistleblower employee intend to denounce an illegality or make a charge of misconduct to a "public body."
B. APPLICATION TO PLAINTIFF'S PRIVATE ATTORNEY
I now consider whether plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was "reporting" under the WPA. The facts are particularly unique as the sole communication at issue involves an attorney-client communication. Plaintiff relies on the phone call with attorney Gay regarding her encounter with Fields at MMCG as her alleged protected activity. This communication was defendant's stated reason for firing plaintiff. The Court of Appeals failed to appreciate the sui generis nature of the attorney-client relationship, specifically within the WPA context.
The WPA expressly allows "a person acting on behalf of the employee" to report an illegality. A whistleblower employee alleging that she was about to report an illegality must show by "clear and convincing evidence that ... she or a person acting on ... her behalf was about to report...." The Legislature's inclusion of "a person acting on behalf" of the whistleblower employee sets forth an agency relationship. An agency relationship in its broadest sense includes every relation in which an agent acts for or represents a principal by his authority. A "principal" is the person represented by an agent and on whose behalf the latter acts. An "agent" is a person having express or implied authority to represent or act on behalf of another person, who is called his or her principal. "[F]undamental to the existence of an agency relationship is the right to control the conduct of the agent with respect to the matters entrusted to him."
The whistleblower employee (principal) may satisfy the protected activity requirement by allowing her agent to report an illegality to a "public body" defined under MCL 15.361(d). This arrangement involves three actors: (1) the whistleblower employee; (2) the whistleblower's agent; and (3) a "public body." To demonstrate this protected activity, the whistleblower employee must communicate the illegality to her agent. The whistleblower's agent then, acting on behalf of the employee, must report the illegality to a "public body." Thus, a whistleblower employee's communication with her agent itself does not constitute reporting to a public body under the WPA.
The attorney-client relationship is generally governed by agency law. The legal definition of "attorney" is "one who is designated to transact business for another; a legal agent." An attorney (agent) acts on behalf of the client (principal), representing the client, with consequences that bind the client. "A lawyer is an agent, to whom clients entrust matters, property, and information, which may be of great importance and sensitivity, and whose work is usually not subject to detailed client supervision because of its complexity." In civil cases, a client is bound by an attorney's actions and omissions as long as the attorney's conduct falls within the scope of the attorney's authority. An attorney acting outside the scope of his authority may open himself up to civil liability and professional sanctions. Agency law imparts many duties that an agent owes a principal. But attorneys are held to a higher standard and thus have heightened duties compared to the ordinary agent. One of the fundamental, heightened duties for an attorney is protecting a client's confidential information.
Rules for client confidentiality derive from professional regulations, the attorney-client privilege, and the work-product doctrine. "The professional right and duty to preserve client confidences is a distinctive feature of the lawyer's function." The Michigan Rules of Professional Conduct (MRPC) provide great protection for a client's or a prospective client's communications with an attorney. Thus, an attorney is prohibited from disclosing confidential information except as authorized by law or required under the MRPC. An attorney's duty of confidentiality continues even after the attorney-client relationship has terminated. "A lawyer is impliedly authorized to make disclosures about a client when appropriate in carrying out the representation, except to the extent that the client's instructions or special circumstances limit that authority."
Consistent with the MRPC, the attorney-client privilege protects confidential client communications. The attorney-client privilege is one of the oldest and well-recognized privileges for confidential communications. Michigan jurisprudence has long recognized the common-law attorney-client privilege. The attorney-client privilege protects confidential communications between a client and her attorney made for the purpose of obtaining or giving legal advice. "The purpose of the attorney-client privilege is to foster open communications between attorney and client. The privilege is personal to the client and cannot be waived by the attorney without the client's permission." The Michigan Rules of Evidence provide for the attorney-client privilege. The Legislature has expressly provided for the privilege in criminal proceedings. The Supreme Court of the United States has recognized the common-law understanding that the attorney-client privilege survives the client's death. In sum, the attorney-client privilege provides great protection for a client's confidential communications, unlike ordinary disclosures. For this reason, I cannot conclude that a whistleblower employee's communication with her agent itself constitutes reporting to a public body under the WPA.
The Court of Appeals failed to consider whether plaintiff's phone call with attorney Gay was a privileged communication. A privileged communication between a client and her private attorney cannot mean "reporting" to a public body under the WPA. There must be a waiver of the attorney-client privilege. As stated, the privilege belongs to the client, and thus the client must waive the privilege unless the law provides otherwise. The client may either expressly waive her privilege or implicitly waive her privilege through her conduct. Further, even if the client waives her privilege and consents to disclosing the confidential communication, the attorney's remedial actions are no different from the client under the WPA. The attorney must still report an illegality to a "public body"
under the WPA. No matter the attorney's role as "an officer of the court," the private attorney must act as his client's agent within the scope of his authority. Such reasoning is consistent with the Legislature's express provision that "a person acting on behalf of the employee" may report an illegality for the whistleblower employee. For these reasons, privileged communications between a client and her private attorney do not constitute reporting under the WPA.
In this case, plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was not "reporting" under the WPA. There is no dispute that plaintiff and attorney Richard Gay had an attorney-client relationship, and thus an agency relationship. Plaintiff admits that she did not want Gay to act upon the alleged illegality-Fields's presence at MMCG in violation of the PPO. Plaintiff testified in the form of deposition testimony that she expressly told Gay "not to serve [Fields] ... because she was so ill...." When asked whether she told Gay "[l]et's not serve [Fields] because she's really sick, and the rumor is she might not live," plaintiff answered in the affirmative. Plaintiff further stated that she called Gay because her "intent was to return his phone call, one; and, two, to tell her [sic] that [Fields] had violated the personal protective order one more time." Moreover, plaintiff's motion seeking to hold Fields in contempt for violating the PPO was silent regarding her encounter with Fields at MMCG. The facts clearly demonstrate that plaintiff did not want Gay to take any action upon the illegality. Plaintiff's phone call with Gay was a privileged communication made under the attorney-client relationship; therefore, Gay had no authority to disclose that communication without plaintiff's consent. Thus, when communicating with her private attorney, plaintiff did not intend to denounce an illegality or make a charge of misconduct to a "public body." For these reasons, I conclude that plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was not "reporting" under the WPA.
Plaintiff's reliance on Brown v. Mayor of Detroit is misplaced. In Brown , two Detroit police officers reported illegalities committed by fellow officers and the mayor of Detroit. The whistleblower officers reported these illegalities to their superiors within the department. We held that the WPA does not require that an employee of a "public body" report illegalities to an outside agency or higher authority, and we also held that there is no requirement that an employee who reports an illegality receives WPA protections only if reporting is outside the employee's job duties. My position is wholly consistent with Brown . First, Brown did not give meaning to the term "report" under the WPA, but rejected nontextual requirements for the definition of "public body" under MCL 15.361(d).
A whistleblower employee may still intend to denounce an illegality or make a charge of misconduct by reporting to a superior, assuming the superior meets the "public body" definition. The employee nevertheless must still report to demonstrate such protected activity. Second, like in Brown , the meaning of "report" under the WPA does not vary depending on the employee's specific job duties. Protection under the WPA is not dictated by the employee's position or job requirements. Thus, Brown does not support plaintiff's claim.
In sum, plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was not "reporting" under the WPA because plaintiff did not intend to denounce an illegality or make a charge of misconduct to a "public body."
IV. STATEMENT TO THE LEGISLATURE
Although I would resolve this case on the meaning of "report" as that term is used in the WPA, I strongly encourage the Legislature to reexamine this inartfully drafted statute, particularly the "public body" definition under MCL 15.361(d). The statutory definition of "public body" is extremely expansive and may well exceed the scope of entities the Legislature intended to include as an entity or organization suitable to field a report of suspected illegal activity. For example, MCL 15.361(d)(vi ) clearly provides that a report to "[t]he judiciary [or] any member or employee of the judiciary" is a report to a "public body" under the WPA. This provision fails to take into account the unique role of the judiciary as impartial arbiters of the law and the fact that the judiciary cannot act in the absence of a case or controversy properly filed before the Court. How are the purported purposes of the WPA advanced if, in the course of exercising the judicial function, a judge learns that a witness observed what was perceived to be a violation of law? More striking is the notion that a report can be made to any employee of the judiciary. Did the Legislature truly intend for the reporting requirement of the WPA to be satisfied when a person reports or is about to report a suspected violation of law to a court reporter employed in any one of the many trial courts throughout Michigan? The clear and unambiguous language of the WPA suggests the answer is yes. Similarly, I question whether the Legislature considered the vast implications of including in the exceedingly broad definition of "public body" all agents, boards, commissions, councils, and employees of the legislative and executive branches of government. If this is not what the Legislature intended, it would be well served to consider amending the definition of "public body" under the WPA.
V. CONCLUSION
For these reasons, I respectfully dissent from the majority's order denying leave in this case. I conclude that plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was not "reporting" to a public body under the WPA. This conclusion is required by the ordinary meaning of the verb "report" within the WPA context and the sui generis nature of the attorney-client relationship. Accordingly, I would reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and remand this case to the Court of Appeals for consideration of the merits of plaintiff's claim of termination against public policy.
Markman, C.J., joins the statement of Zahra, J.
Wilder, J., did not participate because he was on the Court of Appeals panel.
Clement, J., did not participate.
MCL 15.361 et seq .
1980 PA 469, title.
HIPAA is codified at 29 USC 1181 et seq .,42 USC 300gg, and 42 USC 1320d et seq .
The trial court also concluded that plaintiff could not reasonably have believed that her contact with Fields constituted a violation of the PPO.
In addition, in rebuttal to plaintiff counsel's argument at the motion for summary disposition hearing, defense counsel argued in part that:
Your Honor, let's go back ... a minute to what plaintiff told [defendant] she told her attorney, because I hear opposing counsel now trying to make the argument that the plaintiff's conversation with her attorney was something about contacting the court to enforce the PPO or something along those lines, that's entirely untrue and that's not consistent with plaintiff's testimony at all. What plaintiff told [defendant] with regard to that patient is, number one, that the patient was at the medical center. She also told her attorney that the patient was really sick and the rumor was she might not live, in that same conversation. And she also told her attorney, don't even bother serving the PPO, because I don't even know if I want to serve it any more. And she told [defendant] all of that. Somehow this conversation is now being twisted into something that's about enforcing a PPO and contacting the Court, etcetera, that is not how things happened at all. And, in fact, something like two days after plaintiff's conversation with her attorney, they did file a motion for contempt and nowhere in the motion for contempt is there even any mention of this encounter at Gratiot at all.
That telephone conversation had nothing to do with serving-she-she told her lawyer, don't even bother serving it. It had nothing to do with reporting a violation of the law. It had nothing to do with enforcing the PPO. She just wanted-she had a conversation with her lawyer and she wanted to tell her lawyer that that woman was at the hospital. And based on the information she gave [defendant], [defendant] understood her to be saying that she told her lawyer, Marcia Fields was a patient at the hospital.
In deciding the motion, the trial court ostensibly rejected plaintiff's claim that her conversation with her attorney was "clear and convincing evidence" that plaintiff was "about to report" a violation to a court. See MCL 15.363(4).
McNeill-Marks v. MidMichigan Med. Ctr.-Gratiot , 316 Mich. App. 1, 6, 891 N.W.2d 528 (2016).
With regard to plaintiff's public policy claim, the panel held that because this claim arose out of the same activity as her WPA claim, the WPA preempted the public policy claim.
McNeill-Marks v. MidMichigan Med. Ctr.-Gratiot , 500 Mich. 931, 889 N.W.2d 248 (2017).
McNeill-Marks v. MidMichigan Med. Ctr.-Gratiot , 500 Mich. 1031, 897 N.W.2d 176 (2017).
Pace v. Edel-Harrelson , 499 Mich. 1, 5, 878 N.W.2d 784 (2016).
Lowrey v. LMPS & LMPJ, Inc. , 500 Mich. 1, 5, 890 N.W.2d 344 (2016).
MCL 15.362. This Court has observed that a plaintiff employee must demonstrate the following to make a prima facie case that his or her defendant employer has violated the WPA:
(1) The employee was engaged in one of the protected activities listed in the provision[;]
(2) the employee was discharged, threatened, or otherwise discriminated against regarding his or her compensation, terms, conditions, location, or privileges of employment[; and]
(3) A causal connection exists between the employee's protected activity and the employer's act of discharging, threatening, or otherwise discriminating against the employee. [Wurtz v. Beecher Metro Dist , 495 Mich. 242, 251-252, 848 N.W.2d 121 (2014).]
Emphasis added.
Defendant also argues that the SBM is not a "public body" under MCL 15.361(d)(iv ). The definition of "public body" under MCL 15.361(d) must be read as a whole. Subparagraph (i ) focuses on Michigan's executive branch. Subparagraph (ii ) focuses on Michigan's legislative branch. Subparagraph (iii ) applies to the municipalities and other local units of Michigan government. The first three subparagraphs focus on two of our three branches of state government (legislative and executive) along with reference to local government. Subparagraph (iv ) is a catch-all definition. The use of a catch-all suggests that the ejusdem generis canon applies-where a general term follows a series of specific terms, the general term is interpreted "to include only things of the same kind, class, character, or nature as those specifically enumerated." Neal v. Wilkes , 470 Mich. 661, 669, 685 N.W.2d 648 (2004) (quotation marks and citation omitted).
The placement of Subparagraph (iv ) within MCL 15.361(d) is significant. Subparagraph (iv )'s position is fourth of six enumerated subparts that define "public body." The Legislature's placement of Subparagraph (iv ) demonstrates that "[a]ny other body" must be read in association with the preceding three subparagraphs. Further, because the catch-all provision is placed before the references in the final two subparagraphs to the judiciary and law enforcement agencies, the catch-all must be read as specifically not applying to either law enforcement agencies or the judiciary. This placement is presumed intentional.
Assessing the similar association among the definitions of "public body" in Subparagraphs (i ) through (iii ) is not an easy task. It may be argued that the public bodies referenced in Subparagraphs (i ) through (iii ) are state-created government entities or agencies whose primary purpose is the execution of government functions traditionally performed by state or local government, exclusive of law enforcement agencies and the judiciary. The SBM is seemingly not such an entity.
The SBM does not perform traditional government functions. The SBM's mission is to promote and improve the legal profession in Michigan. These functions have a tangential beneficial impact on the general public and the administration of justice; however, they primarily pertain to legal services and the attorneys performing those legal services, which is traditionally a private endeavor related to the legal profession. Furthermore, a common thread among state or state-created government entities or agencies is that their activities are generally undertaken via public employees. The SBM is not a public employer. SBM employees are not paid through any government funding, but are paid from annual dues collected from licensed attorneys. Executive officers of the SBM also do not receive compensation for their services. Thus, a persuasive argument can be made that the SBM is not a "public body" under the WPA.
Lash v. Traverse City , 479 Mich. 180, 187, 735 N.W.2d 628 (2007).
MCL 8.3a ; People v. Peals , 476 Mich. 636, 641, 720 N.W.2d 196 (2006).
Ligons v. Crittenton Hosp , 490 Mich. 61, 81, 803 N.W.2d 271 (2011).
Cruz v. State Farm Mut Auto Ins Co , 466 Mich. 588, 594, 648 N.W.2d 591 (2002).
Roberts v. Mecosta Cty. Gen Hosp , 466 Mich. 57, 63, 642 N.W.2d 663 (2002).
Sweatt v. Dep't of Corrections , 468 Mich. 172, 179, 661 N.W.2d 201 (2003) (opinion by Markman, J. ); see also Scalia & Garner, Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts (St. Paul: Thomson/West, 2012), p 167 ("Perhaps no interpretative fault is more common than the failure to follow the whole-text canon, which calls on the judicial interpreter to consider the entire text, in view of its structure and of the physical and logical relation of its many parts.").
Breighner v. Mich. High Sch. Athletic Ass'n, Inc. , 471 Mich. 217, 232, 683 N.W.2d 639 (2004).
MCL 15.362 (emphasis added).
A "whistleblower" is "[a]n employee who reports employer wrongdoing to a governmental or law-enforcement agency," Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed.), or "one who reveals something covert or who informs against another," Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.).
A "transitive verb" is "[a] verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning[.]" Strunk & White, The Elements of Style (4th ed.), p 95. "A verb that requires an object to express a complete thought; the verb indicating what action the subject exerts on the object." Garner, Garner's Modern American Usage (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 922.
Epps v. 4 Quarters Restoration LLC , 498 Mich. 518, 529, 872 N.W.2d 412 (2015).
See Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary: Unabridged (1979). Most definitions of the verb "report" are clearly not applicable here. For example, "report" is broadly defined as "to give an account of, often at regular intervals; to give information about, as something seen or investigated; to say" or "to carry and repeat (a message, etc.)." The term "report" also applies specifically to the media, such as "to write an account of for presentation to others or for publication, as in a newspaper" or "to tell or relate from one to another; to circulate publicly, as a story...." Id .
Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary: Unabridged (1979).
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1983).
McNeill-Marks , 316 Mich. App. at 22, 891 N.W.2d 528.
Plaintiff's counsel at oral argument on the application argued that when the Legislature does not define a term, courts must read the term in its broadest possible sense. I firmly reject this argument because it ignores that courts must construe text as a whole and give meaning to undefined terms at issue in context of the statutory language. "We do not ... construe the meaning of statutory terms in a vacuum." Tyler v. Cain , 533 U.S. 656, 662, 121 S.Ct. 2478, 150 L.Ed.2d 632 (2001).
Henry v. Detroit , 234 Mich. App. 405, 407, 594 N.W.2d 107 (1999).
Michigan WPA jurisprudence often characterizes the whistleblower employee as either a "type 1" or "type 2" whistleblower depending on the alleged protected activity. These distinctions may be helpful shorthand, but courts must always return to the express language under MCL 15.362. See Wurtz , 495 Mich. at 251 n. 14, 848 N.W.2d 121 (discussing the danger of courts relying on the judicially created term "adverse employment action" for WPA claims).
Henry , 234 Mich. App. at 410, 594 N.W.2d 107.
Id . at 411, 594 N.W.2d 107.
Hays v. Lutheran Social Servs. of Mich. , 300 Mich. App. 54, 832 N.W.2d 433 (2013).
Hays , 300 Mich. App. at 59, 832 N.W.2d 433, quoting Random House Webster's College Dictionary (2005), and citing People v. Holley , 480 Mich. 222, 228, 747 N.W.2d 856 (2008) (holding that the prosecutor need not prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the crime sought to be reported was attempted or committed by another person in order to obtain a conviction for preventing or attempting to prevent the report of a crime under MCL 750.483a(1)(b) ).
Plaintiff alleged in her complaint that having her attorney report on her behalf Fields's alleged violation of the PPO to the Gratiot Circuit Court was a protected activity under the WPA. Plaintiff made this argument in her appellant brief before the Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals declined to rule on this issue, finding that plaintiff's communication with her private attorney was a protected activity. Plaintiff has not appealed this ruling or otherwise pursued this argument before this Court, and thus, plaintiff has abandoned such argument. I nevertheless would reject plaintiff's argument that she reported or was about to report the alleged violation of the PPO by filing in the circuit court. Plaintiff's motion for contempt, filed three days after her encounter with Fields at MMCG, was silent regarding this alleged violation. Further, plaintiff was not fired, and did not suffer any other adverse employment action, for filing a motion in the circuit court. Plaintiff additionally cannot establish a "causal connection" between filing her motion in the circuit court and her termination. Plaintiff has argued, and the Court of Appeals agreed, that her phone call with Gay was direct evidence of her termination.
MCL 15.362.
MCL 15.363(4) (emphasis added).
St. Clair Intermediate Sch. Dist. v. Intermediate Ed. Ass'n/Mich Ed. Ass'n , 458 Mich. 540, 557, 581 N.W.2d 707 (1998).
Stephenson v. Golden (On Rehearing) , 279 Mich. 710, 734, 276 N.W. 849 (1937).
See Burton v. Burton , 332 Mich. 326, 337, 51 N.W.2d 297 (1952), quoting Stephenson , 279 Mich. at 734, 276 N.W. 849.
St Clair Intermediate , 458 Mich. at 557-558, 581 N.W.2d 707 (citations omitted).
Link v. Wabash R. Co. , 370 U.S. 626, 633-634, 82 S.Ct. 1386, 8 L.Ed.2d 734 (1962) (affirming the district court's dismissal of the action when the petitioner's lawyer failed without reasonable excuse to appear for pretrial conference and noting that "[p]etitioner voluntarily chose this attorney as his representative in the action, and he cannot now avoid the consequences of the acts or omissions of this freely selected agent"); New York v. Hill , 528 U.S. 110, 114-115, 120 S.Ct. 659, 145 L.Ed.2d 560 (2000) (holding that defense counsel, as the defendant's agent, could waive the defendant's right to trial within a statutory period, even without the defendant's express consent); Detroit v. Whittemore , 27 Mich. 281, 286 (1873) ("The employment of counsel does not differ in its incidents, or in the rules which govern it, from the employment of an agent in any other capacity or business."); People v. Carter , 462 Mich. 206, 218, 612 N.W.2d 144 (2000) ("[T]he defendant is deemed bound by the acts of his lawyer-agent and is considered to have notice of all facts, notice of which can be charged upon the attorney.") (quotation marks and citation omitted); AMCO Builders & Developers, Inc. v. Team Ace Joint Venture , 469 Mich. 90, 103, 666 N.W.2d 623 (2003) ( Young, J. , concurring) ("The attorney-client relationship is generally governed by principles of agency."); People v. Dendel , 481 Mich. 114, 137, 748 N.W.2d 859 (2008) ( Corrigan, J. , concurring) ("[L]awyers are agents , after all....") (quotation marks and citation omitted).
Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed.); see also Fletcher v. Bd. of Ed. of Sch. Dist. Fractional No. 5 , 323 Mich. 343, 348, 35 N.W.2d 177 (1948).
1 Restatement Law Governing Lawyers, 3d, Introductory Note, p 124; see also Restatement Agency, 2d, § 14, comment b , p 60 (characterizing lawyers as "recognized agents").
See Everett v. Everett , 319 Mich. 475, 482-483, 29 N.W.2d 919 (1947).
See, e.g., DeMott, The Lawyer as Agent , 67 Fordham L. Rev. 301 (1998) (opining that the agency law principles are the starting point for analyzing the full legal consequences of attorney-client relationships).
MRPC 1.6, comment ("The principle of confidentiality is given effect in two related bodies of law, the client-lawyer privilege (which includes the work-product doctrine) in the law of evidence and the rule of confidentiality established in professional ethics."). The work-product doctrine is not applicable here because plaintiff's phone call to attorney Gay was not "notes, working papers, memoranda or similar materials" prepared in anticipation of litigation. D'Alessandro Contracting Group, LLC v. Wright , 308 Mich. App. 71, 77, 862 N.W.2d 466 (2014) (quotation marks and citation omitted).
1 Hazard, Jr. & Hodes, The Law of Lawyering: A Handbook on the Model Rules of Professional Conduct (Prentice Hall Law & Business, 2d ed.), § 1.6:102.
"[A] lawyer shall not knowingly: reveal a confidence or secret of a client; use a confidence or secret of a client to the disadvantage of the client; or use a confidence or secret of a client for the advantage of the lawyer or of a third person, unless the client consents after full disclosure." MRPC 1.6(b) (subpart numbers omitted). MRPC 1.6(a) defines "confidence" as "information protected by the client-lawyer privilege under applicable law" and defines "secret" as "other information gained in the professional relationship that the client has requested be held inviolate or the disclosure of which would be embarrassing or would be likely to be detrimental to the client."
MRPC 1.9.
MRPC 1.6, comment.
Upjohn Co. v. United States , 449 U.S. 383, 389, 101 S.Ct. 677, 66 L.Ed.2d 584 (1981).
Passmore v. Passmore's Estate , 50 Mich. 626, 627, 16 N.W. 170 (1883) ("There is a privilege of secrecy as to what passes between attorney and client, but it is the privilege of the client and he may waive it if he so chooses. It is not the privilege of the court or of any third party.") (citations omitted); Grand Rapids Trust Co. v. Bellows , 224 Mich. 504, 510-511, 195 N.W. 66 (1923) ("Where legal advice of any kind is sought from a professional legal advisor in his capacity as such, the communications relevant to that purpose, made in confidence by the client, are at his instance permanently protected from disclosure by himself or by the legal advisor, except the client waives the protection.") (quotation marks and citation omitted).
See In re Adams , 494 Mich. 162, 174 n. 12, 833 N.W.2d 897 (2013), quoting Schaibly v. Vinton , 338 Mich. 191, 196, 61 N.W.2d 122 (1953), and Alderman v. People , 4 Mich. 414, 423 (1857).
People v. Nash , 418 Mich. 196, 219, 341 N.W.2d 439 (1983) (opinion by Brickley, J. ) (citation omitted).
MRE 501 ("Privilege is governed by the common law, except as modified by statute or court rule.").
See MCL 767.5a(2) ("Any communications between attorneys and their clients ... are hereby declared to be privileged and confidential when those communications were necessary to enable the attorneys ... to serve as such attorney....").
Swidler & Berlin v. United States , 524 U.S. 399, 405, 118 S.Ct. 2081, 141 L.Ed.2d 379 (1998).
Plaintiff argues that she waived her attorney-client privilege, and thus her phone call with Gay was not a privileged communication. Plaintiff points to the deposition testimony of defendant's director of nursing, Brenda Whitman, arguing that she shared her confidential communications with Whitman. Plaintiff also argues that defendant was made aware of the phone call with Gay because she waived her attorney-client privilege. Plaintiff's claim of waiver misses the mark. The facts demonstrate that defendant was made aware of plaintiff's phone call with Gay after Fields's HIPAA complaint and through the subsequent privacy investigation. Thus, plaintiff's communications with Gay were privileged until at least the time of the disclosure. That plaintiff subsequently waived the attorney-client privilege does not mean that the privilege was void ab initio .
See Part I of this statement.
Brown v. Mayor of Detroit , 478 Mich. 589, 734 N.W.2d 514 (2007).
Plaintiff also relies on Whitman v. City of Burton , 493 Mich. 303, 831 N.W.2d 223 (2013), which held that an employee's motivation is not relevant as to whether the employee has engaged in a protected activity and that proof of primary motivation is not a prerequisite to bringing a claim. My position is consistent with Whitman . A whistleblower employee's motivation for reporting is not the same as the employee's intent to denounce an illegality or make a charge of misconduct to a "public body." Put simply, motivation and intent are not synonymous. "While motive is the inducement to do some act, intent is the mental resolution or determination to do it. When the intent to do an act that violates the law exists, motive becomes immaterial." Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed.). The whistleblower employee's subjective reasoning for engaging in a protected activity is irrelevant for a WPA claim. Thus, plaintiff erroneously relies upon Whitman .
The Legislature currently has a bill pending before the Michigan Senate that would amend the WPA, effectively broadening the scope of whistleblower protection. See 2017 SB 789. Senate Bill 789 would allow for a whistleblower employee to report a violation or suspected violation of law to: an amended definition of "public body" under MCL 15.361(d) ; "the press"; or the "state employee ombudsman" as defined under proposed MCL 15.361(e). The "state employee ombudsman" would be defined in reference to a new legislative appointed position under the proposed State Employee Ombudsman Act. See 2017 SB 788. I, of course, take no stance on pending legislation, but my position in this statement should highlight the concerns with an extremely expansive WPA.
Pace , 499 Mich. at 10 n. 19, 878 N.W.2d 784 (" '[I]f the WPA does not apply, it provides no remedy and there is no preemption.' "), quoting Anzaldua v. Neogen Corp. , 292 Mich. App. 626, 631, 808 N.W.2d 804 (2011). | [
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Dethmers, J.
This is an action brought on April 11, 1962, under the wrongful death act, CL 1948, § 691.581 (Stat Ann § 27.711). The question presented is when the cause of action accrued and the statute of limitations started running against it, on the date of injury or the later date of resultant death?
Plaintiff’s decedent was allegedly injured through defendant’s negligence on November 28, 1958. As a proximate result, he died on August 21, 1959.
Defendant cites CLS 1956, § 609.13 (Stat Ann 1959 Cum Supp § 27.605), as the controlling statute, fixing the limitation at 3 years from the time the action accrued. When did it accrue, on November 28, 1958, or August 21, 1959? If the latter, the action was seasonably brought; if the former, then it was not.
This is a matter of statutory construction. 167. ALR 894 et seq. and 174 ALR 815 contain discussion and authorities on the subject. They are at variance, depending, particularly, on the language of the statute involved. We think that it may be said of them that the majority holding is that where the right of action for death is given or created by statute, then the cause of action can only accrue when the death occurs. How could a right of action under the death act accrue at all if death never, occurred in consequence of the injury or accrue before the occurrence of death?
In Lincoln v. Detroit & M. R. Co., 179 Mich 189 (51 LRA [NS] 453), the action was brought under the “death act”. This Court said:
“1. We summarize the following from the American authorities: The death loss act of the English statute of 1846 (St 9 & 10 Vict 93), commonly called ‘Lord Campbell’s act,’ and the various, laws of a similar kind that have been modeled after it,'gave a new cause of action unknown to the common law, for the benefit of certain designated classes of sur-, viving relatives. Such relatives do not take the cause of action for damages to the deceased by transfer to them by operation of law, or otherwise, but are enabled by the statute to recover the pecuniary loss to themselves caused by the wrongful taking off of the decedent, the continuation of whose life would have been beneficial to them. The action accrues to the surviving beneficiary mentioned in the. statute by reason of the death of the injured person caused by the wrongful act of another. It is strictly' not proper to say that it is a cause of action which survives; it is rather a new action given by CL 1897, §§ 10427, 10428 (5 How Stat [2d ed] §§ Í3702, 13703), which can be brought, not for the benefit of the estate but solely for the benefit of the beneficiaries named in the statute. The above sections,when compared with CL 1897, § 10117 (5 How Stat [2d ed] § 12761), are made plain. They refer to entirely distinct losses recoverable in different rights. Section 10117 refers to the right of the deceased for the' loss and injury occasioned to him. Sections 10427 and 10428 refer to the right of the surviving relatives as beneficiaries for the loss to them. Both are dependent on the injury. The language of one provision is that ‘actions for personal injuries shall survive,’ and of the other ‘in case of the death of a person by the wrongful act of another.’ Section 10117 creates no new liability, but prevents the lapsing by death of an old one, while sections 10427 and 10428 create a new liability, one not known to the common law.”
In Ford v. Maney’s Estate, 251 Mich 461 (70 ALR, 1315), the action was under the so-called survival statute. In distinguishing between the 2 acts, the Court made the observation that:
“In this State it is held that the death act created a cause of action unknown to the. common law, not by way of survival of a right accruing to the deceased which before had abated at this death, but as a new and special remedy accruing to those who suffer loss by the death.”
It follows that in Michigan application of the above indicated prevailing view set forth in the ALR reference requires our holding and we think we should hold that the cause of action for a wrongful death and damages resulting therefrom accrues when that death occurs.
The order of the trial court granting defendant’s motion to dismiss, based on the statute of limitations, is reversed and the cause remanded for further proceedings. Costs to plaintiff.
. T. M. Kavanagh, C. J., and Kelly, Black;, Smith, O’Hara, and Adams, JJ., concurred.
Souris, J., did not sit.
For current provisions see CLS 1961, § 600.2922 et seq. (Stat Ann 1962 Rev § 27A.2922 et seq.).—Reporter.
For current provisions see CLS 1961, § 600.5805 (Stat Ann 1962 Rev § 27A.5805).—Reporter. | [
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Smith, J.
In a class suit, plaintiffs filed their complaint for injunction January 13, 1964, against •defendants. Plaintiffs obtained an order to show cause why temporary injunction should not issue. Immediately after filing their answer, defendants moved for summary judgment on the ground that plaintiffs had failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. The trial court denied injunction' and entered summary judgment in favor of defendants from which this appeal is taken.
In view of the posture of the case, we detail at length the allegations of the complaint. The complaint alleges that some of the parents have children enrolled in the Everett Elementary School and others have children in Cody High School. Further, they allege that Everett School’s facilities were created and “peculiarly adapted” for educating children of grade school age, that is, as to size and location of building and training facilities. As to Cody High School, it is alleged that its facilities were created and adapted for educating children of high school age.
Gravamen of the complaint is “That defendants have ordered plaintiffs to remove their minor children from attendance at Everett Elementary School effective January 28, 1964, and to place them in attendance, effective that date, at either the Dixon School or the Herman Elementary School; a copy of said order having been attached hereto and made a part hereof by reference and having been marked Exhibit‘A’.” (Emphasis supplied.)
The complaint establishes that exhibit “A” gave as a reason for the school board’s transfer order overcrowded conditions at Cody High School and, therefore, the need for additional classroom space [it should be pointed out here that in transferring over 100 students from Everett to Dixon and Herman schools, additional classroom space would then be made available for use by Cody school in Everett school, which is contiguous to Cody]. Plaintiffs further allege that “defendants do not and cannot expand on such reasons because they are not true.” Plaintiffs then allege that defendants “could not support said order if it [school board] had timely and properly presented to plaintiffs herein and if they [parents] had thereby had a reasonable opportunity to present their position to defendants.”
Plaintiffs then allege that the Cody High School had the largest high school population in the city of Detroit out of which arise numerous complaints of vandalism and recklessness. In this connection, they say that the school administrators at Cody are unable to cope with the already large student body, not to mention “the additional students” they hope to add as a result of the order. It is then alleged that a year prior to the order in question approximately 100 students were transferred from Everett to other elementary schools and that as a result 3 classrooms were gained for Cody High School and that said classrooms “have not been, are not being, and in all likelihood will not be used by Cody High School for the simple reason that elementary schoolrooms are of no advantage whatsoever to high schools and to high school students.”
■ Plaintiffs say that in all probability all grade school students will ultimately be transferred from Everett and that school used entirely by' contiguous Cody High School. Defendants are charged with irresponsibility in the issuance of transfer orders and in particular the one in question which is claimed to be arbitrary. Plaintiffs allege that defendants have other more logical and less expensive solutions to the problem of overcrowding at Cody. They say that other high schools in the area could be more effectively utilized and thus could be avoided “two dangers obvious in the defendants’ present plan”: elimination of elementary school in an area where ■one is needed, and further expansion of Cody School’s student population with all the problems attendant thereto. Attacking the transfer • order as not logical nor reasonable, plaintiffs then allege that said order is a violation of due process and equal protection. In seeking injunction, plaintiffs allege that the immediate and irreparable harm and damage which will be suffered is that their minor children will be “Deprived of their right to continue with the classmates, and teachers to whom they have become accustomed”, and that the children would be required to travel a greater distance than before and crossing additional intersections, thereby increasing safety hazards. In this connection, they also say that the children would be damaged by being required to eat their lunches in school away from their families. The prayer was for temporary and permanent injunction and other relief.
Defendants filed answer in which the overcrowded conditions at Cody school were admitted, but they denied that the order was capriciously or unreasonably made. • They denied also plaintiffs’ premises that Everett school facilities could-not be used by high school pupils or that the school board intends ultimately to eliminate Everett as an elementary school. Defendants also filed an affirmative defense that the school board is given broad powers by statute to manage the affairs of the school district and specifically to establish attendance areas within the school district.
Thereafter, defendants filed a motion for summary judgment under Rule 117, QCR 1963, “for the reason that plaintiffs have failed to state a claim upon which relief can be granted.” By stipulation, a joint hearing was held on both the show cause order and defendants’ motion for summary judgment. No proofs were offered at the hearing, although plaintiffs were offered the opportunity by the trial court. The grant or denial of a temporary injunction is a question of discretion and this Court will not interfere with the trial court’s ruling except on a showing of probable abuse. Nissenbaum v. Pikstein, 266 Mich 28. There being no showing at all, then as to this aspect of the case there is nothing to review.
As to the question of summary judgment, the complaint allegations, as illuminated by oral argument, were helpfully summed up by Judge Montante in this manner:
“Actually, as I see this case, Mr. McEadden, it is simply this: You have a number of mothers, parents of these children, who are utterly convinced that the board of education has made a mistake in judgment. I am sure these mothers are saying: ‘If it be a fact that Cody High School is overcrowded, then it would seem to us that the board of education should arrange for the transfer of Cody High School students to other high schools. Obviously, the high school student is mature; he has a sense of responsibility; there is less likelihood of his becoming involved in any traffic problems. Weighing all things, the transfer, if effected, should apply solely to the high school student, not to the youngster of tender age who is now required suddenly to be uprooted from his school and his teacher, to travel this long distance, to have foisted upon him unfamiliar surroundings, to be compelled to cross streets that he is not acquainted with, to be subjected to the various instances of traffic hazards that may arise en route— all of the peril of the child’s safety and welfare. Therefore, as a matter of judgment, it seems to us that they should allow the children to stay in the elementary school and tell the big boys and girls to move over to another school.’ ”
Although the trial judge’s bench summation after oral argument seems to go to the heart of the issue, counsel for plaintiffs says there are additional allegations of fact properly before us, which allegations are said to have been contained in counsel’s oral argument before the trial judge. A careful search of the entire record does not reveal precisely what these allegations were. Apparently a motion was made by counsel to amend the complaint to reflect additional allegations made in argument. Defendants assented but since there is no record of the motion or the argument, nor was an amended complaint filed, this reviewing Court is left to speculate as to what was said and done. There is no assertion of fraud, mistake, or failure to record. Nor is there any suggestion that record deficiencies could be supplied, even if permissible in such a situation. Nor is there a stipulation sufficiently precise made in this Court, either in the briefs or at oral argument, which would warrant this Court’s inclusion in the matter to be decided. We have said that statements of facts made by counsel in the briefs or on oral argument are outside the record. Reed v. Civil Service Commission, 301 Mich 137. All parties are expected to protect themselves on the record. Omissions from the record which are not cured by the time the case is submitted on appeal cannot be considered by tbe reviewing court in reaching its decision.
The decisive question, and the only clear question, is whether defendants were entitled to summary judgment upon the assertion that plaintiffs failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. This motion was brought under the new summary judgment rule. Rule 117, G-CR 1963. This rule is adapted from both prior Michigan court rules and the Federal rules of civil procedure. We need not discuss the history here because it has been done and is being done in connection with recent and current cases dealing with the more difficult problem of when there is a genuine issue of material fact. See Durant v. Stahlin, 374 Mich 82, Zimmerman v. Stahlin, 374 Mich 93, and Durant v. Stahlin, 375 Mich 628. The case before us deals with that feature of the rule embodying well-settled concepts included in former rules under the heading either of motion to dismiss for failure to state a cause of action or motion for judgment on the pleadings. In bringing these motion practices forward into the new court rules, GCR 1963, it is not contemplated that the former practice will be substantially altered.
We test, therefore, the present complaint allegations in the light of past practices. First, every well-pleaded allegation is assumed to be true, for the purpose of the present motion. But, to use the new rule terminology, did plaintiffs fail to state a claim upon which relief can be granted? As we construe the allegations of the complaint, they present the understandable disagreement of certain parents with actions of the school board and its officers and agents. They doubt whether Cody High School is overcrowded and say that if it is, then the school board should not transfer children out of Everett School to make room for Cody pupils, but that some Cody pupils-should be transferred to other high schools. The irreparable damage claimed is in denying children the privilege of continuing with their same teachers and classmates, depriving them of “the pleasure of returning home” for lunch during the noon recess, and increasing the traveling hazards at least to some who might have to cross additional dangerous intersections. It is our opinion that the allegations fail to state a claim upon which relief can be granted.
In the first place, injunction is a discretionary writ. However, it is the appropriate remedy where a State officer or agency has acted arbitrarily or unreasonably. Where the discretionary power of an administrative agency is abused, the court has a duty to issue injunctive restraint. Reed v. Civil Service Commission, supra. The same general rules apply to the acts of school boards and their officers. Chandler v. Board of Education of the City of Detroit, 104 Mich 292. Although not an injunction case, the same principles are contained in Cochrane v. Mesick Consolidated School District Board of Education, 360 Mich 390. In the Cochrane Case, 2 high school seniors were barred from participation in sports and physical education by school board rule because the pupils were married. The trial court sustained the school board and was affirmed here by equally divided vote. The dispute here was not as to the scope of judicial review of school board actions, but as to the essential policy involved in the board action. For present purposes, it is sufficient to add that the Cochrane Case does not dissent from the proposition that in reviewing actions of school boards, a court is guided by the principle that it will not attempt to substitute its judgment for that of the board, but will inquire as to whether such acts are arbitrary and unreasonable. The presumption is always in favor of reasonableness and propriety. Only when there -is a clear showing of abuse will the courts interfere.
In this ease, the authority was ample for what the school board intended. School boards are authorized by statute to establish attendance areas within the school district (CLS 1961, § 340.589 [Stat Ann 1959 Rev § 15.3589]). A school -board is empowered to “establish and carry on such grades, schools and departments as it shall deem necessary or desirable for the maintenance and improvement of the schools.” (CLS 1961, § 340.583 [Stat Ann 1959 Rev § 15.3583].) In addition, defendant board as a school district of the first class is specifically empowered “to adopt bylaws, rules and regulations for its own government and for the control and government of all schools, school property and pupils.” (CLS 1961, § 340.192 [Stat Ann 1959 Rev § 15.3192].) We conclude, therefore, that defendants not only are given broad powers by the legislature but specific powers embracing the establishing of schools and attendance areas within the district. Such is the legal basis for the acts of which complaint is made. In the exercise of this authority, we find nothing from the allegations of the complaint that such authority was wielded in an arbitrary or unreasonable manner. At best, the allegations present alternative proposals for dealing with the tacitly admitted space problem. Assuming all well-pléáded facts to be true, in such a situation the Court would not substitute its judgment for that of defendants. As a matter of law, then, plaintiffs failed to state a claim upon which relief can be granted.
Affirmed. No costs, a public question being involved.
T. M. Kavanagh, C. J., and Dethmers, Kelly, Souris, O’Hara, and Adams, JJ., concurred with Smith, J.
The transfers actually were effected after institution of this suit.
Court Rule No 18 (1945).—Reporter. | [
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Adams, J.
(for reversal and remand). The question presented by this appeal is whether there is a right to contribution from members of a class who by statute are required to support a relative.
Plaintiff alleges her mother, Dora Goldstein, is an indigent widow; that, of her six children, plaintiff and the defendants have sufficient financial ability to contribute to her support; and that since 1959 she alone has supported her mother because defendants have refused to do so. Plaintiff seeks to recover two-thirds of the money paid. Defendants moved to dismiss for failure to state a cause of action and because plaintiff was a volunteer. The motion was denied. On motion for rehearing, defendants alleged that the other children of Mrs. Goldstein were necessary parties and that there was an agreement exonerating defendants. The circuit judge granted the motion to dismiss, holding that the matter was statutory under CLS 1961, § 401.2 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16-.122) and that any action must be brought in probate court.
The obligation to support is created by the above statute, there being no legal obligation at common law to support an indigent parent. Schwanz v. Wujek, 163 Mich 492. The statute provides:
“The husband, wife, father, mother and children of any poor person, being of sufficient ability, shall jointly or severally relieve, maintain and support the poor person.”
Defendants say that the statutory scheme of chapter 1 of the poor law (PA 1925, No 146, as amended [CL 1948 and CLS 1961, § 401.1 et seq. (Stat Ann 1960 Rev §16.121 et seq.)]) provides an exclusive procedure through the probate courts. Under the law, enforcement of liability is left to proceedings to be instituted by specified local agencies or a dependent parent; the probate court is authorized to proceed by summary hearing; it can direct two or more relatives of different degrees to contribute to the support of an indigent; it can fix the time for payment and vary its orders for payment as circumstances may require; and may enforce its orders by contempt proceedings.
This statutory scheme, defendants argue, is a clear indication of the intent of the legislature to provide a single and exclusive method of enforcement.
The argument overlooks CL 1948, § 401.17 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.137), which provides that, on conviction for failure to support, the person so convicted shall be sentenced to not less than three months nor more than one year in the county jail at hard labor. CL 1948, § 401.18 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.138), provides for suspension of sentence in the event $1,000 bond is posted to insure performance.
While there are no decisions of this Court directly in point, two cases contain related problems. In Clinton v. Laning, 61 Mich 355, an action was brought by a father to recover expenses incurred to support a grown-up son who became grossly drunk at defendant’s tavern and, as a result, froze his feet and a hand. In holding that the father had a cause of action, the Court discussed an earlier version of the present statute. It was contended, as in this case, that the father was a volunteer, because the statute did not place him under a legal duty of support until the indigent relative was forced to employ the aid of the probate court. The Court said (pp 359, 360):
“But we think the law does not require a father to attempt to turn over his son to the custody of the superintendents of the poor before he .can be regarded as under a duty of maintenance. * * *
“We think that the voluntary assumption of this duty may fairly be regarded as performing a legal obligation.”
The appellees claim support from Schwanz v. Wujek, supra. That decision contains a statement that the statute does not give rise to legal liability until proceedings are begun under the poor law. The case involved suit by a surgeon for services and hospitalization rendered to the defendant’s indigent father. The Court seemed more impressed with the possible existence of an express contract than with founding the action on the statute. It was, perhaps, because of this that no reason was given for the conclusion (p 495):
“It is clear the liability does not attach until the statutory proceedings have been had.”
This ruling is inconsistent with both Clinton and more recent pronouncements of this Court. See Judis v. Borg-Warner Corp., 339 Mich 313, 326; MacDonald v. Quimby, 350 Mich 21, 29.
The statute clearly creates a joint and several duty -which under plaintiff’s pleaded case fell equally upon plaintiff and defendants. The primary object of the law is to create an obligation upon relatives for support of an indigent. Subordinate to that object, in the event of failure to obey the law, the legislature provided two procedures for enforcement — one through probate court, the other by criminal prosecution. Neither is exclusive. In the vast majority of cases neither will be utilized since in most instances the law will be obeyed and support forthcoming on a voluntary basis.
Plaintiff’s dilemma is that, if she obeys the law, probate proceedings cannot be invoked by her. They come into play only “upon the failure of any relative to relieve and maintain.” CLS 1961, § 401.3 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.123). If she disobeys the law, slie is subject to its criminal provision. CL 1948, § 401.17 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.137).
Under such circumstances plaintiff should not go remediless nor should defendants be permitted to escape their obligations. The familiar principle of contribution is applicable here.
“The doctrine of contribution rests upon the maxim, Equality is equity (see sections 405-412). Although contribution is based upon general considerations of justice, and not upon any notion of an implied promise, a jurisdiction at law has become well settled which is sufficient in all ordinary cases of suretyship or joint liability.” 4 Pomeroy’s Equity Jurisprudence (5th ed), § 1418, p 1072.
Michigan’s conception of the principle was expressed in Lorimer v. Julius Knack Coal Co., 246 Mich 214, 217:
“It has often been stated by the courts that contribution is founded on principles of equity and natural justice. The doctrine rests on the principle that when parties stand in aequali jure, the law requires equality, which is equity, and one of the parties will not be obliged to bear more than his just share of a common burden or obligation to the advantage of his co-obligors. 13 CJ p 821. It is applied in those cases where one or more of several parties equally obligated have done more than their share in performing a common obligation.”
See, also, Comstock v. Potter, 191 Mich 629, 637, 638.
Another question raised both in this case and in Clinton, supra, is the determination of damages. In Clinton, the Court recognized that determination of the amount of maintenance by a jury was perhaps more complicated than determination by a probate court, but found the difficulty was not insuperable and that a jury would be competent to make the determination. As for the amount to be recovered, the Court stated that the law imposes such an amount as would be (p 360):
“necessary for the humane and comfortable support of a needy person, and no more. All beyond this, which affection may prompt, and which it is likely to furnish, must be regarded as a free-will offering, and not a legal duty.”
Upon remand, if the remaining children of Dora Goldstein are necessary parties, they can readily be joined under the provisions of GCR 1963, 204 or GCR 1963, 205.1. Whether plaintiff in fact acted as a volunteer to the extent of foregoing her right to contribution and whether there was an agreement exonerating the defendants are issues to be determined upon trial.
We do not regard this proceeding as in any way affecting the jurisdiction of the probate court under PA 1925, No 146, as amended (CL 1948 and CLS 1961, § 401.1 et seq. [Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.121 et seq.]). The probate court proceeding is primarily prospective, for the purpose of making provision for an indigent’s future maintenance. This action is to recover a proper share from those jointly and severally responsible for the past performance of a duty the statute imposes.
The judgment should be reversed and remanded. Costs to appellant.
T. M. Kavanagh, C. J., and Black and Souris, J J., concurred with Adams, J.
Kelly, J.
(for affirmance). Plaintiff’s failure to proceed as provided by statute did not transfer jurisdiction of the subject matter from the probate to the circuit court.
Our decision in this appeal depends upon construction of the poor law, PA 1925, No 146, as amended, and a summary thereof as it applies to this appeal follows:
CLS 1961, § 401.2 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.122), provides that the children “of sufficient ability, shall jointly or severally relieve, maintain and support” their mother “in such manner as shall be approved by the county department of social welfare(Emphasis supplied.)
CLS 1961, § 401.3 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.123), was enacted by the legislature to provide for enforcement of liability of relatives and provided that if the children refused or failed to support their mother in the manner approved by the county department of social welfare, then “it shall be the duty” of said department to apply to the probate court of the county where the mother resides “for an order to compel such relief ” (Emphasis supplied.)
CLS 1961, § 401.4 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.124) calls for the probate court to “proceed in a summary way to hear the proofs and allegations of the parties,” and to then order the sons and daughters “of sufficient ability” to pay “the sum which will be sufficient for the support of such poor person.”
There follows legislative directives in re “proportionate liability”; “duration of order” and “change in terms”; and “costs; enforcement of orders.”
At common law an adult child is under no legal obligation to support an indigent parent. Appellant does not dispute this fact and in her declaration, recognizing that the statute prevails, states:
“4. That since July 1, 1959, and prior thereto, Dora G-oldstein has been unable to support, maintain, and care for herself and, at all such times, has been an indigent person.
“5. That it has accordingly been the joint and several responsibility of the parties hereto to sup port, maintain, and care for said Dora Goldstein, their mother, under the laws of the State of Michigan including, among others, CLS 1961, § 401.2 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.122), hut notwithstanding this obligation, the defendants have wholly refused and neglected to do so.”
If plaintiff and defendants’ mother was an indigent person on July 1, 1959, there was a moral responsibility upon her children to support, maintain and care for her, but that moral responsibility did not change into a moral and legal responsibility until proceedings in accordance with the sections of the statute referred to above had been instituted, and this fact is made definitely clear in our decision in Pinel v. Rapid Railway System, 184 Mich 169, wherein we said (p 171):
“A son is always under moral obligation to assist his indigent mother, but he is under no legal obligation to do so until proceedings under the statute have resulted in an order compelling him to do so.”
Also, in our decision in Schwanz v. Wujek, 163 Mich 492, where we said (p 494):
“Undoubtedly there rested upon the son the moral obligation to care for his father so far as was consistent with his own means and station in life, hut this was not a legal duty except as it became so by virtue of statutory enactment.”
Appellant cites CL 1948, § 401.17 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 16.137), which provides for a jail term for those who refuse to support their parents, and Clinton v. Laning, 61 Mich 355, where a father sought reimbursement for expenses incurred in caring for his son from those responsible for the drunkenness that resulted in exposure and freezing of the son’s feet and a hand. Neither this section of the statute nor the cited case relieves plaintiff from proceeding under the statute.
Appellant asks this Court to send this case hack to the circuit court for trial by jury, stating “a jury could determine the amount of support to be paid by the various adult children with at least equal competence of a probate judge,” and that by so doing “this Court has a unique opportunity to harmonize the law of' the State with the moral law.”
The law is not ambiguous. It clearly provides that in those unfortunate situations where it is necessary to invoke the aid of a court to decide how many of the children are able to financially support, and to what extent they should support, their mother, the determination should not be made by a jury on the circuit court level, but on the probate court level where, after careful investigation and report by the county department of social welfare, the probate judge “shall proceed in a summary way to hear the proofs and allegations of the parties,” and then render decision.
The trial court did not err in holding that the circuit court did not have jurisdiction.
If proceedings are hereafter instituted resulting in a probate court order, the probate judge may, taking into consideration the fact that appellant has assumed her moral obligation to support her mother since the latter became an indigent, credit appellant, in regard to future contributions, with whatever proportionate share of past contributions, is deemed appropriate.
Affirmed. Costs to appellees.
Detiimers, Smith, and O’Hara, JJ., concurred with Kelly, J.
The weight of authority holds that family responsibility statutes, such as the one here involved, support an action by third persons. See Annotation, 116 ALR, p 1281.
CLS 1961, §§ 401.6, 401.7 and CL 1948, § 401.8 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev §§ 16.126-16.128).
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Souris, J.
Plaintiff, widow of a deceased employee of defendant, Consumers Power Company, takes this appeal by leave granted from an order of the workmen’s compensation appeal board affirming an order of the hearing referee denying to plaintiff dependency compensation benefits.
Decedent had been employed by defendant for 35 years and at the time of his death held the salaried position of general gas meter supervisor. As the result of an illness in 1956 decedent was unable to work for several months. Even after he resumed work, his physical condition was such that he went from his office to his home to rest at lunch time for a period varying from one to three hours, after which he would return to the office. Plaintiff offered evidence that defendant acquiesced in this practice and continued decedent on full salary as it had done throughout his illness.
At about noon on October 19, 1961, according to plaintiff, decedent returned home from his office and rested and also worked on some papers he had brought from the office. He left home about 2 p. m. to attend a meeting at his office and while driving there was struck by a train and killed.
Plaintiff’s briefs to the appeal board and to this Court argued that because decedent had taken work home on the day of his death, which plaintiff claimed was his common practice known and acquiesced in by his employer, his death while returning to the office arose “out of and in the course of his employment” and so was a compensable event. Plaintiff relied upon cases like Wheeler v. Department of Conservation (1957), 350 Mich 590, which held an injury might be considered as arising out of and in the course of employment when it was incurred in the performance of “a service which was incident to and in furtherance of the general task to which [the employee] had been assigned” even though performance of the service also benefited the employee. 350 Mich 590, 594. In Wheeler and like cases the service had been expressly or impliedly authorized by the employer. In this case of Turner, however, the appeal board found as a fact that there was no necessity for decedent to do any work at home, and further that defendant employer neither expected nor authorized him to do so. This finding has record support and, that being so, we are precluded from substituting our judgment of the facts for that of the appeal board. Coates v. Continental Motors Corporation (1964), 373 Mich 461.
In the brief submitted to this Court by the amicus curiae, the argument is made that decedent’s fatal injury arose “out of and in the course of his employment” because it occurred while decedent was returning to his office from his home where he went regularly each noon to rest pursuant to an arrangement between decedent and his employer. Amicus argues that the employer, by permitting decedent to follow this regimen, was enabled to continue to utilize the services of a valuable employee whose services otherwise would have been lost to it.
The theory advanced by amicus, and adopted during oral argument to this Court by plaintiff-appellant, comes too late in the adjudicatory process. Had it been advanced during proceedings before the department, it cannot be doubted seriously that at least defendant, and probably plaintiff as well, would have offered additional evidence relating to the alleged arrangement between decedent and his employer, and particularly relating to the employer’s purpose in entering into such an arrangement. Instead, however, the case was tried to the referee and appealed to the appeal board and to this Court on the theory that plaintiff was entitled to benefits because decedent had been performing work for his employer at home from which he was returning to his office when fatally injured. Neither the referee nor the appeal board considered the theory belatedly advanced by amicus just two weeks before oral argument to this Court. On this record, neither may we.
Affirmed. Costs may be taxed.
T. M. Kavanagh, C. J., and Dethmers, Kelly, Smith, O’Hara, and Adams, JJ., concurred with Souris, J.
CLS 1961, § 412.1 (Stat Ann 1960 Rev § 17.151).
See, also, CL 1948, §413.12 (Stat Ana 1960 Rev §17.186).— Reporter. | [
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T. M. Kavanagh, C. J.
Plaintiff-appellant, on leave granted, appeals from the denial of his motion for a ruling in advance of trial that the defendantappellee had waived its right to object at the trial to testimony of plaintiff as to matters equally within the knowledge of the deceased president of defendant corporation.
Plaintiff sued on April 17, 1962, to recover on an oral agreement with the corporation, made through its president, to reimburse him for a house which he purchased in Kingsford, Michigan, and for which he obligated himself to pay the sum of $26,670. Plaintiff contends that defendant’s president induced him to move his home from St. Clair, Michigan, by false and fraudulent representations as to reimbursement for the cost of a furnished house, to be selected by defendant and purchased by plaintiff, near defendant’s Kingsford plant.
Plaintiff alleges in his first count that the representations were false and were known by defendant to be false and were made without any intent to perform. The second count is in assumpsit, and the third count is under the common counts.
Defendant answered denying the representations sued upon and by way of affirmative defense alleged that the pleaded oral contract, if any, would have been void under the statute of frauds, relating to an estate or an interest in lands, and not to be performed within one year.
At pretrial, the judge authorized defendant to take the depositions of plaintiff and his witnesses. These depositions were taken without defendant having asked for or received an order such as was affirmed by this Court in Banaszkiewicz v. Baum, 359 Mich 109.
While taking plaintiff’s deposition, defendant’s counsel, in pursuance of his discovery, questioned plaintiff in detail about where the agreement was made, who was present, what was said, and all the facts and circumstances surrounding the alleged representations of defendant’s deceased president.
Plaintiff claims defendant waived its right, by reason of this examination on the deposition, to object at trial to the plaintiff testifying to matters equally within the knowledge of defendant’s deceased president.
Defendant claims, on the other hand, that by interrogating plaintiff on deposition before trial regarding matters equally within the knowledge of defendant’s deceased president, it did not thereby waive its right to object at the trial in the event plaintiff offered such evidence in violation of the revised judicature act (CLS 1961, § 600.2160 [Stat Ann 1962 Rev § 27 A.2160]).
In Banaszkiewicz, supra, defendant proceeded to take plaintiff’s testimony by deposition pursuant to an order of the trial court which’expressly preserved defendant’s right to object at trial to any effort by plaintiff to testify in violation of the then applicable counterpart of the cited statute. On appeal this Court by majority vote affirmed the trial court’s discovery order on the ground that then applicable Court Rule No 35, § 6 (1945) did not bar the discovery of admissible evidence from plaintiff who, at trial, might be incompetent to give such testimony because equally within the knowledge of defendant’s decedent. This writer dissented and still is unpersuaded but impelled to accept the ruling of the majority.
Nothing in currently applicable GCR 1963, 302, alters the scope of discovery permissible by pretrial deposition as determined in Banaszkiewicz absent limitation thereof by a protective order issued by the trial court as provided in GCR 1963, 306.2. Nor is there anything in our current rules which would so much as suggest that this Court intended, contrary to its holding in Banaszkiewicz, to permit such discovery only on condition that the party seeking it waived any right to object to such evidence if offered by the deposed party at trial. The contrary clearly is indicated by GCR 1963, 302.5 and 308.3.
Affirmed. Costs may be taxed.
Dethmers, Kelly, Souris, Smith, O’Hara, and Adams, JJ., concurred.
Black, J., did not sit.
CL 1948, § 566.106 (Stat Ann 1953 Rev § 26.906).—Reporter.
PA 1961, No 236, § 2160 (CLS 1961, § 600.2160 [Stat Ann 1962 Rev § 27A.2160]).—Reporter.
334 Mich xi and 352 Mich xvii.—Reporter.
See 376 Mich xv.—Reporter. | [
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Adams, J.
Plaintiffs appeal from a dismissal of the State of Michigan and the Michigan State fair commission and, also, from summary judgments granted the city of Detroit and Police Commissioner Hart.
On September 2, 1960, plaintiffs paid for admission to the Michigan State fair. While on the grounds, they claim they became involved with “a huge gang of youthful rowdies”, that they were attacked by guards in street clothes employed by the State fair, that the guards imprisoned them, that while in jail at the fair grounds they were searched by Detroit police and then taken to Detroit police headquarters. On September 3,1960, they were tried in recorder’s court on a charge of disturbing the peace and found not guilty. About two years later, plaintiffs filed suit. Their declarations contained counts for assault and battery, false arrest, malicious prosecution, and claims in assumpsit. Amended declarations added two counts under the Federal civil rights act.
1.
The trial judge granted a motion to dismiss the State of Michigan and the Michigan State fair commission for lack of jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction for claims against the State and its commissions being vested in the court of claims. CL 1948, § 691-.101 et seq. (Stat Ann 1959 Cum Supp § 27.3548[1] et seq.). The jurisdiction and constitutionality of the court of claims was passed upon by this Court in Glass v. Dudley Paper Company, 365 Mich 227. See, also, Fox v. Board of Regents of the University of Michigan, 375 Mich 238, and McElrath v. United States, 102 US 426, 440 (26 L ed 189). While the latter case upheld the constitutionality of the United States court of claims, the reasoning is relevant here.
The Michigan State fair commission was created by PA 1956, No 100 (CLS 1961, § 291.1 et seq. [Stat Ann 1958 Rev § 12.1280(1) et seq.]), its members to be appointed by the governor. The objective of the commission was “for the purpose of promoting all phases of the economy of Michigan.” (CLS 1961, § 291.2 [Stat Ann 1958 Rev § 12.1280(2)].) The commission was replaced by the Michigan State fair authority by virtue of PA 1962, No 224 (CL 1948, § 291.21 et seq. [Stat Ann 1963 Cum Supp § 12.1280 (21) et seq.]). Section 3 of that act provides that the authority succeeds to all the rights, powers and duties of the commission, while section 1 of the act provides that the authority “may sue and be sued, contract and be contracted with.” Such provision is .insufficient to remove the authority from the jurisdiction of the court of claims. The sweeping language of the court of claims act provides jurisdiction “over claims and demands against the State or any of its departments, commissions, boards, institutions, arms or agencies, shall be exclusive.” (Emphasis supplied.)
2.
Appellants assert that they should have been granted discovery of the books and records of the State fair authority in order to establish that it was engaged in a proprietary function. Since the circuit court has no jurisdiction over any claim, proprietary or otherwise, against the authority or the State of Michigan, the question as to proprietary function was immaterial. Discovery was properly denied.
3.
Summary judgments for the city of Detroit and Police Commissioner Hart were granted upon a showing that the police officers were acting in a governmental capacity, that Commissioner Hart had no knowledge of the alleged acts of the police and that the acts were not done under his direction. Upon these issues appellants were given ample opportunity for discovery. Commissioner Hart was deposed at length, as was also Robert A. Lothian, second deputy commissioner of the Detroit police department who had charge of the business administration of that department. Their testimony, together with their affidavits and those of police officer Paul Gitschlag and Fred W. Lyons, second deputy commissioner previously in charge of the business administration of the police department, was to the effect that the city of Detroit never received any money for activities of the city police at the State fair; that the police were at the fair in pursuance of regular police activities; and that Hart had no specific knowledge of the presence of Detroit police at the fair and gave no directives with regard to their activities there.
Plaintiffs’ declarations, when tested by the motions for summary judgment, were not supported by any affidavits, depositions, or other evidence which would raise a genuine issue as to the material facts asserted by the city of Detroit and Commissioner Hart. GCR 1963, 117. Durant v. Stahlin, 375 Mich 628.
First, as to Commissioner Hart, upon such uncontroverted facts, he is not liable for the acts of his subordinates.
“Generally a government officer is not vicariously responsible for the acts of his subordinates any more than a foreman or factory superintendent would be, though there is an exception — now possibly losing ground — in the case of sheriffs, marshals and constables who are liable for the acts of their deputies.” 2 Harper and James, Torts, § 29.8, pp 1633, 1634.
In Michigan, the exception is represented by Bostatter v. Hinchman, 243 Mich 589. In that case, a sheriff appointed Hinchman a special deputy to serve (p 590) “during my [the sheriff’s] pleasure.” While the sheriff was away, his undersheriff called Hinchman to investigate an incident. While doing so, Hinchman shot plaintiff’s decedent. The sheriff was held liable for the reckless killing of an innocent person by his personally appointed deputy.
In Smith v. Olander, 251 Mich 503, defendant was the State commissioner of public safety. One of defendant’s troopers had legally arrested plaintiff and then, without excuse, assaulted him. This Court stated (p 505):
“There being no showing that the trooper in his wrongdoing was acting under the direction of the commissioner or with his knowledge, therefore, it must be assumed that the trooper acted contrary to the lawful demands of the commissioner, and we must hold that liability for the wrong done is limited to the wrongdoer.” (Emphasis supplied.)
The reason for the distinction between police commissioners and sheriffs was explained in Pavish v. Meyers, 129 Wash 605, 611 (225 P 633, 635):
“This court has held that a sheriff is liable for the misconduct of his deputies. * * *
“But the courts have very generally drawn a distinction between a sheriff and a chief of police, holding that the deputies of the former are selected by the sheriff and act purely as his representatives, but that police officers are generally not selected exclusively by the chief of police, and are themselves officers and do not act for the chief of police in the performance of their official duties.”
As for the city of Detroit, its police activity was in the exercise of a governmental function. Under Williams v. City of Detroit, 364 Mich 231, governmental immunity exists as to any such acts of a city prior to September 22, 1961. See, also, Wardlow v. City of Detroit, 364 Mich 291, and Sherbutle v. City of Marine City, 374 Mich 48.
The trial judge correctly refused to retain the city of Detroit as a defendant under the Michigan indemnification statute (PA 1951, No 59 [CLS 1961, § 124.101 et seq. (Stat Ann 1958 Rev § 5.3376[1] et seq.)] ). The act is permissive, containing the word “may” which distinguishes it from the Illinois indemnity statute (Smith-Hurd Ill Ann Stat ch 24, §§ 1-4-5, 1-4-6) which provides that a municipality “shall” indemnify policemen. The single permissive word “may” is controlling. A city may or may not indemnify policemen under the Michigan indemnification statute hut it may not he made a party on the basis of that statute which specifically provides, section 2:
“Such political subdivision shall not he made a party to any such action.”
As a result of the decisions in Williams and Sherbutte, supra, a city can be held liable for torts by its agents committed after September 22, 1961, on the theory of respondeat superior.
4.
Plaintiffs, in their amended declarations, alleged that defendants were liable under 42 USCA, §§ 1983, 1985, of the Federal civil rights act. Section 1983 gives a cause of action to any person who, under color of State law, is made to suffer a deprivation of any right, privilege, or immunity secured by the Constitution and law of the United States. It has been interpreted as covering any right protected through the 14th Amendment. Monroe v. Pape, 365 US 167, 171, 180 (81 S Ct 473, 5 L ed 2d 492). Egan v. City of Aurora, 365 US 514, 515 (81 S Ct 684, 5 L ed 2d 741). Section 1985 gives a cause of action to any person who has been the victim of a conspiracy by two or more persons to deprive him of equal protection or equal privileges and immunities under the law.
Assuming, without deciding, our jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ claims under the Federal civil rights act, the claims were nevertheless subject to summary judgment. The city of Detroit is not within the class of persons liable under section 1983. Monroe v. Pape, supra, pp 191, 192; Spampinato v. City of New York (CA 2), 311 F2d 439; and a city, acting in a sovereign capacity, is immune from suits arising under section 1985, Agnew v. City of Compton (CA 9), 239 F2d 226, 232, 233, certiorari denied, 353 US 959 (77 S Ct 868, 1 L ed 2d 910); Sires v. Cole (CA 9), 320 F2d 877, 879. Under the construction given the Federal civil rights act in these cases, the fair authority and the State of Michigan are also clearly not within the purview of the act.
Commissioner Hart’s possible liability under the civil rights act is not as clear. Plaintiffs’ complaints allege (1) that he was commissioner when the acts occurred, and (2) that the wrongdoers received their directives from him.
Federal courts have granted some government officials immunity under the civil rights act. The extent of the immunity is, as yet, not fully defined. It includes legislative and judicial officers. Tenney v. Brandhove, 341 US 367 (71 S Ct 783, 95 L ed 1019); Kenney v. Fox (CA 6), 232 F2d 288, 292, certiorari denied 352 US 855 (77 S Ct 84, 1 L ed 2d 66).
Whether immunity will apply in favor of subordinate officials depends upon the balance between two conflicting considerations. These are:
“the protection of the individual citizen against damage caused by oppressive or malicious action on the part of public officers, and the protection of the public interest by shielding responsible governmental officers against the harassment and inevitable hazards of vindictive or ill-founded damage suits based on acts done in the exercise of their official responsibilities.” Norton v. McShane (CA 5), 332 F2d 855, 857.
Balance is achieved between these considerations by qualifying the immunity of subordinate officials to include only good-faith discretionary acts done within the scope of their authority. Cobb v. City of Malden (CA 1), 202 F2d 701, 707; Nelson v. Knox (CA 6), 256 F2d 312, 315; Rhodes v. Houston (D Neb), 202 F Supp 624, 636, affirmed (CA 8), 309 F2d 959, certiorari denied, 372 US 909 (83 S Ct 724, 9 L ed 2d 719). Note, The Civil Rights Acts of 1871: Continuing Vitality, 40 Notre Dame Lawyer 70, 77. This view on immunity is, we believe, the better Federal rule. Plaintiffs’ allegations, taken alone, can be construed to state a cause of action against Commissioner Hart. However, those allegations were fully denied by the affidavits and depositions filed in support of the motions for summary judgment, which affidavits and depositions plaintiffs failed to controvert. Consequently there is no basis for the claim against him. Durant v. Stahlin (1965), 375 Mich 628, 638, 639, 656, 657.
5.
The attempt to disqualify the circuit judge because his bailiff was also employed as a guard for the Michigan State fair commission, and because the judge might be prejudiced due to his long tenure with the office of the Wayne county prosecuting attorney as an assistant prosecutor, was properly denied. Upon the record before us, there is no substance to either reason.
A trial judge should never allow himself to be badgered into a disqualification; but, if the least possible basis for it does exist, a judge should request reassignment of the case. Such action is not a reflection upon the judge’s character, integrity, or ability. On the contrary, it reflects honor upon him and upon our system of justice that he will voluntarily disqualify himself to insure a fair trial.
While the lower court adequately disposed of these matters from the bench, Judge Rashid did fail to file written opinions. His assertion, when request was made to him for written opinions, that he made no such, promise is contradicted by the record. Written opinions were promised. They should have been entered for the purpose of informing counsel as to the reasons for the decisions and to afford an adequate record for review.
The trial court is affirmed. Costs to appellees.
Souris and Smith, JJ., concurred with Adams, J.
T. M. Kavanagh, C. J., and Kelly and Black, JJ., concurred in result.
The amended declarations mentioned 42 USCA, § § 1981, 1983, 1985, 1986, and 1988. Sections 1983 and 1985 are discussed infra. It is apparent upon a reading of the other sections that they are inappropriate to plaintiffs’ suit. Section 1981 does not provide a civil cause of action for damages. Hanna v. Home Insurance Company (CA 5), 281 F2d 298, 303, certiorari denied, 365 US 838 (81 S Ct 751, 5 L ed 2d 747), rehearing denied, 366 US 955 (81 S Ct 1905, 6 L ed 2d 1247); Watson v. Devlin (ED Mich), 167 F Supp 638, 640, affirmed, 268 F2d 211. Section 1986 provides that “no aetion under the provisions of this section shall be sustained which is not commenced within one year after the eause of action has aeerued.” Section 1988 does not provide a cause of action, but speaks only to the law and procedure to be applied in the Federal district courts.
Reenacted by PA 1961, No 236, § 6401 et seq., the revised judicature act, effective January 1, 1963 (CLS 1961, § 600.6401 et seq. [Stat Ann 1962 Rev § 27 A.6401 et seq.]).
CL 1948, § 291.23 (Stat Ann 1963 Cum Supp § 12.1280 [3]).— Reporter.
CL 1948, §291.21 (Stat Ann 1963 Cum Supp § 12.1280 [1]).-Reporter.
CL 1948, § 691.108 (Stat Ann 1959 Cum Supp § 27.3548[8]). Now superseded by PA 1961, No 236, § 6419 (CLS 1961, § 600.6419 [Stat Ann 1962 Rev § 27A.6419]).—Reporter.
Amended by PA 1963, No 83 (Stat Ann 1963 Cum Supp § 5.3376 [1] et seq.).
Under section 1985, these allegations are defective because they fail to “set forth facts showing some intentional and purposeful deprivation of constitutional rights.” Powell v. Workmen’s Compensation Board of the State of New York (CA 2), 327 F2d 131, 137. See, also, Snowden v. Hughes, 321 US 1, 8 (64 S Ct 397, 88 L ed 497). However, under section 1983, the allegations may state a cause of action because of the United States Supreme Court’s ruling in Monroe v. Pape, supra, p 187. For an analysis of that ruling see Bowens v. Knazze (ND Ill, 1965), 237 F Supp 826, 828.
See Comment, Civil Liability of Subordinate State Officials Under the Civil Rights Acts and the Doctrine of Official Immunity, 44 Cal L Rev 887.
See, however, Sheridan v. Williams (CA 9), 333 F2d 581-583. A number of United States Supreme Court decisions, without discussing the question of immunity, have held subordinate officials liable for refusing to register Negroes under color of discriminatory State legislation. Myers v. Anderson, 238 US 368 (35 S Ct 932, 59 L ed 1349); Nixon v. Herndon, 273 US 536 (47 S Ct 446, 71 L ed 759); Smith v. Allwright, 321 US 649 (64 S Ct 757, 88 L ed 987).
One explanation of the failure to decide the question of immunity is that it was not presented. Comment, 44 Cal L Rev, supra and p 895. Another is that a distinction may be made between suits to compensate and suits to discourage future misconduct affecting a broad class of persons. See Comment, The Doctrine of Immunity Under the Civil Rights Acts, 68 Harv L Rev 1229, 1233.
For current provisions, see GCR 1963, 405.1.—Reporter.
See GCR 1963, 517.1.—Reporter. | [
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Souris, J.
In Beachlawn Building Corporation v. City of St. Clair Shores (1963), 370 Mich 128, we reversed the trial judge’s grant of defendant’s motion for directed verdict made at the close of plaintiff’s proofs. In the process of reaching that decision our opinion stated the law of the case to be applied in the new trial ordered. The law of the ease, as we restated it soon thereafter in Theatre Control Corp. v. Detroit (1963), 370 Mich 382, 388, is that Beachlawn is entitled to maintain an action to recover fees paid by it for building permits under an ordinance which was held to be invalid in Merrelli v. City of St. Clair Shores (1959), 355 Mich 575. While the record before this Court in the 1963 Beachlawn Case contained evidence that Beachlawn had protested payment of some, if not all, of the fees exacted from it for building permits, such evidentiary proof was not essential to plaintiff’s assertion of a cause of action according to the rationale of our decision. The controlling issue in such cases, we said, is whether the payments made were voluntary or under compulsion or duress so as to be involuntary and not whether the payments were made under protest. Since plaintiff could not have proceeded safely to build houses without permits from defendant, required by valid ordinance antedating the amendments declared invalid in Merrelli, supra, we concluded that plaintiff’s payments were involuntary because plaintiff had to pay what defendant demanded or give up its business. In support we cited Pingree v. Mutual Gas Co. (1895), 107 Mich 156; and City of Saginaw v. Consumers Power Co. (1943), 304 Mich 491, and other earlier decisions of this Court.
On the retrial, defendant offered evidence that plaintiff had not protested payment of the invalid building permit fees notwithstanding our opinion in the 1963 appeal in which we said that the fact of protest was not an essential element of plaintiff’s case. The trial judge correctly excluded proof of such evidence, plaintiff’s right to recover the amount paid even absent protest, because paid involuntarily, having been determined in the 1963 appeal.
Plaintiff, on the retrial, having proved the amount paid without contradiction by defendant, was entitled to the directed verdict and judgment in its favor.
All other questions raised by defendant in this appeal were considered and decided in Merrelli, supra.
Affirmed. Costs may he taxed in plaintiff’s favor.
T. M. Kavanagh, C. J., and Dethmers, Kelly, Smith, O’Hara, and Adams, JJ., concurred with Souris, J.
Black, J., concurred in result. | [
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O’Hara, J.
The issue presented upon this appeal is whether the order of the circuit court of Wayne county vacating an order of the probate court of that county should be affirmed or reversed.
What should be clearly understood is that the issue is not whether the probate court of Wayne county had the authority to enter the order which it did. This point is conceded by the able circuit judge in his opinion. We quote:
“So far as the jurisdiction of probate court * * * it is this judge’s view that it may order that which clearly benefits the estate presently. * * * It is my" further view that the change must be clearly shown to be of present, immediate benefit, * * * one of necessity to the management of the estate.”
The facts: Robert Lee Young was adjudged mentally incompetent on August 1, 1956. Theretofore in 1953, one Nellie King and Robert Lee Young claimed to have entered into a common-law marriage. A slight impediment to such an arrangement existed at the time — both were married to other people. Later in 1953, Mr. Young was divorced by his wife. In 1955, Mrs. King was divorced by her husband. Nothing- in the interim indicates that either- party repudiated the claimed common-law marriage. In fact, it was reasserted. In March, 1954, Robert Young, while fully competent, took out 2 insurance policies of $500 and $3,000, respectively, and named Nellie (King) Young the beneficiary, reserving the right of change thereof. One Betty Crooks, not specifically identified in this record, was appointed successor guardian for Robert Young on August 1, 1956. Mayhaps, for all we know she is Betty Jane Young, Robert’s divorced wife. On July 28, 1958, Mr. Young was committed to Ypsilanti State hospital where he remains as a public charge. On September 29, 1959, Betty Crooks resigned as guardian, and on December 9th of that year she was replaced by the present plaintiff, Attorney Wehmeier.
Meanwhile, on November 21,1956, Nellie E. Young-filed a bill of complaint in Wayne circuit court seeking to affirm (before the effective date of Act No 44 of the Public Acts of 1956 requiring, in addition to consent after January 1,1957, a license and solemnization) her common-law marriage. Her claimed common-law husband by then having been adjudged incompetent, his guardian, the present plaintiff, appealed the decree of affirmance to us. We vacated the decree of affirmance on the ground that neither party to the alleged common-law marriage was shown to have denied or doubted the marriage relationship, and that jurisdictional facts to entertain thé bill were not alleged in the circuit court. We added:
“The question is not presented to us, nor do we intend to infer one way or the other, whether there was a common-law marriage existing- between Nellie E. Young and Robert L. Young in 1956.” Young v. Wehmeier, 369 Mich 110, at p 113.
Summarizing- these facts then we have a situation wherein a married couple—the Youngs—become estranged, but not divorced. The husband conceives an affection for another woman estranged from her husband. They proclaim a common-law marriage, despite the aforementioned impediment thereto. The impediment is subsequently removed by 2 di vorces. The husband, the incompetent here, while still in possession of his faculties, takes out 2 insurance policies, the death benefit of which is payable to the object of his affection — his alleged common-law wife. He is adjudged incompetent and ends up a public charge in a State maintained mental institution. His guardian seeks to change his designated beneficiary on insurance policies issued after his estrangement from his subsequently divorced wife. His guardian asserts to the probate court that such change is to the benefit of the guardianship estate. The probate judge authorizes the change. The beneficiary, by him named while he was competent, employs counsel and asserts her right to remain his beneficiary. Denied relief in the probate court, she appeals. The circuit judge, on review, asks the eminently logical question — “What benefit to this guardianship estate will result from this change?” The guardian asserts on the petition previously filed in probate court (1) that he (the guardian) has been unable to accumulate a reserve for unusual expenses; (2) that in the event of his ward’s death, there would be no funds for his suitable burial; (3) that his, the ward’s alleged common-law wife has shown no interest in him and no longer “visits him in the hospital.” Therefore, it is to the best interest of the ward that his estate be made the beneficiary of the policies instead of the one selected by the ward while competent.
The circuit court says, in legal effect, and we paraphrase his position: I see no present benefit that would accrue to ward’s estate from this proposed change. You — guardian—have presently the authority to cash in the policy or borrow upon it if there is a present need for it. No benefit from this change would accrue to the ward until after he departs this world. This is the only effect of a change of beneficiary.
What the circuit judge did not say, and what is an obvious inference from the record, the real reason for the proposed change is to cut off the alleged common-law wife from any benefit she might receive upon the ward’s death. The guardian heretofore, by appeal to this Court, defeated affirmation of the common-law marriage. He now seeks to divert the death benefits from the claimed common-law wife as beneficiary to the ward’s estate.
We do not propose in this proceeding to untangle whatever equities may exist as between a divorced wife and an alleged common-law wife. Judge Bowles clearly perceived the issue. He allowed the guardian, over objection, to make a record, by his own testimony, to supplement the grounds he alleged in the probate petition and to try to establish a present ascertainable benefit to the incompetent ward’s estate. That record established nothing more than was alleged in the petition except possibly that $1,925 of the ward’s estate was expended on the appeal from the circuit court decree affirming the common-laiv marriage between the ward and the designated beneficiary. This Court is the arbiter of le^al controversy. Its functions do not extend to adjusting expected post-mortem benefits between a divorced wife and an alleged common-law wife under the circumstances here shown.
We are in accord with the finding of the circuit judge:
“On the facts [of which he was the sole judge, including the permissible inferences therefrom] we do not find an immediate or compelling need for such change.”
The language of the Wisconsin supreme court well expresses our position:
“While a guardian probably may surrender a benefit certificate or insurance policy and consent to a reduction in the amount thereof for the purpose of paying a policy loan to stop the running of interest charges, and while a guardian may undoubtedly surrender a policy of his ward upon payment to him of the cash surrender value thereof for the purpose of providing necessary funds for the support and maintenance of his ward or for what, at the time, may seem to be in the interest of his ward (Maclay v. Equitable Life Assurance Society, 152 US 499 [14 S Ct 678, 38 L ed 528]), no case is cited to our attention, and we have found none, which supports the contention that a guardian of an incompetent may designate a beneficiary in a policy issued to his ward while the latter was competent. No case has been found in which such a contention has ever been made. In our opinion a guardian has no more authority to designate a beneficiary in a policy of insurance upon the life of a ward than he would have to change the will of his ward by executing a codicil thereto or by executing a wholly new will.”
Th<^ order of the circuit court vacating the probate court order is affirmed. Costs to the appellee.
Dethmers, Kelly and Black, JJ., concurred with O’Hara, J.
CLS 1961, § 551.2 (Stat Ann 1957 Rev § 25.2) .—Reporter.
Kay v. Erickson, 209 Wis 147, at p 152 (244 NW 625, at p 626, 84 ALR 361). | [
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Campbell, J.
Respondents were convicted of larceny from James Brown of $80 in money, which was accomplished by means of legerdemain with marked cards. The only substantial question before us, worth noticing, is whether the fraudulent transaction, whereby the victim was deprived of his money, came within the definition of that offense. Although he was taken in while trying to aid in performing a sharp trick himself, yet this may not destroy the public wrong if one existed.
Shaw and Jones were confederates in the fraud. .Shaw had introduced himself to Brown as a traveler for a tea-dealing firm in Cincinnati, and told him that one of the means for getting custom in a new place was offering purchasers a chance, by drawing cards, to get fifty pounds free, in addition to the purchase, if they drew the winning card. In order to carry out the scheme, he wanted Brown to accompany him, and showed him how to draw the lucky card, by a little dot on the back. While they were practicing, and Brown succeeded each time in drawing the card, Jones came up, appearing to be a stranger, and inquired what they were doing, and Shaw told him he would show him, and gave him the same explanation as to the mode of selling tea, but did not tell him about the marked cards. Shaw, after some talk, said that Brown could draw the 50-pound card. Jones offered to bet $100 that he could not, and held out to Shaw what seemed to be a roll of bills. Shaw said he had not the money, but had a $300 check. Jones said he did not want the check; he wanted money. Shaw asked Brown if he had it. Brown said he had not a $100, but had $80. Brown at Shaw’s request handed him the $80, and Shaw whispered to him to draw the marked card. He drew it, and it was a blank, and Shaw at once handed the money to Jones. There were some subsequent performances which indicated the conspiracy between the respondents, but the larceny was charged on these facts, and their purpose. The court below refused to charge the jury that they did not make out larceny. No other part of the general charge is material, as it all rested on an explanation of principles involved in holding that it might be larceny if done with, intent to steal. Brown testified that he expected the money to be handed back, and that Shaw would infallibly win. The court, in substance, told the jury that if money is handed over to cover a wager, understanding and expecting that it will not be delivered until won, or honestly won, there is a condition that it shall not be otherwise delivered, and if the wager is fraudulent, and the whole is a swindle, the law holds the condition is not complied with. There was a further charge making the guilt of the parties hinge on their intention, and some cautions were given to the jury against allowing the misconduct of either party to lead them to a disregard of the law. The case does not very clearly show how far the exceptions went, as actually taken, but we shall assume they covered the important question as to the legal quality of the fraud.
There is some rather attenuated discrimination to be found in the books between such cheats as induce a person to give temporary custody of his property to another, who keeps or disposes of it, and those whereby he is induced to part with it out and out. We do not think it profitable to draw overnice metaphysical distinctions to save thieves from punishment. If rogues conspire to get away a man’s money by such tricks as those which were played here, it is not going beyond the settled rules of law to hold that the fraud will supply the place of trespass in the taking, and so make the conversion felonious. We have a statute which provides that an indictment for larceny may include counts for false pretenses, embezzlement, and receiving or concealing stolen property, and allowing the jury to convict of either. How. Stat. § 9546. While this will not allow a conviction except for an offense charged, it nevertheless recognizes the kindred nature of these offenses, and indicates a purpose to facilitate dealing with such offenders. In Robson’s Case, Russ. & R. 413, the circumstances were, nearly like those in the present case, and where they differed, it was not in a way to negative criminality here. In that case, the person whose money was alleged to have been stolen, was induced to take part in a bet, and put his money in the hands of a stakeholder, who paid it over to the winner. The bet, as here, was got up by confederates, who played into each other's hands, and one of whom persuaded the victim that, the bet was certain. They were convicted of larceny, and the trial judge, who allowed the conviction, rejcrifed the point for the opinion of the judges, ten of whom met and agreed in sustaining the conviction, because, at the time of taking, the owner only parted with the possession of the money. As the opinions are not reported, it can only be inferred that the judges thought there was no bona fide wager which made the stakeholder anything more than the tempo, rary bailee, and therefore the transfer and acceptance by the apparent winner were unauthorized, and operated as a felonious taking. . The case is substantially like this, except that Brown made no bet, but handed his money to Shaw on the belief that there was a real bet between him and Jones. Brown himself deserves no special favor for undertaking to facilitate Shaw’s knavery. But this does not help respondents, whose methods consisted in tempting weak fools into •confiding in their superior cunning. Their offense is the same as jf Brown had been altogether virtuous. They used just so much trickery as was necessary to get his money on .a sham bet, and that was enough, as we think, to bring them •within the law.
The judgment must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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