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As authorities feared, Australia saw a dramatic escalation of its wildfire crisis on Friday and Saturday, with the hardest-hit state this time being New South Wales. It will take another day for fires to ease as temperatures drop but winds remain high.
However, the disaster facing the country is nowhere near over. Fire officials reported in the early morning hours of Sunday, local time, that the number of homes damaged or destroyed in the past day is likely to be in the hundreds.
Ahead of a cold front moving from southwest to northeast, strong, dry winds out of the northwest helped instigate new blazes, vaulting embers from fire lines into areas not already ablaze. The fires knocked out power and water in some communities and forced the government to call up the military to assist in firefighting efforts.
As of Saturday evening, the Rural Fire Service of New South Wales still had emergency warnings, the most severe level, in effect. These warnings were communicated using dire language: “The fire is spreading quickly. If you are in Tallong, Werai, Exeter, Manchester Square, Avoca, Fitzroy Falls, Barrengary or surrounding areas it is too late to leave. Seek shelter as fire approaches,” read one such warning for the Morton Fire.
Particularly hard-hit on Saturday were the southern highlands, a wine-growing region about 70 miles southwest of Sydney, where high winds caused flames to surge northward into populated areas.
It’s unusual for bush fires to rage throughout the night, given that temperatures tend to drop overnight, but during Saturday night local time a sustained period of high winds caused flames to continue to spread rapidly.
Because the cold front is still making its way through the area of most intense fire activity, the hottest part of the day came and went with little to no relief. This allowed temperatures to soar to what appears to be a record-high temperature for Sydney, with Penrith, located in the far western reaches of the metropolitan area, hitting 120 degrees (48.9 Celsius). In addition, Canberra, the nation’s capital, hit a record high of 110 degrees (43.6 Celsius), breaking the previous record of 109 degrees set in 1939.
Many of the fires that intensified Saturday developed smoke plumes that were vaulted high into the atmosphere. Some turned into what are known as pyrocumulonimbus clouds, which are thunderstorms birthed by the combination of rising heat, smoke particles and water vapor from a major fire. At one point on Saturday, Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology issued a thunderstorm warning for storms generated by smoke plumes.
These pyroCb clouds, as they are known in the meteorology community, typically indicate that a fire is exhibiting extreme behavior, since they help a blaze draw in more surrounding air and can shift surface winds while also giving rise to fire tornadoes. A young firefighter in Australia died when a fire tornado overturned his vehicle.
On Friday into Saturday, fires also erupted in other parts of Australia, including a destructive blaze on Kangaroo Island in South Australia. That island is home to a nature preserve that contains numerous unique species. Fires have devastated habitat for iconic animals that are only found in Australia, including koalas and rare birds, though the toll on wildlife will not be fully known for some time.
Bush fires are expected to continue burning through the weekend and in the weeks and months to come as Australia enters its dry season in a precariously hot and desiccated position. However, the fire weather forecast for the next few days features cooler weather, which could help weary firefighters hold flames back behind containment lines.
Last year was the hottest and driest year on record in the country, and December turned out to be one of the top two hottest months ever recorded. December featured the country’s hottest day on record as well. No significant rain is expected in the hardest-hit areas of New South Wales and Victoria for months.
While bush fires are a regular occurrence during the Australian dry season, a combination of long-term climate change and natural variability is making the situation far worse.
The combustible climate mix
Human-caused global warming is raising the odds of and severity of extreme-heat events and also adding to the severity of wildfires by speeding the drying of the landscape, among other influences. One of the most robust conclusions of climate studies has been that human-caused warming would increase the frequency and severity of heat waves and also boost the occurrence of days with extreme fire danger.
Both trends are playing out in Australia, a country that has recently seen other severe climate impacts in the form of marine heat waves that devastated parts of the Great Barrier Reef.
The southern part of Australia has warmed by 2.7 degrees since 1950, according to climate researcher Zeke Hausfather, climate and energy director at the Breakthrough Institute. This is consistent with the period of faster human-caused warming worldwide.
The unusually warm and dry year in Australia is also due, in part, to a weather pattern that has set up across the Indian Ocean. It’s known as the Indian Ocean Dipole, or IOD, which is an air circulation pattern in the Indian Ocean. When the IOD is in its positive phase, the water is cooler than average off the coast of Sumatra, leading to reduced atmospheric lift there and reduced rainfall over Australia, and there are warmer-than-average waters off the coast of Africa.
A positive IOD the past two years has meant drier-than-average conditions in much of Australia. The Bureau of Meteorology found that it is unusual to have back-to-back years with a positive dipole, which helps influence precipitation patterns across South Asia and Oceania.
This natural climate cycle is changing over time as ocean and air temperatures rise in response to increased amounts of greenhouse gases from human activities, namely the burning of fossil fuels for energy. This is expected to make back-to-back positive IOD events more common and make Australia even more prone to drought conditions accompanied by extreme heat.
“While the IOD is a natural mode of variability, its behavior is changing in response to climate change. Research suggests that the frequency of positive IOD events, and particularly the occurrence of consecutive events will increase as global temperatures rise,” the bureau stated.
The scale of the ongoing disaster in Australia is difficult to fathom even for those on the ground. At least 12 million acres have gone up in smoke so far in Victoria and New South Wales alone, which dwarfs the amount of land that burned in California’s worst fire season in 2018. It is equivalent to the burning of the entire state of West Virginia.
Smoke from the blazes has made it to South America, a journey of 9,000 miles, and some may stay aloft for months, having a small effect on the planet’s climate.
On the ground, though, residents in affected areas feel helpless and scared, and increasingly weary.
Rebecca Butterworth, a house painter and journalist in Albury, a city in southern New South Wales, says it has been surreal to hear the small towns in the picturesque Murray-Darling Basin, some of which have populations under 100, mentioned on national newscasts.
“The signal for ‘leave’ is a red rimmed triangle with a black interior, and a little traffic light guy at full hock within it. It’s just hanging everywhere,” she said in an email. | <urn:uuid:3dbeabb6-57da-4136-8c8b-1ad8f6082d69> | {
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Failure might not be a bad thing. Parents usually see failure as something negative and will do their best to prevent their young child from failing.
However, failure might not be a bad thing, as it is an opportunity for a child to learn to be resilient. Consider these strategies to teach your kid about failures.
Encourage problem-solving skills
When your preschooler feels that she cannot solve a problem and has failed – for instance, when she breaks a friend’s toy – do not “rescue” her immediately, says Rebecca Han, senior programme specialist at Odyssey the Global Preschool.
Instead, ask questions such as: “How do you think your friend will feel? What can you do to change that? How can you solve the problem?”
Guiding her to reflect on the issue takes time, but provides opportunities for her to solve it. It also helps her develop self-confidence, self concept and moral judgment, adds Rebecca.
(Also read: 9 ways to praise and encourage your kid)
You won’t always be there to comfort your kid every time she falls short of a task. So, help her to manage her expectations and learn how to overcome failure.
Unexpected and unpleasant things happen and, while you cannot prevent them, you can reduce distress by keeping her anticipation within reason.
Even if things do not work out as planned, she will understand and learn that disappointment is a part of life.
(Also read: How to be a more supportive parent)
Be a good role model
How you, as a parent, handle failure is important, as your preschooler will observe your every move. If you demonstrate signs of inability to cope with stress, she will notice.
“Explain that it is all right to fail and make mistakes by sharing how you have also failed – and picked yourself up,” she adds.
(Also read: 9 things you say that hurt kid’s self-esteem) | <urn:uuid:8855759b-0c2c-41a9-9338-d00e77079e9a> | {
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The dangers of a global bird flu pandemic
4 November 2005
Health authorities around the world are warning that humanity could face the first global influenza pandemic of the twenty-first century. The spread of the H5N1 strain of avian influenza through poultry stocks in Asia and recently into Europe raises the prospect that the virus will mutate so that it can be transmitted from person to person, resulting in millions of deaths. In spite of the constant warning from scientists, governments in wealthier countries have responded in an uncoordinated and belated manner, largely leaving poorer countries to their own devices.
So far the H5N1 avian influenza has mostly affected poultry stocks in Asian countries and has resulted in the culling of over 120 million birds within three months. This has been a huge blow to poor rural communities that depend on their flocks of chickens and ducks as a major source of protein.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), so far there have been 117 confirmed cases of human infection and 60 deaths, with Vietnam the worst affected with 91 cases and 41 deaths. Most of the cases have been in previously healthy children and young adults. Although the infection rate among humans is relatively low, scientists fear that the large populations living in close proximity to infected poultry creates the conditions for the virus to mutate and become highly infectious to humans.
Scientists estimate that sometime prior to 1997 the H5N1 strain began to establish itself in Asian poultry populations. The virus at first seemed to pose little threat as it only produced mild symptoms such as ruffled feathers and reduced egg production. However, it mutated into the current highly pathogenic form capable of killing birds within 48 hours and with a mortality rate close to 100 per cent. The first outbreak of this new potent virus was in 1997 in Hong Kong where 18 people were hospitalised and six died. Authorities destroyed 1.5 million birds to remove the source of infection.
The next outbreak was in South Korea in 2003 where a number of commercial flocks were devastated. Health authorities began to raise concerns that a global pandemic was in the making. In January 2004, the H5N1 virus was found in poultry in the southern provinces of Vietnam and was also responsible for the death of several children in the capital Hanoi. Some 400 poultry outbreaks in Vietnam have affected at least 3 million birds. At the same time, the virus was found on a single farm in Japan.
This January a WHO report entitled “Avian influenza: assessing the pandemic threat” concluded that “all prerequisites for the start of a pandemic had been met save one, namely the onset of efficient human-to-human transmission. Should the virus improve its transmissibility, everyone in the world would be vulnerable to infection by pathogen—passed along by a cough or a sneeze—entirely foreign to the human immune system.” According to WHO estimates, the virus is now endemic in bird populations in parts of Asia and is becoming more pathogenic in mammals.
The H5N1 virus has continued to spread to central Asia and Europe. Recent assessments published in the science journals Nature and Science speculate that the virus is being transmitted by an unknown species of wild migratory bird. Scientists first suspected that the poultry trade and other human activities were responsible for the spread of the virus but two months ago 100 wild fowl killed by H5N1 were found at a remote lake in Mongolia.
US Department of Agriculture scientist David Suarez concluded that “there is much stronger evidence that wild birds are spreading the virus” and that “it will be difficult or impossible to control the spread from country to country”. In April the virus killed about 6,000 migratory water birds at Lake Qinghai in northwestern China.
In the next few weeks, migratory birds, including possible influenza carriers, could hit the sub-Saharan wetlands. On October 19, UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) veterinary officer Joseph Domenech said that if the virus becomes endemic in Africa, the chances of it mutating to spread between humans, potentially triggering a pandemic, will increase. The possible consequences are serious, as many African countries are not equipped to even monitor the virus, so it could go undetected for some time. The WHO report also raised the possibility of the avian flu interacting in some unknown and potentially deadly way with a population already devastated by HIV.Influenza viruses
It is not clear how or even if the H5N1 virus could become more transmissible in human populations. The WHO report stated that a possible mechanism could involve stepwise changes that occur as the virus mutates during infection of humans or other mammals that gradually would allow the virus to improve its transmissibility to humans.
Viruses are very simple parasitic microorganisms consisting of a protein case containing a piece of genetic material—either Ribonucleic acid (RNA) or Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Viruses have no life functions of their own and have to infect a host cell in order to reproduce, ultimately killing the infected cell and producing symptoms of the infection.
There are three types of influenza virus known as types A, B and C. Only type A influenzas cause pandemics and can infect birds, pigs, horses, seals and whales as well as humans. Type A viruses are further classified according to two proteins on their surface called hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Many variations of the two proteins are known to exist, which are designated according to their surface protein subtype.
Type A viruses are notorious for their ability to change. They mutate by two processes. One is known as “antigenic drift”—small changes to the genetic makeup which alter the influenza virus in minimal ways. In this case, humans have some resistance to the altered virus. The second is “antigenic shift”—a major change in the viruses’ genetic structure to which victims have little or no resistance. If the antigenic shift produces a virus that is easily transmissible to humans then a pandemic can occur.
The WHO report stated that viruses of the H5 subtype have probably never infected humans previously or not within the lifetime of the current generation. This means that “vulnerability to an H5N1-like pandemic virus would be universal”. Pandemics are always global events and in the past have spread around the world in less than a year.
There were three pandemics during the twentieth century. The worst was the 1918-1919 Spanish influenza that killed between 20 million to 50 million people worldwide. This was many times the total casualties during World War I. During the pandemic an estimated 30 percent of the world’s population fell ill. In the US, 28 percent were affected and the average life span fell by 12 years in 1918. Medical authorities were unable to cope and were not even aware of the cause of death, as viruses were not isolated and identified until 1933.
By the time of the 1957-1958 pandemic, which started in Hong Kong, medical authorities had access to vaccines and antibiotic treatments that could be used to relieve secondary complications such as bacterial pneumonia. It took six months for the virus to circle the globe. The total death toll was about 2 million. The 1968-1969 pandemic broke out in south-eastern China and killed about 1 million globally.
In 1976 another pandemic was expected and a mass immunisation campaign was instigated in the US. The pandemic did not occur and the immunisation program sparked extensive litigation.
Genetic studies have shown that the influenza virus is made up of eight genes. If two viruses, such as the avian H5N1 and the human H3N2, infect the same cell they can swap genes resulting is a highly transmissible influenza strain. The 1957 pandemic was caused by the mixture of three genes from the avian virus with five genes from the circulating human strain. With the 1968 influenza virus, a similar reassortment of genes occurred. It is suspected that the reassortment first occurred in a pig and was then passed on to humans in a new more lethal form.The 1918 influenza virus
A recent study published in the October 6 issue of Nature detailed the final three genes of the 1918 influenza virus. The other five gene sequences had already been published. The viral material was obtained from the frozen lung tissue of victims of the 1918 pandemic who had been buried in the permafrost of Alaska, thus preserving the virus. The first attempt to resurrect the virus from frozen victims was made in 1951 but scientists were not able to culture any viable material.
In the latest study, scientists found that mice infected with the 1918 virus died more quickly than with any other known human influenza virus. The work to sequence the genome of the 1918 influenza virus began 10 years ago. The full sequence provides strong evidence that the 1918 flu virus is derived wholly from one that originally infected birds. Jeffery Taubenberger, a scientist at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in Maryland, recently commented that the virus was “the most bird-like of all mammalian flu viruses”.
Pennsylvania State University virologist Eddie Holmes said the research was a “landmark”: “Not only is this the first time this has been done for any ancient pathogen, but it deals with the agent of the most important disease pandemic in human history.” Scientists are attempting to identify the mutations in the 1918 virus that allowed it to become infectious in humans. Such work may offer some strategies to prevent a reoccurrence of a human pandemic.
It is difficult to predict how the H5N1 virus will evolve, if a pandemic will emerge at all or how virulent it will be. The general consensus among scientists, however, is that a pandemic is long overdue. On June 30, WHO officials revealed that they had been considering raising the threat level for a global pandemic, from the current 3 (human infections have occurred, but there is little evidence of sustained human-to-human transmission) to 4 (small localised clusters of human infection) or even 5 (large clusters of infection and just short of a pandemic). The scale has six points.
The trigger was a report in Vietnam that many people had mild cases of influenza. Those in contact with them were testing positive for the H5N1 strain, indicating the virus was being transmitted from human to human. The situation in Vietnam remains uncertain but the cases were not confirmed by subsequent analysis. WHO’s Western Pacific director Shigeru Omi warned that H5N1 remained at a “tipping point”. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) stated that “the last influenza pandemic swept the globe in 1968; many public health officials believe the world is overdue for another one”.
An editorial in the May 26 issue of Nature concluded: “National governments’ performance is half-hearted, incomplete and far too slow. International organisations are working with their hands tied behind their backs, for bureaucratic and diplomatic reasons. In short, the level of current efforts is not commensurate with the threat we face.”
The WHO report considered mainland China as the “epicentre of influenza virus activity and the birthplace of pandemics”. But little is being done to prevent an outbreak in southern China, where people of economic necessity live side by side with poultry and pigs, providing the perfect breeding ground for a new highly transmissible virus. Although scientists now have the capacity to track the genetic changes taking place in the H5N1 virus, there is no funding to help affected countries build effective surveillance programs.
In wealthy countries, the response of governments to the pandemic danger has concentrated on stockpiling the anti-viral drug Tamiflu (oseltamivir). But the stockpile of drugs is only sufficient to protect a small percentage of people, leaving the remaining population, particularly the poorest layers, highly vulnerable. In the rest of the world, the impact of a deadly bird flu would be even more devastating.
Contribute to the fight for socialism in 2020
2019 has been a year of mass social upheaval. We need you to help the WSWS and ICFI make 2020 the year of international socialist revival. We must expand our work and our influence in the international working class. If you agree, donate today. Thank you. | <urn:uuid:5ec506dc-1367-4d67-be7a-0ecf0ac053a7> | {
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The Adan Mun’go CollectionAs of October 2015, the Adan Collection contains a total of 89,150 items that
can be divided into roughly three categories.
- The collection of premodern Korean textual materials consists primarily of Chosŏn Dynasty texts composed in literary Chinese.
These include 56 texts that are considered especially rare, as well as a total of thirty-three registered cultural assets: three texts registered as South Korean “national treasures” and twenty-eight registered as South Korean “treasures,” as well as two registered as “cultural assets” in Seoul. Epistolary documents, deeds of (land) sale, family registers, instructional primers, and government documents from before Korea’s modern period contained in the Adan collection are an invaluable window on every-day life and the socio-economic history of premodern Korea. In addition, facsimiles suggesting East Asian traditional culture more broadly cannot be overlooked.
- Adan Mun’go also contains a rich collection of materials published between Korea’s enlightenment period and the 1960s— including rare monographs, newspapers and journals, as well as scrap books of various kinds—that reveal Korea’s intellectual and cultural inheritance from the end of the nineteenth century to the outbreak of the Korean War (1950). Adan Mun’go’s collection of journals from this period is considered among the best in South Korea in terms of both the quantity and the quality of the gathered materials.
- Adan Mun’go also houses memorabilia donated by some of Korea’s most renown literary artists. These include manuscripts, letters, stationary, in addition to books and journals, contributed by Ch’oe Chŏng-hŭi, O Yŏng-su, and Paek Ch’ŏl. As literary testimonies to their age, these materials suggest the haunted creative worlds and distinctive lived experiences of these authors. | <urn:uuid:cd1a0382-a3af-4cbc-9d09-9b520d9264c8> | {
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A new study on this subject from a team led by Dr. Ruth Milanaik, an attending developmental and behavioral physician at the Cohen Children’s Medical Center of New York on Long Island, New York, looked at the very youngest children -- infants and toddlers up to age three -- to examine what the researchers called "touchscreen device usage" or TDU, to see how use of or exposure to such devices as smart phones and iPads impacts children's development.
Dr. Milanaik noted that the study was prompted, in part, by the observation that the "number one toy" that parents gave their children to play with at a newborn follow-up clinic was a smartphone. In an article on the study in Forbes, she noted that parents were substituting smart phones for books and other baby toys and stated, "Many parents did not seem to bring any other distraction for their children except the touch screen devices.”
Dr. Paul Yellin commented, "Dr. Millanaik’s quote may get to the heart of the matter. It may not be the devices per se, but rather the fact that they are used instead of reading or speaking to children. This is consistent with recent research demonstrating the importance of exposure to language in the early years." | <urn:uuid:2a17c473-35bf-4a75-acf7-f40ed32170d0> | {
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I want to begin with Hittite kingdom of Anatolia . But
ancient history of Anatolia is very complicated . It has connections with Summer, Babylon, Egypt, Cush kingdom of south Sudan and Kingdom of Ethiopia. Of all these historical junctions ,Kush kingdom of south sudan and its Pyramids named “Al Kuru” gives us clear clue to Kuru and Hastinapur.
Names of the kings
There was Cush kingdom in south sudan .We find king’s names like
Aspelta ,Arakamani, Nastasen, Kandakes Shanakdakhete ,Amanirenas,Amanishakheto, Amanikhatashan etc. we know that suffix “Sen” and “Mani” are clue to ancient king’s names of Bharatvarsha.
So here I prefer to aquaint you with History of Sudan ,Ethiopia and Egypt prior to understand history of Anatolia. Now let us check some clue words.
Khartoum (Arabic- Al Hartum) is the Capital and largest city of Sudan and of Khartoum state. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victroria, and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as “al-Mogran”. The main Nile continues to flow north towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea.
Lunar Dynasty history says that Kshatravriddh’s son Suhotra, had three sons.1.Kashya2.Kushand 3.Grihatsmad. These all clue words are available in Sudan.
Kingdom of Kush (south Sudan) /Egypt/ Ethiopia
The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara in what is now the Republic of Sudan.
Established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New kingdom of Egypt, it was centered at Napata in its early phase. After king Kashta (“the Kushite”) invaded Egypt in the 8th century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of the Twenty –fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century, until they were expelled by Psamtik I in 656 BC.
During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Meroe. In early Greek Geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia. The Nubian kingdom at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, when it was militarily defeated by the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum.
The native name of the Kingdom was likely kas, recorded in Egyptian as kush..
The name Kash is probably connected to Cush in the Hebrew Bible , son of Ham (Genesis 10:6).
The conventional name “kingdom of Kush” was introduced in 19th-century Egyptology.
During the New kingdom of Egypt ,Nubia (Kash) was an Egyptian province, governed by the Viceroy of Kush. With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BCE, Kash became an independent kingdom centered at Napta.
El Kuru pyramid and king Nastasen
El-Kurru was one of the royal cemeteries used by the Nubian royal family. Reisner excavated the royal pyramids. Most of the pyramids date to the early part of the Kushite period, from Alara of Nubia to King Nastasen (beginning of the third century BCE).
Kussara in Ethopia
Kussara is located in Afar, Ethiopia. Latitude and longitude are 11.3333° N and 41.0333° E.
There is some confusion over the usage of the word Ethiopia in ancient times and the modern country.For example, many ancient maps of Africa, which appeared approximately at the time of the European Age of Discovery, named the continent of Africa as Aethiopia, also naming what we now call the Atlantic Ocean, as Oceanus Aethopicus.
Ancient Greeks historians such as Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus used the word Aethiopia to refer to the peoples living immediately to the south of Ancient Egypt, specifically the area now known as the ancient kingdom of Kush, now a part of modern Nubia, as well as all of Sub –Saharan Africa in general. However, the Roman historian Pliny the Elder (79 CE) uses “Aethiopia” exclusively for Sub-Saharan Africa, expressly stating that the inhabitants of the Upper Nile from Elephantine as far as Meroe in his day were not from Aethiopia, but were “Arabs”.The opinion of the ancient writers on the Egyptians is more or less summed up by French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero though, in The Dawn of Civilization (1894), when he says, “By the almost unanimous testimony of ancient historians, they [the Egyptians] belong to an African race which first settled in Ethiopia on the Middle Nile: following the course of the river they gradually reached the sea”; this showing that the empire did stretch into the Lower Nile region and eventually developed into the Egyptian empire.
And now Kussara in Anatolia
Kussara (Hittite: Kussara) was a city of Bronze Ages south-eastern Anatolia. The rulers of Kussara extended their authority over central Anatolia, conquering Hittite -speaking Kanesh (Ganesh? I shall produce Book facts in following Article), destroying the future Hittite capital of Hattusa, and subjugating territories as far north as the Black Sea.
A man named Pithana is the earliest known ruler of Kussara and was responsible for the conquest of Kanesh (Neša). His son Anitta extended these conquests, destroyed the future Hittite capital Hattusa, and is the earliest known ruler to memorialize his achievements using the Hittite language. Now understand the clue to word Anatolia ?
Kussara and Hittite are clue words . Thease words connects us with Kuru pyramid of Kush kingdom .
Now let us check historical facts about Hittite kingdom of Anatolia.
Hattusha’s Other spellings: Hattusa; Hattusa; Khattusas
Ancient town, capital of the Hittite Empire. Its population is estimated to have been 50,000 at its most.
Hattusha was an imperial capital from about 1680 until 1193 BCE, less than 500 years. Strong state formations of the Hittites lasted until 710, but now Carchemish had replaced Hattusha as the strong city of the region.
Its modern location is in north-central Turkey, close to the modern village of Bogazkale, which has between 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants. 35 km southeast is Yozgat while Ankara is about 170 km west.
The location of Hattusha is curious, while all major capitals throughout history were at the most central location possible, Hattusha was in all ways remote. But, the actual remoteness may have been its most important quality. Any advancing army would waste their strength long before arriving here. The city itself was built on a natural fortress, on a mountain slope, between two deeply cut riverbeds.
Hattusha was protected by city walls following the natural fortress of the mountain. The city was about 2 km from north to south, and 1.2 km east to west. Hattusha had two circles of city walls, the inner section was made up by a citadel, administrative buildings and temples.
The main city and the residential quarters rest together south of the fortified inner city. Two stone lions and two sphinxes protect each their city gate, a third gate is noted for a relief figure of the god Teshuba, still it is called King’s Gate.
Among the most important discoveries at Hattusha has been the royal archives of clay tablets, with inscriptions in cuneiform. One of the tablets contain details of the peace settlement between the Hittites and the Egyptians from the early 13th century BC.
A Book “ Historical dictionary of the Hittites” By Charles Allen Burney can give you further information.
Link to Book
History in Brief
3rd millennium BCE: First records of settlements here, populated by a people called Hatti.
Early 2nd millennium: Addyrian presence, the name appears to be Hattus. Hattus is, however, second in regional importance to the colony of Kanesh (near modern Kaysari).
Around 1900 BCE: The Hittites, most probably coming from western Europe, conquer Hattus. In their language it would become known as Hattusha.
After 1800 BCE: King Anittas of Kussara defeats the king of Hattusha, King Piyusti.
Middle 17th century BCE: King Labarnas of Kussara makes Hattusha his new capital, taking the name Hattusilis 1. He is regarded as one of the founders of the Old Hittite kingdom.
1380: Hattusha is destroyed by unknown invaders.
Middle 14th century BCE: Hattusha rebuilt by the command of King Suppiluliumas 1, under whose reign the territory of the Hittite kingdom grew across Anatoia and into Syria.
1300 BC: The Hittite capital is relocated from Hattusha by the command of King Muwatallis, but returned to Hattusha by the succeeding king.
1193 BC: Hattusha is destroyed, as part of the fall of the Hittite Empire, caused by the Sea People. It appears that Hattusha would remain abandoned after that for many centuries.
8th century BC: New settlement, belonging to the Phrygians.
3rd century BC: The Celtic tribe of Galatians invade from Europe and settle in the region of Hattusha.
Early 1st millennium CE: Hattusha is again abandoned.
1834: Ruins of Hattusha are discovered.
1906: Excavations begin.
1986: Hattusha is added to the UNESCO World Heritage list.
With above facts now we know that King Labarnas of Kussara makes Hattusha his new capital, taking the name Hattusilis. He is regarded as one of the founders of the Old Hittite kingdom. Let us know something of Kussara.
Why -Vishwa Samrat Ram?
One can quetion that why I wrote Vishwa Samrat Ram(king of The world –Ram)? The answer to the question is in following facts.
Ramesses II (Egypt)
Ramesses II (c. 1303 BC – July or August 1213 BC; Egyptian:Rim?sisu, alternatively transcribed as Rameses and Ramses referred to as Ramesses the Great, was the third Egyptian Pharaoh (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC) of the Nineteenth Dtnasty. He is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire. His successors and later Egyptians called him the “Great Ancestor”. Ramesses II led several military expeditions into the Levant, re-asserting Egyptian control over Cannan. He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el -Wali and Gerf Hussein.
Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented 14 Sed festivals (the first held after thirty years of a pharaoh’s reign, and then every three years) during his reign—more than any other pharaoh. On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of Kings; his body was later moved to a Royal cache where it was discovered in 1881, and is now on display in the Cairo Museum.
The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Cannan and Palestine. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of a stele near modern Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. His records tell us that he was forced to fight a Palestinian prince who was mortally wounded by an Egyptian archer, and whose army was subsequently routed. Ramesses carried off the princes of Palestine as live prisoners to Egypt. Ramesses then plundered the chiefs of the Asiatics in their own lands, returning every year to his headquarters at Riblah to exact tribute. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of Amurru during his campaign in Syria.
Ramesses decorated his monuments with reliefs and inscriptions describing the campaign as a whole, and the battle in particular as a major victory. Inscriptions of his victory decorate the Ramesseum, Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel. For example, on the temple walls of Luxor the near catastrophe was turned into an act of heroism:
The Karnak Temple
The Karnak Temple Complex—usually called Karnak—comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. Building at the complex began in the reign of Sesostris I in the Middle kingdom and continued into the Ptolemaic period, although most of the extant buildings date from the New kingdom.
The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut (“The Most Selected of Places”) and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the monumental city of Thebes. The Karnak complex takes its name from the nearby, and partly surrounded, modern village of El -Karnak, some 2.5 km north of Luxor.
A book “Vital Questions” By Philip Stott connects Karnak temple with design of stone henges found in Asia and Europe. Karnak temple, stone henge are vital clue to ancient history of Bharatvarsha. Deep research is needed in the subject.
Luxembourg officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg, Dutch: Groothertogdom Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium,France and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland (“good country”) in the south. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi). A representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is ruled by a Grand Duke.
The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of Lucilinburhuc (today Luxembourg Castle) situated on the Bock rock by Siegfried, count of Ardennes in 963 through an exchange act with the abbey of St Maximin in Trier. Around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors.
Carnac (Breton: Karnag) is a Commune beside the Gulf of Morbihan on the south coast of Brittany in the Morbihan department in north-western France. The Carnac stones are an exceptionally dense collection of Megalithic sites around the French village of Carnac, in Brittany, consisting of alignments, dolmens, tumuli and single menhirs. The more than 3,000 prehistoric standing stones were hewn from local rock and erected by the pre-Celtic people of Brittany, and are the largest such collection in the world.
Its inhabitants are called Carnacois. Carnac is renowned for the Carnac stones – one of the most extensive Neolithic Menhir collections in the world – as well as its beaches, which are popular with tourists.
Located on a narrow peninsula halfway between the medieval town Vannes and the seaside resort Quiberon, Carnac is split into two centres – Carnac-Ville and Carnac-Plage (the beachfront). In total there are five beaches, including la Grande Plage, and further to the east, Plage Men Dû and Beaumer.
The Carnac stones were erected during the Neolithic period which lasted from around 4500 Bc until 2000 BC. The precise date of the stones is difficult to ascertain as little dateable material has been found beneath them, but the site’s main phase of activity is commonly attributed to C.3300 BC. One interpretation of the site is that successive generations visited the site to erect a stone in honour of their ancestors.
My title ” Vishwa samrat Ram” carry real meaning now?
At the end of research
Now we know that Amorite tribes (tribes of Amarawati) having traditions of naming country with name of Indra. If you look at Indra sahsra namawali then “Sudase” is name of the Indra. During research we also find Amorite tribes there .
The Following site tell it clearly that Hittite was a tribes Amorite tribes.
Link to Hittite Empire
My Article on Israel or Indra ? will hepl you to connect the facts
Luxor / Karnak
Ramsess of Egypt will lead you towards Low countries that Founded Holy Romishch Reich. Luxar and Karnak (Luxamburg and Carnac of Europe) will lead you in that direction. Ramaside dynasty followed Aten Pharaho dynasty in Egypt.Indra line ends there and Ramasside line began in Egypt.
The word Hittie is clue to Sarswati river civilization and Helmand (Haetumant)river and province .
Then Hasingleigh (Saxon -Saksyan =Indra)
Link to Hastingleigh in Britain
At the end of research Now we know that Amorite tribes (tribes of Amarawati) having traditions of naming country with name of Indra. If you look at Indra sahsra namawali then “Sudase” is name of the Indra. During research we also find Amorite tribes there . The Following site tell it clearly that Hittite was a tribes Amorite tribes. Link to Hittite Empire My Article on Israel or Indra ? will hepl you to connect the facts Article Link Luxor / Karnak Ramsess of Egypt will lead you towards Low countries that Founded Holy Romishch Reich. Luxar and Karnak (Luxamburg and Carnac of Europe) will lead you in that direction. Ramaside dynasty followed Aten Pharaho dynasty in Egypt.Indra line ends there and Ramasside line began in Egypt. The word Hittie is clue to Sarswati river civilization and Helmand (Haetumant)river and province . Then Hasingleigh (Saxon -Saksyan =Indra) Link to Hastingleigh in Britain
At the end of The research
Yes we are in the right direction.
Hatisila / Hattusilis
Guvaka (Tambul) + Hati (Row of Tree) = Guvahati
Chakampe Tirualauhitya Tasmin Pragjyotisesvarh Tamisal Kamrupanantya Khanda labikraman
Raghuvansha IV 81/83
Link to History of pragjyotish -ancient Assam.
Hatisila under Pragjyotishpur police station in Kamrup (metropolitan). Lauhitya River In ancient times, Assam and its surrounding area was known as Pragjyotisha or Kamarupa. The mighty Brahmaputra river which flows through Assam was known as the Lauhitya. The river meant water, fertile soil and trade, so it is not surprising that many villages and towns sprang up on and near the banks of the Brahmaputra. But there were many people who lived in the hills as well.
Link to Lauhitya river -Bhrahmputra
Link to Guvahati – Guva + Hati
King Mursili and The sun goddess of Arinna of Hitti
The sun goddess of Arinna is the most important one of three important solar deities of the Hittite Pantheon ( Panth, besides UTU nepisas – “the sun of the sky” and UTU taknas – “the sun of the earth”.
She was considered to be the chief deity in some source, in place of her husband. Her consort was the weather god, Teshub; they and their children were all derived from the former Hattic pantheon.
The goddess was also perceived to be a paramount chthonic or earth goddess. She becomes largely syncretised with the Hurrian goddess Hebat.
In the late 14th century BC, King Mursili II was particularly devoted to the sun goddess of Arinna.
Link that state bout Ariana and Hitti conection
King Mordhwaj and Aranya devi
The third legend is that King Mordhwaj and the queen were not happy as they had no son. They prayed to goddess Durga in order to bless them with a son. The goddess appeared before the king in his dream and gave her the blessing. The royal boy provided all the earthly pleasures to his parents. One night in his dream King Mordhwaj saw goddess Durga asking him to sacrifice his son before her altar. It was said that the boy should be made to stand before the altar and the king and the queen, standing on either side of him, were to ply the saw from the boy`s head downwards till his body was cut into two halves, with the blood falling before the altar and no tears trickling down their eyes. The king took conveyed this dream to his royal consort and both agreed to execute the mandate. The trial came. The king and queen applied the saw on the head of the prince and just as they were starting to ply the saw, the divine mother appeared and blessed the couple and the prince for their devotion to her. It is also believed that in this way the scene of the sacrifice came to be known as arrah. The king installed a temple at Arrah which was called Aranya Devi temple.
Link to Aranyadevi of Arrar (Bihar)
Link that explain that ancient name of Iran is Ariana
Miletus – Hittite connection
Recorded history at Miletus begins with the records of the Hittie Empire in the Late Bronze Age. The prehistoric archaeology of the Early and Middle Bronze Age portrays a city heavily influenced by society and events elsewhere in the Aegean, rather than inland.
Miletus (Hittie transcription Millawanda or Milawata :Ancient Miletos; Miletus: Miletus; Turkish: Milet) was an ancient city on the western coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria. Its ruins are located near the modern town of Balat in Aydin Province, Turkey. Before the Persian invasion in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus was considered the greatest and wealthiest of Greek cities. Evidence of first settlement at the site has been made inaccessible by the rise of sea level and deposition of sediments from the Maeander. The first available evidence is of the.Neolithic In the early and middle Bronzeage the settlement came under Minoan influence. Legend has it that an influx of Cretans occurred displacing the indigenous Legends. The site was renamed Miletus after a place in Crete.
The Late Bronze Age, 13th century BC, saw the arrival of Luwian language speakers from south central Anatolia calling themselves the Carians. Later in that century the first Greeks arrived. The city at that time rebelled against the Hittite Empire. After the fall of that empire the city was destroyed in the 12th century BC and starting about 1000 BC was resettled extensively by the Ionian Greeks. Legend offers an Ionian foundation event sponsored by a founder named Neleus from the Peloponnesus.
Link to Miletus that has connection with Millawanda or Milawata (Malava of Madhya pradesh Of India) and Carian.
Miletus in Ireland
Milesians in Ireland
Note that the Scythians from Spain were known as Milesians—a name replete throughout the Irish annals.
Note that the Scythians from Spain were known as Milesians—a name replete throughout the Irish annals. Peter Berresford Ellis, one of the foremost Celtic scholars now writing, states in his 2002 book Erin’s Blood Royal: The Gaelic Noble Dynasties of Ireland: “The indigenous Gaelic aristocracy of Ireland is, without doubt, the most ancient in Europe . . . The Irish royal houses have genealogies . . . tracing their descent, generation by generation, from the sons of Golamh, otherwise known as Milesius or Mile Easpain (soldier of Spain), who, according to tradition, invaded Ireland at the end of the second millennium B.C. [a time frame which is problematic, as we will see]. He is regarded as the progenitor of the Gaels” (p. 3).
Ellis thus sees the name Milesius as deriving from a root that means “soldier,” as the Latin miles, the origin of our word military. Yet as we saw earlier, the term Milesian is normally used to designate the people of Miletus in western Asia Minor (now western Turkey). We should look more into the background of this important Aegean city-state to see if there could be a connection.
Yes Iraland has roots in Araria of Bihar.
Hittite / Hattusila and term like “Millawanda or Milawata “(Malwa) lead us towards Haihaya history of Avanti.
Link to Harsidhi mata of Harsool will explain you term like Hattisha.
Aventine Hill carry history of Avanti
Seven hills of Rome
Now we are very much near to mystery of seven hills of Rome. Now we know that Capitoline Hill carry history of Kamakhya , Palatine hill carry history of ancient Pala rulers of Pryag Jyotish. And now ti is very clear that Aventine hill carry history of Haihaya and Haihaya rulers.
Link to Aventine Hill
Now no doubt……….
Venus is form of Vaishno devi | <urn:uuid:ec42694a-753f-4954-9b0c-e1a21c22d44f> | {
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Coins are antimicrobial! Say what? It’s true. Just don’t go swallowing pennies if you have a sinus infection or something. That would definitely not help your situation.
Copper is in a lot of coins, or at least coats coins such as the penny. Copper is one of nature’s antibiotics. It kills bacteria by getting into a bacteria’s metabolic cycle and essentially bursting the bacteria. Silver does the same exact thing! That’s why some people wear silver lined underwear… seriously, there’s this horse riding website that sells silver underwear to prevent bacterial infections “down there.” There are some who even make silver solutions and drink the solutions to help with bacterial infections. Does it work? Supposedly. Is it a good idea? Well, you could turn blue/gray, a condition called argyria… or if you’re allergic to silver you would most likely die.
Did you ever notice that door handles and such in public places are made of metal, usually bronze? This is partly due to the fact that metals such as copper are such good antimicrobial agents. So, coins are probably not as dirty as you think! Just don’t go around licking coins, that’s still not a good idea.
[Photo Credit] Beige Alert | <urn:uuid:76b3dc59-6121-4ae9-afd9-7dbb569e083d> | {
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1) Describe what happens in your animation. In my animation there is a ball that bounces off of walls and it turns into two cars that crash and spells my name. 2) Tell the most challenging part of making this animation. The cars crashing to make my name. 3) Tell the most fun part of this project. Seeing it all come together to see all of the animation.
The most challenging of doing this is trying to use all of the colors not using of the colors so you can make something different.
This is what I want for my crilekfor my box.
What I had to do was I had to put the box together to make sure that I had all of the pieces of the box and when I was done I had to color the pieces of the box. the I had to do the lights and the colors that I wanted. I had to glue the box together and put the lights in the box. when all of that was done I had to something on my crilek when that was done put the crilek on the box and turn the lights and my box was done.
What I did was I had to find a background that I liked and I had put sayings from disney and I had to something behind it so you can see the saying.
What I did was I had to get rid of the extra space in the shapes so you can see all of the word and nice colors
So what I had to do was that I had to pick a baseball background and when I was done with that I had put baseball saying and Quotes and I had colors behind the words so you can see them clearly. | <urn:uuid:60312b88-843a-4b6d-b9b9-34b28401b604> | {
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It seems like a simple question, but there are a number of factors that affect the answer. In shape is a general term for fitness, but what is in shape?
People have different definitions as to what it means to be in shape. For some, it may mean having the ability to run a mile. For others, it may be as simple as walking up the stairs without getting winded. Others might view being in shape as being able to perform at a competitive level in various sports and activities while for some with one eye on the summer it may simply be looking their best for the beach.
The term getting in shape is synonymous with fitness, and the definition of fitness is quite specific. Being physically fit encompasses five components of health.
This is a component that is most commonly thought of as fitness. It is the ability to have your cardiovascular and respiratory systems function well during exercise.
The ability of your muscles to perform repetitive tasks over time.
The ability to use your muscles to their fullest extent in your daily life.
The ability to move your body's joints throughout a full range of motion.
This refers to your lean body mass to body fat ratio. A healthy body composition is essential to overall health and can help you to avoid heart disease and diabetes. A healthy body composition is anywhere between 8% and 25% body fat for men, and between 15% and 32% body fat for women.
Looking at the components of fitness above, you can see that asking, "How long does it take to get in shape?" isn't as easily answered as it might seem. The answer depends in large part on where you start. Some people may achieve a healthy body composition and all of the other components of fitness in about six weeks, while others may take months to get to a point where they meet the full definition of physically fit.
Just because it may take months, however, is no reason to not start. Even when you start a workout routine you will begin to notice the benefits right away if the routine is approached appropriately. Within a few weeks, you will notice changes in all of the elements of fitness. Within about six weeks, you should be ready to take your workout routine to the next level.
The answer, then, is that getting in shape isn't a destination, but rather it is an ongoing process. However the sooner you start, the closer you’ll be to reaching your goals of your definition of in shape. | <urn:uuid:25ede8f6-f9e9-45e5-8f7f-e6f681f5f2b5> | {
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Oil & Gas
Exploration and production requires some basic steps to transform a well into a productive source of extraction. There are six basic steps to develop this process in a safe and resposible manner.
During this step, studies of the Earth’s subsurface are conducted to increase our understanding of the local geology. Geologists, engineers and other experts collaborate to identify a site that will ensure access to the targeted oil and gas reservoirs.
Sites are selected in consideration of several factors: safety, the surrounding environment, nearby property owners, and vehicle/pipeline access. By drilling multiple wells at a single location, extraction is able to reduce the number of well-pad sites and in turn, reduce impact to the environment and inconvenience to the community.
It takes approximately 8 to 10 days to drill a well. During this process, multiple layers of protective steel casing are cemented in the ground to ensure nothing can get into, or out of, the wellbore being drilled. The depth of these wells is on average 1.5 miles below the earth’s surface and more than a mile of impenetrable rock separates the oil and gas reservoirs from the potable water table.
After the rig leaves, completion activities begin as soon as the equipment arrives and may take between three to five days per well. Each well is pressure tested before beginning completion activities to ensure the well is structurally sound. During this process a mixture of sand, water and a small proportion of other ingredients are pumped into the well to facilitate the release oil and natural gas. For example, guar is a food ingredient used as a thickening agent in completion mixtures.
Once a well begins production, excess equipment is removed. Only the wellheads, separators and storage tanks remain. Oil and natural gas produced by the well travels via truck or pipeline to market. Any water produced from the well will also be hauled or piped offsite for disposal. During this phase, the wells are constantly monitored (24/7) through automated equipment and if any issues arise, wells can be immediately and remotely shut-in. As an extra precaution, the well is checked daily by an operator who goes onsite to ensure all equipment is comprehensively maintained.
At the end of the process, the well site is reduced to a much smaller size and fenced. The surrounding area is “reclaimed” with native vegetation and landscaped to camouflage the well site and help blend in with surrounding vegetation.
DTSI Wells in Mexico
The Ricos Field
Located in the state of Tamulipas, covers an area of 23.7 square kilometer. Composed by 12 wells in total of which 4 are closed and 8 are currently operating.Read More | <urn:uuid:37570e1a-d5b9-4ed4-95f5-032bc7d26a15> | {
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(HealthDay News) -- Omega-3 fatty acids are essential elements that the body doesn't make on its own, says the Cleveland Clinic. Fish, plants and supplements are among the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids.
For people who don't have a history of heart disease, two servings of fish per week is recommended. Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids can help improve your cardiovascular health.
But don't overdo it. Consuming three or more grams of omega-3 fatty acids each day can have negative health effects, the clinic says. | <urn:uuid:7638b14d-95b3-4d20-ae53-8af38ed36670> | {
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Heinrich August Jäschke: 200th anniversary
The year 2017 marks the second birth centenary of Heinrich August Jäschke, whose Tibetan-English Dictionary (1881) is still widely used to this day. This is an anniversary that ought to be noted by all Tibetanists and devotees of Ladakh Studies.
|H.A. Jäschke (Bechler 1930: 65)|
Jäschke was born on 17 May 1817 in Herrnhut, the headquarters of the Moravian Church, which is better known in Germany as the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine. His surname indicates his descent from Protestant refugees who had migrated from Moravia, now part of the Czech Republic, a century earlier. Jäschke was a child of the Moravian church, which is known for its wide-ranging missionary activity, through and through.
Jäschke spent the first part of his adult life as a teacher of Latin and Greek at the Moravian school (Pädagogium) in Niesky, some 25 miles north of Herrnhut. However, in 1856, when he was already in his late 30s, he was called to a new post as Superintendent of a new Moravian mission in Kyelang, northern India. Kyelang lies in Lahul, on what used to be an important trade and pilgrimage route between India and Tibet. Jäschke was selected for his linguistic skills and, from the outset, one of his main tasks was to be the translation of the Christian scriptures into Tibetan.
He spent the summer of 1857 in Stok, near Leh in Ladakh, totally immersed in his linguistic studies. His host was Sonam Stobgyas, a former monk from Hemis monastery who later became one of the first Ladakhi Christian converts. Jäschke then spent the next 11 years in Kyelang, apart from an extended stay in Darjeeling in 1865, before returning to Germany in 1868.
Although Jäschke’s own travels were limited, he took every opportunity to engage with travellers from all parts of the wider Himalayan region and Tibet. Among many others, these included Lobsang Chospel (bLo bzang chos ’phel), a monk trained in Central Tibet who stayed in Kyelang from 1865 to 1868.
At the same time he studied a wide variety of written texts. These included: the 'Dzangs blun, a collection of legends of Buddha; the Vaiḍūrya dkar po, an astrological and astronomical work compiled by Desi Sangye Gyatso (sDe srid Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, 1653-1705); a version of the La dvags rgyal rabs (the Ladakhi royal chronicle); and the biography and songs of the famous Tibetan Buddhist master Milarepa.
|The Kyelang mission house in the 19th century (with thanks to Hugh Rayner)|
In Kyelang, Jäschke produced a range of school books, evangelistic texts, draft Bible translations and a Romanized and English Tibetan Dictionary, all of which were copied out by hand, and published on the mission’s lithographic press. Back in Germany, he worked on his 671-page Handwörterbuch der Tibetischen Sprache (1871), which was likewise copied out by hand for lithographic printing. This was the direct predecessor of his Tibetan-English Dictionary, published in London in 1881.
extract from the 1871 Handwörterbuch der
The 1881 English version of the dictionary is Jäschke’s best-known work: every page reflects years of painstaking research with careful notations as to literary sources and regional variations.
At the same time Jäschke worked on revisions of his Tibetan New Testament, and these were eventually published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in Berlin in 1883 and 1885. The printed version is notable not only for the translation but also for the carefully selected Tibetan font cast by the Berlin firm Th. Unger (see illustration).
|The first page of the Gospel of St John, 1881.|
By the early 1880s Jäschke was already in poor health, and this made the task of correcting the proofs of the New Testament both slow and laborious. He passed away in Herrnhut in September 1883. His tombstone in the nearby Moravian graveyard is marked with a text from his Bible translation, Matthew 25: 23.
Jäschke, Heinrich August. 1871. Handwörterbuch der Tibetischen Sprache. Gnadau: Unitäts-buchhandlung.
______.1881. A Tibetan-English Dictionary with Special Reference to the Prevailing Dialects. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
______. 1883. Tibetan Grammar. London: Trubner & Co.
____. (trans). 1883. Four Gospels. Tibetan. Berlin: British & Foreign Bible Society.
____. (trans). 1885. Acts to Revelation. Tibetan.Berlin: British & Foreign Bible Society. [Revelation was translated by Jäschke’s pupil and successor, F.A. Redslob].
Bechler, Theodor. 1930. Heinrich August Jäschke, der geniale Sprachforscher der Mission der Brüdergemeine im westlichen Himalaya. Herrnhuter Missionsstudien No. 25. Herrnhut: Verlag der Missionsbuchhandlung.
Bray, John. 1983. “Heinrich August Jaeschke. Pioneer Tibetan Scholar.” Tibet Journal 8, No.3, pp. 50-55.
______. 1990. “A History of Tibetan Bible Translations”. In Wissenschaftsgeschichte und gegenwärtige Forschungen in Nordwest-Indien, pp. 66-79. Edited by Gudrun Meier and Lydia Icke-Schwalbe. Dresden: Museum für Völkerkunde. Available on www.ladakhstudies.org.
______. 1991. “Language, Tradition and the Tibetan Bible”.
Journal 16, No. 4, pp. 28-58.
Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. Tibet
______. 2008. “Missionaries, Officials and the Making of the Dictionary of Bhotanta, or Boutan Language.” Zentralasiatische Studien 37, pp. 33-75.
______. 2015. “A Himalayan Encounter: Lama Lobsang Chospel and Heinrich August Jäschke”. Tibet Journal 40, Nos 1 & 2, pp. 151-158.
Forthcoming. “Heinrich August Jäschke (1817-1883): Translating the Christian scriptures into Tibetan”. Paper presented at the Seventh International Csoma de Kőrös Symposium on Buddhist Transcreations in Tibetan Literature and Art, New Delhi, September 2014. | <urn:uuid:96240282-d5c1-4be2-acb8-858f0d765c3d> | {
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After a few years of teaching writing for history, I've learned five steps that work.
1. Understand the Problem
We naturally ask questions as we attempt to understand a problem. Write every question that comes to mind. Use the "W" questions to guide your inquiry. Organize your questions by historical thinking skills and themes (see 3 below). The questions you write will help you make choices in the next step.
What is the question asking you to do? Analyze? Evaluate?
What evidence will you need to support a response?
Historical Thinking Skills:
- ... and more.
2. Find and Interpret Sources
Even though Google is full of information, we still need to know which keywords will produce the most relevant results. Choose words based on the questions you wrote in step 1, and use Google operators to filter search results and access more relevant areas of the Internet. Try the Google Guide. It's my favorite.
As you search, you'll need to make quick decisions about which sources are worth reading. Think about the origin and purpose of the source as they relate to the value and limitation. In other words, can you trust it? And, how does it help support the main point?
3. List, Group, & Label Evidence
Based on the evidence you select to support your response to the question, how can it be organized thematically so focused claims can be made to formulate your argument?
List your evidence and group it according to similarities. Use themes to label the groups, but be sure to choose specific themes like "new labor systems" instead of something too broad like "economics."
Click on the images below for original documents
4. Write a Response Statement (thesis)
This is your argument. Make sure the reader is not left with questions about the position you are taking to respond to the problem. A strong thesis will help the reader understand the time period and themes you are using to organize the evidence.
Think of the thesis statement as historical thought's moving truck. You collect the evidence and pack it into boxes (grouping) and label it so we know where to put it on the truck. Then, you load the boxes into the truck, or in this case, the thesis statement. The body paragraphs are the unpacking of the boxes, one paragraph at a time.
5. Develop an Essay (body paragraphs)
The tough part is already done. If your work is solid on the first four steps, writing the body paragraphs should go smoothly.
Include two to four pieces of evidence to support the main point each paragraph develops. The main points are based on the thesis statement and the themes that you used to organize your evidence.
Remember to include the bias and point of view of the sources. Not every source is perfect, so your authority will be well established if the reader knows the value and limits of each source. This is why god history writing requires so much time spent on reading for context. We don't want to misrepresent the facts or ideas as we use them to substantiate our argument.
Be confident. Start with what you know, and make connections. It's time to unpack your ideas. | <urn:uuid:6c3988fb-9fe2-48bd-b75e-f138373bb30e> | {
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Are you ready for an inspiring story about a eleven-year-old boy who wouldn't give up on his fight for the planet? I know I was. Felix Finkbeiner's program "Plant for the Planet" can fill all those empty spaces in your heart that the current environmental news may have left.
“Children could plant 1 million trees in every country on earth and offset CO2 emissions all on their own, while adults are still talking about doing it,” says Finkbeiner. According to the article I have linked below, his motto, “Stop talking, start planting,” suggests the same sentiment. Like most teenagers he has a FaceBook page but unlike most teenagers he has also addressed the United Nations.
Working in collaboration with organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund and the Wildlife Conservation Society Felix is taking the steps to meeting his environmental goal. Plant for the Planet recently bought 33,300 acres (13,500 hectares) in Mexico where they plan to plant 10 million trees by 2020.
If you find his story intriguing Read more here | <urn:uuid:a0227747-af1d-4441-83f3-6e70c7f7e899> | {
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Children who try to write before they have sufficient skill to manipulate the pencil tend to develop inappropriate motor memory for writing letters inefficiently. Learning to write demands complex memory, motor performance and perceptual skills (there can be a large age difference with some children in K). Writing requires selective attention to and remembering of letter formation, correct spelling, mechanics of grammar, punctuation and formulation of a sequential flow of ideas.
There are several skills and processes going on when a child tries to write. In order to be able to write and develop a grasp, a child must have the stability within their trunk and shoulders to hold their body and arms up. Pencil grips help to position the fingers, but do not provide the stability that is needed to write. This stability comes from strength in the shoulders and trunk. They must have the control and strength in their fingers to hold and move the pencil.
The therapist might also work on letter formation, spacing and/or directionality of the letters. These skills also rely on the child’s visual motor integration, visual perceptual and motor planning abilities. The ability to use two sides of the body together or reciprocally in a coordinated manner is essential for development of laterality, the measurable superiority of one side over the other in terms of performance. Bilateral integration is the ability to use two sides of the body together or reciprocally in a coordinated manner. It is essential for development of laterality and dominance. As the two hemispheres of the brain mature dominance should begin to appear. The left hemisphere is responsible for analyzing, sequencing, logic, and verbal language. The right hemisphere is responsible for three dimensional spaces and generating visual images and maps. The left side thinks in words and the right side relies on images and spatial awareness. Both hemispheres must work together when creating written words. A child may not form a good mental image of what is wanted or may produce the image but is not able to execute it. Poor visual memory for what a letter should look like may be the problem. Motor planning depends on the ability to consistently retrieve a motor pattern or letter in order to reproduce it.
At Home Activities:
- Using tweezers/tongs to pick up objects
- Playing with Wiki Stiks or Play Doh to create numbers/letters
- Write with smaller crayons, pencils, etc. This allows the finger tips to hold the utensil rather than the hand
- Trace letters with a Q-tip and paint
- Find and pick small objects out of putty
- Use a stylus when working on an iPad
- Use paper with a darkened or highlighted line to help the child recognize where the letters start
- Animal walks to strengthen the shoulder/trunk muscles
- Writing/drawing on an easel or vertical surface
- Tracing using stencils
- Punching holes in paper using a single hole punch
- Tape a piece of paper to the underside of a table and lay under the table to draw
- Therapy ball exercises
- Board games with small pieces
- “Pencil Walk” moving the fingers up and down the pencil
- Sidewalk chalk on pavement, chalkboards and loop pile carpet squares
- Pushing gold tees into dense Styrofoam or pool noodles
- Use graph paper to help with letter sizing and spacing. Write with one letter per box.
- Use blocks to make large letters on the floor
- Draw in the air using fingers, arms, legs etc
For More Information: | <urn:uuid:1de5f21e-1c55-432b-a17b-c9a84dc113dc> | {
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This course will explore some of the influential theories and texts in the field of Feminist Philosophy. Feminist Philosophy encompasses a broad range of inquiry, from familiar political issues to foundational metaphysical and epistemological problems (e.g. what is a woman, and does one’s sex and/or gender provide special access to knowledge?). Our exploration will primarily focus on contemporary engagement with four central questions: What is sexism? What is gender? What is sexual orientation? What does liberation involve?
- Alison Stone, An Introduction to Feminist Philosophy (Malden, MA: Polity, 2007).
- Estelle B. Freedman, The Essential Feminist Reader (New York: Modern Library, 2007). | <urn:uuid:59515dde-c098-4050-be3b-b1861658e64e> | {
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What are viruses and bacteria?
Viruses are tiny organisms that rely on human or animal cells for their survival, so they cannot last very long outside the body27. They cause illnesses by invading healthy cells and multiplying.
Bacteria are single cell organisms usually found in and on our bodies27. Some bacteria are harmless – and can even be good for us – and some cause infections27.
BETADINE® Cold Defense Nasal Spray
A convenient and hygienic spray that kills germs and helps relieve your sore throat symptoms.Learn More | <urn:uuid:e44b1626-4b1c-401b-8627-7adf4b806c2f> | {
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The need and desire for basic items, as well as luxuries, bring many Hispanics to the United States. Here they can earn better salaries and can afford many typical American possessions. They work, save, and sacrifice to purchase homes, cars, and other items familiar to the American lifestyle. The overemphasis in America on wealth and the accumulation of wealth have an effect upon Hispanics, for they also are becoming more materialistic.
Time is life. Many Hispanics find it difficult to adjust to the American-scheduled life. We must understand that where they come from-time as we know it-is not important. A man’s life is not crowded with a hundred-and-one things to do. Usually one major event per day is planned and all of life surrounds it. The Hispanic nature is not to follow the clock. To the Anglo “time is money” and the clock “runs,” but to the Hispanic “time is life” and the clock walks. However, in the American business world they, realize the importance of following the clock and adjust their habits to keep a place in the work force. Although Hispanics are very energetic they are never in a hurry.
The family unit continues to be the basis for interrelationships. They play and, when possible, work together. Friendly people by nature Hispanics always have time for fiestas. They love to sing and dance, and family and friends often gather for celebrations. Birthdays, wedding, and baptisms, and other type of celebrations are special times of fellowship. Hispanic interrelationships are slowly cultivated, and for that reason they usually share their feelings with family and friends, not with strangers.
Hispanics are a proud people. Hispanic men have a strong sense of masculine pride. They are taught from childhood that crying is a weakness. Pride prevents most Hispanics from complaining. Because they retain such a strong sense of honor and dignity they are most often ashamed to borrow from strangers and will go hungry rather than beg. They will remain silent in time of illness rather than reveal human weakness. They are particularly proud of their nationality and families. Although they leave their countries because of political or economic strife, they retain pride in their homelands.
Copied with permission from Hispanic Ministry in the Carolinas. www.hispanic-ministry.org | <urn:uuid:c65a643b-3101-4501-8282-fb544dbe12ce> | {
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Example 5: NetDiffuse
A more complex network model can be used to show diffusion of a value through a directed network.
Viewing this model in Nova
To run this model:
- Launch Nova
- Select Menu Item File | Browse Model Library
- Open folder 6-Network Models and double-click NetDiffuse
Diffusion through a Directed Network
This model demonstrates diffusion of a quantity, the temp parameter in the sublayer, through a directed network. The quantity moves among nodes in the network only along established, directed links between two nodes. The simple rules that drive this diffusion lead to interesting patterns related to the topology, density, and stability of the network. Furthermore, the model may be useful in understanding the basic properties of dynamic processes on networks, and provides a useful starting point for designing more complex and realistic network-based models.
How it Works
In each tick, each node shares some percentage (defined by the rate slider) of its "value" (temp) quantity with its neighbors in the network. Specifically, the amount of shared value is divided equally and sent along each of the outgoing links from each node to each other node. If a node has no outgoing links, then it doesn't share any of it's value; it just accumulates any that its neighbors have provided via incoming links. Note that because it is a directed network, node B may give value to node A even if node A doesn't give back. The size of each node shows how much "value" (value of temp) that node has, where the area of the node is proportional to its value. The brightness of a link represents how much value just flowed through that edge.
Model Components and Layers
The main component of this model is the CNet NodeNetwork plugin at the top level. Let's look at the properties of the CNet NodeNetwork. After right clicking and bringing up the NodeNetwork's properties, we can see that this plugin has a Count value of
100 and Initializer of node. In other words, CNet calls
100 instances of the node sublayer. Each of these nodes within the NodeNetwork at the top-layer are determined by the sublayer. The NodeNetwork plugin holds the structure of all
100 nodes. Additionally, this plugin encapsulates the connection between the nodes, determined by the
nconnect variable in the programming window.
The node Sublayer
We can see that each node in the NodeNetwork calculates a change in temperature, the temp Stock, based on calculations involving slider parameters from the top-layer and the neighbors of the current node. It is important to note that the flow in, tempIn, and the flow out, tempOut, must be set to Uniflow within their properties. Uniflow Flow will only support non-negative values and the content only moves in one direction. Note: the value that is passed through a Flow can be a number or an expression (equation).
There are multiple sliders in this model. Connection Probability controls the connection between nodes in CNet by influencing the calculation of
nconnect in the programming window. This is an example of using a component in the model without visibly connecting it to other components (see the lack of a dash line connecting Connection Probability to anything else).
The Max Temp and rate sliders determine the inpt and rate input in the CNet NodeNetwork, respectively. Within the node sublayer we see that Max Temp determines the value of the inpt input pin. This pin's value is used to calculate the Init Temp (initial temperature) of the model. Likewise, rate is used to determine the rate of diffusion between nodes in the NodeNetwork.
Top Level Control
As a final note about this model we can look at the nodes Property at the top-layer. This term utilizes the Nova structure to retrieve values from the nodes within the NodeNetwork. The code
main.CNet.NODES calls the NODES attribute of the CNet NodeNetwork at the top (main) level. In this way, we can use terms, or other Nova components, to act as references to variables, values, and / or attributes in other layers of a model. We then use our collection of the nodes stored in CNet to loop through and calculate the total temp within the model. This total, stored as tot, is viewed through the use of a Spy plugin.
Running the Model
To run this model follow these steps at the toplayer:
- Click on the Capture button in the tool bar.
- Click Load next to "Capture".
- Click Exec to run the model through multiple iterations. Click Stop to stop the run before completion.
- To run the model step by step, click Capture, Load, Init, then Step.
- To rerun the model you may omit the Capture, Load steps.
- To have the model run more slowly adjust the speed slider above the Dashboard | <urn:uuid:c1cb1295-addd-483a-8d26-d0f4f9bfb7d0> | {
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Introduction to Wiser Sport
The Wiser sport originated as the most prestigious ball sport played in ancient palaces and royal courts by emperors, kings, ministers, scholar-officials and Western heads of state in order to cultivate the ability to strategize, exercise the body, and engage in a battle of wits. Unfortunately, with the passage of time, this diversion enjoyed worldwide by emperors, kings, and prime ministers has long since become a lost sport.
However, a magnificent, selfless, elder virtuous one has now rediscovered and perfected the Wiser sport for the benefit of the public. This elder virtuous one is the one of noble moral character. In its 112th Congress, the United States Senate passed through unanimous consent resolution 614, which commended the elder virtuous one for the contributions he has made to humanity. When the elder virtuous one taught all of the techniques and rules of the Wiser sport to World Wiser Sport Committee, he solemnly stated, “You must spread the Wiser sport all over the world and become the headquarters that leads the Wiser sport. Remember, no matter if one is male or female, old or young—everyone has the right to enjoy Wiser. That is because Wiser is purely a ball sport that nature has bestowed upon humanity to strengthen the body and improve health. Everyone has the equal right to enjoy it. Its only purpose is to benefit humanity through strengthening the body, improving health, elevating morality, increasing friendship, and promoting peace in the world.” The World Wiser Sport Committee has now been formally established, with its headquarters located in the United States, the founding nation of the Wiser sport. The inauguration ceremony for installing the World Wiser Sport Committee’s first-term leadership was held in the United States on March 2, 2013.
Wiser is a ball sport in which strategy and exercise are combined, and motion and stillness vie with each other, all in a setting where teams compete against each other. A special playing field is not required. It can be played in any area, no matter how many obstacles there may be. It is extremely safe and suitable for everyone—male, female, old, and young can play it.
It is an unfortunate fact that some elderly people are not in good health. They may even suffer from limb numbness, which makes it difficult for them to walk. Some have cognitive and memory issues that can impair their ability to function in life. Yet, as long as elderly people are able to play Wiser, the Wiser sport can help them improve their immunity, strengthen their body, enhance their stamina, enliven exhausted brain cells, avoid senile dementia, broaden and ease their mind, increase their happiness, prevent rheumatism and chilliness, and avoid loneliness, insomnia, and numbness of the limbs.
Middle-aged and young people can likewise reap these benefits. Through playing Wiser, they can enhance their wisdom and develop their mental vitality. In addition, playing Wiser can resolve the tendency of homebound men and women to be solitary, eccentric, and asocial. That is because involvement in Wiser will provide them with opportunities to go outdoors, make friends during matches, increase their self-confidence, and develop wholesome social relations.
Moreover, teenagers and children who play Wiser will become better at thinking independently and will be more courteous and virtuous. They will develop tenacity, physical strength, and intelligence. It is the best sport for rearing people of talent.
In short, playing the Wiser sport not only builds physical strength, but also develops wisdom and brainpower. It does not matter if the player is old, middle-aged, young, a teenager, a child, male, or female. No special playing field is required. An appropriate playing field could be set up based on the conditions that exist at the particular site. Different types of playing fields and various irregularly shaped obstacles are not only part of the setting of the sport, but they even provide the key to opening wisdom. Clever planning and intelligence spring from the minds of players as myriad changes take place during the course of a game. Variations in playing fields and changes in obstacles add new challenges for the players. Even if one plays at the same playing field all the time, since each match is unique in terms of its sequence, line, direction, and strength of attacks initiated by members of one’s own team and the other team, there is never any repetition among different matches. Each match requires the application of different layout and attack techniques. All of this enables players to improve their wisdom, sharpen their sport skills, and experience the delight of extraordinary variety. This is a characteristic of Wiser that all other ball sports lack. A congratulation letter to the World Wiser Sport Committee from the International Olympic Committee and the International Boxing Association enthusiastically praised the Wiser sport as “the most ideal sport of all the ball sports.”
Moreover, playing the Wiser sport is extremely safe. Anyone who likes to exercise, wants to strengthen both body and mind, and wants to build moral character can play this sport. It is a sport that truly treats everyone equally. It entails both individual and group strategies and tactics. From the perspective of developing one’s intelligence and thought processes, the Wiser sport is like organizing battle formations in war or playing chess. From the perspective of exercising the body and increasing one’s physical strength, it is a perfect, natural, engaging ball sport. Thus, Wiser is the perfect ball sport for athletes and non-athletes worldwide.
Generally speaking, Wiser has the following seven types of beneficial effects: strengthening the body and improving health, enlivening the spirit, developing brainpower and wisdom, increasing unity and friendliness, improving the body’s immunity, delaying the decline of stamina, and helping to elevate moral character. Experience has shown that everyone who has played the Wiser ball game praises it and wants to keep playing it, for it has clearly given them a healthier body and mind.
The World Wiser Sport Committee is a legally established public-benefit nonprofit organization. It is the highest, most authoritative Wiser sport organization in the world. The Committee trains different levels of umpires based on the rules of the Wiser sport. It holds international tournaments, guides the work of Wiser Sport Committees in countries and regions around the globe, and leads the expansion of the Wiser sport throughout the world. Its mission is to enable people living in various regions and of different races, ages, and cultures to play the Wiser sport and, in so doing, to rid themselves of sickness, delay the aging process, improve their physical and mental health, enhance their wisdom, make new friends, elevate their morality, and thereby advance peace and happiness to all of mankind.
World Wiser Sport Committee | <urn:uuid:21f85c24-d5d2-4686-953e-326867835fb5> | {
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– No stress enjoyment is the name of the game. Eating with fingers and experiencing the sensory nature of eating is usually lots of fun for babies and toddlers. A tray that attaches to the table can allow food to be spread out without worries of bowls being tossed.
– Bring your baby to the table. A high chair that pushes right up to the table (there are many on the market now) or a booster seat for older toddlers allows young children to eat right at the table with the family. Eating together fosters stimulation, bonding, developmental gain, and overall mental and physical health for children and adults of all ages.
– Choose meals that everyone can eat. Serving young children the same meal as the rest of the family (age appropriate) is a great way to include them and also sets up good eating habits. I often will set aside a portion of what I am cooking before adding spices and seasoning, and puree or mash it with butter. Yum!
– Avoid battles over food. Teaching children to eat as much as feels right to their body can empower them to listen to their bodies and set up a healthy attitude towards food early on. The approach of: “Feel free to eat as much as you need to last you until breakfast” is one way to go if no snacking after dinner is the desired behavior. Another approach that we use in our family is eating until satisfied, with fresh fruit or veggie options (apple, carrot sticks, cucumber, banana) for those times my daughter is hungry later on. We have taught our daughter to pay attention to how any food choice will feel in her body later on.
– Share responsibilities. Even new walkers can get involved by carrying over their sippy cup, later helping with meal prep and carrying plates. Simple instructions shown and told, such as how to hold the edges of the plate with both hands or put the placemats away gets little ones involved and can create confidence and pride.
– Play music, dim lights, and use candles at dinner time. Research has shown that classical music stimulates brain development in children. Even plants grow towards classical music. I grew up with opera, classical and all sorts of other music in the house and the memory of music playing in the evening brings back warm feelings still. Soft music in the background can relax, stimulate and inspire a positive dinner environment. Candlelight is also wonderful ambiance when supervised, or some good battery operated tea lights are a close second, eco friendly, and can stay on unsupervised! | <urn:uuid:f683078f-3692-4195-819e-9a0ad3190a70> | {
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What are the components of soil?
Typical garden soil is composed of 50% solid material by volume, 25% water, and 25% air. The solid material portion includes about 45% minerals and 5% organic matter.
Four main components
The mineral portion of the soil is derived from the bedrock from which it was formed. Some of the mineral particles, such as sand, still consist of rock. They are chemically and structurally the same as the parent rock, but have been ground by weather, water, glaciers, and other natural forces into small pieces. Other particles—including most of the microscopic clay particles—have been dissolved and precipitated again, perhaps many times, to reach a form that is quite different from the native rock.
The sizes of individual particles of the mineral component are responsible for the texture of the soil. Soil textures are classified as sand (the coarsest texture), silt, and clay (the finest texture, with particles 1,000 times smaller than large sand particles). Loam is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
Living and dead plant and animal matter in various stages of growth and decay constitute the organic part of the soil. Most native, or unamended, soils contain from less than 1% to 5% organic matter, whereas a well-amended garden soil may contain 30% or more. Adding organic matter is one of the best things you can do to your soil. In addition to being a reservoir of nutrients, organic matter improves the soil structure .
Live organic matter includes earthworms, insects, microorganisms, and plant roots. Earthworms and plant roots perform a valuable service by creating tunnels for air and water to flow through the soil. An invisible world of soil bacteria, fungi, and algae is even more crucial. These microorganisms decompose organic matter and contribute to the chemical reactions that allow plants to absorb nutrients.
Soil water enables plants to absorb minerals by first dissolving them. Water is also needed for the physiological and chemical processes of plant growth.
Water is so strongly attracted to small spaces, or pores, in the soil that it moves from large spaces to smaller ones, even if the movement is upward or sideways. That is why a soil with mostly small pores, such as clay, holds water so well. An ideal soil has a mix of large and small spaces, so that it holds both water and air.
Soil with a loose surface and large pores permits air to diffuse easily into it. Entry is limited if the soil is crusted over or compacted. Soil air is more humid than the air that humans breathe, and it has a higher carbon dioxide content. The oxygen it contains is vital to the root growth of plants. In fact, roots grow only where oxygen is present in the soil.
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On World Health Day 2016, Czech Republic focuses on diabetes and prevention
During the World Health Day campaign in the Czech Republic, the WHO Country Office presented the 2016 slogan "Be active – Eat healthy – Follow medical advice – Beat diabetes". The slogan illustrates the key areas where the country should focus political efforts to decrease the risk of diabetes among the population.
An example of recent political action in the Czech Republic is the adoption of the action plan on nutrition, including the plan on obesity prevention, and the action plan on physical activity in 2015, within the national strategy for Health 2020.
Type 2 diabetes can be prevented
The national profile of the Czech Republic, published within the framework of the first ever "Global report on diabetes", shows that the prevalence of diabetes among the male population has grown from 6.5% in 1984 to 8.7% in 2014. This means that almost 10% of Czech citizens have diabetes, and that diabetes causes 2% of all deaths in the country. Data show that about 90% of people with diabetes have problems with obesity and an unhealthy life style. Nevertheless, estimates indicate that many cases of type 2 diabetes could be prevented.
To mark World Health Day, the WHO Country Office in the Czech Republic held a press conference in Prague on 6 April 2016, in cooperation with the Czech Medical Association of J.E.Purkyně and the Czech Diabetes Society. During the press conference, preeminent medical experts presented the diabetes situation and possibilities for prevention of this serious problem. WHO posters on diabetes were displayed during the press conference and distributed online.
2 people living with diabetes shared their stories with the media. One focused on the improvement of his health due to healthy lifestyle changes; the second shared a story about the educational programme on diabetes launched by the 3rd Medical Department of the 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General Faculty Hospital in Prague, in cooperation with the Institute of Sports Medicine.
Activities around the country
The WHO Country Office usually cooperates with representatives of the International Federation of Medical Students Associations (IFMSA) in organizing World Health Day activities across 5 cities in the Czech Republic (Brno, Hradec Králové, Olomouc, Plzeň, Prague). From 7 to 10 April 2016, medical students from IFMSA provided voluntary tests to measure blood glucose levels, blood pressure and body fat percentage.
Based on the figures from all cities, the organizers estimate that over 5500 people participated actively and were educated by medical students while over 10 000 people participated passively during the project.
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JIM MCNIVEN: THOUGHTLINES
Sylvester Graham and William Andrus Alcott were men of their disease-ridden times, amongst the first American promoters of “health food,” “phys-ed” and temperate living for health in both the here and now — and the afterlife.
In 1832, the Great Cholera Epidemic hit the United States. It was another of the epidemics and plagues that had affected the world since at least late Roman times. No one understood how these instances of mass illness and death occurred, but the pattern of transmission along trade routes suggested some kind of agent in the illness. In the case of cholera, the disease came out of Bengal in India in the wake of the British conquest there during the Napoleonic Wars. It travelled from Calcutta to London and then, in 1832, to New York. Cholera then spread upriver and along the Erie Canal, killing thousands. Diagnosis was superficial, prevention was guessed at; cures were ineffectual; attempts at relief were often as deadly as the disease, and recovery was left to the patient.
Americans suffered then from other diseases as well, sometimes affecting more people, such as tuberculosis (TB), yellow fever and malaria. TB was a common complaint and generally killed a quarter of those affected, being a slow-moving disease. Malaria and yellow fever differed in their effects, with malaria seeming to be slow-moving like TB and yellow fever striking seasonally and killing quickly. Smallpox’s effect resembled other epidemics, but by the 1800s, the effectiveness of a crude vaccination meant that, while its causes were poorly understood, the disease could be controlled.
The result of the loss of life from these and other illnesses led people at the time to try and figure out what caused them to spread. Two kinds of answers were proposed; the first was an environmental one that disease came from unhealthy ‘miasmatic’ conditions, such as bad air, fetid swamps, uncleanliness and exposure to poor living conditions. The second was that disease arose from poor nutrition, alcoholism and general bad behavior, or physical weakness on the part of the victims.
Neither answer was satisfactory, but they were based upon medical treatises that dated in some cases back to Roman times. Attempts by medical people to treat them were as bad as the diseases, consisting of ‘bleeding’ the patient or giving doses of calomel (mercury chloride).
By and large, the training and reputation of medical personnel was low, especially on the frontier, where almost all educational standards were low. Outside the cities, people were left largely to their own devices in preventing and dealing with disease.
Some Americans began to fix on the notion that disease could be prevented, if only people were to live proper lives, consume food in a moderate fashion, drink only pure water and keep their physiques in proper order.
This package came wrapped in a popular religious attitude called Arminianism, which posited that God made the world good, and that it was the duty of everyone to pursue salvation in both a moral and physical sense. It was not a coincidence that moral and physical virtues were seen as being tied together.
The earliest prominent proponent of this conjunction was a Connecticut man, Sylvester Graham, who had suffered from ill health as he grew up. Graham attended, but did not graduate from, Amherst College. At 34, he became a Presbyterian minister to a rural congregation in New Jersey. His ministerial career did not last long: two years later, in 1830, he was lecturing to the Philadelphia Temperance Society. Soon after, he was lecturing on the wider need for temperance in the eating of food, in much the fashion as early temperance lecturers approached alcohol — don’t drink, but if you must, keep it temperate.
Graham looked for validation for his idea that food must be consumed in a spirit of tempered abstinence.
He borrowed ideas from France about the body as a ‘chemical machine,’ and came up with the notion that stimulation of the digestive system was at the root of many human health problems. The theory was these could be prevented by a calm lifestyle, which included only eating foods that were not “stimulating” and assisted digestion. He went on to apply his temperance argument to sexual relations and emotional control as well.
Graham was fixed on the idea that Christian theology was congruent with the laws of nature. By the time the cholera epidemic hit New York City, he lectured there that symptoms of gastrointestinal irritation pointed to people eating wrongly and general misbehaving.
But, as was discovered a couple of decades later, one of the prime causes for the spread of cholera was well water infected with the cholera bacillus. Graham’s advocacy of drinking water rather than alcohol — which would have killed the germs — was unfortunate.
Today, his name lives on in the ‘graham cracker’, a kids’ staple for many generations (and still a favorite of mine). Graham was less interested in the graham cracker than returning to a rough type of bread that had been replaced in the cities by white bread. ‘Well-made bread’…must contain…’all the natural properties of wheat,’ he said, and published a recipe for ‘graham bread’ in the 1829 New Hydropathic Cookbook.
He felt that other foods should not be altered much from their natural condition either, which led to a prohibition on meat consumption.
In 1835, Graham moved to Boston, where the temperance movement and the antislavery movement were joined with a growing food-health movement, spurred by by William Andrus Alcott, brother of Bronson Alcott, a transcendentalist leader and the father of writer Louisa May Alcott. There was some rivalry between Graham and Alcott, and both endured opposition to their ideas from local grocers and butchers in the city.
Graham was reputed to be vain, obtuse and obsessive, so attacks were likely not a surprise to him, but a butchers’ riot was too much.
Shaken, he moved from Boston to Northampton, Maine, and died there in 1851 at the age of 57. His relatively young age at death shocked many of his followers and caused some to stray from Grahamism.
The most interesting part of Alcott’s approach to preventive health was that he was more willing to play down the doctrinaire religious force within Grahamism in order to point out the social benefits of a good lifestyle in food and drink. Alcott had attended Yale and taken a medical degree, with a thesis on TB, of special relevance to him as he suspected he himself was a sufferer. After graduation, he tried medicines to relieve his symptoms, but then found a temperate lifestyle to be more useful.
Alcott taught for a couple of years before attending Yale, and his experience led to the idea that children should be taught basic nutrition and physiology as part of the school curriculum; he was the originator of ‘phys-ed’ classes.
Alcott promoted health reform as a Christian redemption project, to help all live a good life — and good afterlife; promoted information about nutrition, and helped form the American Physiological Society in 1837.
In an address to the society Alcott bluntly focused on prevention rather than cure as the best health care and waxed, enthusiastically: ‘In the present blaze of physiological light, we can, in ways and processes almost innumerable, manufacture human health to an extent not formerly dreamed of.’ As president of the society, he helped establish what may be America’s first “health food” store, which stocked, of course, “Graham” bread, fresh fruits and vegetables.
Copyright Jim McNiven 2016
This column is part of Jim McNiven’s project The Yankee Road: Tracing the Journey of the New England Tribe that Created Modern America. www.theyankeeroad.com
Thanks for reading Facts and Opinions. Our journal is employee-owned and survives on the honour system: try a story at no charge;, if you value our work, please chip in at least .27 per piece or make a sustaining donation. Details here.
James McNiven has a PhD from the University of Michigan. He has written widely on public policy and economic development issues and is the co-author of three books. His most recent research has been about the relationship of demographic changes to Canadian regional economic development. He also has an interest in American business history and continues to teach at Dalhousie on a part-time basis.
Facts and Opinions is a boutique journal of reporting and analysis in words and images, without borders. Independent, non-partisan and employee-owned, F&O is funded by you, our readers. We are ad-free and spam-free, and do not solicit donations from partisan organizations. Real journalism has value. Thank you for your support. Please tell others about us, and follow us on Facebook and Twitter.
F&O’s CONTENTS page is updated each Saturday. Sign up for emailed announcements of new work on our free FRONTLINES blog; find evidence-based reporting in Reports; commentary, analysis and creative non-fiction in OPINION-FEATURES; and image galleries in PHOTO-ESSAYS. If you value journalism please support F&O, and tell others about us. | <urn:uuid:5a2e07ff-11e0-4986-8716-d0becd4e3ad3> | {
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Thomas Jefferson is celebrating the big 2-7-2 today, and we have 10 interesting facts about the versatile Founding Father.
He was born on April 13, 1743, in Virginia and died on July 4, 1826 on the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.
Jefferson is best known for his role in writing the Declaration of Independence, his foreign service, his two terms as president, and his omnipresent face on the modern nickel.
The well-rounded Jefferson was also a Renaissance man who was intellectually curious about many things.
Here are 10 interesting facts about Jefferson’s pursuit of knowledge:
1. Thomas Jefferson really, really liked books. The third president, after his retirement, sold his library of 6, 500 volumes to the Library of Congress after it was ransacked by the British. Jefferson needed the cash to pay off debts, but he started buying more books. “I cannot live without books, ” he told John Adams.
2. Jefferson the economist. Jefferson was deeply engaged in economic theory, which he learned to love during his time in France. He was a friend and translator to leading European theorists; he believed in the free market policies; and he opposed bank notes as currency.
3. Jefferson the architect. He designed the rotunda for the University of Virginia, his own home at Monticello, and the Virginia State Capitol in Richmond. Monticello has some good resources about what he called the “hobby of my old age, ” though architecture actually a lifetime pursuit. Monticello and the University of Virginia are on the World Heritage List.
4. Jefferson the food lover. On his return from France, Jefferson brought his love of that nation’s cuisine back with him. James Hemings went to France as his slave, and the pair agreed that if Hemings learned how to make French cuisine, he would be freed on his return to America.
5. Jefferson the wine snob. Yes, Jefferson brought his love of French wine back to America, too. He had two vineyards at Monticello, which he apparently used to experiment with. Acknowledged as a great wine expert of early America, he sought to promote wine as an alternative to whiskey and cider.
6. Jefferson the agriculturalist. He believed in the United States as an agrarian society, in part, because it would make the nation independent from other nations. Jefferson practiced what he taught: He was one of the first American farmers to employ crop rotation and redesigned the plow to make it more efficient.
7. Jefferson the paleontologist. He was also obsessed with fossils and was involved in a great debate about the mammoth that became a political cause. Jefferson raised the profile of paleontology as president, and he has a mammoth named after him.
8. Jefferson the astronomer. Jefferson loved stargazing almost as much as he liked books. He made sure astronomy was taught at the University of Virginia, and he designed what may have been the first observatory in the United States.
9. Jefferson the writer. He was a prolific writer during his lifetime, with his authorship of the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom included in his epitaph (instead of his two terms as president). The Thomas Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress includes about 27, 000 documents, including his extensive correspondence with key historical figures.
10. Jefferson the musician. He took violin lessons as a child and played the violin as he courted his future wife, Martha Skelton. Jefferson spent considerable time studying the violin as an instrument, but by 1778 he complained about music being played in the New World as being in a “state of deplorable barbarism.” | <urn:uuid:66ec10dc-a067-4b4d-8e72-f0ae3daf6357> | {
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When discussing the sustainability of a development research project, we should distinguish between two different aspects of this concept:
- Environmental sustainability. This concept describes how a biological system can remain healthy and self-supporting on a long time scale without species getting extinguished. In the same sense one distinguishes between sustainable (or durable) energy provisions (e.g., solar), in contrast with energy from almost depleted sources like coal or oil. This notion can also be extended to human society whenever a political or economical system can warrant a long-term well-being for the population.
- Project sustainability. A project is called sustainable when a continued utilization of its results can be assured after the completion of the project.
When a project delivers a contribution to environmental sustainability, this will normally be appreciated by its impact or its relevance. In this annex we will therefore focus more on the project sustainability.
How can it be used
Ex ante: In order to assess the sustainability of a project, one should try to determine if various conditions that can assure the continuation of the benefits of the project are satisfied. Examples of such conditions are:
- Identification: Do the researchers submitting the project have a clear view on which results they would like to be implemented in a permanent way?
- Commitment: Are the local stakeholders sufficiently involved in the project? Are the local (academic) authorities supporting the project? Is the project embedded in a larger research initiative : national/regional/international?
- Financial: Will there be sufficient money available after the project to continue with its application? Is the necessary infrastructure available and are there provisions for the maintenance of these facilities?
- Visibility: Which measures are foreseen to communicate the results of the project to the local community? Will there be an effort to transfer the necessary knowledge and skills ?
Ex post: Obviously, the same questions can be asked as at the beginning of a project. Additionally, one may ask whether special measures have been taken to assure the sustainability or to remedy its foreseeable shortcomings. Has the local partner being strengthened enough to be able to raise its own funding ? to transfer skills and knowledge? (See also the annex conditions) | <urn:uuid:4e4f55c9-1124-47a7-8dc1-d89e4ee5ae7a> | {
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CHOCOLATE HILLS – BOHOL
The unique landform known as the “Chocolate Hills” of Bohol was formed ages ago by the uplift of coral deposits and the action of rainwater and erosion.
These hills are scattered throughout the towns of Carmen, Batuan and Sagbayan, and consist of 1,268 mounds of the same general shape.
The National Committee on Geological Sciences declared the Chocolate Hills of Bohol a National Geological Monument (18 June 1988)
THE CHOCOLATE HILLS – ATTRACTION
The Chocolate Hills of Bohol, a natural attraction, are a must-see and included in most of the package tours in Bohol. It is approximately 1 hour drive from Tagbilaran City to the Chocolate Hills complex in Carmen, Bohol. They can also be viewed from Sagbayan Peak but the ones in Carmen are better. Read more about Bohol Package Tours including tours to Chocolate Hills.
The hills are notable for their chocolate color when the low scrub dries out fully in the months of April and May.
CHOCOLATE HILLS OF BOHOL – GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
About two million years ago, most of the island of Bohol was underwater, below a shallow sea. Coral reefs thrived and extensively covered the sea floor. Over time during stormy days fragments of corals and shells were deposited in the reefs, forming thin layers surrounding the live coral reefs. Slowly the land rose causing the coral reef formations to emerge out of the sea.
The Chocolate Hills were carved out from the thin layers of coral and shell fragments. With rainwater acting on the layers of coral and shell fragments for ten to hundreds of thousands of years, gullies were deepened and widened to become streams, lakes were emptied by underground rivers and interconnected conical hills were formed from the original flat surface.
The Chocolate Hills that you now see are a product of the patient labouring of rainwater on a thin soluble limestone formation.
*Some text taken from the marker at the base of Chocolate Hills complex
Explore Bohol Package Tours
Explore other Bohol Attractions: Philippine Tarsier
Explore Bohol Resorts | <urn:uuid:027e7d52-b2e9-4110-8488-265dfe487c2e> | {
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In 1761, Daniel Boone came through the area that is now Johnson County. There were two early settlements in the area in the late 1760’s and the 1770’s. One settlement was known as “The Trade Gap”, which was a trading post for Indians and traders, in the south east side of the county. This community is now known as Trade. The other early settlement was on Roane Creek, near the confluence with the Watauga River. Other settlements were made soon after further up Roane Creek and on Little Doe.
The organization of Johnson County took place in 1836 and was named for Thomas Johnson, a leading citizen of Carter County and an early settler on the Doe River. Johnson County was created from parts of Carter County, because of the long distance to travel to the county seat in Elizabethton. The first session of the county court was begun and held at the Pleasant Grove School House on May 2, 1836. In October of 1836, the county commissioners were given authority to contract for the building of a court house. It took about a year to complete the structure. Two years later the jail was completed.
In 1836, the county seat was originally named Taylorsville in honor of Colonel James Taylor. The name was changed to Mountain City in the 1885, to reflect it being in one of the highest valleys in Tennessee. Because the county was so remote, the railroads did not reach the area until the early 1900’s. The arrival of the railroads greatly influenced the development of the timber and manganese mining industries. | <urn:uuid:1bc4e3e4-a68d-4dd2-b4b7-b5aba498399e> | {
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In the workshop of the Wangyipin Brush Pen Store in Huzhou, 29-year-old Shi Wangli brushes goat fur in water with an ox horn comb to select appropriate strands to make a traditional Chinese brush pen.
Her hands are immersed in water for at least eight hours a day, in both summer and winter. The selection of the hairs is one of the most important steps of making a quality brush pen and the work she does cannot be performed by a machine.
Shi is the youngest brush pen technician in the entire city of Huzhou. These days, few young people are willing to undertake such a difficult job.
Xu Jianfeng, general manager of the store, said he is worried the thousand-year-old techniques for making the Huzhou brush pens used in calligraphy will be lost with no young people willing to learn them.
“If the Huzhou brush pen dies, an important part of Chinese culture will die with it,” he said.
Located in the north of Zhejiang province, Huzhou has been home to brush pen-making for thousands of years. In ancient China, an excellent Huzhou brush pen was representative of social status and was the aspiration of all men of letters.
In Chinese history, brush pens served as an essential tool for cultural inheritance.
However, as modernization took place in China, brush pens were replaced firstly by nib pens, then ballpoint pens and now keyboards.
Zhu Yanlin, deputy director of the Huzhou Economic and Information Commission, said the key reason the art of making Huzhou brush pens is in danger of dying is not because fewer people use the brush pens these days.
“It is a very hard learning experience to make brush pens because the techniques are complicated and the working conditions are poor. The profits on brush pens are low so the income of such workers is lower than average,” he said.
A calligraphy expert shows students how to use a traditional brush pen in Hefei, Anhui province, China, on Jan. 13. (China Daily)
Shi would not reveal how much she earns a month making brush pens, only saying she earns much less than her peers.
“There are few people of my age choosing this job. If I had a daughter, I would not let her learn this because it is so hard,” she said.
Zhu said that in 2008, Huzhou had less than 10 brush pen technicians aged below 40.
“I believe that number would be much lower now. Most of the technicians have already passed the age of retirement, but are staying in their positions because, without them, the factories would have no one to make brush pens,” he said.
There are 128 separate procedures involved in making a quality Huzhou brush pen, and all must be done by hand.
“Brush pens are made by the technicians’ experience and the touch of fur on their hands,” he said.
Xu said that 271-year-old Wang-yipin, with about 60 technicians, is the largest brush pen manufacturer in Huzhou.
“There are a lot more that have only two or three technicians, most of whom have reached their 60s or even 70s. The problem is more severe for them,” he said.
According to official statistics, 102 companies and 187 family workshops make brush pens in Huzhou, employing more than 1,500 people. Together, they produce 10.3 million brush pens a year.
In January 2013, the Ministry of Education required elementary and middle schools to start calligraphy classes in order to save the Chinese tradition. That brought many orders for pens, but Xu said the increase in orders is bittersweet.
“We do not have enough people to make the pens,” he said.
Wangyipin is capable of producing 300,000 brush pens a year, with a value of 10 million yuan ($1.6 million).
“Actually, we don’t lack orders at all. Our productivity is much lower than the total demand in the market. What we lack are skilled technicians to make the brush pens,” he said.
The Huzhou government has issued preferential policies and set aside funds to revitalize the industry, but young people are still not attracted to the work.
As early as 2009, Huzhou issued stimulus plans to encourage young people to learn the art of making brush pens.
For apprentices under the age of 30 in key positions, the government grants subsidies for three consecutive years of up to 36,000 yuan.
“Their value cannot be properly reflected because the added-value is low, and this problem cannot be solved by the companies,” Xu said.
He believes brush pen-making should not be viewed as just a type of traditional manufacturing, but should be regarded as a craft that represents Chinese culture.
“People should get to know the meanings and thoughts behind the techniques. If all of society considered our workers respectable technicians rather than just somebody working on an assembly line, maybe the conditions would become better,” he said.
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Las Posadas, celebrated every December at historic Olvera Street in Los Angeles since 1930, is said to be the oldest, continuously-celebrated Christmas event in Los Angeles. The festive procession is a reenactment of the journey of the pregnant Mary and husband Joseph to Bethlehem. It begins in front of the oldest house in Los Angeles – the Avila Adobe – with a parade of musicians, a carried replica of Mary and Joseph, and costumed celebrants who wind their way around Olvera Street and end back at the adobe. The event is public with observers lining the procession way, some joining the procession. When the procession ends, celebrants and observers are invited to partake of champurrado (hot chocolate) and pan dulce (sweet bread). The procession is repeated each of nine nights ending with Christmas Eve, when the Mary and Joseph figures are live portrayers. | <urn:uuid:54be2553-5ae6-41c7-b98c-ed7be513e4e5> | {
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|Saying something that someone "did not do" is yet to be a report of something concrete, that is, something that a camera (if present) could record.
Such a statement therefore requires that the receiver of the message guess to "fill in the blank" as to what the speaker is intending.
What will likely be the "fill in" by the hearer will be some sort of a "should" message (VRP) or a "should not" message (VRP), making conflict more likely.
||Observations are concrete events that have space and time existance.
For example: I can Observe someone facing out of a window. To say that he or she, "is refusing to look at me" is a labeling (VRP) of that behavior rather than a factual statement of what the person is actually doing. Similarly, to say that he or she is "not looking" at me or "will not" look at me is also labeling (VRP). | <urn:uuid:d7634e2e-2026-4d52-b396-0c1d7dd33090> | {
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Figure 14.3-1. Elliott See (left) and Charles Bassett (right).
Charles Bassett II was a USAF captain, test pilot and member of the third group of astronauts chosen by NASA in October 1963; Elliot See was a US Navy engineer and test pilot and member of the second group of astronauts, selected in September 1962, in addition to being in charge of supervising the design and development of guidance and navigation systems for US spacecraft.
Bassett and See were assigned to the Gemini 8 mission, but on February 28, 1966 they died in the crash of their T-38 training jet as they attempted an instrument landing in low visibility conditions. Bassett was 34 years old; See was 38.
NEXT: 14.4 Valentin Bondarenko | <urn:uuid:713bbcf2-b81d-4619-810f-f5c25a976eee> | {
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When you burn a piece of wood, it is reduced to ashes. While it is burning it gives out energy and heat. But the ashes cannot give out any fuel. It is no more of any use. No matter how much you burn it, it will not be useful. Burnout syndrome is similar to this.
Burnout is a significant public health problem. Just this year, the World Health Organization upgraded its assessment of the threat posed by burnout. The condition, says the WHO, is a “syndrome” involving a range of symptoms related to chronic stress.
We tend to think that stress is something that we can see and feel; like sweaty palms, faster heartbeat, gnashing of teeth or stomach problems.
The problem is, stress is much more insidious and creeps into our lives with no obvious signs. In other words, you can be stressed and not even know about that.
If you have many tasks and little time, if you have deadlines, if you struggle to find time for everything you’ve planned, if you feel the adrenaline rush or if you can’t concentrate, you’re probably suffering from stress.
A person is physically, mentally and emotionally drained. And he can no longer bear the burden of work. This is burnout syndrome.
Due to our fast paced lives, the incidence of burnout syndrome is on a rise and in the future it can reach epidemic proportions.
In the latest update of its catalogue of diseases and injuries around the world, WHO defines burn-out as ‘a syndrome conceptualised as resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed.’
It said the syndrome was characterised by three dimensions, “Feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one’s job; reduced professional efficacy.”
Who are more prone to burnout?
Everyone faces stress in their daily life. If there is a lot of work to be done, but less time. If the work cannot be finished in the time, then it leads to stress. If you start disliking work and the workplace, then you are in the initial phases of burnout.
People engaged in these professions are at a higher risk:
- Social workers
- Teachers and Professors
- Fast food sellers
What are the symptoms of burnout?
- Chronic fatigue, for example, feeling tired after a full night’s sleep
- Caring about your work or home life seems like a total waste of energy.
- You’re exhausted all the time.
- The majority of your day is spent on tasks you find either mind-numbingly dull or overwhelming.
- Avoiding work.
- Losing trust in colleagues and friends.
- Preferring to be alone.
- Procrastinating, taking longer to get things done.
Effects of burnout
Burnout syndrome is a slowly occurring process. It takes a toll on health and career. It also affects a person’s relationship with their family and their standing in society. Social and familial life is ruined.
A question which arises is whether burnout can cause death? Burnout directly attacks the brain. It can indirectly cause death via suicide. The memory is impacted and concentration power is reduced. The person mood constantly shifts and they are prone to mood swings.
The author is the Assitant Director at the Directorate of Health Services, Maharashtra | <urn:uuid:0a48955d-0fde-4213-8998-d11cf533705d> | {
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In some countries eye tracking is used in order to study the consumer behaviour. The consumer is equipped with special spectacles with electronics. With this glasses the researcher can study the spots the customers are looking on and for how long time. In special cases the spectacles also have pupillometers also for measuring the size of the pupil in order to evaluate emotions in relation to a product. Only a few is using this kind of technology.
- Find a representative market - use earlier sales statistics, and public statistics.
- Make agreements with one or two retail shops.
- Design and implement an eye tracing system in the retail shops.
- Registration of sales numbers in these retail shops.
- Change the packaging design - use either more or less packaging -or present the same product in different packaging.
- Stop selected consumers and ask for permission to participate in test.
- New registration of sales numbers for each design.
- Interview all persons coming near to the product either waiting in line for payment or just after.
- Analyse of data.
- Repeat this process until you are able to demonstrate optimal packaging
- Write a report for documentation of the process.
The method is expensive to implement and demand educated personnel to perform. The method is also so complicated and you may expect "noise" in the complicated shopping process. But the method can go behind what is happening in the consumers mind during shopping. | <urn:uuid:e86202ed-41fe-48e3-a9ce-abc0e4349452> | {
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Monday, 14 October 2019
The Synagogues of Dublin:
15, Grosvenor Road
The synagogue on Rathfarnham Road, Terenure, dates back to 1936, when a meeting was called on 26 September 1936 to discuss providing a new synagogue for members of the Jewish community in Dublin who had moved out to suburbs such as Rathgar, Rathmines, and Terenure.
The larger synagogues at Adelaide Road and Greenville Hall on South Circular Road, and the smaller synagogues in the ‘Little Jerusalem’ area between South Circular Road and Portobello, were no longer within the 1 km walking distance of those suburbs on the Sabbath.
At first, the congregation rented rooms from 1936 at 6 Grosvenor Place, Rathmines, a large Victorian suburban house in a residential area close to Rathmines and Rathgar and just off Kenilworth Square.
However, the rented rooms were too small for the new congregation, and in April 1940 they bought another house nearby, at 52 Grosvenor Road with a loan from the Provincial Bank. The small synagogue at 6 Grosvenor Place may have been one of the shortest-living synagogues in Jewish history in Dublin.
The houses on Grosvenor Road were designed and built by Edward Henry Carson (father of Sir Edward Carson), George Palmer Beater, and the brothers James and William Beckett – William Beckett was the grandfather of Samuel Beckett.
But this terrace of houses on Grosvenor Road was designed by the architect Alfred Gresham Jones (1824-1915). It has been described by Jeremy Williams in his book, Architecture in Ireland 1830-1921, as ‘the most ambitious Gothic Revival speculative terrace built in the Dublin suburbs.’
Jones also designed Mytilene, the house that is now the French embassy on Ailesbury Road, Merrion Hall (now the Davenport Hotel), Wesley College on Saint Stephen’s Green, Saint Paul’s Church, Glenageary, Saint Barnabas Church, North Lotts, Tullow Parish Church in Carrickmines, the Dublin Exhibition Palace and the Winter Garden on Earlsfort Terrace, and the Methodist Churches in Athlone, Bray, Sandymount, and rebuilt Holy Trinity Church, Rathmines.
The Winter Garden was an ambitious project that included heated winter gardens. All that remain of this incredible structure, known as the Crystal Palace, are a few statues and rustic grotto in what are now the Iveagh Gardens, the original site of the palace.
For reasons unknown, Jones and his family – at the height of his prolific career in Dublin – emigrated to Australia in 1888, where he established an architectural practice and wrote poetry.
However, the Rathmines congregation did not stay for long at 52 Grosvenor Road. At Rosh Hashanah in 1948, they moved to a Nissen hut at ‘Leoville,’ opposite the Classic Cinema on Rathfarnham Road in Terenure.
If the small synagogue that was housed at 6 Grosvenor Place from 1936 to 1940 was the shortest-living synagogues in Jewish history in Dublin, then the synagogue at 52 Grosvenor Road from 1940 to 1948 may have been the second shortest-living synagogue in Dublin.
The house was bought by the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul, which in turn sold it as a parish centre to the Roman Catholic Parish of the Three Patrons in Rathgar. No 52 Grosvenor Road was bought with a loan of £2,000 (€2,500).
Today, the parish youth club has priority for the use of the centre, but it is also used for religious instruction classes and for parish organisations and outreach activities.
Tomorrow: 16,, Leicester Avenue Synagogue
Yesterday: 14, Grosvenor Place Synagogue | <urn:uuid:4cb423e7-d49c-41ae-9e11-a66851154304> | {
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Creating the Items
After deciding whether your first control will contain radio buttons or check boxes, you’ll create and label the control’s items.
- Scroll to a blank area of the worksheet in which to place the items. (The actual spot is irrelevant because you’ll arrange and move them later.)
- On the Developer tab, click the Check Box or Radio Button icon (see Figure 3).
- Click on the worksheet where you’d like the upper-left corner of the item to appear. The item appears and is sequentially numbered to reflect the number of form control items that you’ve created for the worksheet (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Each new item contains a default, temporary label: Option Button or Check Box, followed by a number that indicates the total number of control items created.
- Continue creating items by repeating steps 2 and 3. If you’re creating radio buttons and intend to use their result in a formula, place the items in a vertical stack. The value assigned by Excel to a selected radio button is based on the sequence in which you created the items—not on its position on the sheet. Stacking them in creation order will let you determine visually which item will be assigned 1, 2, and so on.
- To label each item, right-click (or Control-click) the item and choose Edit Text from the contextual menu. A text insertion mark appears at the beginning of the current label. Hold down the Shift key and press the down arrow key to select the entire label, and then type the new label text. Finish the naming process by clicking anywhere else on the sheet. | <urn:uuid:f6ca0057-a19f-4d4e-bb89-db04099b32f2> | {
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We have many metaphors derived from our spatial perceptions of height and comparisons between the top and bottom positions of objects. Normally, people or things at the top are more important or powerful than things at the bottom. For example, in many news broadcasts, the announcers will speak of the top story, meaning the most important story of the day. In contrast, people or things that are low or on the bottom have low status or low importance. Here are a few examples of top and bottom metaphors.
people at the top
As with the idea of the leaders of an organization being high in the chain of command, we may also say that these leaders are the people at the top.
Example: In the U.S. government, the people at the top are the president and vice president, along with the Senate majority leader and the Speaker of the House.
top of the heap
A heap is a tall pile or hill of many items mixed together. In yet another height metaphor, the people in leadership roles in an organization may be referred to as being at the top of the heap.
Example: When a candidate wins an election, quite often the campaign staff members who helped the candidate win move into the top of the heap in the candidate’s new government.
A tier is a horizontal part of a stadium, theater or any tall building. Metaphorically, any group of people can be described in terms of tiers such as political parties, business organizations or tax groups. The top tier of any organization is the group of the most powerful or important people.
Example: Democrats tend to think that the top tier of income earners in the country should be heavily taxed to provide necessary income to the government, while the Republicans believe the top earners should be given tax breaks so that they can expand their businesses and create more jobs.
Cabinets and office desks contain a variety of drawers. Traditionally, the most important information, files or documents are placed in the top drawer. Metaphorically, important or very talented persons are sometimes referred to as being top-drawer individuals.
Example: Whenever there is a crisis, a good leader should consult with all the top-drawer advisors working in the government at that time.
To reach the top of a mountain is a great achievement. To achieve more than someone else in a similar situation can be called topping someone.
Example: In the 2012 election, Barack Obama topped Mitt Romney to win the presidency of the United States.
over the top
To say something is over the top is to say that it is too extreme for a certain situation.
Example: When Wall Street investment firms gave some of their employees million-dollar bonuses the same year that the economy was collapsing, many critics said their spending was over the top.
As with the concepts of top, we have metaphors of being at the bottom of something. One way to describe being at the lowest point is to say we have hit rock bottom, as if we have sunk to the bottom of a lake.
Example: President Obama’s popularity seemed to hit rock bottom when the Democrats lost so many elections during the 2010 midterm elections.
low on the scale/lower down the scale
The word low describes the position of being towards the bottom of a place. A scale is a tool for measuring the weight or height of something. Metaphorically, being on the low end of a scale means that the person or thing has a lower value, such as lower income, or does not have much importance relative to other items measured on the same scale.
Example: Tax cuts often help wealthy Americans, but they do not always help those people lower down the scale.
A profile is a side view of a person. Contrary to a high profile, a low profile indicates lack of visibility or importance in a certain situation.
Example: After stepping down as president in 2009, George W. Bush kept a low profile until he released his book Decision Points in late 2010.
A low moment is a time when someone or group of people is unsuccessful, defeated or emotionally depressed.
Example: The low moment for George W. Bush’s presidency was when we were attacked by terrorists on September 11, 2001.
Next time: Flip that House! | <urn:uuid:ca9886c1-c821-46e4-b17f-f62ba6285f04> | {
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April 13, 2014
by Sara Olivier, Arts Rapid City
No, this isn’t a late April Fool’s prank. It’s the Teaching Artist Program (TAP) and it’s making an impact in the way students think about science, math, and other core subjects through visual art. The past two weeks I’ve had great fun tagging along to learn more about the program and watch teaching artist Tyler Read and his art-hungry students in action.
As I watched from the back of the classroom, Tyler integrated what the students were learning about in science (our solar system) with visual art fundamentals. The regular classroom teacher Ms. Thorson, also watching from her desk, smiled and said, “This is a great review of what we are studying, and the material will be on the standardized tests.”
Tyler’s lessons are reinforcing concepts the students will be tested on in a fresh and exciting way. So exciting, in fact, that I witnessed several students raise their hands to ask if they could keep their project to work on it outside of class.
Tyler, a graffiti artist and co-director of arts education at the Dahl Arts Center, is enjoying his new role working with elementary students. The opportunity is a perfect fit for him considering his personal philosophy of creating art that gives back to his local community.
“I think some artists may be a bit nervous about going into a classroom full of young students if they aren’t used to that sort of environment. But their regular teacher is always there and the students have been great,” Tyler shared after a lesson. Of course, classroom management issues don’t arise when the students are completely engrossed in the lesson at hand.
And just because the lesson was fun, doesn’t mean it was easy by any means. What do the birth a star, geometric and organic shapes, abstract art, and Badlands fossils have in common? Everything, according to Tyler, who integrated elements of science, geometry, and geology with visual art.
Students started by creating an outline inspired by sculptor Masayuki Nagase’s abstract sculpture “Aquatic Memory” after discussing Nagase’s work and his focus on our natural world. This was followed by filling in the outline with organic and geometric shapes that represented the dust particles and gas that combine to form a swirling nebulae; the birth of a star.
It sounds quite complex, but Tyler was able to break down the information in a way that the students could really grasp well. This integrated, abstract way of thinking is great brain exercise and teaches students to think creatively and collaboratively. We live in an integrated world that requires creative problem solving, and these lessons are providing students with these valuable skills.
TAP was initiated by Nagase, who proposed the program as part of his proposal for The Sculpture Project: Passage of Wind and Water. After discovering that elementary schools in the Rapid City area do not offer a formal visual arts education program, he and his wife, Michele Ku, offered to fund TAP as part of the project’s outreach program. TAP lessons are aligned with South Dakota educational standards and use cross-disciplinary methods. Professional artists are hired and fully trained to share their talents in a classroom setting by Naomi Even-Aberle, TAP coordinator and co-director of arts education at the Dahl Arts Center.
TAP is looking forward to connecting with more elementary schools in our area so that many more students can experience what Tyler’s lucky fifth-graders are.
Check out an album of photos from my classroom observations here.
If you are interested in applying as a teaching artist, find more information and download an application by following this link: http://www.thedahl.org/visual-artists.html or by contacting [email protected]
If you are interested in having a teaching artist at your school, find more information and apply by following this link: http://www.thedahl.org/educators.html or by contacting [email protected] | <urn:uuid:e94f2583-981c-4532-9c63-7fc3a2e95e31> | {
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It is important to set both outcome goals and process goals, and especially to know the difference.
Think of process goals as actions, or habits. Collectively, you expect actions and habits to lead to a desirable end result. But initially your goal will likely be to simply develop the habit itself! Once you have the habit down, that's when you'll turn your focus to the end result, or the outcome, those habits are intended to produce.
Example of a process goal: getting into shape. When you begin working toward the goal of "getting into shape" you likely need to get into the habit of eating better and exercising more.
So a process goal might be, “For the next three months, I am going to exercise three times a week for at least 45 minutes each time. Additionally, I will eliminate all snacks and sweets from my diet.” The goal is measurable and time-bound, but there is no specified outcome – no amount of weight lost or muscle gained.
Outcome goals almost ignore the process - the main thing that matters is the outcome!
Example of an outcome goal: losing 10 pounds. You're less likely to say how you intend to achieve your goal, certainly state exactly what your desired outcome will be. | <urn:uuid:83558a22-c145-4eea-8ad7-adb4f586815d> | {
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We have reported extensively on the highly radioactive “black stuff” being found around eastern Japan, as far away as Tokyo. Citizens initially found the substance, usually concentrated in gutters and low spots. Some superficial analysis had been done on the substance, again by citizens. The government has refused to acknowledge the issue or do any publicly acknowledged testing of the substance.
Marco Kalofan, an environmental engineer in the US was able to obtain a sample for detailed analysis. What was found was quite unusual. The substance isn’t a sand but an aggregate of radioactive substances, metals and rare earth materials. The materials for some reason clumped together into an aggregate rather than dispersing as tiny particles.
What the detailed analysis showed was that the material may have come from inside failed fuel assemblies from the damaged reactors. The high level of uranium daughter isotopes like radium 226 are seen as an indicator of amounts of unburned uranium fuel. The sample also has a mix of other substances like cesium 134 & 137 and cobalt 60 that are reactor emissions as they do not exist in nature. The specific combination of substances found and the aggregate nature of the pieces confirm it is not organic in nature. The sample also contains a number of things expected to be found in used nuclear fuel.
“Nuclear reactors tend to produce both heavy (atomic weight 125 to 155) and light (atomic weight 80 to 110) byproducts. These include light radioactive isotopes of the elements yttrium and silver, plus the heavier isotopes tin, antimony, cesium, cerium, neodymium, and lanthanum. All of these were detected in this dust sample by SEM/EDS, in the form of tiny particles on the order of 10 microns in size.”
These particles as they are currently, do not pose an inhalation hazard. If they were to un-clump they could then pose an inhalation hazard as some of the individual particles are small enough to be inhaled. In the current clumped size they pose more of an ingestion hazard if someone were to get them in their mouths.
This one sample from Namie, about 20km from the damaged reactors may not be completely representative of the radioactive black substances being found in other locations in eastern Japan. It does show the need to fully test more samples to determine if they are the same or differ from the one found in Namie.
In recent weeks pieces of highly radioactive debris were found in Naraha in an area the government reopened to residents to move back. The pieces included a piece of a branch and a small piece of what looks like flat metal. NarahaDebris_handouts_130708_07-j The items are suspected to have been from the explosions at Fukushima Daiichi, TEPCO would not confirm or deny this.
These findings raise many questions about how widespread in Japan these potential fuel particles may be and how much radioactive reactor debris may still be distributed around the evacuation zone.
The entire paper by Marco Kaltofan on the Namie sample can be found here
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© 2011-2018 SimplyInfo.org, Fukuleaks.org All Rights Reserved Content cited, quoted etc. from other sources is under the respective rights of that content owner. If you are viewing this page on any website other than www.simplyinfo.org (or www.fukuleaks.org) it may be plagiarized, please let us know. If you wish to reproduce any of our content in full or in more than a phrase or quote, please contact us first to obtain permission. | <urn:uuid:cb31fc57-14c7-4d91-8bd8-071ea963a200> | {
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The Mapleton Tramway
The Mapleton Tramway was a small narrow-gauge railway that ran between Nambour and Mapleton in Queensland, Australia between 1915 and 1945. The rails were 610 mm (two feet) apart. In a route length of just under 18 kilometres, it climbed from near sea level up two rugged escarpments to an elevation of 400 metres at Mapleton. The gradients were as steep as 1 in 17, and the curves as sharp as 18 metres radius. Two diminutive Shay steam locomotives were employed to work the goods and passenger traffic.
In 1928 the line was described by a local land agent thus: "every known railway engineering law has been
violated in its construction, but we are able to deliver the goods, and that is the thing that counts." Want to know more ?
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New material added recently Email the author of this website
Stories from early Nambour Brad Peadon's website for the Maroochy Shire Tramways Group Nambour Historical Museum
Starfield Astronomical Observatory, Nambour | <urn:uuid:561a723b-93b6-484a-876b-6adedf76d1c9> | {
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A great way to see a Volcano is from the sky. You’re in an airplane, looking down at what you thought was just a single Volcano. Suddenly, eight volcanos explode in a octagon shape, causing the airplane to stop right where it is (the pilots thought it was a stop sign since it was red and had eight sides). Then, your plane plumets because it stopped.
You see the eight volcanoes explode. But then your plane stops because they look like a giant stop sign signaling the pilots to stop (they wouldn’t want to get pulled over by the air police, now would they?). You should imagine the fear and absurdity of the whole situation. Your plane is falling to the ground and it’s because eight volcanoes exploded. If it was seven, you’d have been okay… but it was eight, making an octagon in the ground.
After the Eight Volcanoes explode and your plane starts falling, you have to act. You run up to the emergency hatch (はち) and flip it open then jump out, parachute in hand.
But, as you’re falling and you pull your parachute, it just hits the hatch tearing it apart. You’re doomed, all because of the stupid hatch. If you bring yourself to hate that hatch in your imagination, you’ll be more likely to remember this on’yomi as well.
a 八（はち）＝ Eight
- Meaning: The meaning is the same as the kanji.
- Reading: The reading is the same as the on’yomi.
a 八つ（やっつ）＝ Eight (things)
- Meaning: The meaning follows the same pattern as previous number kanji words you’ve learned. This is for when you’re counting things. Notice how all thing-counters end with つ? If you remember that pattern, you’ll learn these kinds of words more easily in the future.
- You’re counting “Eight Things” – When it’s eight, you’re counting yachts (やつ). Feel amazed at how many yachts you have… | <urn:uuid:a4eb642b-eeac-44a1-97db-2abafaea6b3b> | {
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From carts to trucks: efficiency in waste management
Olatawura Ladipo-Ajayi, Lagos Community Manager
Lagos, 5 June 2015
In many developing countries, the informal sector provides waste collection services to low-income neighborhoods. It is common to see waste being carried in carts pulled by bicycles or wheelbarrows being pushed by people. A major feature of this practice is the indiscriminate dumping of refuse by cart pushers resulting from their lack of necessary equipment to haul waste to official landfills. This haphazard waste management and this form of employment have negative effects on the environment — especially with respect to waste recycling. This indiscriminate dumping of refuse, the resulting drain blocks, and the need for a more sustainable practice were said to have inspired Lagos's new approach to waste management.
The Lagos State Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) is responsible for waste management across Lagos. The agency currently takes advantage of public-private partnerships, which have modernized and formalized waste cart pushing. Through extended services made possible by these private service providers, the system has been developed to allow waste collection through modernized means that ensure proper disposal of waste even from remote areas. Various methods exist for waste collection — inner-city areas with narrow roads are reached via mini skip trucks and automotive tricycles instead of wheelbarrows and push carts. This allows for more collection per area, adds ease and dignity to the process, and ensures proper disposal to official landfills since each operator is accountable to a regulating body that enforces good practices and monitors service delivery. Because of the former indiscriminate system of informal refuse collection and the ensuing challenges, LAWMA's current system ensures that waste materials are classified into categories such as medical, industrial, and domestic, and disposed of appropriately.
Services are provided through direct collection by LAWMA, through indirect collection (on behalf of LAWMA) by the private sector, and through franchising. Franchising and private servicing provide an opportunity for informal waste collectors to enter the formal economy. This is beneficial for many reasons, including the fact that it allows for standardized and increased payment, as the waste management agency has a unified pricing system per tonnage, as opposed to indiscriminate pricing in the informal economy. It also encourages women to get involved in the sector, as the collection activities have been mostly automated, as opposed to the intense exertion of cart-pushing.
With a population of approximately 20 million and a high level of commercial and industrial activity, the need for an inventive system of waste management in Lagos is apparent. The system of utilizing private service providers and expanding the waste management sector into the formal economy allows for effective management of the 10,000 metric tons of waste generated in Lagos each day. Although the system is now more organized, it is not yet perfect — cart pushers still exist because some view them as a cheaper alternative to LAWMA's services. It might be worth considering the integration of the cart pushers into the larger system for certain areas, with regulations and modifications. But overall, thanks to the more encompassing agency and its increased capacity, Lagos' waste disposal is more organized. | <urn:uuid:f7807ffb-8ab2-4556-91f0-eafb39594d3a> | {
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Dr. Carol Johnson, Dr. Joe Pitts, Dr. Jim Lane
Presented at the National Conference on the Adult Learner 2000, Atlanta, Georgia.
Abstract of Presentation
Having taught a variety of students with a wide range of abilities, Johnson (1996) became aware that certain personality traits and global learning styles were placing students in a crosswind with traditional teachers and classroom environments, and these factors were contributing to underachievement in academic performance. Therefore, a study was conducted to examine the relationship between specific personality traits and learning styles and academic achievement in gifted students to determine whether or not these factors resulted in their becoming "at-risk" in the educational system because of their divergence.
Results of the study showed that there were significant correlations between ten personality traits and academic achievement, and these findings were consistent with the review of literature that suggested that personality factors and learning styles may be related to academic achievement.
In the final analysis of these data, a set of descriptors was developed to more clearly delineate the personalities of achievers and underachievers (Johnson, 1996). A summary of these descriptors compares achievers with underachievers this way: achievers were found to be more introverted, abstract-thinking, emotionally stable, mature, able to face reality, serious, conscientious, moralistic, self-assured, secure, self-satisfied, self-sufficient, resourceful, prefer their own decisions, socially precise, relaxed, tranquil, and composed. Whereas underachievers appeared to be more extroverted, warm, kind, willing to participate, concrete-thinking, affected by feelings, enthusiastic, spontaneous, expressive, cheerful, expedient, apprehensive, insecure, self-blaming, group oriented, more willing to listen to others, and not bound by social rules. Both groups of students exhibited global perceptual tendencies, but the achievers were highly flexible. Although they were more global in thinking, they could easily adapt to analytical situations whereas the underachievers could not adapt.
Divergent learners are endowed with a unique variety of personality traits that separate them from the general population, and many of these traits are related to their academic achievement and effective leadership. Since personality traits are expressed in learning styles and preferences, teacher education programs should concentrate on making pre-service teachers more aware of personality traits and global learning styles and provide extensive training in how to best accommodate these individual differences in students.
Through in-service and staff development, experienced teachers need to be equipped to utilize learning styles and preferences in their instruction to meet the needs of all learners. Teachers need to be more knowledgeable in identifying reasons for discrepant achievement on the pan of students, assessing the needs of these students, and utilizing appropriate strategies for remediation, circumvention, and intervention. If teachers are to accommodate these differences, there must be a departure from the traditional teaching styles and classroom management approaches, and that departure needs to be understood and accepted by administrators.
Changes in teaching strategies and classroom management should be accompanied by restructuring classroom environments through peer interaction, cooperative group learning, collaboration, and modifications in seating, lighting, and student mobility whenever feasible and possible. Many of these students are visual learners, need a variety of models and involvement with manipulatives and hand on experiences. They resist direct instruction and prefer to solve problems and discover answers using their own methods and techniques. Time preference is a critical factor relating to truancy, and this learning style needs to be addressed whenever possible. Scheduling activities and tasks to coincide with the time of day when certain students are more attentive can have significant positive results in their academic performance and motivation to learn. In addition, many students have a need for high calorie intake during intense study, and ignoring this factor may have a tremendous adverse effect on their engagement in learning.
Classroom instruction should incorporate certain skills and learning styles whenever possible and as often as possible. Students need reading and writing in all content areas and need to be taught how to transfer and apply skills and knowledge from one subject area to another. They need time to brainstorm, share ideas, and have opportunities to express themselves creatively and in multiple representations such as reading, writing, art, music, and dance. Many students need external organizers such as cognitive maps, matrices, outlines, spatial arrays, models, diagrams, graphs, images, and pictures. Research skills need to be developed by allowing them to make observations, gather data, analyze their findings, draw conclusions, and determine implications of results. Students need to be engaged in social interaction, working cooperatively with others, sharing ideas, and valuing others’ points of view.
Johnson, C. B. (1996). Personality Traits and Learning Styles: Factors Affecting the Academic Achievement of Underachieving Gifted Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina, Columbia, S. C.
Posted with permission. | <urn:uuid:022cb641-3409-45fc-beba-8a571a1c9e3f> | {
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Obesity is still on the rise. In many cities there have been decade-long campaigns to improve healthy food access, spread information about health risks, and new national efforts to get children active – are they not working? Latest estimates predict that by 2030 almost half the adult population will be obese. Recently, the CEO of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) wrote in the Washington Post about their latest report and the future impact of obesity on our economy. She noted the decline of productivity and increasing health care costs associated with obesity. While we often think about fast food, inactivity, and individual choices related to being obese, how often do we consider the economic causes and effects?
Obesity is Not a Choice
I have never met anyone who said that they specifically chose to suffer the health effects of being obese because they thought it would be a great way to live. However, beyond personal choices, obesity can be correlated with a number of social and environmental factors, namely: poverty, urban areas, as well as minority and low-income populations.
Just as individuals cannot choose their parents, they also cannot choose their life circumstances, which unfortunately can sometimes hinder efforts to live a healthier lifestyle. Research has shown that rising rates of obesity disproportionately affect Black and Hispanic populations. This demonstrates a confluence of factors with roots in racially motivated housing policies, lack of social mobility due to historical discrimination, and the absence of adequate health services for these communities.
Impoverished communities are filled with companies looking to take advantage of the marketplace of poverty. Dollar menus, frozen dinners, and corner store snacks – not to mention the advertising which helps build a psychological belief that it is quicker and cheaper to eat unhealthy foods.
In short, obesity is just as much an economic reality as it is a need for healthier lifestyles. It represents a by-product of mass producing foods to reduce costs and increase profits. People do not choose to live in poverty nor do they choose to be obese. Economic constraints on top of fast food advertising drives a culture of unhealthy eating.
Tax the Fat
The debates have raged about recent plans to tax the size of soda pop in New York City or in other countries the tax on fatty foods. There is a growing field of research on behavioral economics, which argues that people will choose the option that is most beneficial to themselves.
This is, however, not always true. People do not always make the most rational decision especially when it comes to their food and eating habits. Increasing the economic burden on people who typically choose unhealthy foods is not necessarily the best option. If a tax is placed on high-calorie or high fat foods it allows the food and beverage companies to continue avoiding responsibility. It isn’t about personal freedom, it is about being able to compete in a marketplace where the cards are constantly stacked against the poor.
Food and beverage companies will still find a cheap way to produce their products that works around any tax or restrictive policy. These companies have a primary goal to make a profit. If making that profit means burdening the population with unhealthy foods and the long-term health effects, they have no qualms. This is where people generally argue that it is about personal choice. This is partly true, but also relates to my first argument that you can’t always choose your life circumstances. All around the world now people are struggling with obesity and healthy eating. Food and beverage corporations are able to take advantage of global income and food disparities to generate their profits.
Behaviors Always Win
Using a “fat tax” to increase the economic difficulty of buying unhealthy food is doing no good when there is a psychological war on TV and advertising campaigns.
“It’s the behavior stupid!”
We can talk all day about the responsibilities that corporations have to give people healthy foods as well as the responsibility of individuals to keep themselves healthy, but in the end it all comes down to behavior. When I say behavior I’m talking about the eating habits that people have learned since their childhood, the behavior influenced by the food commercials seen on TV, the behavior informed by the massive portion-sized, “give me what I paid for” food culture.
When we are constantly bombarded by images of juicy burgers, steaming pizzas, and actors telling us how amazing it is to get quick, cheap food – we will eventually believe it. Food and beverage companies employ their own teams of psychologists to be able to manipulate their advertising to be the most convincing. These companies have found out the best ways to exploit the disparities that people face in order to get more people to buy their unhealthy foods. Don’t have time to make dinner? Bring your kid through the drive-through. Buying groceries on a budget? Get 3 for $5 cases of pop or 2 for $5 bags of potato chips.
When it all comes down to what will or won’t work, people need to understand what they are up against, they need to be informed on what foods will benefit their health, and they also need to be able to have the tools to make healthy lifestyle changes. While many food companies watch their profits grow, many individuals watch their weight grow due to their own economic disparities. Helping people address these learned behaviors and economic barriers will help to reduce health care spending and increase the productivity of our economy. | <urn:uuid:772fd6f6-cd1f-46d4-ba5a-4bb4134e9615> | {
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Walking down a New York City street, the last thing you might expect is for a torpedo to come barreling down at you from atop the Empire State Building. Yet as you absentmindedly watch the pigeons peck away at someone's discarded tuna on rye, an oncoming streak of gray and white barely gives you enough time to take cover under a nearby bench. The pecking pigeons aren't so lucky, and the torpedo, which now appears to have a beak and talons, flies off to a nearby skyscraper, pigeon in tow, to enjoy its snack.
By now you probably realize that the flash of feathers was one of the peregrine falcons that now call bustling cities like New York home. Mistaking these birds for quick-moving torpedoes is an easy one to make, though, considering that the once endangered birds can reach speeds in excess of 200 mph (320 kph) when they dive for prey [source: Cornell Lab of Ornithology]. These guys could give Dale Earnhardt Jr. a run for his money, no pit stops needed.
When many people are asked to name the world's fastest animal, they immediately think of the cheetah. But if they were to look up at the sky, they'd find an aerial acrobat that can achieve speeds more than three times as fast. With their powerful chest muscles, long wingspan and streamlined shape, peregrine falcons are truly built for speed -- NASCAR couldn't have designed them any better.
Found on every continent except Antarctica, peregrine falcons are the most widespread bird in the world, absent only on isolated islands and in high mountains, expansive deserts and jungles. Although it may be difficult to spot one sitting still, you can identify them by their bluish-gray backs and similarly colored long, pointed wings, as well as the white and black spots on their bellies. They also have black stripes set against their whitish faces, which resemble mustaches.
As fast as they are, peregrine falcons could barely outrun (or outfly) the dangers of Dichloro-diphenyl-trichlorethane (DDT). Beginning in the 1940s and lasting through the early '70s, the entire American peregrine falcon population experienced drastic declines due to the widespread use of this deadly pesticide, which caused their eggshells to weaken and break and led baby peregrine falcons to die before hatching. By 1975, only 324 known nesting pairs, or mating couples, were left. Thanks to some fast action and the Endangered Species Act, the peregrines are speeding back to health and their numbers now stand at about 2,000 to 3,000 breeding pairs [source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]. | <urn:uuid:8f1b8c13-9a4a-450a-8576-c401f41f3caa> | {
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If you've seen 1974's "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre," then you remember the scene: Two oblivious teens approach a country home accompanied by the distant rumble of a gas generator. You know the name of the picture. They know Leatherface is around there somewhere, just itching to jump out with murder saw a'buzzing.
The situation's much the same for fish, most of whom live their lives under the constant threat of predation — not by cannibal Texans, but by a vast ecosystem of flesh-hungry marine life. According to a new study from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University, fish, like many a cinematic chainsaw victim, grow more stressed amid the cacophony of motorboat noise. They even freeze up, allowing their adversaries to swim in for the kill.
The doomed "Chainsaw" teenagers, being teens in a horror film, basically have it coming. But you can't say the same for the average fish. Their natural habitat is dangerous enough without the complication of human-generated noise pollution.
The international team of researchers employed recordings and actual boat noise in their study, observing how Ambon damselfish (yes, that's the poor victim's common name) reacted to dusky dottyback attacks amid the sonic commotion. Stressed and distracted by the motorboat sounds, the damselfish were six times less likely to startle when attacked.
The researchers note that while climate change poses a greater threat to coral reef environments, noise pollution could be addressed more easily through the use of quieter engine technologies and marine quiet zones, particularly for sensitive areas or during times when already vulnerable juveniles are abundant.
In the meantime, think about the poor Ambon damselfish the next time you tear up the waves on your supped-up personal watercraft — and don't be a Leatherface. | <urn:uuid:b2db2711-561a-4132-a605-3c694fe1db5e> | {
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As You Sow initiated enforcement actions against many national manufacturers, lessors, and distributors of portable classrooms to address indoor air emissions of formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds from construction materials that required a warning under Proposition 65.
In 2001, over a dozen national companies reached an agreement with As You Sow that included commitments to begin using alternative building materials that result in exposure to fewer toxic substances such as engineered wood products, adhesives, caulks, tapes, mastics, and glues.
The manufacturers also agreed to provide ventilation in the sub-roof areas on all portable classroom and modular building products ordered for manufacture after July 1, 2001, and to issue advisories regarding the availability of alternative materials and the advisability of properly ventilating the buildings upon installation and prior to occupancy. The settlement ensures that California’s modular buildings are now constructed with more environmentally friendly building materials and will reduce the use of exposures to formaldehyde and other toxic compounds.
Subsequently, the California Air Resources Board and the Department of Health Services conducted a comprehensive study of portable classrooms throughout California. The study examined not only volatile organic compounds and other Proposition 65 chemicals, but also their overall environmental health conditions including issues relating to mold contamination, adequate ventilation, temperature control and application of pesticides. A final report entitled “Environmental Health Conditions in California’s Portable Classrooms” was provided to the California State Legislature in November 2004. | <urn:uuid:44401298-f203-44cb-bad3-659c73391e22> | {
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The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır is the oldest and one of the most
significant mosques in Anatolia. Following the Muslim capture of Diyarbakır in
639, a church in the city was used in part as a mosque. According to an
inscription in situ, Seljuk sultan Malikshah directed the local governor to rebuild the mosque in the year 1091/484 AH. Natural disasters and the building campaigns of
later rulers resulted in numerous changes to the mosque and led to its current
The Diyarbakır Mosque consists of a rectangular courtyard
measuring 63 x 30 meters, bound on the east and west sides by a single-aisled
portico, on the north by an agglomeration of buildings of later date, and on
the south by a long and narrow prayer hall. The main entrance to the mosque is through a monumental portal on its east side. Today a large public square paved with stone adjoins the portal. The portal itself consists of a large two-story block with an arched iwan-like space at its center through which visitors enter.
Passing through the portal leads visitors onto the courtyard’s east portico. The east and west courtyard
facades are both two stories high and ornately decorated with stone carving. The north facade only rises one story. The prayer hall facade (south facade) is divided into three sections that reflect its internal organization: two lateral arms one story high are broken in the center by a section that rises to more than twice the height of the arms and is surmounted by a gable. Doorways surmounted by large lunettes, now filled with glass, puncture the facade of the prayer hall's lateral arms, and inscription bands detailing the date of their construction run above these under the eves of the roof. The prayer hall as it stands today is the result of several building campaigns. According to the inscription band on its facade, the east arm was completed in 1091/484 and the west arm completed some decades later. The central gabled portion is a newer structure, possibly Ottoman, although it likely replaces an older structure of a similar form.1
The interior of the prayer hall comprises a wide central nave housed under the gabled section flanked by two lateral wings
three aisles deep (from courtyard to qibla wall) and five bays long (from
central nave to lateral walls). A pitched roof, running perpendicular to that of the nave, covers the lateral arms.
Several features of the Diyarbakır mosque bear an unmistakable
resemblance to the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, constructed in 715/97 AH. The
proportions of the courtyard and prayer hall, the eastern entrance, and the
plan of the prayer hall with its central nave and lateral arms, are all
conspicuous aspects of the Damascus mosque.2 The status of the Damascus mosque
as one of the earliest mosques of Islam made it culturally significant
throughout the Islamic world, spurring a number of imitations.
A fire and earthquake in 1115/509 AH occasioned renovations to the
mosque. Inscriptions dated 1117-1118/511 AH and 1124/518 AH on the west side of
the courtyard, and an inscription dated 1162/557 AH on the east side indicate
the dates of several of these renovations.
In addition to local basalt blocks, parts of Byzantine buildings
were reused to construct the mosque. Antique columns and capitals, friezes with
vine scroll ornament, and fragments of Greek inscriptions show the use of
spolia on the courtyard facades.
Later additions to the mosque occupy the north side of the courtyard.
Occupying the west end is a small, three-aisled prayer hall known as Şafi Kısmı
as it was reserved for followers of the Shafi’ite school of Islamic law. Across
an uncovered walkway that opens onto the center of the north side of the
courtyard is a portico that leads onto a madrasa known as Mesudiye Medresesi. It
was constructed during the last decade of the twelfth/sixth century AH and
first decade of the thirteenth/seventh century AH.
An octagonal ablutions fountain covered by a pyramidal roof
occupies the center of the courtyard. This feature was constructed in 1890.
Sinclair, Eastern Turkey, 178.
For Damascus Mosque and its impact see Ernst Herzfeld, "Damascus: Studies in Architecture IV," Ars Orientalis 13-14 (1948): 118-138.
Akurgal, Ekrem, and Léo Hilber. The Art and architecture of Turkey. New York: Rizzoli, 1980.
Aslanapa, Oktay. Turkish art and architecture. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971. | <urn:uuid:1467e454-b16f-4288-a0ae-160cabb79b44> | {
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A variety of models exist to help ensure that all the useful information is in your paperwork by the time it's finalised & to ensure that it's clear and concise...
You may find varying suggestions for what to consider in what is usually referred to as your 'scene assessment' (Harris, 2016: 1; Pilbery & Lethbridge, 2016: 126) or 'end of bed [...] assessment' (Spurr, 2014). This is a cheat sheet to assist you in identifying these important factors.
The relief pressure dial on the ventilator ensures that the pressure of ventilation is not so high that it causes problems but allows it to be high enough to help ensure that the patient actually is ventilated. Read more...
Positive pressure refers to the way artificial ventilation ‘inflate[s] the lungs’ (Hess & Kacmarek, 2014). ‘Normal breathing depends on drawing in air to the lungs by creating a partial vacuum […]
We tend to consider acid reflux as one of the differential diagnoses of chest pain. We, or the patient's GP might advise them to alter their acidic diet. We might even suggest they take their own gaviscon if it's available. But the patient might be suffering from too low acid, not too high. And gaviscon and omemprazole might worsen their symptoms. This is a guest post written by Paul Burgess of Athletic Nutrition (athleticnutrition.tv).
Negative pressure breathing is how we breathe normally, without the aid of bag-valve-masks or mechanical ventilators. This article describes the process and begins a series on breathing and ventilator mechanics.
A reminder to emphasise the importance of history taking
An interesting & somewhat heartbreaking statistic concerning children in the UK. | <urn:uuid:744d009b-38a6-4bc3-8458-47de8752d244> | {
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- Subject: Madhubani Painting
- Paint Material: Opaque dye & watercolors
- Base Material: Handmade Paper (unframed)
- Size: 15 in. X 5.5 in. (38 cms X 14 cms)
- Age: Modern Handmade Art
- Country of origin: India
- Free Shipping Worldwide & No hassle return
This painting is an exquisite work of Madhubani art featuring the Hindu deity Ardhanarishvara surrounded by a colorful design & border.
Ardhanarishvara is a composite form of the Hindu god Shiva and his consort Parvati. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half male and half female, split down the middle. The right half is usually the male Shiva, illustrating his traditional attributes. Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe and illustrates how Shakti, the female principle of God, is inseparable from Shiva, the male principle of God. The union of these principles is exalted as the root and womb of all creation.
Madhubani painting or Mithila painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state, India and the adjoining parts of Terai in Nepal. Paintings are characterized by eye-catching geometrical patterns and celebrate a harmony of man with God & nature.
An unique Indian folk artwork for your decor or collection. Buy this Madhubani painting today. | <urn:uuid:b31c0da1-1bf6-40b8-bc2e-bbb37305da89> | {
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I start the class by having my students sit in a circle on the carpet. I want to focus on finding the complement of 20 when given a number. My next unit, will focus on complements of 20 and fluency with them, so this activity allows students to start thinking about combinations to 20 and allows me to informally see where students are with this concept.
I included a video, How Many to 20, that models how to play this game and the types of questions you could ask.
To make these 20 sticks, I used beads from the dollar store and barbecue skewers. I glue round wooden balls at the end to seal the skewers.
I start by asking the students to make a circle on the carpet.
"We will count around the group to find the number of eyes in the whole class. When it is your turn you can either say the next 2s number or if you need you can do the whisper shout count. Remember, this is where you whisper the first number (for the first eye) and say the 2nd number aloud."
I repeat this activity several times but starting with different students each round. I want to them to see that it doesn't matter where we start, the total number will always be the same.
"Does it matter what student we start with? Will we always get the same number? What if we counted knees or elbows? Would the total number still be the same? Why?"
The video, "Will It Still Be the Same?.m4v," captures a student's thinking about these questions.
I then turn the discussion to the idea of groups of 4.
"We just talked about body parts that come in groups of 2. I now want to switch our thinking and move away from our body. I want to focus on the number four. Can anyone think of anything that comes in groups of 4?"
There is a picture of the Things That Come In Fours chart that we created.
"Today you are going to work on problems that deal with the number of tires on a car."
The opening activity and the preview for the activities that include items that are grouped by 4s allow the students to relate counting to addition by adding two or four for every 2s or 4s count (CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.1.OA.C.5).
"I am going to ask that you solve the Toy Car problems. I will read the first one to you and then ask you to get to work. Remember to show your thinking and represent your work with an equation."
The How Many problem is meant to challenge students who need it. In this case the problems are giving the students the total number of wheels and then asking them to figure out how many cars would be represented.
These tasks have students using addition within 20 to solve word problems involving situations of adding to, putting together, and comparing by identifying groups and then combining the groups to find a total (CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.1.OA.A.1) and solving problems that call for addition of three whole numbers whose sum is less than or equal to 20 (CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.1.OA.A.2).
The CCSS expect students to solve story problems by explaining to themselves the meaning of a problem and looking for entry points to its solution (CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP1). In this case the students are trying to decipher how many groups of 4 would be represented for each car.
Once the students are finished the problems, I gather them back to the carpet for a discussion about the first task.
"I would like you to help me model the 1st problem with cubes."
I lay out 4 cubes for each car (Representing 4 Cars With Cubes.png), and then lead a discussion about who saw the tires as 2 front plus 2 back for each car and then added 2+2 eight times. I will also have those who saw it as 4+4+4+4. I will then ask for others to share how they solved the problem. This way those who might have added all 1s can share their approach too.
As students share their strategies, you should record their approach on a piece of chart paper.
During this discussion, the students are analyzing each approach and recognize and use counterexamples. They are justifying their conclusions, communicating them to others, and responding to the arguments of others (CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP3).
I have included a variety of approaches that represent the thinking of my students.
After the discussion, I want to see if students can apply the discussion concepts into action. You will need to make enough "Use the Clues.docx" copies for your whole class.
"I want you to think about the strategies that we just discussed and models with the cubes. I would like each of you to work on your own on this sheet. I want you to show me how you are adding groups in each situation."
This tasks allows students to identify and use repeated reasoning with the repeated addition of groups of 2s and 4s (CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP8)
I will ask the students to meet me on the carpet and hand out their sheet for today's Mad Minute exercise. This routine was introduced in a previous lesson. Please check out the link to get a full overview of this routine.
I want to really focus on fact fluency and build upon the students ability to solve within ten fluently (CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.1.OA.C.6). I am going to use the Mad Minute Routine. This is a very "old school" routine, but I truly feel students need practice in performing task for fluency in a timed fashion. Students need to obtain fact fluency in order to have success with multiplicative reasoning. Students who don't gain this addition fact fluency by the end of 2nd grade tend to struggle with the multiplicative reasoning in third. Having this fluency also allows them to work on more complex tasks because the have the fact recall to focus on the higher level concepts. | <urn:uuid:1e6d1108-abb0-4c5b-ae92-0a669ce33e07> | {
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[Image courtesy of Lofty Dreams 101.]
Writing about The Maze of Games Kickstarter last week got me thinking about labyrinths and mazes, so naturally, my thoughts turned to the ultimate maze builder: Daedalus.
Stories about Daedalus are inconsistent — his workshop was variously attributed to Crete, Sicily, or Athens, and even when he lived is up for debate — but his reputation as the premiere craftsman of his day is unparalleled.
His most famous creation was the Cretan Labyrinth, an enormous baffling maze with a roof, so there could be no assistance or solving from above. The Minotaur, a hulking creature with the body of a man and the head of a bull, was imprisoned inside it by King Minos.
[Image courtesy of Medium.com.]
It would fall to the Athenian hero Theseus to navigate the Labyrinth and slay the Minotaur in order to stop periodic sacrifices of young men and women from Athens to the monster. Theseus did so thanks to a magic ball of wool given to him by the daughter of King Minos, Ariadne. By tying one end of the wool string to the entrance of the Labyrinth — and following instructions given to him by Ariadne — he would be able to find his way back.
(As it turns out, this technique would also prove useful for solving a riddle later in Daedalus’s life, but we’ll get to that in a little bit.)
Theseus bested the Minotaur in a fierce battle, saving the potential sacrificees and ending Minos’s reign of terror over the Athenian people.
But who gave Ariadne the wool and the instructions on how to navigate the Labyrinth? Daedalus, of course.
For his betrayal, Minos imprisoned Daedalus and his son Icarus in the Labyrinth.
[Image courtesy of Fine Art America.]
We all know this part of the story. Daedalus fashions wings for himself and Icarus, and they fly off to escape. Unfortunately, Icarus ventures too close to the sun, melting the wax holding his wings together, and he plummets into the sea.
Daedalus, heartbroken, continues his flight, eventually finding himself in Camicus, Sicily, a land ruled by King Cocalus. Cocalus welcomed Daedalus and promised him protection from the vengeful King Minos.
During his time serving King Cocalus, Daedalus was credited with creating other, less famous wonders, like a perfect honeycomb made of gold, and self-moving “living” statues, and a fortified citadel for Cocalus that was so well designed, three or four men could hold off an invading army.
Naturally, King Minos was still hunting the fugitive inventor, and he devised a puzzly scheme to expose Daedalus wherever he was hiding.
[Image courtesy of Baburek.]
As he traveled around pursuing Daedalus, Minos would bring a large spiral seashell with him, challenging any clever people he encountered to thread a string through its many interconnected chambers. If they could do so, he would pay them a hefty reward.
Hmmm… threading a string though a convoluted maze of chambers. That sounds familiar, doesn’t it?
Minos’s travels brought him to Sicily, and King Cocalus wanted that reward money, so he brought the seashell to Daedalus in secret.
Daedalus drilled a small hole at the top of the shell, and placed a drop of honey at the mouth of the shell. He then glued a thread to an ant and placed it in the hole. As the ant explored the interior of the seashell, hunting for that tempting drop of honey at the end of the maze — like cheese to a lab rat — it towed the string through the shell. Eventually, the little ant completed the task, and Cocalus returned the solved puzzle to Minos.
Naturally, Minos demanded that Cocalus turn over Daedalus — the only person who could’ve possibly solved the seashell puzzle — and Cocalus agreed.
Of course, Cocalus instead had his daughters murder Minos in a hot spring instead. As you do, when you’ve been denied the puzzly prize money you were promised.
So, if you’re ever confronted with a maze — of corn, of wood, or lurking inside a book — make sure you’ve got a ball of yarn or wool with you. And possibly an ant as well.
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You can also share your pictures with us on Instagram, friend us on Facebook, check us out on Twitter, Pinterest, and Tumblr, and explore the always-expanding library of PuzzleNation apps and games on our website! | <urn:uuid:fe70023c-e7f1-4031-bf5e-f31554bc5e24> | {
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-Written by Erik Sargent
Summertime means spending time outside in the sun, doing everything from going to the beach, to swimming, grilling, and relaxing. It’s a wonderful time of year, but despite the nice weather and increased fun, one sad reality often goes under the radar – road safety.
While most people would assume that driving during the winter months with snow and bad weather would be the worst time, it’s actually the warm summer months that create the most hazardous driving conditions for the average person. This can be attributed to many factors, and it’s important to realize the risk of summertime driving.
“Summer is the most hazardous time of year for driving,” said Russ Rader, senior vice president of communications for the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. “July and August are the deadliest months, with an average of 116 people killed on the roads every day during this time frame.”
Rader and the IIHS are a nonprofit highway safety research organization funded entirely by automobile insurance companies. Their goal is to do conduct research on driving habits, road conditions, and vehicle safety to assist in their mission of finding ways to reduce crashes and make the roads safer.
“Risks are the same all year round, but the problem with the summer months is there are a lot more vehicles on the road, and people driving more hazardous miles,” Rader said. “By that, I mean driving in the summer for vacations and recreations, sometimes on unfamiliar roads or driving on the weekends. This kind of driving is more dangerous than the daily commute to and from work.”
According to the nationally recognized insurance company ESURANCE, the factors that can increase the dangers of driving during the summertime include more teens being on the road, drivers congesting the roads with vacation trips, roadway construction, and more vehicles and motorcycles being on the roads.
Another unfortunate factor that comes into play with summer driving is the amount of people driving under the influence of alcohol.
The popular automotive site, Cars.com, conducted research in 2014 that showed there were 10,322 alcohol-impaired driving crashes in the summer of 2012, with one drunk-driving fatality occurring every 51 minutes. Similarly with nighttime driving, 35% of fatal nighttime crashes were related to alcohol.
Not getting behind the wheel drunk is just one of many steps that need to be taken by civilians in order to improve the safety of the roads in the summer.
“If everybody buckled up, if everybody obeyed traffic laws like speed limits, and if nobody got behind the wheel drunk, the summer of summer deaths in crashes would be substantially lower,” Rader said. “We see the same patterns over and over in the crashes that happen during the summer. They often involve speeding, drunk driving, and occupants not wearing their safety belts.”
With the increased number of commercial vehicles roaming the roads and highways in big cities, it’s important companies hire safe drivers and make sure they are doing their part to also keep the roadways safe for the public. One company that makes sure it not only finds the best drivers, but also awards them for it, is the international moving company TWO MEN AND A TRUCK®.
As it currently stands, TWO MEN AND A TRUCK® has more than 2,800 trucks on the road throughout their system, with their coverage spanning across 350 plus locations in the United States alone. That’s a lot of miles covered, and it’s important to have the best drivers behind the wheel. TWO MEN AND A TRUCK® makes sure to recognize the best drivers in the system with their Safe Driver Award, which is earned by the best drivers in the system.
“TWO MEN AND A TRUCK® recognizes the responsibility drivers carry every time they get behind the wheel,” said TWO MEN AND A TRUCK® Risk Management Support Team Lead Shawn Smith. “For that reason, we are pleased to reward those individuals who make it a priority to keep themselves and the public safe.”
Key areas of criteria the company looks for when handing out the award include no preventable accidents, no violations in personal or company vehicles, no driving under the influence convictions for three years, and no “How’s My Driving” complaints.
“The Safe Driver Award was developed to recognize and reward drivers throughout the system who have made a noticeable commitment to keeping themselves, their teammates, and the public safe every time they get behind the wheel,” Smith said.
With populations continuing to increase globally, the economy shifting upward, and the ever-changing landscape of technology, the risk of driving in the summer – and year round – will continue to be prevalent. While there’s way eliminate the risks of the road, you can prevent a lot of trouble by making smart choices.
Making sure you are healthy, making sure you are alert, using the proper safety precautions, and following the rules of the road are just a few things you can do to make sure you’re doing your part in keeping yourself and others safe while driving.
“It’s important to for people to recognize that while crashes during the summer tend to be the most hazardous, crashes happen relentlessly all year round,” Rader said. “People need to take precautions to make sure they are always safe on the road.” | <urn:uuid:21f00561-5cb1-4ff0-a40c-9343945e788a> | {
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Russian opera was under strict scrutiny in the 30’s. Ideas, people, subjects, or traditions that went against the Soviets were not tolerated in 1936. Cultural norms were not to be violated. Once they were, it could potentially have life-threatening ramifications. Two composers faced accusations of violating cultural norms. This was especially dangerous because of the “Great Purges” were occurring throughout Russia. Lenin wished to destroy any person that posed a threat to the Soviets. Therefore, any person that was labeled as an “enemy of the people” was arrested and possibly executed.
Dmitrii Shostakovich was a Russian composer during the time of the “Great Purges”. He was accused of violating cultural norms in 1936 at the young age of 29. He had been praised for his wonderful work prior to the accusations. The opera “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk” was a controversial piece of work. It pushed the boundaries of what was acceptable socially and boldly stepped past those lines. Many loved the opera, though some did not believe it to be acceptable. Most notably of those people was Stalin himself, who stormed out of the opera. A newspaper editorial appeared later in the week accusing Shostakovich of violating cultural norms.
Another notable Russian composer was Semian Bednyi. Bednyi was a different kind of composer than Shostakovich. He loved satire, and used it as a weapon. His opera ‘Ancient Heroes’ was a satire of the first Russian national heroes. He mocked the men, and made them into drunken idiots.He had been hugely popular for his previous work. However, he was condemned for this opera.
Music that was even slightly controversial was shunned during this time period. The population was terrified of having an accusation being made that condemned them as an “enemy of the state”. The Soviets had an incredible amount of power, and this affected cultural and social dynamics. They had the power to arrest and execute anyone that did not conform to social norms. For that reason, musical modernism did not appear until much later in history.
Image: Grigori Chudakov, Olga Suslova, and Lilya Ukhtomskaya, eds.: Pioneers of Soviet photography. New York: Thames and Hudson. 1983.
Freeze, Gregory. (2009). Russia, A History. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. | <urn:uuid:d7ffefba-1e27-464b-bf33-846c8fc99ccf> | {
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What is Scientific Racism? Scientific Racism is the use of ostensibly scientific or pseudo-scientific techniques and hypotheses to support or justify the belief in racism, racial inferiority, racialism, racial superiority, or alternatively the practice of classifying individuals of different phenotypes into discrete races.
Scientific racism was common during the New Imperialism period (c. 1880s-1914) where it was used in justifying White European imperialism.
An early scientist who studied race was Robert Boyle (January 25, 1627 – December 21, 1691) was an Anglo-Irish, natural philosopher, chemist, and physicist. Boyle believed in what today is called ‘monogenism’, the theory that all humans begins, no matter the race or how diverse, are descended from a single pair of ancestors. Adam and Eve. Boyle reported stories of parents’ giving birth to different colored child, what we call today ‘albinos’, he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally white and Caucasians could give birth to different colored races. Boyle writings also mention that at his time, for “European Eyes”, beauty was not measured so much in color, but in “stature, comely symmetry of the parts of the body, and good features in the face.” Various members of the scientific community rejected his views and described them as “disturbing” and “amusing”.
Voltaire born François-Marie Arouet (November 21, 1694 – May 30, 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. He was also a polygene, one who believed that each race had separate origins. Voltaire found biblical monogenism laughable, as he expressed: “It is a serious question among them whether the Africans are descended from monkeys or whether the monkey’s came from them. Our wise men have said that man was created in the image of GOD. Now her is a lovely image of Divine Maker: a flat and black nose with little or hardly any intelligence. A time will doubtless come when these animals will know how to cultivate the land well, beautify their homes and gardens, and know the paths of the stars: one needs time for everything.” When comparing Caucasians to Negros, Voltaire compared them to different breeds of dog: “The Negro race is a species of men different from ours as the breed of spaniels is from that of greyhounds. The mucous membrane, or network, which Nature has spread between the muscles and the skin, is white in us and black or copper-colored in them.”
Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696 – December 27, 1784) was a Scottish advocate, judge, philosopher, writer, and agricultural improver. Lord Kames believed GOD had created different races on Earth in separated regions. In his 1734 book Sketches on the History of Man, he claimed that the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks.
Carl Von Linnaeus (May 23,1707 – January 10, 1778) was a Swedish botanist (plant scientist), physician, and zoologist (animal biology). Linnaeus was a pioneer researcher in biologically defining human race. He labeled five categories of the human species. Each one was described as possessing the following characteristics “Varying by Culture and Place”.
- The Americanus (American): red, choleric, righteous; black, straight, thick hair; stubborn, Zealous, free; painting himself in red lines, and regulated by customs.
- The Europeanus (European): white, sanguine, browny; with abundant, long hair; blue eyes; gentle, acute, inventive; covered with close vestments; and regulated by customs.
- The Asiaticus (Asian): yellow, melancholic, stiff; black hair, dark eyes; severe, haughty, greedy; covered with loose clothing; and regulated by opinions.
- The Afer or Africanus (African): black, phlegmatic, relaxed; black, frizzled hair; silky skin, flat nose, tumid lips, females without shame; mammary glands give milk abundantly; crafty, sly, careless; anoints himself with grease; and regulated by will.
John Mitchell (April 13, 1711 – February 29,1768) was a colonial American physician, geographer, and botanist (plant scientist). Mitchell took up a study of climate and race and wrote a book in 1744 called An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People in Different Climates. In his book he made claims that the first race on Earth had been brown and reddish color. He said “that an intermediate tawny colour found amongst Asiatics and Native Amerindians” had been the “original complexion of mankind” and that other races came about by the original race spending generations in different climates.
Immanuel Kant (April 22,1724 – February 12, 1804) was a German philosopher, who was considered the central figure of modern philosophy. In 1775, Kant published On the Different Races of Man (Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen), which proposed natural or purposive causes of variation, as opposed to mechanical law or a product of chance. He distinguished four fundamental races: Whites, Blacks, Kalmuck, and Hindustanic, and attributed the variation to differences in environment and climate, such as the air and sun, but clarified by saying that the variation served a purpose and was not purely superficial. Kant argued that human beings were equipped with the same seeds (Keime) and the natural predispositions or characteristics (Anlagen) that when expressed were dependent upon climate and served a purpose due to the circumstance. After this process had occurred, it was also irreversible. Therefore, race could not be undone by changes in climate. “Whichever germ was actualized by the conditions, the other germs would retire into inactivity.” Kant stated: “The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.”
John Hunter (February 13, 1728 – October 16, 1793) was a Scottish surgeon, one of the most distinguished scientists and surgeons of his day. Hunter said that originally the Negroid race was white at birth. He thought that over time because of the sun, the people turned dark skinned, or “black”. Hunter also said that blisters and burns would likely turn white on a Negro, which he believed was evidence that their ancestors were originally White.
Charles White (October 4, 1728 – February 20, 1813) was an English physician and the co-founder of the Manchester Royal Infirmary (cottage hospital). White believed that races occupied different stations in the “Great Chain of Being”, and he tried to scientifically prove that human races have distinct origins from each other. He believed that Whites and Negroes were two different species. White was a believer in polygenism, the idea that different races had been created separately. His Account of the Regular Gradation in Man (1799) provided an empirical basis for this idea. White pointed to species hybrids such as foxes, wolves, and jackals, which were separate groups that were still able to interbreed. For White, each race was a separate species, divinely created for its own geographical region.
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (September 7, 1707 – April 16, 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopedia author. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (May 11, 1752 – January 22, 1840) was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist. He was one of the first to explore the study of mankind as an aspect of natural history. Both Buffon and Blumenbach were believers in monogenism, the concept that all races have a single origin. They also believe in the “degeneration theory” of racial origins. They both said the Adam and Eve were Caucasian and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors, such as the sun and poor dieting. They believed that the degeneration could be reversed if proper environmental control was take, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race. They thought Negroid pigmentation arose because of the heat of the tropical sun. They suggested cold wind caused the tawny colour of the Eskimo. They thought the Chinese relatively fair skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns and were protected from environmental factors. Buffon said that food and the mode of living could make races degenerate and differentiate them from the original Caucasian race. According to Blumenbach, there are five races, all belonging to a single species: Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. Blumenbach said: “I have allotted the first place to the Caucasian because this stock displays the most beautiful race of men.” Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon believed humanity was only 6000 years old (the time since Adam). Many scientific racialists pointed out at the time that it would have been difficult for races to change so markedly in genotype and phenotype in such a short period of time. Believing in monogenism, Buffon thought that skin colour could change in a single lifetime, depending on the conditions of climate and diet.
Benjamin Rush (December 24, 1745 – April 19, 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States, also was a civic leader in Philadelphia, where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, educator, and humanitarian, as well as the founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Rush purposed that being black was a hereditary skin disease, which he called “negroidism,” and that it could be cured. He believed non-whites were really white underneath but they were stricken with a non-contagious form of leprosy which darkened their skin color. Rush drew the conclusion that “Whites should not tyrannize over [blacks], for their disease should entitle them to a double portion of humanity. However, by the same token, whites should not intermarry with them, for this would tend to infect posterity with the ‘disorder’… attempts must be made to cure the disease.”
Christoph Meiners (July 31, 1747 – May 1, 1810) was a German philosopher and historian. Meiners believed that each race had a separate origin. Meiners studied the physical, mental and moral characteristics of each race, and built a race hierarchy based on his findings. Meiners split mankind into two divisions, which he labelled the “beautiful White race” and the “ugly Black race”. In Meiners’s book The Outline of History of Mankind, he said that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He thought only the White race to be beautiful. He considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral and animal-like. He said that the dark, ugly peoples were distinct from the white, beautiful peoples by their “sad” lack of virtue and their “terrible vices”. According to Meiners,
The more intelligent and noble people are by nature, the more adaptable, sensitive, delicate, and soft is their body; on the other hand, the less they possess the capacity and disposition towards virtue, the more they lack adaptability; and not only that, but the less sensitive are their bodies, the more can they tolerate extreme pain or the rapid alteration of heat and cold; when they are exposed to illnesses, the more rapid their recovery from wounds that would be fatal for more sensitive peoples, and the more they can partake of the worst and most indigestible foods … without noticeable ill effects. Meiners said the Negro felt less pain than any other race and lacked in emotions. Meiners wrote that the Negro had thick nerves and thus was not sensitive like the other races. He went as far as to say that the Negro has “no human, barely any animal, feeling”. He described a story where a Negro was condemned to death by being burned alive. Halfway through the burning, the Negro asked to smoke a pipe and smoked it like nothing was happening while he continued to be burned alive. Meiners studied the anatomy of the Negro and came to the conclusion that the Negro have bigger teeth and jaws than any other race, as Negroes are all carnivores. Meiners claimed the skull of the Negro was larger but the brain of the Negro was smaller than any other race. Meiners claimed the Negro was the most unhealthy race on Earth because of its poor diet, mode of living and lack of morals. Meiners also claimed the “Americans” were an inferior stock of people. He said they could not adapt to different climates, types of food, or modes of life, and that when exposed to such new conditions, they lapse into a “deadly melancholy”. Meiners studied the diet of the Americans and said they fed off any kind of “foul offal”. He thought they consumed very much alcohol. He believed their skulls were so thick that the blades of Spanish swords shattered on them. Meiners also claimed the skin of an American is thicker than that of an ox. Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts. They were able to conquer various parts of the world, they were more sensitive to heat and cold, and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed that Slavs are an inferior race, “less sensitive and content with eating rough food”. He described stories of Slavs allegedly eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm. He claimed that their medical techniques were also backward: he used as an example their heating sick people in ovens, then making them roll in the snow. In Meiners’s large work entitled Researches on the Variations in Human Nature (1815), he studied also the sexology of each race. He claimed that the African Negroids have unduly strong and perverted sex drives, whilst only the White Europeans have it just right.
Samuel Stanhope Smith (March 15, 1751 – August 21, 1819) was a Presbyterian minister, founding president of Hampden-Sydney College and the seventh president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) from 1795 to 1812. Smith written a book called Essay on the Causes of Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species in 1787. Smith claimed that Negro pigmentation was nothing more than a huge freckle that covered the whole body as a result of an oversupply of bile, which was caused by tropical climates.
Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier (August 23, 1769 – May 13, 1832), known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the “Father of paleontology”. Cuvier was a major figure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century and was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing living animals with fossils. Cuvier believed there were three distinct races: the Caucasian (white), Mongolian (yellow) and the Ethiopian (black). He rated each for the beauty or ugliness of the skull and quality of their civilizations. Cuvier wrote about Caucasians: “The white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilized people of Europe belong and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by its genius, courage and activity.” Regarding Negros, Cuvier wrote: “The Negro race … is marked by black complexion, crisped or woolly hair, compressed cranium and a flat nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips, evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the most complete state of barbarism.” He thought Adam and Eve were Caucasian and hence the original race of mankind. The other two races arose by survivors’ escaping in different directions after a major catastrophe hit the earth 5,000 years ago. He theorized that the survivors lived in complete isolation from each other and developed separately. One of Cuvier’s pupils, Friedrich Tiedemann, was one of the first to make a scientific contestation of racism. He argued based on craniometrics and brain measurements taken by him from Europeans and black people from different parts of the world that the then-common European belief that Negroes have smaller brains, and are thus intellectually inferior, is scientifically unfounded and based merely on the prejudice of travelers and explorers.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ( August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher of the late Enlightenment. Hegel declared that “Africa is no historical part of the world.” Hegel further claimed that blacks had no “sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent.”
Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 – September 21, 1860) was a German philosopher. Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the white races, who gained sensitivity and intelligence via the refinement caused by living in the rigorous Northern climate: The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste, or race, is fairer in colour than the rest, and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmins, the Inca, and the rulers of the South Sea Island. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention, because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers, and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want, and misery, which, in their many forms, were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature, and out of it all came their high civilization.
Franz Ignaz Pruner (March 8, 1808 – September 29, 1882); known as Pruner Bey during his stay in Egypt, was a German physician, ophthalmologist and anthropologist. Pruner was a medical doctor who studied the racial structure of Negroes in Egypt. In a book which he wrote in 1846 he claimed that Negro blood had a negative influence on the Egyptian moral character. He published a monograph on Negroes in 1861. He claimed that the main feature of the Negro’s skeleton is Prognathism, which he claimed was the Negro’s relation to the ape. He also claimed that Negroes had very similar brains to apes and that Negros have a shortened big toe, which is a characteristic connecting Negroes closely to apes. (No paintings are found of Pruner).
Karl Christoph Vogt originally Carl (July 5, 1817 – May 5, 1895) was a German scientist, philosopher and politician who emigrated to Switzerland. Vogt believed that the Negro race was related to the ape. He wrote the White race was a separate species to Negroes. In Chapter VII of his lectures of man (1864) he compared the Negro to the White race whom he described as “two extreme human types”. The difference between them, he claimed are greater than those between two species of ape; and this proves that Negroes are a separate species from the Whites.
Samuel Adolphus Cartwright (November 3, 1793 – May 2, 1863) was a physician who practiced in Mississippi and Louisiana in the antebellum United States. considered slave escape attempts as “drapetomania”, a treatable mental illness, that “with proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented”. He also claimed that Northern, free blacks suffered mental illness at higher rates than did their Southern, enslaved counterparts. Cartwright also described dysaesthesia aethiopica, called “rascality” by overseers.
Samuel George Morton (January 26, 1799 – May 15, 1851) was an American physician and natural scientist. Morton collected human skulls from worldwide, and attempted a logical, classification scheme. Influenced by contemporary racialist theory, Dr. Morton said he could judge racial intellectual capacity by measuring the interior cranial capacity, hence a large skull denoted a large brain, thus high intellectual capacity, conversely, a small skull denoted a small brain, thus low intellectual capacity; superior and inferior established. After inspecting three mummies from ancient Egyptian catacombs, Morton concluded that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since the bible indicated that Noah’s Ark had washed up on Mount Ararat, only a thousand years ago before this, Morton claimed that Noah’s sons could not possibly account for every race on earth. According to Morton’s theory of polygenesis, races have been separate since the start.
Others who were was involved in scientific racism are:
- Charles Robert Darwin (February 12, 1809 – April 19, 1882) was an English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory.
- Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (February 16,1834 – August 9, 1919) was a German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician, professor, and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including anthropogenic, ecology, Phylum, Phylogeny, stem Cell, and Protista.
- Sir Herbert Hope Risley (January 4, 1851 – September 30, 1911) was a British ethnographer and colonial administrator, a member of the Indian Civil Service who conducted extensive studies on the tribes and castes of the Bengal Presidency.
- Peter, Pieter, or usually Petrus Camper (May 11,1722 – April 7, 1789), was a Dutch physician, anatomist, physiologist, midwife, zoologist, anthropologist, paleontologist, and a naturalist.
There are many more who was involved in this scientific racism, but I decided to list only the most important people that was involved. Scientific racism is still happening today just under a new profession called statics or an statistician. Which in all static reports I have read said that whites are worth more, they are living better, and have more education then any other race. which are false reports. Could it be because there are only white statistician? This could be it, thanks for reading. | <urn:uuid:71e89798-f1d8-44dc-9a84-b4f78e0df26e> | {
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Hurricane” and “typhoon” redirect here. For other senses of those words, see hurricane (disambiguation) and typhoon (disambiguation).
**Cyclone Catarina, a rare South Atlantic tropical cyclone viewed from the International Space Station on March 26, 2004**
In meteorology, a tropical cyclone is a storm system with a closed circulation around a center of low pressure, fueled by the heat released when moist air rises and condenses. The name underscores their origin in the tropics and their cyclonic nature. They are distinguished from other cyclonic storms such as nor’easters and polar lows by the heat mechanism that fuels them, which makes them “warm core” storm systems. Depending on their strength and location, there are various terms by which tropical cyclones can be described, such as tropical depression, tropical storm, hurricane and typhoon. Tropical cyclones can produce extremely high winds, tornadoes, torrential rain (leading to mudslides and flash floods), and drive storm surge onto coastal areas. Though the effects on populations and ships can be catastrophic, tropical cyclones have been known to relieve drought conditions. They carry heat away from the tropics, an important mechanism of the global atmospheric circulation that maintains equilibrium in the environment. | <urn:uuid:ad192a5f-33e2-4eb5-b6af-1b697f78f1ed> | {
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Snow crab processors in Nova Scotia may have found a way to turn crab waste into cash after a four-year study demonstrated the carcasses can be turned into fertilizer, or used to strengthen concrete, or neutralize acidic wastewater like mine tailings.
That's encouraging news for Louisbourg Seafoods, one of six snow crab processors in Cape Breton, and a partner in the study.
The company trucks 450,000 kilograms of crab waste each year from its processing plant in Glace Bay to a compost facility 200 kilometres away in Guysborough.
"We really want to find a way to do something with the crab waste other than what we're doing with it now," said Allan MacLean, senior operations manager.
"We pay about $35,000 a year to get rid of it this way, so we'd obviously like to save that and if there's a way that we can increase the revenues from the crab waste, that's obviously an important aspect for us."
Why this fishery is so important
Snow crab is one of Atlantic Canada's most lucrative fisheries, creating jobs and pumping money into rural communities.
In 2017, the fishery was valued at $967 million in Atlantic Canada and Quebec.
This year, fishermen in the four Atlantic provinces were allowed a total catch of over 60,000 tonnes (or 60 million kilograms).
One-third of that by weight will be discarded after processors remove the legs and shoulders.
"Hopefully, the waste from all of the processing facilities in Cape Breton gets utilized, other than just going to a composting site," said MacLean.
Louisbourg Seafoods and Cape Breton University chemist Stephanie MacQuarrie teamed up four years ago to investigate other uses for the carcasses.
The research project received around $200,000 from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
MacQuarrie dried and crushed the shells into small particles and then burned the powder in an oxygen-free atmosphere, a process known as pyrolysis.
The result is a charcoal known as biochar.
The burning also produced a bio oil with a high heat value when burned.
MacQuarrie said her lab tests show the unburned powder — which is primarily calcium carbonate — and biochar are both effective fertilizers and can be used as a remediation medium to neutralize acidic water at low doses.
Biochar was tested at two Cape Breton mine tailing sites, where it also removed iron, a common tailings contaminant.
Lab tests also showed biochar may be used as a substitute for fly ash to strengthen concrete.
"I'm excited about this project. We're taking a stream of material that is currently not valuable to the producers — in this case Louisbourg Seafoods — and looking at making a higher-value product that could be used as a replacement in other applications," said MacQuarrie.
Pitching it to industry
This week, MacLean and MacQuarrie presented the results of the research to industry and government at Cape Breton University.
The cannabis industry has also expressed interest, said MacQuarrie.
She's not alone in exploring the possibilities.
In the case of biochar from snow crab, there are some challenges.
The season is short, running from April to the end of July, meaning a lot of product comes in at once.
The waste needs to be stabilized quickly and likely processed at a central location, which would require an industrial-scale drying and burning facility.
Cape Breton crab processors will be meeting next week to talk about the research and its potential.
MacLean believes it could pay for itself in two or three years.
"I just think that there's a product here that can be utilized for the benefit of the environment, instead of just strictly going to a landfill site or to a compost site," he said.
MORE TOP STORIES | <urn:uuid:22f33239-41de-4650-8f8b-b4cd30821a68> | {
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The Past & Future of the Czecho-Slovak Economic Relations
The arrangement of economic relations between the Czech and Slovak republics is one of the critical steps in Czechoslovak economic transformation. Due to the different historical records of the Czech and Slovak economies both of them are characterized by certain specific structural features. As a result, the impact of economic reform in Slovakia is much more painful compared with Czech lands. Economic separation, however, could even aggravate this problem, and so a more reasonable policy would be to maintain a common state. | <urn:uuid:862af683-349d-4305-9bb7-a7a8836b76c6> | {
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In school I was taught that an atomic orbital is the 3-dimensional region in which the electron is located with a probability of 90%.
This is not correct.
An atomic orbital is a solution to Schrödinger's equation given the electrostatic potential. In the simplest case, we solve the one electron atom and perturb that with more electrons. An exact solution to the multielectron problem is intractable due to the chaotic nature of 3-body systems.
The concept you are referring to is a boundary surface. (See this question). Basically, it's a surface that has equal probability density for every point on the surface, and the surface encloses a region of space where the sum of probabilities is the desired value.
Because the surface is defined to have equal probability everywhere, and the wave function is smooth, it should be unique.
The boundary surface is usually how we represent the atomic orbitals that are familiar to us ($s, p, d, f$) but also molecular orbitals. Usually, we take something at 90% probability, for example, and plot the boundary, giving the orbital "shape." Otherwise, visualization can be tricky because the orbital only goes to zero probability at infinite distance from the nucleus, so there is a nonzero chance that an electron will be quite far from the nucleus. | <urn:uuid:352761c7-3a20-4005-acc9-fbb77f8cec30> | {
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If society can mend, remake, and unmake men at its pleasure, its pleasure may, of course, be humane or homicidal. The difference is important. But, either way, rulers have become owners. Observe how the ‘humane’ attitude to crime could operate. If crimes are diseases, why should diseases be treated differently from crimes? And who but the experts can define disease? One school of psychology regards my religion as a neurosis. If this neurosis ever becomes inconvenient to Government, what is to prevent my being subjected to a compulsory ‘cure’? It may be painful; treatments sometimes are. But it will be no use asking, ‘What have I done to deserve this?’ The Straightener will reply: ‘But, my dear fellow, no one’s blaming you. We no longer believe in retributive justice. We’re healing you.’
This would be no more than an extreme application of the political philosophy implicit in most modern communities. It has stolen on us unawares. Two wars necessitated vast curtailments of liberty, and we have grown, though grumblingly, accustomed to our chains. The increasing complexity and precariousness of our economic life have forced Government to take over many spheres of activity once left to choice or chance. Our intellectuals have surrendered first to the slave-philosophy of Hegel, then to Marx, finally to the linguistic analysts.
As a result, classical political theory, with its Stoical, Christian, and juristic key-conceptions (natural law, the value of the individual, the rights of man), has died. The modern State exists not to protect our rights but to do us good or make us good — anyway, to do something to us or to make us something. Hence the new name ‘leaders’ for those who were once ‘rulers’. We are less their subjects than their wards, pupils, or domestic animals. There is nothing left of which we can say to them, ‘Mind your own business.’ Our whole lives are their business.
C. S. Lewis
Willing Slaves of the Welfare State
(Whole essay, very much worth reading, is here.)
My conversion went like this:
- I’m fighting for the government to control how people act.
- The people I support won’t always be in control.
- If the government has the power to control how people act and I don’t agree with the people in charge, I’m at risk to have myself and my behavior controlled in exactly the same way I’m advocating.
- The only way to avoid tyranny is to take away the power to control behavior from the state.
In other words, I’m not a libertarian because I hope for libertine squalor or because I hope to hasten the moral decay of society (whatever that means). I’m a libertarian (and border on anarcho-capitalist) because I dread tyranny.
And lest there be any misunderstanding, just because you agree with the outcome doesn’t make your particular brand of government-run behavioral control any less tyrannical:
Of all tyrannies a tyranny sincerely exercised for the good of its victim may be the most oppressive. It may be better to live under robber barons than under omnipotent moral busybodies. The robber baron’s cruelty may sometimes sleep, his cupidity may at some point be satiated, but those who torment us for our own good will torment us without end for they do so with the approval of their own conscience.
C. S. Lewis
God in the Dock
Listen, people: you can’t pass laws that make people better or fix society’s ills. All you can do is make everyone less free in the process. Make no mistake: government-run healthcare is a tyranny no less sincerely executed for the good of its victim than the moral do-gooding of the religious right. In the end, we’re left only with less freedom and heavier chains.
I wish I could shout this from the rooftops. | <urn:uuid:e00b701a-ee20-4548-a386-468f59d90c97> | {
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What makes bacon crispy, when compared to other cuts of meat? For example, if I were to cut a slice of chuck steak and make it identical in shape to bacon, and then cook it the same way I cook bacon, I think it will not be crispy. Why is that?
A few things occur to me:
- Fat content is significantly different between chuck and bacon. Chuck is generally about 15-25% fat (depending on the cut); bacon is often more than 50% fat.
- The cuts are not equivalent. Chuck is from the shoulder of beef; bacon is usually made from the belly or side. The muscles thus receive very different amounts of work and thus have different textures. (Also, the fat in chuck tends to have sections which are harder and take longer to render.) The equivalent beef cut would be from the plate -- the short plate in particular (between the flank and the brisket) is often used to make "beef bacon." It also has a much higher fat content than chuck.
- Curing the meat makes chemical alterations that often cause fat to soften and render faster, as well as tenderizing the protein and muscle portions.
In sum, bacon has a lot of fat, is located in a region of the animal with less work (less toughness), and the curing allows the fat to flow out quickly where it can be useful in frying.
What makes bacon crispy is what makes all fried foods crispy -- you dry out the cells by cooking the water out, and the remaining structure firms up. Given the high fat content, a lot of the remaining structure is remnants of the fat sections, rather than muscle tissue (which generally doesn't crisp the same way, even in bacon). Since fat allows cooking at a higher temperature than water, more desirable flavor reactions can also happen (those flavor compounds are also released more in curing). Whereas a more "meaty" piece of meat would go from wet and "boiling in its own juices" to cooked to dry to burnt, the high fat content raises the temperature more quickly but then stabilizes it, which completely alters the reactions that happen in cooking. | <urn:uuid:79d4b3d1-259c-4a14-bb3b-7409a927a43b> | {
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TeacherWe are dedicated to preserving the environment by providing you with cost-effective, state-of-the-art, organic growing supplies and the information and tools needed to apply them. We strive to provide growers at every level, from home gardeners to... View Profile
- Total Time 51 min
- Lessons 14
- Attachments 23
- Exercises 49
14 Lessons in This Course
4 minFREEGardening lesson 1Free3 CQ
Homegrown veggies taste better, and are easier on the wallet than their store-bought counterparts. Start your own garden and enjoy the fruits of your labor!
3 minFREEGardening lesson 2Free2 CQ
If your plants are tall and top heavy or fruit bearing and need to be trellised, learn how to give them the support they need, in this lesson from Grow Organic!
3 minFREEGardening lesson 3Free2 CQ
Vitamins aren’t just for people—minerals, micronutrients, and macronutrients can help your plants grow big and strong—so learn about proper plant nutrition!
3 minFREEGardening lesson 4Free2 CQ
Composting transforms waste headed for the landfill into nutrient-dense plant food—and it couldn’t be easier! Learn how in this lesson from Grow Organic.
3 minFREEGardening lesson 5Free2 CQ
Want to make an easy and nutrient-rich garden bed without any digging? Discover sheet layering or 'lasagna gardening', a slow compost process with no tilling.
3 minFREEGardening lesson 6Free2 CQ
Summer means bugs. But if you're besieged by flies and mosquitoes, don't resort to toxins! Learn these organic ways to combat pesky garden insects.
2 minFREEGardening lesson 7Free2 CQ
January isn't just the time for a new year- it's the time for a new orchard! Learn how to plant a thriving new bare root fruit tree in your garden.
4 minFREEGardening lesson 8Free3 CQ
Pruning is essential for the health of any garden, whether you are promoting growth or removing a dead limb. Learn the basics in this lesson from Grow Organic!
4 minFREEGardening lesson 9Free3 CQ
Onions, shallots, and leeks lend incredible flavor to soups, sauces, and other recipes. Learn how to cultivate these alliums in your own home garden!
2 minFREEGardening lesson 10Free2 CQ
Looking for a nutritious vegetable that you could harvest for up to 20 years with only one planting? Learn how to plant and care for asparagus!
3 minFREEGardening lesson 11Free2 CQ
Nothing says summer like a juicy vine-ripened tomato, so grow your own! Learn how to plant and protect your tomatoes in this lesson from Grow Organic.
3 minFREEGardening lesson 12Free2 CQ
Enjoy delicious vine-ripened tomatoes this summer! Learn how to prune your tomato plants and how to deal with common problems like cracking skin and blight.
3 minFREEGardening lesson 13Free2 CQ
Looking to plant a berry in your yard that's easy to look after and loaded with antioxidants? Learn how to plant, tend, and prune goji berries!
4 minFREEGardening lesson 14Free3 CQ
Blueberries are tasty, incredibly good for your health, and can also be grown in your own garden! Learn how you can cultivate this delicious crop.
648 min6-part Gardening course28 CQ
Transform any porch or patio into a productive container garden with Sunset Magazine senior garden editor Johanna Silver! At the end of the course, create a garden that looks lovely year round!
1451 minFREE14-part Gardening courseFree32 CQ
In this course, get in-depth guidance on organic fruit and vegetable gardening from GrowOrganic. Learn about everything from fruit-tree pruning to toxin-free pest control for homegrown organics!
740 min7-part Gardening course23 CQ
Dig into this gardening course, and learn how to grow fresh tomatoes, lettuce, kale, and more. Get tips for growing veggies in containers and raised beds, and enjoy the harvest from your edible Eden!
461 min4-part Gardening course33 CQ
Dive into this course with expert gardener Cass Turnball to explore one final frontier of advanced pruning. Covered are tips for working plants that are shearable, hackable, and untouchable.
589 min5-part Gardening course47 CQ
Many gardeners don't know the first thing about tree anatomy, and it's the plants that suffer! This course from Cass Turnball explains how to prune a tree perfectly or vet an arborist for bigger jobs. | <urn:uuid:0275891c-43d9-42d0-b088-a85fb6a9e53d> | {
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By Charles Ellinas
Probably the most important climate change conference in our area so far was held in Cyprus last weekend and inevitably fossil fuels featured prominently in the list of concerns highlighted by the participants.
The chairman of the conference, organised by the Cyprus Institute, was Laurent Fabius, former prime minister of France, and the COP21 architect and chairman who led the preparation of the Paris Climate Change Agreement. There was participation by specialists, scientists, presidents of international environmental organisations and politicians working on this topic from 35 countries.
In his introduction, Fabius praised “the high-level and stimulating programme of this two-day conference and the outstanding participants”.
The Paris Agreement goal is to hold the increase in the global average temperature due to carbon dioxide emissions ‘well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels’. But he expressed concern that the implementation of COP21 has so far not progressed as expected and it is worrisome, with the global average temperature having already increased by 1°C. Many countries are failing on their pledges.
Serious and detailed studies have been carried out concerning the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, which highlight the concerns. Without arresting climate change, the average temperature in the Eastern Mediterranean will rise steadily, and it is expected to exceed 4°C by the end of the century. Generally, the region is expected to have much drier and warmer conditions and prolonged periods of high temperatures and droughts, more frequent fires, as well as increased pollutants and dust in the atmosphere with negative impacts on air quality and health, something which we are experiencing already.
Global energy demand
Based on BP’s Global Energy Outlook, currently, 85 per cent of global primary energy is supplied by fossil fuels, with only three per cent by renewables, sun and wind. Fabius said this is worrisome. The transition to cleaner energy is not progressing fast enough.
With no change, by 2040 global primary energy is expected to increase by about 35 per cent in line with a population growth of 1.7 billion to 9.2 billion, and with 2.5 billion people to be lifted out of poverty through rising prosperity of emerging economies. Based on this, carbon emissions are expected to actually increase by 14 per cent by 2040.
In order to achieve emission reductions commensurate with the 2°C target, the world needs to move from fossil fuels to renewables much faster. This will require drastic emission reduction policies to be accepted, enforced and implemented immediately and globally.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) called for a six-fold increase in the rate of implementation of renewables. And there lies the challenge. It proposed a ‘renewable energy roadmap’ in which deployment of energy efficiency measures, low carbon technologies, including renewables, hydro and nuclear, provide 66 per cent of global primary energy needs by 2050, with fossil fuels expected to provide the remaining 34%.
But achieving this energy transition can be challenging. It requires new policies which must enable society’s orderly, stable and affordable transition to a low carbon global economy, without major disruption or unexpected consequences.
But there is hope. Spurred by innovation, increased competition, and policy support in a growing number of countries, renewable energy technologies have achieved massive technological advances and sharp cost reductions and they will continue doing so.
However, a world of clean, reliable and safe energy is not around the corner and full decarbonisation by 2050 will cost trillions of dollars – there is no cheap option. Investment in renewables so far has been strong, but way below what is needed to achieve Paris goals. An integrated technology and policy approach is needed to drive and accelerate clean energy transition.
The global power generation sector is on the way to be decarbonised, largely because low carbon technology is cheaper than the fossil fuels it replaces. But this is not yet the case in our region.
Impact on the Eastern Mediterranean and the wider region
The contribution of the East Med and the wider region to the implementation of renewables, energy efficiency measures and carbon emission reductions so far is modest at best.
It is disappointing that north-western Europe is doing much better than our region in implementing wind and solar photovoltaic (pv) power generation. Even though all countries in our region are blessed with an abundance of solar energy, most countries, including Cyprus, are still heavily dependent on fossil-fuel power generation.
Only just over five per cent of the region’s power came from renewables sources, including hydro, in 2016. Not surprisingly, the per capita carbon emissions in our region are close to 50 per cent higher than the world average.
At a recent workshop in Jordan, one of the participants put the region’s continued reliance on fossil-fuels down to ‘vested interests’. He said, “it is possible to make commissions out of a fossil-fuel power plant throughout its life – not just from its construction but also through the import of fuel during its operation. You can make money out of renewables only during construction.” Sadly, there might be some truth in this. Endemic corruption needs to be confronted. Transparency and pressure from civil society may be ways to achieve this.
Measures needed in the region
So far, where measures to implement low carbon fuels have had some success, it has been mostly for commercial, but also security of supply, reasons. The most successful switch so far has been to natural gas, the cleanest of all fossil fuels with carbon emissions of only about 40 per cent those from coal. But cheap renewables offer a cleaner, reliable and affordable solution to the region’s energy needs.
In November last year, an auction in Mexico and another in Abu Dhabi set new records for solar pv power, at 1.5 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Recently in India prices at an auction for 80-100 MW pv units were around 4 cents per kWh. When compared to the price of electricity in Cyprus, now at 22 cents per KWh, it becomes clear that there is a huge potential for significant reductions.
Cyprus’ energy strategy must change in line with EU’s new 2020-2030 targets. Cyprus’ new energy plan must be submitted to the EU by January 1, 2019, and, given its implications on the economy and the cost of energy, it still needs to go through wide public consultation.
At the conference, it was said that Cyprus’ new target would be to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 24 per cent by 2030 (from 2005 levels), compared with five per cent by 2020. Although this is low in comparison to EU’s target to reduce carbon emissions by 40 per cent by 2030 (from 1990 levels), it will still be very difficult to achieve without major change. It will be necessary to change electricity production from Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) to renewable sources, solar and wind energy and natural gas.
The prospects are enormous. Based on a study by IRENA, renewable energy could provide between 25 per cent and 40 per cent of total electricity supply to Cyprus by 2030. And as reported at the conference, with the latest developments in electricity storage technology, including batteries, this could even expand to close to 100 per cent, with fossil fuels only needed to cater for safety, interruptions and support.
The proposed import of LNG could also contribute to the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions, but not to the electricity price. It could be quite the opposite, due to the cost of LNG, which may exceed $8-10 per million btu (about 1000 cubic feet), and the cost of fixed installations, even after the allocation of the €101 million grant by the EU. This has been presented in Cyprus as necessary for the achievement of the new carbon emission reduction target beyond 2020. But as shown above, this can be achieved efficiently by switching to renewable sources, which will surely result in a significant reduction in electricity prices.
Globally the biggest challenges are in Asia and Africa, but also in our wider region. Change can take place if proposed solutions are commercially competitive, help reduce energy costs and contribute to a better quality of life. Reduction of carbon emissions will then be the outcome – it will not be the cause of change.
Dr Charles Ellinas is non-resident senior fellow at the Global Energy Centre of the Atlantic Council | <urn:uuid:5c8a5af1-49d3-4439-82a5-1d7a080614bf> | {
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Perrin Ross was born July 4, 1748 to parents Jeremiah and Anna Paine Ross in New London, Connecticut. Jeremiah Ross was one of the Connecticut settlers who helped form the Susquehanna Company in 1753. The Company acquired two thousand acres of land in the Wyoming Valley the following year, and the area would be disputed for several years between Connecticut and Pennsylvania. In 1773 Connecticut received permission from England to settle the area regardless of the dispute. Jeremiah migrated to the Wyoming Valley in 1774.
Perrin married Mercy Otis, daughter of Joseph and Elizabeth Otis, date uncertain although some believe in 1768. Six children were born of their marriage: Jesse, Elizabeth, Joseph, John, Daniel, Perrin, Jr. (born after his father’s death).
Yesterday’s article on The Battle of Wyoming related the history of settlers from Connecticut populating the Wyoming Valley. Between 1769 and 1775 there were numerous clashes, an almost perpetual state of war. The conflicts were with both the Indians and Pennsylvanians who also laid claim to the area, and it’s likely that the Ross family experienced those dangers and participated in arming and defending the Valley.
On August 23, 1776, the Continental Congress established six companies to defend Pennsylvania. Two of those companies were stationed in the Wyoming Valley (Westmoreland). On August 26:
Congress proceeded to the election of sundry Officers, when Jonathan Dayton was elected Regimental Paymaster of Colonel Dayton’s Battalion; Robert Durkee and Samuel Ransom were elected Captains of the two Companies ordered to be raised in the Town of Westmoreland; James Wells and Perin Ross First Lieutenants; Ashbel Buck and Simon Spalding, Second Lieutenants, and Herman Swift and Matthew Hollomback Ensigns of the said Companies.
Some sources indicate that Perrin Ross and his companies had joined the Continental Army at some point and had fought in New Jersey. One record for application to the Iowa Sons of the Revolution, indicates that Perrin served with General Washington’s army beginning in January of 1777 and wintered at Valley Forge. According to The Massacre of Wyoming, The Acts of Congress for the Defense of the Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, Captain Ransom, Captain Durkee, Lieutenant Wells and Lieutenant Ross, all from the original companies formed in 1776, were home on furlough in July of 1778.
Lieutenant Perrin Ross was killed in the Battle of Wyoming, a savage ambush and probably the bloodiest and most heinous of all Revolutionary War battles, on July 3, 1778, just one day short of his thirtieth birthday. Perrin’s brother, Jeremiah, Jr. was also killed, as was Perrin’s brother-in-law, Jonathan Otis.
Perrin’s brother, William, was the only son of the Ross family left. Several years later, William, then a general, participated in Congressional hearings about the massacre. General Ross testified of the carnage he was witness to on that day, shocking scenes of unrecognizable bodies scattered about.
Mercy Otis Ross Allen
Mercy Otis Ross Allen, according to church records, was born on June 5, 1747 in North Parish, New London, Connecticut to parents Joseph and Elizabeth (Little) Otis. She was one of fifteen children.
In a speech given by William A. Wilcox, Esq. in 1878 on the occasion of the one hundredth anniversary, her escape from the Wyoming Valley following the massacre was detailed:
When the news came to go into the fort she packed the papers and clothes in a chest and her pewter platters she buried with other articles in the garden. She then took her children and went into the fort (Forty Fort) the night before the battle. When the news came to the fort that our men were defeated she would not stay in the fort. A party of thirty, one old man with a horse, the rest women and children, went out of the fort at night, crossed the river at Wilkes-Barre and went up into Solomon’s Gap that night. When they got into the woods they lay down to rest and sleep. They went on next day and were ten days getting through the wilderness. Hannah, (Ford) wife of Josiah Rogers, died on the route and was buried under the root of a fallen tree, and Mrs. Ross was so worn down with the excitement and fatigue of the journey and starved for want of food, that when the burial was over and the party was about to move on, Mrs. Ross said that she could go no further and would like to be buried alongside of the other woman. She was, however, appealed to in behalf of her children, and urged to get up and go on with the party, which she was finally induced to do. They first met the abode of civilization at Allentown and stopped at the house of the people and asked for food, but were refused.
They did not go far after this before they were taken up by the Government and furnished with provisions. She had five children with her, all of whom were about naked, so badly were their clothes torn and worn in the journey. About the first of October, three months after the battle, her last child was born in Connecticut. In March of 1782 she married Samuel Allen, with whom she moved to Wyoming to the place of her former husband, Perrin Ross, on Ross Hill, in the winter of 1784-5.
Mercy Ross, at the time of the flight from Wyoming Valley, was carrying her sixth child, Perrin, and accompanied by her other five children, according to the above narrative. Her second husband, Samuel Allen, also served as both an ensign and a lieutenant in Colonel Putnam’s regiment in Pomfret, Connecticut, where Samuel had been born. Mercy and Samuel had at least one child, Otis, born in 1787 in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania.
Mercy died in 1824 in Luzerne County. Her tombstone says her birth year was 1745 and her name spelled “Marcy”. She and Samuel were buried in the Allen Cemetery. It seems amazing that this woman would want to go back to Wyoming Valley after the horrible massacre of Perrin, but it appears that some of her children returned there as well.
According to family history sources, Mercy’s mother Elizabeth was a descendant of Mayflower passengers John Alden and Priscilla Mullins. John and Priscilla’s descendants include Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Adams, John Quincy Adams and Dan Quayle. Her father, Deacon Joseph Otis, was a first cousin of Daniel Boone.
Did you enjoy this article? Yes? Check out Digging History Magazine. Since January 2018 new articles are published in a digital magazine (PDF) available by individual issue purchase or subscription (with three options). Most issues run between 70-85 pages, filled with articles of interest to history-lovers and genealogists — it’s all history, right? 🙂 No ads — just carefully-researched, well-written stories, complete with footnotes and sources.
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Thanks for stopping by! | <urn:uuid:f09b81f4-5e6a-4325-9160-c5e8442a7980> | {
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Description: Bare-faced curassows are sexually dimorphic (males and females differ in appearance). Males are mostly black; have a very white belly; a yellow bill with a dark tip; a yellow cere; and dark gray legs and feet. Females have extensive barring on her upperparts; a rufous chest and belly; a black bill and cere; and reddish-pink legs and feet. They both have curled crests and extensive bare black skin on the face, thus their common name.
Reproduction: The nests are large and made of twigs and branches held in place by the stems of grasses, which are interwoven between them. The nest is lined with down feathers and leaves. The clutch size is usually two eggs that are incubated for about 30 days. The chicks are precocial (born relatively independent) at hatching.
Habitat/range: They inhabit subtropical or tropical dry forests and moist lowland forests in Brazil, Paraguay, eastern Bolivia and northern Argentina.
Status: Categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
Size: These turkey-sized birds weigh about 6.5 pounds (3 kg).
Behavior: They forage on the ground and at night they roost in trees in order to be safer from predators. They live in small flocks.
Diet: Their diet consists of fruits that have fallen to the ground as well as flower, seeds and shoots.
Communication: Their location call is a muffled “buitju, buitju, buitju” and a more simpler “bitt, bitt.” They also utter “hm-hm-hm hm-hm hm- hm or hm-hm-hm hm-hm-hm.” During the breeding season, males use a series of deep booming calls to attract a mate. They also use visual displays by flapping their wings, showing off the contrast between their black wings and white belly. | <urn:uuid:aadb115f-92fe-4fd0-ada2-36ac4ae4a41e> | {
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Description: The head and throat of the male Many-banded aracari are black with a chestnut patch behind the eye. The yellow eyes are surrounded by blue skin. The large bills are black and yellow striped. The back and tail are dark green to almost black; the rump is red. Its undersides are yellow and as its name implies, it has a black band across its chest and a black-red band across its belly (only aracari so banded on chest and belly).
Size: One of the largest aracaris, it measures approximately 17 inches (44 cm) and weighs 8-11 ounces (230-300 gr).
Behavior: Aracaris live in flocks of several individuals. They roost socially, with adults and fledglings sharing the same tree cavity for sleeping.
Diet: Foraging singly, in pairs or small groups, their diet consists mainly of fruits, nuts and some arthropods.
Communication: Vocalizations are used for signaling aggression or contact. Not considered to be song-like, calls vary in length and emphasis. It is believed that similar species, make similar calls, varying by location. Calls of the Many-banded, Collared, Black-necked and Chestnut-eared aracaris are high, sharp and piercing.
Reproduction: Two to four white eggs are laid in a tree cavity, often an abandoned woodpecker’s nest. Both sexes incubate the eggs for a period of 16-17 days and both parents feed the chicks. Fledging occurs at approximately 40 days.
Habitat/range: They are found in South American forests of Colombia, southern Venezuela, Peru and northern Brazil
Status: Classified as Least Concern (LC) on IUCN Red List. | <urn:uuid:7c7a5eb7-80cc-4273-be6b-ec7770b681d5> | {
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The maple syrup many of us eat with our pancakes isn’t really maple syrup but corn syrup with maple flavoring added. Real maple syrup is harvested from maple trees in early spring. The syrup is actually sap from maple trees. As temperatures begin to rise, the sap thins and can be collected from trees.
- Maple syrup can only be produced in late winter when the weather has just begun to warm but before maple trees bud or produce leaves. Native Americans called this time the “sugar moon.”
- Today, farmers use intricate systems of tubing and plastic containers to collect the sap. Previously, though, farmers would hammer small spigots into the maple trees and hang buckets beneath them. The sap would run into the buckets and the farmers would collect the sap.
- Once the sap is collected, it must be boiled to remove the excess water. Through this process, the sap becomes thicker and sweeter – syrup.
- It takes 40 gallons of sap to make one gallon of syrup. Although modern technology has simplified the process, it still takes a lot of time and work, which is why real maple syrup is more expensive.
- Not every maple tree produces maple syrup. Only certain varieties of maple are used for maple syrup. And only maple trees growing in regions with cold weather produce the sap used for maple syrup. Canada produces 71 percent of the world’s maple syrup supply. A few states in the U.S., including Vermont, New Hampshire, and Minnesota produce maple syrup.
- Maple syrup can be used for more than just pancakes! Add it to oatmeal or hot cocoa. Use it in baked goods as a substitute for sugar. Brush it on grilled meat for a sweet glaze.
- Maple syrup is graded according to its color. Grade A syrups are harvested early in the season. They have a mild flavor and a light color. Grade B maple syrup is harvested later in the season. It is darker in color and has a stronger maple flavor.
- Simplify: to make simpler
- Spigot: a faucet
- Sap: the liquid that runs through a tree
Questions and Answers
Question: Who discovered maple syrup?
Answer: Legend says that the wife of Iroquois Chief Woksis discovered it accidentally. Woksis pulled his hatchet out of a nearby maple to go on a hunting trip. Sap dripped from the wound in the tree, falling into a bucket or bowl sitting on the ground below. The woman, thinking the clear liquid was water, used it to cook the evening meal. The family was entranced by the sweet flavor.
Watch a video on identifying sugar maple trees.
Visit a maple tree farm in Vermont.
Cite This Page
You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples:
MLA Style Citation
Declan, Tobin. " Maple Syrup Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 23 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/maple-syrup/ >.
APA Style Citation
Tobin, Declan. (2020). Maple Syrup Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/maple-syrup/
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photo credit to Enterra
Is it ethical to raise insects in large numbers and use them as a source of quality protein in food? In fact, how are insects "treated" in a livestock farm? Do they have a better life than other livestock in large scale industrial farms?
These are questions we, at Eat Small, often hear and which are important when it comes to animal welfare.
The animal proteins used in conventional dog food (beef, chicken, lamb, pork, fish) come from an industry being more and more criticized for its negative impact on the environment:
- Significant greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to global warming
- Land deforestation (for crops used to feed livestock).
- Significant use of freshwater reserves for livestock farming.
- Overfishing of wild fish to provide food for aquaculture.
For an increasing number of people, these impacts on nature are a strong motivation to reduce, or even stop meat consumption, and find alternative proteins for themselves and their pets.
The other motivator to boycott animal meat consumption is the questionable farming conditions and the welfare (or lack of welfare) of the animals while they are in captivity and until they are killed. All over the world, there are many voices against industrial livestock farming and the suffering it causes to animals. In 2019, vegan groups and organizations denouncing cruelty in animal farming have never had so much influence.
Unlike what some people think, we at Eat Small, do not catch wild insects. Our insects come from certified farms which meet all the requirements of European production and hygiene standards for proteins of animal origin. It is a sustainable and ecological farming, because for the same final edible protein volume, insects require a fraction of the resources (water, land, energy, CO2 emissions) during their lifetime compared to other livestock, and without any loss (100% of the insects is edible)
Ultimately, these insects are once again animals being exploited by man. Many people ask us if breeding methods take their well-being into account, or if insects suffer when they are killed.
Let’s look at the life of the Hermetia illucens (black soldier flies) which insect protein composes 30% of our tasty food for active dogs (Eat Small WALD).
Adult flies have a longevity of 2 weeks. They are kept in large cages made of a fabric similar to mosquito nets. They drink sugary water and lay eggs in special boxes. These are collected and placed in ideal conditions of humidity. After 5 days, the eggs hatch and the small larvae remain for 8 days in a warm and humid environment, with vegetable food. It is a warm and safe from dangers environment. They are then transferred to a bioreactor, in large drawers filled with a semi-solid substrate where they find all the food they need to grow for another 1 week. In this nutritious substrate, they are thousands (millions), stuck together and this is exactly what they love and need to thrive. They find themselves in an "ideal" living situation, which often does not occur in nature.
photo credit to Enterra
Depending on the insect farms, there are different ways to perform euthanasia. For example, gradually lowering the temperature to induce a natural state of hibernation until death. Another method is to place the larvae in a steam room at 130 degrees. They then die in less than a second. In short, insect farms can be considered to offer animals an ideal and stress-free life (and death). The same certainly cannot be said about today’s conventional livestock farming facilities.
Insects are invertebrates and do not feel pain as we understand it. One of the insect farmers we work with reminded us that « those who do not want to kill insects should no longer drive a car because every car ride kills a lot of them. The train as an alternative is no better: it is estimated that Deutsche Bahn kills more than 10,000 tonnes of insects per year! »
The issue of animal ethics is being studied by Professor Potthast of the University of Tübingen in Germany. The fundamental statement is that society must decide how it wants to treat animals. It is ethically acceptable to determine different categories of animals (mammals, poultry, fish, insects) and to treat them differently. Today, it is ethically permissible to kill insects for a wide range of reasons (voluntary or involuntary) and by a multitude of means: fly swatter, chemical or biological pesticides, transport or even just by walking in the forest.
Insect farming and their use as an alternative source of protein allows:
- to reduce mass livestock farming and the suffering of other types of animals
- a better food yield (fewer resources for the same volume of protein)
- a reduction of adverse environmental impacts.
By feeding your dog Eat Small delicious insect protein-based dog foods, you are actively promoting good farming behaviour, reducing animal suffering and saving natural ressources.
Véronique Glorieux is a canadian-board veterinarian who cumulates more than 10 years of medical work and experience with dogs and cats. Animal wellfare and environment are 2 topics that moves her. She lives now in Berlin, where she co-founded Eat Small and uses her experience in a different field of practice. With healthy and sustainable insect-based pet food she aims to support both the health of pets and of the planet.
Notwendige Cookies sind für das reibungslose Funktionieren der Website unbedingt erforderlich. Diese Kategorie umfasst nur Cookies, die grundlegende Funktionen und Sicherheitsmerkmale der Website gewährleisten. Diese Cookies speichern keine persönlichen Informationen.
Alle Cookies, die für das Funktionieren der Website nicht unbedingt erforderlich sind und die speziell zum Sammeln personenbezogener Benutzerdaten über Analysen, Anzeigen und andere eingebettete Inhalte verwendet werden, werden als nicht erforderliche Cookies bezeichnet. Es ist zwingend erforderlich, die Zustimmung des Benutzers einzuholen, bevor diese Cookies auf Ihrer Website verwendet werden. | <urn:uuid:120f08db-2140-45b5-a6f2-1dd70666b634> | {
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Lesson 16: Moving, Resizing, and Deleting Charts
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
- Move a chart
- Resize a chart
- Delete a chart
Moving a chart
An embedded chart can be moved anywhere on a worksheet. The easiest way to move a chart is to drag it around the worksheet.
To move a chart:
- Click anywhere on the white space in the chart and use the cursor to drag the chart anywhere on the worksheet.
- Release the mouse button to place the graph in its new location.
Resizing a chart
Charts can be resized—made larger or smaller—to fit on a worksheet. Chart titles are sized in proportion to how large or small you make the chart. And within the chart area, the legend and/or plot area can be made larger or smaller. Chart titles can be moved but not resized.
To resize a chart:
- Click anywhere on the white space of the chart area, plot area, or legend you want to move or resize.
- Point the mouse to one of the grab handles or resize cursor—the pointer changes to a double-headed arrow—to resize the chart.
- Use the mouse to drag the sizing handle until the chart is resized to the desired size.
Deleting a chart
Any embedded chart or chart sheet can be deleted from a worksheet. A chart sheet is deleted the same way a worksheet is deleted. This section discusses how to delete an embedded chart.
To delete a chart:
- Click anywhere on the white space of the chart area to select the chart.
- Press the Delete key on your keyboard.
If you have difficulty deleting a chart, click anywhere outside the chart and select the chart again.
- Type the following information on the worksheet:
In cell A2, type January
In cell A3, type February
In cell A4, type March
In cell B1, type Bill
In cell B2, type 3542
In cell B3, type 7184
In cell B4, type 6531
In cell C1, type Mary
In cell C2, type 2943
In cell C3, type 6542
In cell C4, type 7137
In cell D1, type Bob
In cell D2, type 3403
In cell D3, type 7314
In cell D4, type 6942
- Create an area chart.
- Practice moving the chart to different places in the worksheet.
- Practice resizing the chart by dragging the middle grab handle at the top of the chart, the middle grab handle at the right edge of the chart, and the lower-right grab handle.
- Delete the chart you just created. | <urn:uuid:893cbc36-4bb9-40af-8a03-d0c7c48b7f03> | {
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Women’s political rights in Egypt is a subject that is rarely discussed by the general public. While most ministries, governmental positions and political candidates are predominantly male, women who do participate are not given the same support and confidence that is usually given to men.
Although women in Egypt participate in civil societies, have roles in non-governmental institutions, rarely do they get the opportunity to implant their influence in politics. Recent studies have shown that the majority of Egyptians believe that women should have the same rights as men to run in the upcoming parliament; however, it is easier said than done. This is because very few Egyptians are genuinely interested in improving the political situation of women.
Nazra for Feminist Studies
In order to accurately explore this issue, I sat down with Salma el-Naqqash, director of the women’s political participation program at Nazra to discuss the political situation of women in Egypt, the challenges they are facing and their initiatives to solve them.
Nazra is a non-governmental organization that advocates for women’s rights. These rights include not being seen as inferior when running for seats in parliament and integrating women as active and pivotal members in the sectors they feel suits them.
Nazra works with women from all walks of life in Egypt to break through the shackles imposed on them by a society filled with taboos and restrictive norms. While abiding by the state’s laws, they do what they can to provide women with a brighter future.
The Public Space in Egypt
Today, it is a growing challenge for women to galvanize support and secure finances in Egypt’s extremely competitive political sphere. Naqqash believes that this is down to a number of reasons.
“The political climate in Egypt is quite limiting and restrictive at the moment,” she said. “There is a complete shutdown on public space and there is not much area for political action given the legislative framework that is quite limiting.”
“Having an incomplete road map is problematic because we have been promised that we are going to elect a legitimate legislative body [upcoming parliament],” she added. “It does not make sense to have an executive body that is legislating.”
An immediate parliament was one of the main promises made by President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi upon being sworn into office over a year ago in June 2014. Parliamentary elections were initially set to be held on March 21 but the constituencies’ law drafted was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court. Accordingly, al-Sisi ordered that the law be modified as soon as possible.
A postponed parliament means that Egypt has now been without a parliament since June 2012, giving al-Sisi legislative power for the foreseeable future.
Meanwhile, civil society in Egypt has been facing an unprecedented crackdown from the regime. In just two months, over 360 NGOs have been shut down for charges of ties to the outlawed Muslim Brotherhood, according to Mada Masr.
Since its issuance in 2013, resorting to the protest law has been one of the prominent techniques exercised by the government to maintain its grip on the public space.
“Nazra works with a lot of women candidates and many of them were concerned with the demonstration law. They were so worried for their safety and security because they don’t know if their campaigning activities would be accepted or if it would fall under a violation of the protest law.”
In terms of being a part of passing the laws for the parliament, Naqqash felt women were marginalized. “The process was not inclusive at all. We as civil society actors, political parties, public figures and politicians tried to communicate with the government to propose a proportional representational system and we were met with complete disregard. [It was] as if it doesn’t make sense to have that system just because they want to deny or prevent a certain political group from getting access to the parliament.”
Given how the public space is, at large, unsuitable for most people, it gets even harder for women who continuously face difficulties in practicing an effective role in politics. “There is not much room for women to engage on a political and activism level [in a violent public sphere],” Naqqash said.
Sexual Harassment and Political Empowerment
According to a survey released by the United Nations entity for Gender Equality, 99 percent of women in Egypt have admitted to being sexually harassed in one way or another. While 96 percent said that the harassment was physical, 95 percent experienced harassment through verbal abuse.
“You have seen violence against women rising every year in the past three years,” Naqqash stated. “If [the state] doesn’t have the tools to tackle sexual violence, then you’re really not giving any room for women to participate. These issues need to be tackled to improve the type of public space we have.”
However, the state has not been idle and has taken many initiatives to decrease sexual violence against women. Among these initiatives is the law issued in 2014 which states that any verbal, physical, behavioral or online form of sexual harassment is punishable by six months to five years in prison and a fine up to 50,000 L.E ($US 6383).
In an unprecedented approach by the Egyptian presidency, Sisi has acknowledged the growing number of sexual violence against women which is something no former president has ever conceded. On his inauguration, he visited a victim of sexual assault who was assaulted in Tahrir Square on the day his unanimous victory in the presidential elections was confirmed.
“Having a head of state who actually acknowledges the fact that sexual violence happens on the street and actually visits a victim of sexual assault on his inauguration day is a remarkable step,” Naqqash said. “Even though we disagree politically, this was definitely a landmark in itself. Also having an improved constitution that has passed last year, I think it is a huge step forward.”
There is a difference, according to Naqqash, between initiatives and their manifestations. “What remains underdeveloped is the translation of the constitutional entitlements fighting violence against women and fighting discrimination,” she said. “They need to be translated into policies and legislations to be implemented. With the national strategy to fight violence against women, there needs to be a mobilization of resources to make it happen on the ground.”
Parliament Quotas and Positive Discrimination
To solidify women’s presence and influence in the legislative process, the government has resorted to implementing quotas for women in parliaments. However, the way they are implemented is of huge importance according to Naqqash.
“When you had the quota system of 2010 with 64 seats for women, it was just an idea for tokenism,” she clarified. “It was just to fulfill [Egypt’s] international commitments; it was not about real implementation.”
Although Mubarak’s controversial 2010 parliament included more women compared to the 2011 post-revolution parliament, it was not proposed with a purpose to help women but simply as a ruse to adhere to Mubarak’s Western allies.
“The only people who benefited from the parliament, which was based on allocated seats, were Mubarak’s National Democratic Party and women Islamists who had the means and financial resources to actually participate in politics. It was not empowering to women whatsoever.”
In the 2011 parliament, which was dominated by the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamists, the quota system was very weak and even counterproductive. “We barely had a quota,” Naqqash exclaimed. “There was a quota of one woman on each party list -which was nothing because the law did not put a clear statement around where to put the woman on the list. So of course, every party had women towards the bottom because they wanted to win more seats and knew the general public would never vote for a list that has women [as a priority].”
The presence of an efficient quota system would also serve to encourage women who are hesitant to enter the political sphere. “Women are generally intimidated [to participate in the political] because the system is not actually supportive of women,” said Naqqash. “When you have a single candidate system controlling the majority of the seats in the next parliament, it makes the experience completely inaccessible for women.”
However, through a policy of positive discrimination, quotas for women would not only give them deserved seats but would serve to empower them, according to Naqqash.
“People think of a quota as a mono-sided system; it’s not true,” she stated. “When you have a quota system like the one implemented in Tunisia [where] there was a candidate quota for women on party lists, it’s a different story because you are creating an obligation for political parties to actually empower women and have them in the party lists.” Unlike the case in Egypt, Tunisia implemented a quota system that emphasized parity between genders and ensured that party lists are submitted on that basis.
This is an example of how positive discrimination can solidify women’s effective political participation.
“The philosophy of positive discrimination is not based on treating women as a minority. Nazra sees it as a form of reconciliation with women’s history because they have been discriminated against for such a long time and now is the time for paying them back.”
Women, Politics and Egyptian Society
“You must have laws that enforce having women in politics, but you have to get it both ways,” stressed Naqqash. “You have to also push people to rethink their own values towards women.”
It is true that Egypt has very rigid social stipulations commanding Egyptians’ day-to-day interactions and ventures. However, Naqqash is not calling for their complete eradication but simply to inform people of the necessity of having women as a pivotal influence on society.
“Through campaigns and grassroots action, we can influence the mentality of the general public in Egypt.”
Through her active participation in society, Naqqash has come to the observation that feminism in modern Egypt is largely misunderstood. “People read feminism in a very wrong manner,” she said. “It is not about imposing certain choices; it is about letting women have a choice.”
In that light, it is fair to note that Naqqash, Nazra and feminists in general are not demanding that women be involved in politics, or that anyone would be forced to do anything against their will. It is simply about allowing those with the desire to do so. | <urn:uuid:b5283d55-9536-481c-ac5b-79f34e43a5a4> | {
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Possessive Nouns are nouns are used to state something or someone belongs to someone or something.
To make nouns possessive add 's or s' according to the noun.
's is added to the end of a singular noun
- Tom's car is green.
- My friend gave me her sister's book.
- My job is near Tom's house.
- Tammy's class is going on a trip today.
's or s' is added to the end of a singular noun that end in "s"
- Chris' car is black.
- Chris's car is black.
- Our boss's office is down the hall.
- Our boss' office is down the hall.
s' added to the end of a plural noun that do not end in "s":
- The children's room needs to be painted.
- The women's workroom has new furniture.
- The men's uniforms are ready for them to wear.
- The deer's cages are clean. | <urn:uuid:34edcb85-146b-418e-af63-ea701412505b> | {
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So what is this #10minwalk campaign all about?
Read all about it in these F.A.Q.’s from The Trust For Public Land
Why do we need more parks?
As new research from The Trust for Public Land shows, one in three Americans don’t have a park or
open space within a 10-minute walk (or half-mile) of home. Working across cities and public/private/
philanthropic partnerships, our goal is to improve park access so that all Americans have a quality park
within a 10-minute walk.
Why are parks important?
Parks improve the physical, social, environmental, and economic health of communities:
- Health: Across all age groups, greater access to parks is associated with reduced stress, reduced
risk of depression, and greater mental health and well-being.
- Environment: A city of well-connected green spaces is more resilient to extreme environmental
events, such as heat waves and extreme rainfall.
- Economic: City parks and other urban natural areas produce benefits with estimated values of up to
$6.8 billion annually. In 2013, America’s local and regional public park agencies generated nearly
$140 billion in economic activity and supported almost 1 million jobs from their operations and
capital spending alone.
- Community: Urban parks stimulate social cohesion and foster community among different
demographic groups. Local parks have been found to be the common factor for city dwellers
developing stronger social ties with their neighbors.
What are American mayors announcing on October 10th?
More than 130 mayors from across the country, cities big and small, and The U.S. Conference of Mayors
have all joined this unprecedented campaign – led by The Trust for Public Land, in partnership with National
Recreation and Park Association and the Urban Land Institute – to improve access to public parks and open
spaces for all Americans.
Is this a bipartisan movement?
Mayors on both sides of the aisle have joined this campaign. All cities benefit from parks!
What resources exist to help cities achieve this goal?
We’re leading a national campaign to ensure that every person in America has access to a quality park
within a 10-minute walk of home. But the scope of the problem we’re working to solve—that is, how many
Americans live within a 10-minute walk of a park, and how many don’t—had never been fully calculated.
The tools just didn’t exist—so we built them. The Trust for Public Land’s ParkServe® platform allows users
to explore how many people have access to a park, at any scale—from neighborhood to nationwide. Now
everyone, from city officials and urban planners to students and grassroots activists, can easily explore local
park systems and advocate for more and better parks in their communities.
What happens after October 10th?
The launch is simply the kick-off. This campaign will continue for the coming years, and we will be adding
more cities and mayors over time. In addition, we will work directly with mayors, city officials, and partners in
select cities via a technical assistance competition to help them develop targets and strategies for advancing
the 10-minute walk.
How many people in Burlington live within a 10-minute walk of a park?
Through the ParkServe® platform, The Trust for Public Land is in the midst of mapping park access for 14,000
cities and towns across America, meaning that for the first time in history, all parks in cities and towns will be
mapped. As of campaign launch, ParkServe currently includes data analysis for more than 100,000 parks in
close to 7,700 communities. They expect to complete this process in the spring.
How many parks will our city need to build in order to ensure 100 percent of the population
lives within a 10-minute walk of a park? How much will all of this park-building cost us?
Where is the money going to come from to build all these parks? Who will pay for this?
Because The Trust for Public Land is still in the process of mapping park access for America’s cities, we’re not
at the stage to be able to quantify exact costs and total number of parks required to achieve this goal. We
know that nationally thousands of new parks will need to be created to achieve the goal of a 10-minute walk
to a park for all. In each city, the number of new parks required will depend on the city’s approach, including
its ability to eliminate barriers to existing parks (for example, by building a pedestrian bridge), as well as its
ability to open school playgrounds to the public after hours.
While we wholeheartedly support any investment in parks, improving park access and quality will not
necessarily require major investment of new funds. Existing federal, state, and city infrastructure funding can
support park building, renovation, and maintenance, especially for parks that provide active transportation
options, help manage stormwater, and offer other benefits. Additionally, creative financing measures for urban
parks can help cities create dedicated funding streams for capital investments, maintenance, and operations.
No matter what resources it takes to address this issue, we know that one in three Americans currently don’t
have a park or green space within a 10-minute walk of home. And even for those that do, many of those
spaces are uninviting, underfunded, and haven’t reached their potential. Everyone deserves a park—and this
campaign marks an historic turning point toward creating great parks for all.
Our city has a wide variety of social problems and spending needs (e.g. rising number
of homeless; economic inequality and lack of affordable housing; and inadequate
infrastructure / public transportation.) Why is building parks more important?
Research shows that parks help address the many challenges cities face, from ensuring community health
and vitality, to mitigating the impacts of climate change, to addressing inequities among residents. For
example, greenways can alleviate transportation and infrastructure challenges and new parks can be
integrated into large-scale planning for affordable housing and development.
This campaign isn’t about parks versus other priorities. Parks are an essential component of healthy livable
communities, along with affordable housing, improved infrastructure, and good schools. All of these
priorities complement and support each other to create great quality of life for everyone in America. | <urn:uuid:fece5b5e-1ebb-45ea-be06-da6c02a54874> | {
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- Aircraft registration
Aircraft registration A Van's Aircraft RV-7 displaying registration G-KELS. The G prefix denotes a civil aircraft registered in the United Kingdom
An aircraft registration is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies a civil aircraft, in similar fashion to a licence plate on an automobile. In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation all aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority and they must carry proof of this registration in the form of a legal document called a Certificate of Registration at all times when in operation. Most countries also require the aircraft registration to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage for the purposes of post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation.
Because airplanes typically display their registration numbers on the aft fuselage just forward of the tail, in earlier times more often on the tail itself, the registration is often referred to as the "tail number".
Although each aircraft registration is unique, some, but not all countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F. It had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza (specifically, the aircraft in which Buddy Holly was killed). Also note that an individual aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft changes ownership, state of registration, or in some cases for vanity reasons. An example of this is Middle East Airlines which has changed registrations on part of its Airbus A321-200 fleet from French registrations to Lebanese ones.
Certificate of Registration
The Certificate of Registration contains contact information used by national authorities for enforcement purposes, and for the purposes of disseminating Airworthiness Directives to aircraft owners. Most national authorities require that the aircraft owner update said contact information immediately or as soon as possible any time there is a change in the same.
for information about registering aircraft ELTs.
The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913. This was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23, 1913. Although initial allocations were not specifically for aircraft but for any radio user, the International Air Navigation Convention held in Paris in 1919 made allocations specifically for aircraft registrations based on the 1913 callsign list. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a hyphen then a group of four letters that must include a vowel (and for the convention Y was considered to be a vowel).
At the International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 the list of markings was revised and adopted from 1928, these allocations are the basis of the currently used registrations. The marking have been amended and added to over the years and the allocations and standard are managed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
Article 20 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (signed in 1944) requires that all signatory countries register aircraft over a certain weight with a national aviation authority. Upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique "registration" which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft.
Annex 7 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation describes the definitions, location, and measurement of nationality and registration marks. The aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the country's callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (making the registration a quick way of determining the country of origin) and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code and consists of one to five digits or characters respectively.
The ICAO provides a supplement to Annex 7 which provides an updated list of approved Nationality and Common Marks used by various countries.
When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are separated by a dash (for example YR-BMA), but when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted (for example YRBMA). In the United States, the prefix and suffix are painted without a dash. Aircraft flying privately usually use their registration as their radio callsign, but many aircraft flying in commercial operations (especially charter, cargo, and airlines) use the ICAO airline designator or a company callsign. In some instances, it may be sufficient to simply display the suffix letters, with the country prefix omitted. For example, gliders registered in Australia would omit the VH prefix and simply display the suffix. Obviously this is only suitable where the aircraft does not fly in the airspace of another country.
Even if the suffix consists solely of alphabetical characters in a certain country, gliders and ultralights may sometimes use digits instead. For example, in Germany, D-ABCD can be a powered airplane while D-1234 is a glider. In Australia, early glider registration suffixes began with the letters "G-AU", and it is not uncommon to find such gliders only displaying the last two letters of the suffix, as they lacked the range to travel internationally. For example, VH-GIQ would simply be displayed as IQ.
Different countries have different registration schemes: Canadian registrations start with C, British with G, German with D, and so forth. A comprehensive list is tabulated below.
In the United States, the registration number is also referred to as an "N-number", as all aircraft registered there have a number starting with N. An alpha-numeric system is used because of the large numbers of aircraft registered in the United States. An N-number may only consist of one to five characters, must start with a digit other than zero, and cannot end in a run of more than two letters. In addition, N-numbers may not contain the letters I or O, due to their similarities with the numerals 1 and 0.
Each alphabetic character in the suffix can have one of 24 discrete values, while each numeric digit can be one of 10, except the first, which can take on only nine values. This yields a total of 915,399 possible registration numbers in the namespace, though certain combinations are reserved either for government use or for other special purposes. With so many possible calls radio shortcuts are used. Normally when flying entirely within the United States an aircraft would not identify itself starting with "N", since that is assumed. Also, after initial contact is made with an aircraft control site only the last two or three characters are typically used.
The following are the combinations that could be used:
- N1 to N9 — Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) internal use only
- N1A to N9Z
- N1AA to N9ZZ
- N10 to N99 — Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) internal use only
- N10A to N99Z
- N10AA to N99ZZ
- N100 to N999
- N100A to N999Z
- N100AA to N999ZZ
- N1000 to N9999
- N1000A to N9999Z
- N10000 to N99999
An older aircraft (registered before 31 December 1948) may have a second letter in its identifier, identifying the category of aircraft. This additional letter is not actually part of the aircraft identification (e.g. NC12345 is the same registration as N12345). Aircraft category letters have not been included on any registration numbers issued since 1 January 1949, but they still appear on antique aircraft for authenticity purposes. The categories were:
- C = airline, commercial and private
- G = glider
- L = limited
- R = restricted (such as cropdusters and racing aircraft)
- S = state
- X = experimental
Decolonisation and independence
The impact of decolonisation and independence on aircraft registration schemes has varied from place to place. Most countries on independence have had a new allocation granted taken from either an existing ITU allocation or the former countries ITU allocation. For example after partition in 1947 India retained the VT designation used by the British Raj, while Pakistan adopted the AP designation from the newly allocated ITU callsigns APA-ASZ. Hong Kong, which formerly used the VR-H designation, had the "VR" replaced with the Chinese "B" upon the 1997 Handover to China, resulting in aircraft designations with only four letters in total (as opposed to the international norm of five letters).
List of countries/regions and their registration prefixes and patterns
Country / Region Registration Prefix Presentation Afghanistan YA YA-AAA to YA-ZZZ Albania ZA ZA-AAA to ZA-ZZZ Algeria 7T 7T-AAA to 7T-ZZZ Andorra C3 C3-AAA to C3-ZZZ Angola D2 D2-AAA to D2-ZZZ Anguilla VP-A VP-AAA to VP-AZZ Antigua and Barbuda V2 V2-AAA to V2-ZZZ Argentina LV
LV-AAA to LV-ZZZ
LQ-AAA to LQ-ZZZ (Official use only)
Armenia EK EK-10000 to EK-99999 Aruba P4 P4-AAA to P4-ZZZ Australia VH VH-AAA to VH-ZZZ Austria OE OE-AAA to OE-KZZ
OE-BAA to OE-BZZ (governmental service)
OE-LAA to OE-LZZ (airlines operating scheduled flights)
OE-VAA to OE-VZZ (test registrations)
OE-WAA to OE-WZZ (amphibian and sea planes)
OE-XAA to OE-XZZ (helicopters)
OE-0001 to OE-5999 (gliders)
OE-9000 to OE-9999 (motor gliders)
Azerbaijan 4K 4K-AZ1 to 4K-AZ999
4K-10000 to 4K-99999
Bahamas C6 C6-AAA to C6-ZZZ Bahrain A9C A9C-AA to A9C-ZZ Bangladesh S2 S2-AAA to S2-ZZZ Barbados 8P 8P-AAA to 8P-ZZZ Belarus EW EW-10000 to EW-99999 (ex-Soviet Union registrations)
EW-100AA to EW-999ZZ Aircraft in general, except:
EW-200PA to EW-299PA for Boeing 737
EW-100PJ to ER-299PJ for CRJ
EW-001PA, EW-85815 governmental
EW-0001L to EW-9999L for balloons
Belgium OO OO-AAA to OO-ZZZ (OO-Q never used)
OO-BAA to OO-BZZ (preferred for Balloons)
OO-YAA to OO-ZAA (preferred for gliders)
OO-01 to OO-499 (Homebuilt aircraft)
OO-501 to OO-999 & OO-A01 to OO-Z99 (Microlights)
Belize V3 V3-AAA to V3-ZZZ Benin TY TY-AAA to TY-ZZZ Bermuda VP-B, VQ-B VP-BAA to VP-BZZ, VQ-BAA to VQ-BZZ Bhutan A5 A5-AAA to A5-ZZZ Bolivia CP CP-1000 to CP-9999 Bosnia and Herzegovina T9 T9-AAA to T9-ZZZ Bosnia and Herzegovina E7 E7-AAA to E7-ZZZ Botswana A2 A2-AAA to A2-ZZZ Brazil PP
PP-AAA to PP-ZZZ
PR-AAA to PR-ZZZ
PT-AAA to PT-ZZZ
PU-AAA to PU-ZZZ (Microlights/Experimental aircraft)
British Virgin Islands VP-L VP-LAA to VP-LZZ Brunei V8 V8-AAA to V8-ZZZ
V8-AA1 to V8-ZZ9
V8-001 to V8-999
Bulgaria LZ LZ-AAA to LZ-ZZZ Burkina Faso XT XT-AAA to XT-ZZZ Burundi 9U 9U-AAA to 9U-ZZZ Cambodia XU XU-AAA to XU-ZZZ Cameroon TJ TJ-AAA to TJ-ZZZ Canada C C-FAAA to C-FZZZ
C-GAAA to C-GZZZ
C-IAAA to C-IZZZ (ultralight aeroplanes only)
Cape Verde D4 D4-AAA to D4-ZZZ Cayman Islands VP-C VP-CAA to VP-CZZ Central African Republic TL TL-AAA to TL-ZZZ Chad TT TT-AAA to TT-ZZZ Chile CC CC-AAA to CC-ZZZ
CC-CAA to CC-CZZ (commercial aircraft)
CC-PAA to CC-PZZ (private aircraft)
Republic of China (Taiwan) B B-10000 to B-99999 People's Republic of China B B-1000 to B-9999 Hong Kong, China B-H (formerly VR-H)
B-HAA to B-HZZ
B-KAA to B-KZZ
B-LAA to B-LZZ
Macau, China B-M (formerly CS- during Portuguese rule before 1999) B-MAA to B-MZZ Colombia HJ
HJ-1000A to HJ-9999Z (Microlights)
HK-1000A to HK-9999Z
Comoros D6 D6-AAA to D6-ZZZ Congo, Republic of TN TN-AAA to TN-ZZZ Cook Islands E5 E5-AAA to E5-ZZZ Congo, Democratic Republic of 9Q 9Q-AAA to 9Q-ZZZ Costa Rica TI TI-AAA to TI-ZZZ Côte d'Ivoire TU TU-AAA to TU-ZZZ Croatia 9A 9A-AAA to 9A-ZZZ
9A-GAA to 9A-GZZ (Gliders)
9A-HAA to 9A-HZZ (Helicopters)
Cuba CU CU-C1000 to CU-C1999 (Airlines, cargo operations)
CU-E1000 to CU-E1999 (Agricultural Aircraft)
CU-H1000 to CU-H1999 (Helicopters)
CU-N1000 to CU-N1999 (Private Aircraft)
CU-T1000 to CU-T1999 (Airlines, passenger flights)
CU-U1000 to CU-U1999 (Ultralights)
Cyprus, Republic of 5B 5B-AAA to 5B-ZZZ Czech Republic OK OK-AAA to OK-ZZZ
OK-AAA 00 to OK-ZZZ 99 (Microlights)
OK-0000 to OK-9999 (Gliders & balloons)
OK-A000 to OK-A999 (Ultralight gliders)
Denmark OY N2 OY-AAA to OY-ZZZ
OY-HAA to OY-HZZ (Helicopters)
Djibouti J2 J2-AAA to J2-ZZZ Dominica J7 J7-AAA to J7-ZZZ Dominican Republic HI HI-100AA to HI-999ZZ East Timor 4W N1 Ecuador HC HC-AAA to HC-ZZZ Egypt SU SU-AAA to SU-XXZ
SU-ZAA to SU-ZZZ
El Salvador YS YS-AAA to YS-ZZZ Equatorial Guinea 3C 3C-AAA to 3C-ZZZ Eritrea E3 E3-AAAA to E3-ZZZZ Estonia ES ES-AAA to ES-ZZZ Ethiopia ET ET-AAA to ET-ZZZ Falkland Islands VP-F VP-FAA to VP-FZZ Faroe Islands OY N2 OY-AAA to OY-ZZZ
OY-HAA to OY-HZZ (Helicopters)
OY-XAA to OY-XZZ (Gliders)
Fiji Islands DQ DQ-AAA to DQ-ZZZ Finland OH OH-AAA to OH-ZZZ
OH-001 to OH-999 (gliders)
OH-G001 to OH-G999 (autogyros)
OH-U001 to OH-U999 (ultralights)
France F F-AAAA to F-ZZZZ
F-CAAA to F-CZZZ (Gliders)
F-OAAA to F-OZZZ (Overseas Territories)
F-PAAA to F-PZZZ (Homebuilt)
F-WAAA to F-WZZZ (Test and Delivery)
F-ZAAA to F-ZZZZ (State owned)
"department number"-AA to -ZZ & -AAA to -ZZZ (Ultralights)[e.g.: 59-ABC]
French West Indies F-OG F-OGAA to F-OGZZ French Guyana F-O F-OAAA to F-OZZZ Gabon TR TR-AAA to TR-ZZZ Gambia C5 C5-AAA to C5-ZZZ Georgia 4L 4L-AAA to 4L-ZZZ
4L-10000 to 4L-99999
Germany D D-AAAA to D-AZZZ for aircraft with more than 20t MTOW
D-BAAA to D-BZZZ for aircraft with 14t-20t MTOW
D-CAAA to D-CZZZ for aircraft with 5,7t-14t MTOW
D-EAAA to D-EZZZ for single engine aircraft up to 2t MTOW
D-FAAA to D-FZZZ for single engine aircraft from to 2t-5,7t MTOW
D-GAAA to D-GZZZ for multi-engine aircraft up to 2t MTOW
D-IAAA to D-IZZZ for multi-engine aircraft from 2t-5,7t MTOW
D-HAAA to D-HZZZ for rotorcraft
D-KAAA to D-KZZZ for powered gliders
D-LAAA to D-LZZZ for airships
D-MAAA to D-MZZZ for powered sports aircraft
D-NAAA to D-NZZZ for non-powered sports aircraft
D-OAAA to D-OZZZ for manned free ballons
D-0001 to D-9999 for Gliders
Ghana 9G 9G-AAA to 9G-ZZZ Gibraltar VP-G VP-GAA to VP-GZZ Greece SX SX-AAA to SX-ZZZ Greenland OY N2 OY-AAA to OY-ZZZ Grenada J3 J3-AAA to J3-ZZZ Guatemala TG TG-AAA to TG-ZZZ Guinea 3X 3X-AAA to 3X-ZZZ Guinea Bissau J5 J5-AAA to J5-ZZZ Guyana 8R 8R-AAA to 8R-ZZZ Haiti HH HH-AAA to HH-ZZZ Honduras HR HR-AAA to HR-ZZZ Hungary HA HA-AAA to HA-ZZZ Iceland TF TF-AAA to TF-ZZZ
TF-100 to TF-999 (Microlights)
India VT VT-AAA to VT-ZZZ
VT-HAA to VT-HZZ (Helicopters)
Indonesia PK PK-AAA to PK-ZZZ Iran EP EP-AAA to EP-ZZZ Iraq YI YI-AAA to YI-ZZZ Ireland EI EI-AAA to EI-ZZZ Isle of Man M M-AAAA to M-ZZZZ Israel 4X 4X-AAA to 4X-ZZZ Italy I I-AAAA to I-ZZZZ Jamaica 6Y 6Y-AAA to 6Y-ZZZ Japan JA JA-0001 to JA-9999
JA-001A to JA-999Z
JA-01AA to JA-99ZZ
JA-A001 to JA-A999 (Balloons)
Jordan JY JY-AAA to JY-ZZZ Kazakhstan UP UP-AAA01 to UP-ZZZ99 (Suffix letters refer to aircraft type) Kenya 5Y 5Y-AAA to 5Y-ZZZ Kiribati T3 T3-AAA to T3-ZZZ Korea, People's Democratic Rep. P P-500 to P-999 Korea, Republic of HL HL0000 to HL0599 for glider
HL0600 to HL0799 for airship
HL1000 to HL1799 for piston engine
HL2000 to HL2099 for piston engine
HL5100 to HL5499 for turbo prop
HL6100 to HL6199
HL6200 to HL6299
HL7100 to HL7199 for single turbojet
HL7200 to HL7299
HL7300 to HL7399
HL7400 to HL7499
HL7500 to HL7599
HL7600 to HL7699
HL8200 to HL8299
HL8400 to HL8499
HL8600 to HL8699
HL9100 to HL9199
HL9200 to HL9299
HL9200 to HL9299
HL9300 to HL9399
HL9400 to HL9499
HL9500 to HL9599
HL9600 to HL9699
Kuwait 9K 9K-AAA to 9K-ZZZ Kyrgyzstan EX EX-100 to EX-999
EX-10000 to EX-99999
Laos RDPL RDPL-10000 to RDPL-99999 Latvia YL YL-AAA to YL-ZZZ Lebanon OD OD-AAA to OD-ZZZ Lesotho 7P 7P-AAA to 7P-ZZZ Liberia A8 A8-AAA to A8-ZZZ Libya 5A 5A-AAA to 5A-ZZZ Liechtenstein HB HB-AAA to HB-ZZZ (shares allocation with Switzerland) Lithuania LY LY-AAA to LY-ZZZ Luxembourg LX LX-AAA to LX-ZZZ
LX-BAA to LX-BZZ (Balloons)
LX-CAA to LX-CZZ (Glider)
LX-HAA to LX-HZZ (Helicopters)
LX-XAA to LX-XZZ (Ultralights)
Macedonia Z3 Z3-AAA to Z3-ZZZ
Z3-HAA to Z3-HZZ (Helicopters)
Z3-UA-001 to Z3-UA-999 (Ultralight)
Z3-OAA to Z3-OZZ (Hot air balloons)
Madagascar 5R 5R-AAA to 5R-ZZZ Malawi 7Q 7Q-AAA to 7Q-ZZZ Malaysia 9M 9M-AAA to 9M-ZZZ
9M-EAA to 9M-EZZ (Amateur-built)
9M-UAA to 9M-UZZ (Microlight)
Maldives 8Q 8Q-AAA to 8Q-ZZZ Mali TZ TZ-AAA to TZ-ZZZ Malta 9H 9H-AAA to 9H-ZZZ Marshall Islands V7 V7-0001 to V7-9999 Mauritania 5T 5T-AAA to 5T-ZZZ Mauritius 3B 3B-AAA to 3B-ZZZ Mexico XA
XA-AAA to XA-ZZZ
XB-AAA to XB-ZZZ
XC-AAA to XC-ZZZ
Micronesia, Federated States of V6 V6-AAA to V6-ZZZ Moldova ER ER-AAA to ER-ZZZ
ER-10000 to ER-99999
Monaco 3A 3A-AAA to 3A-ZZZ
3A-HAA to 3A-HZZ (Helicopters)
Mongolia JU JU-1000 to JU-9999 Montenegro 4O 4O-AAA to 4O-ZZZ Montserrat VP-M VP-MAA to VP-MZZ Morocco CN CN-AAA to CN-ZZZ Mozambique C9 C9-AAA to C9-ZZZ Myanmar XY
XY-AAA to XY-ZZZ
XZ-AAA to XZ-ZZZ (Not Used)
Namibia V5 V5-AAA to V5-ZZZ Nauru C2 C2-AAA to C2-ZZZ Nepal 9N 9N-AAA to 9N-ZZZ Netherlands PH PH-AAA to PH-ZZZ
PH-1A1 to PH-9Z9 (Microlights)
PH-100 to PH-9999 (Gliders)
Netherlands Antilles PJ PJ-AAA to PJ-ZZZ New Zealand ZK ZK-A**, ZK-B**, ZK-GA*, ZK-HA* reserved for historical aircraft including helicopters and gliders since 1987
ZK-FA*, ZK-FB* balloons
ZK-H**, ZK-I** helicopters
ZK-RA*, ZK-RB*, ZK-RC*, ZK-RD* gyrocopters
ZK-Q** marks are prohibited by ICAO
Remainder for fixed-wing aircraft
Nicaragua YN YN-AAA to YN-ZZZ Niger 5U 5U-AAA to 5U-ZZZ Nigeria 5N 5N-AAA to 5N-ZZZ Norway LN LN-AAA to LN-ZZZ Aircraft in general, except:
LN-Y**, Ultralight Aircraft
Oman A4O A4O-AA to A4O-ZZ Pakistan AP AP-AAA to AP-ZZZ Palestine SU-Y
SU-YAA to SU-YZZ
Panama HP HP-1000AA to HP-9999ZZ Papua New Guinea P2 P2-AAA to P2-ZZZ Paraguay ZP ZP-AAA to ZP-ZZZ Peru OB OB-1000 to OB-9999 Philippines RP-C RP-C0001 to RP-C9999 Poland SP,SN SP-AAA to SP-ZZZ
SP-1000 to SP-3000, SP-8000 (gliders)
SP-SAAA to SP-SZZZ (ultralights)
SN-00AA (police and border guard)
Portugal CR CR-AAA to CR-ZZZ Portugal CS CS-AAA to CS-ZZZ Aircraft in general, except:
CS-U**, Ultralight Aircraft
Qatar A7 A7-AAA to A7-ZZZ Réunion Island F-OD F-ODAA to F-ODZZ Romania YR YR-AAA to YR-ZZZ
YR-1000 to YR-9999 (Gliders)
Russian Federation RA RA-00001 to RA-99999
RA-0001A to RA-9999Z
Russian Federation RF RF-00001 to RF-99999 (state-owned aircraft) Rwanda 9XR 9XR-AA to 9XR-ZZ Saint Helena/Ascension VQ-H VQ-HAA to VQ-HZZ Saint Kitts and Nevis V4 V4-AAA to V4-ZZZ Saint Lucia J6 J6-AAA to J6-ZZZ Saint Vincent and the Grenadines J8 J8-AAA to J8-ZZZ Samoa 5W 5W-AAA to 5W-ZZZ San Marino T7 T7-AAA to T7-ZZZ
T7-001 to T7-999 (Microlights)
São Tomé and Príncipe S9 S9-AAA to S9-ZZZ Saudi Arabia HZ HZ-AAA to HZ-ZZZ
HZ-AA1 to HZ-ZZ99
HZ-AAA1 to HZ-ZZZ99
HZ-AAAA to HZ-ZZZZ
Senegal 6V 6V-AAA to 6V-ZZZ Serbia YU YU-AAA to YU-ZZZ Seychelles S7 S7-AAA to S7-ZZZ Sierra Leone 9L 9L-AAA to 9L-ZZZ Singapore 9V 9V-AAA to 9V-ZZZ Slovakia OM OM-AAA to OM-ZZZ
OM-AAAA to OM-ZZZZ (Ultralight)
OM-M000 to OM-M999 (Microlights)
OM-0000 to OM-9999 (Gliders)
Slovenia S5 S5-AAA to S5-ZZZ
S5-HAA to S5-HZZ (Helicopters)
Solomon Islands H4 H4-AAA to H4-ZZZ Somalia 6O 6O-AAA to 6O-ZZZ South Africa ZS
ZS-AAA to ZS-ZZZ (type certified aircraft)
ZT-AAA to ZT-ZZZ (not used)
ZU-AAA to ZU-ZZZ (non-type certified aircraft)
South Sudan Spain EC EC-AAA to EC-WZZ
EC-YAA to EC-ZZZ (Homebuilt aircraft)
EC-AA0 to EC-ZZ9 (Ultralight)
EC-001 to EC-999 (Test and delivery)
Sri Lanka 4R 4R-AAA to 4R-ZZZ Sudan ST ST-AAA to ST-ZZZ Surinam PZ PZ-AAA to PZ-ZZZ Swaziland 3D 3D-AAA to 3D-ZZZ Sweden SE SE-AAA to SE-ZZZ
SE-YAA to SE-VZZ ultralights
Switzerland HB HB-AAA to HB-ZZZ
HB-1 to HB-9999 for Gliders and Motorgliders
Syria YK YK-AAA to YK-ZZZ Tahiti F-OH F-OHAA to F-OHZZ Tajikistan EY EY-10000 to EY-99999 Tanzania 5H 5H-AAA to 5H-ZZZ Thailand HS HS-AAA to HS-ZZZ Togo 5V 5V-AAA to 5V-ZZZ Tonga A3 A3-AAA to A3-ZZZ Trinidad and Tobago 9Y 9Y-AAA to 9Y-ZZZ Tunisia TS TS-AAA to TS-ZZZ Turkey TC TC-AAA to TC-ZZZ Turkmenistan EZ EZ-A100 to EZ-Z999 Turks and Caicos VQ-T VQ-TAA to VQ-TZZ Tuvalu T2 T2-AAA to T2-ZZZ Uganda 5X 5X-AAA to 5X-ZZZ Ukraine UR UR-AAA to UR-ZZZ
UR-10000 to UR-99999
United Arab Emirates A6 A6-AAA to A6-ZZZ United Kingdom G G-AAAA to G-ZZZZ
G-1-1 to G-99-99 (Test and delivery)
Concorde UK & US dual registration. During 1979-1980 6 British Airways Concordes (G-BOAA to G-BOAF) were re-registered G-N49AA, G-N94AB, G-N81AC, G-N94AD, G-N94AE, G-N94AF for temporary sale and use by Braniff Airways and temporary U.S. registration (with "G-" taped over during Braniff use). After end of Braniff operation in 1980 Concordes reverted to G-BOA_ registration. Final letter of registration stayed throughout.
United Nations 4U 4U-AAA to 4U-ZZZ United States of America N N1 to N99999
N1A to N9999Z
N1AA to N999ZZ
Uruguay CX CX-AAA to CX-ZZZ Uzbekistan UK UK-10000 to UK-99999 Vanuatu YJ YJ-AA1 to YJ-ZZ99 Venezuela YV YV0001 to YV9999
YV-0001A to YV-9999P
YV-AAA1 to YV-ZZZ9 (Official use)
Vietnam VN VN-1000 to VN-9999
VN-A100 to VN-A999
Yemen 7O 7O-AAA to 7O-ZZZ Zambia 9J 9J-AAA to 9J-ZZZ Zimbabwe Z Z-AAA to Z-ZZZ
- ^ Has not been used on any aircraft previously.
- ^ OY-Hab is reserved for helicopters, OY-Xab is for gliders only and OY-Bab is preferred for hot-air balloons.
Note: in the suffix pattern, n represents a number, x represents a letter
Country / Region Registration Prefix Suffix Pattern 1913 radio call letters Abyssinia A-B[Note 11] A-Bxxx Afghanistan Y-A[Note 13] Y-Axxx Albania B-A[Note 6] B-Axxx Argentina R-A[Note 9] R-Axxx LIA to LRZ Australia G-AU G-AUxx VHA to VKZ Austria-Hungary and Bosnia-Herzegovina HAA to HFZ, OGA to OMZ and UNA to UZZ Belgium O-B[Note 1] O-Bxxx ONA to OTZ Bolivia C-B[Note 1] C-Bxxx none Brazil P-B[Note 1] P-Bxxx SNA to STZ Canada G-C G-Cxxx, except G-CYxx VAA to VGZ (Newfoundland: VOA to VOZ) G-CY (military aircraft) G-CYxx Bulgaria B-B[Note 6] B-Bxxx LXA to LZZ Chile B-C[Note 10] B-Cxxx COA to CPZ China X-C[Note 1] X-Cxxx none Colombia C- C-n to C-nnn none Costa Rica K-C[Note 6] K-Cxxx Cuba C-C[Note 1] C-Cxxx none Czechoslovakia L-B[Note 1] L-Bxxx Danzig Y-M[Note 11] Y-Mxxx Not applicable Dz- Dz-nnn Denmark T-D[Note 4] T-Dxxx OUA to OZZ Dominica Z-D[Note 13] Z-Dxxx Ecuador E-E[Note 1][Note 5] E-Exxx Egypt SUA to SUZ El Salvador Y-S[Note 12] Y-Sxxx Estonia E-A[Note 8] E-Axxx Finland K-S[Note 8] K-Sxxx France F-[Note 1] F-xxxx F and UAA to UMZ Germany D- D-nnnn A, D and KAA to KCZ Greece S-G[Note 1] S-Gxxx SVA to SZZ Guatemala L-G[Note 1] L-Gxxx Haiti H-H[Note 1][Note 5] H-Hxxx Hedjaz A-H[Note 1] A-Hxxx Honduras X-H[Note 1] X-Hxxx Hungary H-H[Note 4] H-Hxxx H-O[Note 7] H-Oxxx India G-I G-Ixxx VTA to VWZ Italy I-[Note 1] I-xxxx I Japan J-[Note 1] J-xxxx J Latvia B-L[Note 3] B-Lxxx Liberia L-L[Note 1] L-Lxxx Lithuania Z-L[Note 8] Z-Lxxx Luxembourg L-U[Note 3] L-Uxxx Mexico XAA to XCZ Monaco M-M[Note 4] M-Mxxx CQA to CQZ M-O[Note 7] M-Oxxx Morocco CNA to CNZ Netherlands H-N[Note 2] H-Nxxx PAA to PMZ New Zealand G-NZ G-NZxx VLA to VMZ Nicaragura A-N[Note 1] A-Nxxx Norway LAA to LHZ Panama S-P[Note 1] S-Pxxx Persia P-I[Note 11] P-Ixxx Peru O-P[Note 1] O-Pxxx Poland P-P[Note 1] P-Pxxx Portugal C-P[Note 1] C-Pxxx CRA to CTZ Romania C-R[Note 1] C-Rxxx CVA to CVZ Russia R Serbia-Croatia-Slavonia X-S[Note 1] X-Sxxx Siam H-S[Note 1] H-Sxxx HGA to HHZ South Africa G-UA G-UAxx VNA to VNZ Spain M-[Note 2] M-xxxx EAA to EGZ Sweden S-A[Note 6] S-Axxx SAA to SMZ Switzerland C-H[Note 2] C-Hnnn United States of America N[Note 1] N-xxxx KDA to KZZ, N and W United Kingdom K K-nnn B, G and M (British colonies not autonomous: VPA to VSZ) G-E G-EAxx, G-EBxx, G-EDCA G-F (lighter than air craft) G-FAAx G-G (gliders) G-GAAx Uruguay C-U[Note 1][Note 5] C-Uxxx CWA to CWZ
- ^ Adopted at the International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN) meeting of 13 October 1919.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 13 July 1922.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 25 October 1922.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 28 February 1923.
- ^ The ICAN meeting of 28 February 1923 amended Ecuador's marks to E-U, Haiti's to H-E, and Uruguay's marks to C-M. They were restored to their original marks at the following meeting on 26 June.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 26 June 1923.
- ^ Amended at the ICAN meeting of 26 June 1923.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 3 March 1924.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 14 October 1924.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 6 April 1925.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 6 October 1925.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 3 November 1926.
- ^ Adopted at the ICAN meeting of 25 April 1927.
- Belgium aircraft registration and serials
- List of aircraft by tail number
- Tail Code
- Serial number
- United Kingdom aircraft registration
- United Kingdom military aircraft serials
- United States military aircraft serials
- ^ N3794N
- ^ a b c d FAA registration numbering scheme
- ^ , and
- ^ Tupolev Tu-154 Monography, Dimitry Komissarov, Aerofax 2007 (ISBN 1-85780-241-1)
- ^
- ^ Decree No. 155/2005 Coll. of the Ministry of Informatics of the Czech Republic, § 9 (3)h)
- ^ ITU code 'M' is registered to the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man is not a sovereign entity in international law.
- ^ Civil Aircraft Safety Authority (in Korean)
- ^ "Allocation of Aircraft Registration Marks". Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand. http://www.caa.govt.nz/aircraft/Allocation_Registration_Marks.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
- ^ a b c d e f Appleton, John; Cave, Ian G. British Civil Aircraft Registers 1919-1978. Earl Shilton: Midland Counties Publications. p. p7. ISBN 0-904597-15-6.
- ^ Used 1919-20, K-100 to K-175 allocated, reallocated to G-EAxx series in 1920. Appleton, John; Cave, Ian G. British Civil Aircraft Registers 1919-1978. Earl Shilton: Midland Counties Publications. p. p3. ISBN 0-904597-15-6.
- ^ "1919 Country Prefixes". Golden Years of Aviation. http://www.goldenyears.ukf.net/reg_1919.htm. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Additions to Registration marks 1919-1927". Golden Years of Aviation. http://www.goldenyears.ukf.net/reg_1919-27.htm. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
Lists relating to aviation General Military Accidents/incidents Records
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- Pope John XIV of Alexandria
Pope John XIV of Alexandria was the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark (
He joined the
Paromeos Monasteryin the Nitrian Desertbefore becoming a Pope.
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Pope Matthew I of Alexandria — (or Matheos) was the 87th Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark (1378–1408). He is revered as a saint by the Coptic Church. Contents 1 Early life 2 Priesthood 3 Coptic Pope … Wikipedia
Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria — Saint Dioscorus the Great Ⲡⲁⲡⲁ Ⲁⲃⲃⲁ Ⲇⲓⲟⲥⲕⲟⲣⲟⲥ ⲁ̅ The Champion of Orthodoxy Born Unknown Died 454 Gangra Island (Asia Minor) Honored in … Wikipedia
Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria — Cyril (Kyrillos) VI Pope and Patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Pope Cyril VI, 116th Pope of Alexandria Papacy began 10 May 1959 … Wikipedia
Pope John of Alexandria — John has been the papal name of several Coptic Popes.* Patriarch John II (I) of Alexandria (496–505) * Patriarch John III (II) of Alexandria (505–516) * Pope John III of Alexandria (677–688) * Pope John IV of Alexandria (776–799) * Pope John V of … Wikipedia
Pope John — has been the most common papal name in the Roman Catholic Church, used by 21 popes, though the numbering of them has been irregular through history due to antipopes and differences in old lists. The Latin name is Iohannes .# Pope John I (523–526) … Wikipedia
Pope John Paul II — John Paul II John Paul II in 1993 Papacy began 16 October 1978 Papacy ended 2 April 2005 ( 1000000000000002600000026 years, 1000000 … Wikipedia
Pope Clement XIV — Clement XIV Papacy began 19 May 1769 Papacy ended 22 September 1774 ( 100000000000000050000005 years, 10000000000000126000000126 days) … Wikipedia
Pope Gregory XIV — Gregory XIV Papacy began 5 December 1590 Papacy ended 16 October 1591 (10 months, 11 days) Predecessor Urban VII … Wikipedia
John — Contents 1 Religious figures 1.1 Papacy 2 Rulers and other political figures … Wikipedia
Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria — Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of all Africa redirects here. For Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa, see Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa. Bishop of Alexandria Bishopric … Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:22cecf1a-ae7e-44b5-a43b-19ef551c61ca> | {
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The Injil (Arabic إنجيل (or Injeel) is one of the five
Islamic Holy Booksthe Qur'anrecords as revealed by God, the others being the Suhuf Ibrahim, Zabur, Tawratand Qur'an.The word "Injil" is derived from Greek word "Ευαγγέλιον" (" evangelium).
Muslims generally believe the Gospel or the New Testament to have been corrupted over time. Some also hold the view that the "Injil" is a
lost book, different from the New Testament which was either written by the apostlesor people connected to them.
In the Qur'an
The word "Injil" occurs twelve times in the
Qur'an(III, 2, 43, 58; V, 50, 51, 70, 72, 110; VII, 156; IX, 112; XLVIII, 29; LVII, 27) and refers to the revelation transmitted by Isa (Jesus). The word also means the scripture possessed and read by the ChristianFact|date=July 2008 contemporaries of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad(V, 65 - 68; VII, 156) (that is, the four Gospels), often extended in current usage to mean the whole of the New Testament. Although the Qu'ran refers to the message of Isa, the contents of the revelation contained in the "Injil" transmitted by Isa is not known from the Qur'an.
Difference from the Gospels
Muslim scholars generally dispute that "Injil" refers to either the entire New Testament or the four Gospels. Others believe the "Injil" was not a physical book, but simply a set of teachings. The word "Injil" is used in the Qur'an, the
Hadithand early Muslim documents to refer specifically to the revelations made by God to Isa, and is used by both Muslims and some Arabic-speaking Christians today.
Accuracy and authority
Some Muslim scholars Who|date=March 2008 believe that the Injil has undergone
tahrif, that the meaning or words were distorted, passages were suppressed and others added. They point to the fact that Christians claim Jesus (who Muslims believe to be a revered but mortal Messenger of God) to be God incarnate or the Son of Godas definitive proof that the Injil as interpreted by modern Christians has been corrupted, given that this violates the unitary nature of God and monotheism ( tawheed).
Disputed areas of text within the "Injil" include references where
Jesusis called the Son of God by his followers and the events that occurred after Jesus' death. Muslims generally believe that instead of Jesus dying on the cross and then being resurrected, he was never crucified and but was taken into heaven.
Although parts of the "Injil" are generally believed to have been corrupted over time, the original "Injil" is, nonetheless, a revelation from God to Isa in the eyes of Muslims. It is therefore treated as such, and belief in it is necessary, as is prescribed by one of the six Islamic
articles of faith.
Many Muslims still believe that, of the books sent by God ("al-kutub"), only the Qur’an does not suffer from "tahrif" and is considered to be flawless (in contrast to Tawrat, Zabur and Injil) and still existing (in contrast to the
Biblical narratives and the Qur'an
Christianity and Islam
List of Christian terms in Arabic
* [http://www.thetruecall.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=129 Islamic View of the Bible]
* [http://injil.org/Kalimatullah/revelations.html#Heading4 A discussion of the Injil and some other scriptures]
* [http://seekingilm.com/archives/117 Study regarding the Injeel]
* [http://www.ummah.net/what-is-islam/scriptur/scripti.htm An additional Islamic view from Ummah.net]
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Injil — (en arabe إنجيل), est un terme arabe qui traduit le grec εὐαγγέλιον qui a donné le mot français évangile. Il désigne la révélation proclamée par Jésus de Nazareth au premier siècle de l’ère chrétienne. Ce mot arabe a donné lieu à des… … Wikipédia en Français
Injil — Indschil [ɪnˈʤiːl], in anderen Umschriften oft Injil (arabisch إنجيل), ist ein arabischer Ausdruck für das griechische εὐαγγέλιον, eu angelion (Evangelium) und bezieht sich auf die durch Jesus von Nazareth überlieferte Offenbarung. Im Koran… … Deutsch Wikipedia
Injil — Original name in latin Injl Name in other language Enjeel, Enjil, Enjl, Injil, Injl, anjyl State code AF Continent/City Asia/Kabul longitude 34.30157 latitude 62.2465 altitude 937 Population 0 Date 2012 02 28 … Cities with a population over 1000 database
Injil — Admin ASC 2 Code Orig. name Injīl Country and Admin Code AF.11.7053041 AF … World countries Adminstrative division ASC I-II
Injil District — Injil is a district of Herat province in northwestern Afghanistan. It surrounds Herat City and borders Kushk District to the north, Karukh District to the east, Guzara District to the south, and Zinda Jan District to the west. The population of… … Wikipedia
Injil, Afghanistan — Infobox Settlement official name =Injil, Afghanistan other name = native name = nickname = settlement type = motto = imagesize = 300px image caption = flag size = image seal size = image shield = shield size = image blank emblem = blank emblem… … Wikipedia
Tahrif — (Arabic: ar. تحريف corruption, forgery ; the stem II verbal noun of the consonantal root ArabDIN|ḥrf , to make oblique ) is an Arabic term used by Muslims with regard to words, and more specifically with regard to what Islamic tradition supposes… … Wikipedia
Tawrat — (Tawrah or Taurat, Arabic: توراة) is the Arabic transliteration of the Hebrew word Torah (also known as the Five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch ) which Muslims believe was a holy book of Islam given by God to Musa (Moses). Some Who|date=July… … Wikipedia
Islamic holy books — and the Qur an.Other possible books or prophetsThe Qur an does not exclude the possibility that additional holy books were sent to other prophets, but does not mention many. It is standard Islamic belief that all holy scriptures except the Qur an … Wikipedia
Jesus in Islam — Isa redirects here. For other uses, see Isa (disambiguation). This article is part of th … Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:36c0b6af-a899-4d92-aa2e-31989f5a46aa> | {
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1. In Greek mythology, Athena was the name of Greek goddess, daughter of Zeus and Metis. Chronologically, she was Zeus' first child. She is the Goddess of Wisdom, Common Sense and Handiwork. In the days that Zeus was still fighting to establish his supremacy, and Typhon seemed to be winning, all the other Gods had fled, except for Athena, who stood by her father. Together they defeated Typhon. Since then, Athena also became the Goddess of Martial Arts and War. (Later on, Ares too became 'responsible' for the war-department). One of her attributes, is the owl, symbolizing wisdom, and the all seeing eye. (Owls can see in the dark, so they can see what others cannot; hence the idea that they are all seeing). Her Latin name is Minerva. | <urn:uuid:012ffe06-a31f-4d38-ad00-d8ca191c0d52> | {
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Al was a way for setting a prices
Al Smith ~ Al Smith was the Democratic U.S. presidential candidate in the year of 1928. He is significant because he ran for President as a major party nominee, but lost the election to Herbert Hoover.American Plan ~ The american plan was a business approach for worker connections which was big in firms in order to defeat unions. They insisted on an open shop than a closed shop which labor activists wanted.Harlem Renaissance ~ Harlem Renaissance was a movement which took place when a NYC neighborhood was the center of African American culture. It is significant because it did not have much impact to the point where a lot of Americans didn’t realize a change had happened.KKK~ The KKK was made by white people who wanted to maintain white supremacy in the South. It is significant because they used violence, lynching, murder, and oppressed minorities.Margaret Sanger ~ Margaret Sanger founded the American Birth Control League. It is significant because she started discussions like menstruation, prevention of pregnancy, stop to poverty, abuse, and premature death.Parity ~ Parity was a way for setting a prices for farm goods. It is significant because it allowed farmers to earn back their work costs even if the market would change at times.Sinclair Lewis ~ Sinclair Lewis wrote Main Street which talked about life in a prairie town. It is significant because it shows the life of old-fashioned rural and their towns values.Teapot Dome ~ Teapot Dome was a scandal that occurred under Warren G. Harding presidency. It is significant because it was the most corrupt administration because of the many bribes that took place.Jazz Singer ~ Jazz singer was a movie about Al Jolson who was a famous jazz singer. It is significant because it was the first movie to actually have sound.Welfare Capitalism ~ Welfare capitalism was a way that companies were able to meet their workers’ needs. It is significant because it stopped strikes from happening and kept labors working at all times.Scopes Monkey Trial ~ The Scopes Monkey Trial was a case in which Professor Scopes was teaching evolution which was against the law. It is significant because even though he found guilty, evolutionists won in a way because Darrow (attorney) had Bryan (argued for prosecution) confess what he thought about evolution. H. L. Mencken ~ H.L.Mencken was a journalist who is an influential writer. It is significant because he was known for his satirical report on the Scopes Monkey Trial.Langston Hughes ~ Langston Hughes was an African American poet who brought attention to the culture of African American with rhythms of jazz. He is significant because he was major figure on the Harlem Renaissance.Lost Generation ~ The list generation were a group of writers who shared the belief that they were lost in the materialistic world that had no moral values. It is significant because they fled to Europe in order to escape and find values mostly in places such as Paris. National Origins Act of 1924 ~ National Origins Act was a law which restricted immigration by showing inequality against immigrants from Europe. It is significant because it was supported by KKK and stayed in effect for a period of time. A. Philip Randolph ~ A. Philip Randolph had led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters as a civil rights leader. He is significant because he demanded that FDR create a Fair Employment Commission to fine job discrimination. Herbert Hoover ~ Herbert Hoover was a president who was blamed for the Great Depression. He is significant because he tried to use government power to bring on recovery, yet his direct relief brought disaster to his programs and his presidency. Alain Locke ~ Alain Locke wrote New Negro which became a bible in a way for the New Negro Movement. It is significant because shows how the “New Negro” is racially proud and politically vigorous. Automobile ~ With the creation of automobiles it took place of the railroad industry as a campaigner of the economy especially with highway construction which depended on the industry. It is significant because they impacted the lives of Americans by giving them access to do things which are for their interest. Issei ~ Issei were Japanese immigrants during the war who couldn’t have U.S. citizenship because their race held them back from it. It is significant because it was a term used in America to distinguish Japanese people. | <urn:uuid:a4bdeba5-abc0-4072-99f3-2c6cd4fd763d> | {
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The pair continued the daily routine until May 21,when Ueno did not return.
Japanese style has always favoured ambiguityand the particles of speech necessary for easy comprehension of a statement are often omitted as unnecessary or as fussily precise. In many cases, ready comprehension of a simple sentence depends on a familiarity with the background of a particular period of history.
Despite the great difficulties arising from such idiosyncrasies of style, Japanese literature of all periods is exceptionally appealing to modern readers, whether read in the original or in translation.
Because it is prevailingly subjective and coloured by an emotional rather than intellectual or moralistic tone, its themes have a universal quality almost unaffected by time.
Just as English borrowed words such as morality, honesty, justice, and the like from the Continent, the Japanese borrowed these terms from China ; but if the Japanese language was lacking in the vocabulary appropriate to a Confucian essayit could express almost infinite shadings of emotional content.
For the most part, however, Japanese writers, far from feeling dissatisfied with the limitations on expression imposed by their language, were convinced that virtuoso perfection in phrasing and an acute refinement of sentiment were more important to poetry than the voicing of intellectually satisfying concepts.
These codes of poetic dictionaccompanied by a considerable body of criticismwere the creation of an acute literary sensibility, fostered especially by the traditions of the court, and were usually composed by the leading poets or dramatists themselves.
These codes exerted an inhibiting effect on new forms of literary compositionbut they also helped to preserve a distinctively aristocratic tone. The Japanese language itself also shaped poetic devices and forms.
Japanese lacks a stress accent and meaningful rhymes all words end in one of five simple vowelstwo traditional features of poetry in the West. By contrast, poetry in Japanese is distinguished from prose mainly in that it consists of alternating lines of five and seven syllables ; however, if the intensity of emotional expression is low, this distinction alone cannot save a poem from dropping into prose.
The difficulty of maintaining a high level of poetic intensity may account for the preference for short verse forms that could be polished with perfectionist care. Instead, Japanese poets devoted their efforts to perfecting each syllable of their compositionsexpanding the content of a tanka by suggestion and allusionand prizing shadings of tone and diction more than originality or boldness of expression.
The fluid syntax of the prose affected not only style but content as well. The longer works accordingly betray at times a lack of overall structure of the kind associated in the West with Greek concepts of literary form but consist instead of episodes linked chronologically or by other associations.
The difficulty experienced by Japanese writers in organizing their impressions and perceptions into sustained works may explain the development of the diary and travel accountgenres in which successive days or the successive stages of a journey provide a structure for otherwise unrelated descriptions.
Japanese literature absorbed much direct influence from Chinabut the relationship between the two literatures is complex. Although the Japanese have been criticized even by some Japanese for their imitations of Chinese examples, the earliest Japanese novels in fact antedate their Chinese counterparts by centuries, and Japanese theatre developed quite independently.
Because the Chinese and Japanese languages are unrelated, Japanese poetry naturally took different forms, although Chinese poetic examples and literary theories were often in the minds of the Japanese poets.
Japanese and Korean may be related languages, but Korean literary influence was negligible, though Koreans served an important function in transmitting Chinese literary and philosophical works to Japan. Poetry and prose written in the Korean language were unknown to the Japanese until relatively modern times.
From the 8th to the 19th century Chinese literature enjoyed greater prestige among educated Japanese than their own; but a love for the Japanese classics, especially those composed at the court in the 10th and 11th centuries, gradually spread among the entire people and influenced literary expression in every form, even the songs and tales composed by humble people totally removed from the aristocratic world portrayed in classical literature.
Origins The first writing of literature in Japanese was occasioned by influence from China.
The Japanese were still comparatively primitive and without writing when, in the first four centuries ce, knowledge of Chinese civilization gradually reached them.
They rapidly assimilated much of this civilization, and the Japanese scribes adopted Chinese characters as a system of writing, although an alphabet if one had been available to them would have been infinitely better suited to the Japanese language. The characters, first devised to represent Chinese monosyllables, could be used only with great ingenuity to represent the agglutinative forms of the Japanese language.
The ultimate results were chaotic, giving rise to one of the most complicated systems of writing ever invented. The use of Chinese characters enormously influenced modes of expression and led to an association between literary composition and calligraphy lasting many centuries.
Early writings The earliest Japanese texts were written in Chinese because no system of transcribing the sounds and grammatical forms of Japanese had been invented.
The oldest known inscription, on a sword that dates from about ce, already showed some modification of normal Chinese usage in order to transcribe Japanese names and expressions.
The most accurate way of writing Japanese words was by using Chinese characters not for their meanings but for their phonetic values, giving each character a pronunciation approximating that used by the Chinese themselves.Japanese literature: Japanese literature, the body of written works produced by Japanese authors in Japanese or, in its earliest beginnings, at a time when Japan had no written language, in the Chinese classical language.
Both in quantity and quality, Japanese literature . THE STORY OF THE AGED MOTHER A Japanese Folktale Long, long ago there lived at the foot of the mountain a poor farmer and his aged, widowed mother.
The Spiders Part II: The Diamond Ship The Spiders Part II: The Diamond Ship () is a much less successful film than Part I.
Its storytelling is flat, and it is full of Chinatown melodrama and racistly stereotyped villains. MOTHER 3 is the long awaited sequel to EarthBound and the third (and final) entry in Shigesato Itoi's MOTHER franchise; it continues the tradition of weird and quirky writing and gameplay which features deft employment of Mood Whiplash in its artistic story.
Like prior games, MOTHER 3 centers on a young boy with psychic powers and his friends — but in this game, the time and setting are.
Free Essay: THE STORY OF THE AGED MOTHER A Japanese Folktale by MATSUO BASHOLong, long ago there lived at the foot of the mountain a poor farmer and his.
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October 9, 2019
Pine Siskins by Bob Vuxinic
Welcome to our newest blog series Methods Behind the Madness. In this series, we’re addressing some questions that delve into the more data-driven side of Project FeederWatch. We hope that these blog posts make our scientific methods easier to understand, and spark critical thinking about FeederWatch data. The first question we’d like to explore is:
Why shouldn’t I start a count when I see an exciting species?
If you see a new or uncommon bird species, it’s completely understandable to want to report it on a FeederWatch count. We get it—some birds knock your socks off! It’s great to notice rare birds, but reporting counts only when you see exciting species misrepresents the birds at your feeders and makes it seem as if rare species are more common than they really are.
Let’s say we have three FeederWatchers, Lucy, Peter, and Maria, all of whom had Pine Siskins visiting their feeders over the course of a month (see illustration below). Lucy and Peter rarely saw siskins, but Maria saw siskins frequently. Let’s see what their counts would look like if Lucy and Maria counted in the correct way (i.e. chose their count days irrespective of siskins being present) and Peter counted in an incorrect way (i.e. chose to count only on days when he saw siskins).
As the illustration shows, Maria’s counts correctly indicated that she saw siskins frequently, and Lucy’s counts correctly indicated that she saw siskins rarely. However, because Peter did his FeederWatch counts only when he saw siskins, his counts misleadingly indicated that he saw siskins as frequently as Maria. Peter counted in what is called a “biased” manner—he biased his counts toward over representing siskins, making it look like Pine Siskins were common at his feeders when they were actually as uncommon as at Lucy’s feeders. Peter wanted us to know every time he saw siskins, but counting this way makes it impossible for us to get an accurate picture of where siskins are common and where siskins are rare. Of course, there is always a chance that a species will be over or underrepresented in a count just by chance. That’s why getting lots of counts from lots of participants is so valuable. Having a large sample of counts means that a few anomalies won’t change the entire picture.
We know it may be boring to count even when there aren’t “exciting birds” around, but making sure your counts are unbiased is part of what makes Project FeederWatch data valuable. We want to know where and when the rare birds show up, but we need to know where and when they aren’t around too. Otherwise, we wouldn’t know they are rare!
The next time you see an exciting bird outside of your chosen count days, don’t despair. Make a note in your journal, take a photo, and enjoy the fantastic sighting. Keep to your normal FeederWatch schedule and trust that your counts are valuable whether you have rare visitors or not. | <urn:uuid:2a2ad6df-d7cd-41c3-8253-0cbe48a78d39> | {
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What is a container?
Container is a big metallic box which is mostly used for cargo carriage.
Where are the containers used?
Containers are widely used in transportation and are mainly built in standard sizes (20ft, 40ft, ….). Each container can be the basis of the calculations of the shipment costs. Size of each container is designed to fit on a trailer in order to be moved straight from the ship onto the trailer.
What are the different types of the containers?
Containers can be categorized based on 3 parameters:
- materials used for construction.
Based on the materials used, containers are categorized to the following groups:
Steel containers, aluminium containers, fiber glass containers and containers made of sandwich panels. For manufacturing the covering of the sandwich panel containers, aluzinc, aluminum and galvanized sheets are used for the roof and walls of the container. Polyurethane, fiber glass and polystyrene is used for the Insulation.
Containers are also categorized based on their usage:
Thermal Containers: This type of container
is used for the transportation of the good to need to be heated.
Refrigerator Containers: This type of container is used for transportation of foods and other perishable products and its temperature is a few dwgrees below the zero. | <urn:uuid:299b7c05-c92d-42a3-9532-fb892b96dc94> | {
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To answer your question succinctly, RYB (red, yellow, blue) would be most intuitive and closest to mixing physical colors, aka pigments, which blend subtractively.
To understand the mixing behavior of RYB color-space, see both the color wheel diagram in the question, as well as the color tree below. For your use case it seems to me it would be simplest to implement hard coded blending, roughly following these RYB principles.
However, since you mentioned you are opposed to implementing hard coded blending, if you want this mixing behavior to be dynamic you can use CMYK color space, which is a subtractive color model used primarily for printing. Blending two CMYK colors will behave analogously to pigmentary blending
With this approach however you may be restricted by the CMYK color space, which is rather compressed and can be difficult to convert to and from while preserving color.
For a visualization of the problem of converting between color spaces you could check out this video overview of color spaces, as well as this color space comparison diagram.
For those who care to go a bit deeper, read on.
As the question hints at, there are a variety of color spaces and blending types. To design the gameplay mechanic you have described I believe you are looking for pigment color / subtractive color blending.
The wiki page on pigments has far more details about the physics and theory behind the perception and behavior of these but the birds-eye overview of pigment color can be summarized in a few points:
First, when visible light mixes, it becomes white. This is called additive blending. When pigment mixes, it becomes black-ish. This is called subtractive blending.
Secondly, by defining primary colors (ideally distributed relatively evenly along the emission spectrum, commonly RBY, RGB, CMY etc) these colors can be mixed to create a color space. (You can mix them additively or subtractively but in this case we are looking at subtractive blending) Mixing primaries you can make secondary, tertiary, quaternary, etc... Folks rarely bother beyond quaternary colors because they all devolve into browns and various earth-tones the deeper you go, asymptotically approaching black. This will happen regardless of the primary colors, but choosing more evenly distributed primary colors will reduce the severity of this effect.
Color science and color theory are massive fields and you can go far deeper into the specifics but I think for feeling out the basic mechanics of the game all you need is that primary color based mixing behavior, which is demonstrated both in the diagram you included in your question, as well as in the chart below.
I would say hard coding this blending would be the simplest solution to give you flexibility for making a variety of potion colors, regardless of their distribution along the color space, while avoiding degenerating into muddy tones, but if you really want dynamic blending you can get it through CMYK color representation.
CMYK is primarily used for printers, and is subtractive, as opposed to RGB and most other color repesentations typically used in digital displays, which are additive. The wiki page for CMYK goes into more detail but basically if you add 2 CMYK colors they will give you the pigmentary blending behavior you are looking for.
Note though, if you are currently coloring your potions with RGB, Hex, etc you will need to convert to CMYK, do the blend, then convert back to whatever your normal color representation is to apply it to the new object, but this can be trickier than it sounds.
Blending CMYK colors can be difficult due to CMYK's limited color space, so your colors may get squished when converting back and forth, eg:
RGB(A) != RGB(B) but CMYK(A) == CMYK(B)
You can experiment with the compression of converting to and from CMYK and see the specific formula for implementing the conversion in this RGB->CMYK converter.
To understand the weird behavior here it helps to see a visualization of the color space, check out this video.
You can also look at the difference between CMYK and other color spaces representable colors this color space comparison, as well as this video overlaying several color spaces in 3D, demonstrating the gamut issues with CMYK conversion.
That should be more than enough theory, so for a bit of practical exploration, check out some of the other answers with code samples, or try comparing various colors with the Google color picker. | <urn:uuid:6bf381ca-67b8-497e-ac5b-3c529a152079> | {
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Here's the effect of one entire year of drought in California, going from February 15, 2013, to February 16, 2014, as seen from NASA's Terra satellite. It's really scary to see the land die like this—especially after you read what NASA has to say about it.
Note: The white spots at the bottom of the 2014 image are clouds.
Here's another graphic highlighting the anomalies caused by the lack of rain and snow:
Pretty bad, right? It will get worst, says NASA Ames Research Center's Ramakrishna Nemani—a vegetation sensing expert:
In a normal year, much of the green areas near the mountains would be snow-covered... Since there is not much snow this year, the evergreen vegetation appears anomalously green. In fact, that is bad news for this time of the year.
Scientist agree that it will only get drier in the West, while areas that have been traditionally wet in America will get more and more floods. | <urn:uuid:79e3b546-84c2-4cdc-9929-09af21ed9728> | {
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The current rate of plastic production is about one billion tons in three years. That is what a 2016 article in ScienceDaily says, quoting a University of Leicester study.
Plastic is inert and hard to degrade. So it becomes a toxic techno-waste that has severe polluting effects on the earth’s biodiversity.
A National Geographic report says that plastic kills millions of marine and land animals every year. Experts have found out that all species to have eaten microplastic – from small shrimps to big elephants. The effects vary from damaging the digestive and reproductive systems to death.
But Mother Nature has provided a simple solution to this menace: the hemp plant.
Hemp: A Victim of Human Folly
Hemp, or industrial hemp, is one of the earliest plants that our ancestors cultivated and used.
Archeologists have found evidence of the use of hemp fiber some 10,000 years ago. Experts estimate that hemp cultivation began about 8000 years ago.
The many benefits of hemp have been available to human beings for centuries. But its cultivation and use were banned in most countries across the globe in the 20th century. The only crime of the plant is that it belongs to the same species, Cannabis Sativa, as marijuana.
But there is a significant distinction between hemp and marijuana. That is in the concentration levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the component that gives marijuana its psychoactive properties. Marijuana can contain up to 30% of THC per dry weight.
Hemp, in contrast, contains 0.3% THC per dry weight. It does not have the psychoactive potential to get people high. Hemp got banned because this vital difference got overlooked.
The 21st century has, at last, brought a realization of this mistake. Many countries across the globe have now legalized hemp farming and the production of hemp derivatives fully or partially.
With the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (Farm Bill 2018), hemp is now legal across the USA. It is also legal in the EU countries as long as the THC content is 0.2%. It is legal in Canada and several other European and South American countries.
In Asia, China is the biggest grower and supplier of hemp and hemp products across the globe. China also has the longest history of continued hemp production for almost 6000 years.
Hemp Against Plastic Pollution
People had hailed the 1907 innovation called synthetic plastic as a solution to a wide range of problems. It has now become an unmanageable problem itself. But we do not need any technological innovation to counter it. The hemp plant offers a ready solution.
Hemp fiber can produce a non-toxic and fully biodegradable substitute for plastic. Natural plastic derived from the cellulose fibers in plants has been in use since much before the current petrochemical-based synthetic plastic was invented.
The cellulose fiber in plants is usable for producing several varieties of biodegradable plastic. Hemp has about 65-70% cellulose, which makes it a viable plant for natural plastic production.
Henry Ford produced the original Model T Ford in 1941 using hemp plastic panels. This plastic was 10 times stronger than steel in withstanding the impact of a hit without denting.
Substituting synthetic plastic with 100% biodegradable hemp plastic will be a blessing for our plastic pollution problem and for our environment. Apart from being eco-friendly, hemp is also sustainable.
Why is Hemp Sustainable?
Hemp is sustainable for a variety of reasons. Apart from being a natural source of non-toxic biodegradable plastic, the hemp plant helps in topsoil conservation. Farmers use hemp as an in-between crop to keep their soil fertile.
Hemp cultivation needs 50% less water than cotton. Hemp is totally free from pesticides because it is naturally insect resistant. It is also easy to grow hemp plants organically.
Hemp is a source of paper more efficient than other trees currently used for paper production. One acre of hemp can produce four times more paper than an acre of trees. Incidentally, the first paper ever used was in China, and it was hemp paper.
Hemp is also a source of biofuel. If we use biofuel derived from hemp, our transportation fuel will be 86% greener than gasoline. It is not for nothing that Henry Ford designed his first Model T hemp plastic car to run on hemp biofuel.
But the benefits of the humble hemp plant do not end here.
The Many Benefits of Hemp
Hemp seeds are highly nutritious and constitute a source of complete plant-based protein. The omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acid content of hemp seeds is precisely the right proportion (1:3) that the human body needs. Hemp Seeds are ideal for vegans as no other plant-based protein is so complete.
Dehulled or unshelled hemp seeds are also rich in fiber. Hulled or shelled hemp seeds lack in fiber content. But even hulled hemp seeds are high in nutrition value. These seeds are also extremely versatile, usable in several ways – cooked or raw.
Hemp seed oil is also equally nutritious with a high content of good fats and a low content of the harmful ones. Cold-pressed hemp seed oil preserves the goodness of the oil in its entirety. Like the seeds, the oil derived from hemp seeds is also versatile.
Hemp seed oil is edible and can be taken by itself or as a salad dressing. It is also good for cooking, except for deep frying. Topical use of hemp seed oil can improve hair and skin health. It also has anti-inflammatory properties.
The cannabinoids (CBD) derived from hemp buds, flowers, leaves, and stems have much medicinal potential. CBD oil is particularly good for arthritis. Healthcare professionals have also used it with success to manage anxiety and sleep disorders.
Hemp stalks yield fibers that can be processed into fabric for clothing. Hemp fiber is also used for making ropes and sails. All of these products have natural antibacterial and antifungal properties. Incidentally, canvas is made of hemp fabric.
Finally, hemp can also be used as a building material. There are amazing benefits attached to this use as well.
This easy to grow plant seems to provide an environmentally sustainable solution to many problems we’ve created for ourselves not limited to plastic pollution! | <urn:uuid:1e405494-ad23-4550-ae5b-8f3f3c5a4453> | {
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From Heidi Haugen, Summer Activities Director……
We began our Summer Activities Program by signing each child up for the “Summer Badge Quest Program” at the Montrose Library. The kids tell me which badges they want to earn and we read books, do activities, and go on adventures to meet the criteria for the badges. We spend one afternoon a week at the library checking out books and picking up our badges. We spend another afternoon reading nonfiction books and doing hands-on activities around the theme. Finally, one day a week, we participate in an adventure/field trip around the theme. Following are the areas we have been working on-
1. Animal Lover- we visited the Black Canyon of the
Gunnison. A ranger taught us about the different birds that live in the
canyon. See photos here. Black Canyon Of The Gunnison
2. Nature and Environment- we went on a nature walk at Baldridge
Park. In addition, many of the kids went on a camping trip to help earn this
badge. We are still working on projects like collecting flowers and seeds.
3. Sports and Recreation- we spent a day at the Montrose Recreation
4. Theater and Puppetry-the kids joined together to read about
and create a theater production. They performed and videotaped a play. We had
fun coming up with costumes and props.
5. Music and Rhythm-we had a musician spend the afternoon teaching us about rhythm. He brought drums and a guitar for us to try out!
In July, we plan to have more adventures as we
earn the following badges-
6. Food and Farming-we visited Mattics Orchard in Olathe. A day at Mattics Orchard 2014 We will check out some kids’ cookbooks and perhaps try out a new recipe.
7. Health and Safety-we will visit with a police
officer and learn about public safety.
8. Travel and Adventure-we will learn
about different kinds of maps. We’ll go on a “Google Lit Trip” (googlelittrip.com) with Ipads.
9. Science and Technology-we’ll learn how to use a star chart and study the
10. Computer Science and Digital Arts-we’ll continue our
film making from last month and focus on the digital pictures using online
drawing and painting tools.
If you have an area of interest that you would like to share with families at Haven House, please call (970) 626-5280 or contact our Volunteer Coordinator, Rosemary at (970) 765-2252. The reward will be yours. | <urn:uuid:ea1377ec-95fe-4572-97e1-6b265cfa8f49> | {
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- Lincoln, like many small towns across Montana and the West, faces economic difficulties as it grapples with the aftermath of long-term declines in traditional industries such as forestry and wood products manufacturing.
- This report overviews Lincoln’s current demographic and economic standing, compares Lincoln to peer communities, and discusses the major economic trends facing rural western towns.
- Informed by interviews and public meetings with many Lincoln residents, the report suggests a number of options within different time frames for citizens to consider and potentially pursue to enhance local economic development.
Background: Lincoln at a Crossroads
This report, informed by interviews and public meetings with many Lincoln residents, outlines a number of ways to pursue local economic development.
Lincoln, Montana is a town of roughly 900 nestled amid incredible scenic beauty and located within a 90-minute drive to three major Montana cities: Helena, Missoula, and Great Falls. In many ways, Lincoln is emblematic of Montana’s earlier economic traditions: a rugged, outdoors-oriented small town with a multi-generational history of logging, mining, and agriculture.
Today, however, like many rural towns across Montana and the West, Lincoln faces economic difficulties. It is by no means alone in doing so. Rural western communities are grappling with the aftermath of long-term declines in traditional industries such as forestry and wood products manufacturing, and wrestling with how to compete in the sectors of the regional and national economy that are growing.
Many of the current trends facing Lincoln—such as its shrinking population and rising median age—cannot be sustained. Reversing these trends will take time, prioritization, and effort—especially for small towns like Lincoln that have limited resources, capacity, and volunteer time.
Fortunately, Lincoln possesses resources that suggest the possibility of a brighter economic future: a local population is dedicated to the community and place, an attractive landscape, a major Montana highway and high traffic volume, stable K-12 education, a finalized Forest Service Travel Plan, the strong roots of cultural tourism, and an overall high quality of life.
Headwaters Economics cares deeply about the future of rural Montana and the West. Headwaters Economics has worked with the Blackfoot Challenge, participated in numerous local meetings, and looks forward to continued engagement with Lincoln and its residents.
Rural Economic Development and Lincoln’s Opportunities
The report overviews Lincoln’s current demographic and economic situation, compares Lincoln to several peer communities, and discusses the major economic trends facing rural western towns.
The study then turns to the challenges and strengths Lincoln possesses in the context of local economic development. This is followed by sections suggesting potential development options within different time frames—immediate-, short-, and long-term—for citizens to consider and potentially enact as steps toward an economic development plan for Lincoln. To help enable local efforts, this report also includes a list of possible grants and resources for Lincoln to pursue to help facilitate its economic development.
While Lincoln’s difficulties are significant, the town has many of the resources—whether access to cities or incredible natural amenities—needed to spur desired economic development. As a starting point, Lincoln has the opportunity to greatly improve its branding and identity across Montana and the West to attract tourists, spending, businesses, and jobs.
First, the town’s setting, K-12 school, and many other factors give Lincoln a small-town atmosphere and charm that is attractive to many tourists, repeat visitors, and people who may settle there. In addition, Lincoln already has many well-established tourism draws such as the Continental Divide Trail for hikers and bikers and many summer events and festivals.
Second, while Lincoln currently may wish that it captured more of the existing traffic on Highway 200, the traffic volume most certainly will continue and presents an enduring opportunity. In addition, the 90-minute-or-less driving time to three of Montana’s larger cities creates opportunities on several fronts, whether to improve access to the cities for workers and businesses now in Lincoln, to induce businesses to locate in Lincoln, or to increase tourism and other spending in Lincoln by residents from these nearby metro centers.
The third clear advantage for Lincoln is the region’s spectacular landscape and wide array of public lands, trails and users. The recent completion of the Forest Service Travel Plan, for example, provides certainty to both local businesses and tourists— offering 20-year planning window for local entrepreneurs to plan and invest in how best to promote Lincoln and its outdoor recreation opportunities.
Today, Lincoln’s abundant federal lands continue to provide natural resources for commodity sectors, but also offer recreational opportunities, natural amenities, and scenic backgrounds that stimulate migration, drawing entrepreneurs and attracting a skilled workforce across a range of industries. High-performing communities with nearby federal land generally have capitalized on this asset in multiple ways.
The Forest Service also has been a willing and involved partner, whether coordinating with local businesses to facilitate wildfire suppression spending, initiating restoration activities, or working with Lincoln’s sculpture park on hosting events.
Lincoln also has a number of areas where it can grow. The Sculpture in the Wild, artists in residence programs, and educational tours, for example, have made Lincoln a destination in ways that did not exist just several years ago. Furthermore, growing efforts to promote the recent addition of public river access will help improve and diversify the town’s ability to attract tourists, business visitors, and potential new residents.
Finally, Lincoln has an opportunity to attract people, businesses, or retirees who often are looking for safe, high-quality communities and landscapes. Appealing to retirees, for example, could help attract health care or other services, and their additional spending would circulate in the community and impact a number of sectors. | <urn:uuid:2d733cee-ad78-428b-943b-4964aa58dc8d> | {
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According to soda companies like Coca-Cola, sugary beverages can be safely enjoyed as part of a “balanced” diet and lifestyle. But what kind of “balance” are they really talking about?
In essence, the “balance” referred to here is a balance between poison and nutrition. The idea they’re promoting is that if you eat a healthy diet, you can safely indulge in a little bit of poison every now and then.
This is the only balance they can refer to, because when it comes to real foods and pure water — which is the only beverage your body cannot live without — maintaining balance is not really an issue.
When you eat real food, it is beneficial and you don’t need to concern yourself with adverse effects like obesity and diabetes.
Even a Little Junk Food Adversely Impacts Health
Food either supports health, or it doesn’t. If it doesn’t, it shouldn’t be construed as an acceptable part of a healthy diet. It should be accurately portrayed as a junk food to be consumed as little as possible, if ever.
The idea that junk food can be safely enjoyed in moderation was recently demolished yet again with the publication of a study1,2,3 showing that eating just one junk food treat per day for one month is enough to trigger metabolic syndrome in healthy people.
The treats, which provided an additional 1,300 calories per day, included an assortment of candy bars and pastries.
In people already diagnosed with metabolic syndrome, which includes symptoms such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and elevated blood sugar levels, indulging in one milkshake per day for one month exacerbated their condition.
Metabolic syndrome in turn can have deadly consequences, raising your risk for diabetes, heart attack, and stroke. As noted by co-author Suzan Wopereis:
“Acute affects of diet are mostly small, but may have large consequences in the long run.
Our novel approach allows detection of small but relevant effects, thereby contributing to the urgently needed switch from disease-care to healthcare, aiming for a life-long optimal health and disease prevention.'”
Snack Ads Dominate While Cost of Severe Obesity Now Tops $8 Billion
Medicaid spends $8 billion per year on severe obesity4 — an expense that is entirely avoidable. Obesity may also be a contributing factor to increased use of prescription drugs in the US.
Harvard researchers warn that 59 percent of American adults now use at least one prescription drug5 — a 50 percent increase from a decade ago. More people are also taking multiple drugs, which increases the risk of adverse drug interactions.
About 15 percent of adults now take more than five drugs, and the researchers suggest this rise in drug use may be related to an increase in obesity.
To prevent obesity though, people need to be told the truth about nutrition and processed foods. The food industry must be held accountable for its lies, and junk food advertising for kids needs to be minimized or abolished.
According to a recent report, 40 percent of the ads kids see on television are for sugary snacks, and research6 shows these early impressions can significantly shape their future food habits.
Since 2010, snack ads have increased by 18 percent. In 2014, preschoolers saw an average of 582 snack ads on TV, kids aged 6 to 11 saw 629 snack ads, an increase of 10 percent since 2010, and teens saw 635 snack ads, an increase of 29 percent.
Food companies are also targeting certain ethnic groups to a greater extent than others. As reported by CNN:7
“Marketing of savory snacks to black and Hispanic youth shot up 551 percent, whereas yogurt ads dropped 93 percent between 2010 and 2014. Black children saw 64 percent more snack food ads on TV than white children, and 129 percent more ads for savory snacks.”
Adults are also seeing more ads for junk food. In 2014, adults saw 793 snack ads, a 32 percent increase since 2010. Millions of junk food ads were also placed on YouTube and Facebook in 2014.
Soda Linked to Increased Risk for Heart Failure
Swedish researchers are also warning that soda consumption may raise your risk for heart failure. The study8,9 included 42,000 men (aged 45 to 79) who were followed for nearly 12 years. Men who drank two or more glasses of soda or other sweetened beverages per day had a 23 percent greater risk of developing heart failure than those who avoided these types of drinks.
While the study cannot prove causation, lead author Susanna Larsson told Reuters10 that: “The take-home message is that people who regularly drink sweetened beverages should consider reducing their consumption.”
Cutting Sugar Can Quickly Improve Your and Your Child’s Health
Another recent and widely publicized study demonstrates just how quickly your health can improve simply by cutting out added sugars. The research11,12,13,14 was led by Dr. Robert Lustig, a pediatric endocrinologist who has long argued that added sugar is toxic when consumed in too-high amounts.
By replacing refined sugars and processed fructose with starches, obese children saw significant improvements in biomarkers associated with health in just 10 days, even though their overall calorie intake and the overall percentage of carbohydrates remained the same.
The study reduced the amount of added sugars from an average of 27 percent of daily calories down to about 10 percent, which is in line with the most recent recommendations by the federal government’s Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, issued in February.
“Every aspect of their metabolic health got better, with no change in calories. This study definitively shows that sugar is metabolically harmful not because of its calories or its effects on weight. Rather, sugar is metabolically harmful because it’s sugar.”
On average, the children (aged eight to 18) saw the following improvements in their lab work and disease markers after this short intervention:
LDL cholesterol fell by 10 points
Diastolic blood pressure fell five points
Triglycerides were reduced by 33 points
Fasting blood sugar dropped by 53 percent
Insulin levels also significantly improved
Refined and Processed Sugars Are Different from Sugars Found in Whole Foods
From a health standpoint, the children were not placed on an ideal diet — they were fed hot dogs and baked potato chips for example, but this was done specifically to demonstrate the impact of added sugars on metabolic health.
Refined sugar and processed fructose such as high-fructose corn syrup is FAR more harmful than glucose and other sugars found in whole foods. Even fructose in whole fruit is less harmful than processed high-fructose corn syrup due to the presence of fiber in the fruit.
Soda Politics and the Energy Balance Scam
The video above was produced by the Global Energy Balance Network, a front group secretly funded by Coca-Cola.16,17,18,19,20 The chief aim of this group appears to be to confuse consumers about soda science, and divert attention away from the mounting evidence showing that sweet beverages are a major contributor to obesity and diseases associated with insulin resistance, such as diabetes.
As reported by The New York Times,21 which exposed the ties between Coca-Cola and the Global Energy Balance Network back in August of this year:
“Coca-Cola, the world’s largest producer of sugary beverages, is backing a new ‘science-based’ solution to the obesity crisis: to maintain a healthy weight, get more exercise, and worry less about cutting calories. The beverage giant has teamed up with influential scientists who are advancing this message in medical journals, at conferences and through social media…
‘Most of the focus in the popular media and in the scientific press is, ‘Oh they’re eating too much, eating too much, eating too much’ — blaming fast food, blaming sugary drinks, and so on,’ the group’s vice president, Steven N. Blair, an exercise scientist, says in a recent video announcing the new organization. ‘And there’s really virtually no compelling evidence that that, in fact, is the cause.'”
To claim that evidence is lacking is beyond ludicrous, and in support of the New York Times’ exposé, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) wrote a Letter to the editor22 signed by 36 leading researchers, scientists, and public health officials, noting that Coca-Cola is blatantly ignoring the “well-documented evidence that sugary drinks are a major contributor to obesity, heart disease, and diabetes.”
My recent interview with Marion Nestle about her new book, Soda Politics, goes into extensive details on how the soda industry manipulates and distorts the truth on this issue to protect their business.
Food Companies Should Stop Fighting the Obvious, Obesity Expert Says
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has proposed adding “added sugar” to the Nutrition Facts panel on processed foods, set at 10 percent of total energy intake for a 2,000 calorie-a-day diet. The total amount of added sugar would also be listed in grams. With few exceptions, food companies are aggressively opposed to the proposal, claiming it will only add confusion,23 as they believe all sugar calories are metabolically identical.
In an article24 titled “Food Companies Should Stop Fighting the Obvious: Sugar is Ruining Our Health,” Dr. Lustig blasts the food industry’s outdated view that all calories are created equal, and that there’s insufficient evidence demonstrating that added sugars are different from sugars found in whole foods.
He also notes that U.S. Rep. Robert Aderholt (R-Ala) has even introduced a House bill that would restrict federal nutritional guidelines to those backed by “robust scientific evidence” only. This means any nutritional guideline would have to be proven through randomized controlled trials.
“The problem is that clinical nutritional data almost never reach robust proof, because you can’t change the diets of people for 50 years to see if they develop more diabetes or heart disease; it’s expensive, unethical, and unlawful,” Dr. Lustig writes. “Scientists have shown that adding extra sugar to people’s diets worsens cardiometabolic risk factors, such as high triglycerides, blood pressure, glucose and insulin levels, or low HDL — all components of what is called ‘metabolic syndrome.'”
Dr. Lustig goes on to discuss the findings of his latest study, in which biomarkers for health were significantly improved in obese children in just 10 days by trading added sugars for starches. Both are carbohydrates, but his short-term experiment clearly shows that all calories are NOT created equal when it comes to their health effects. As noted by Dr. Lustig:
“Our study… establishes a direct relationship between added sugar and these chronic diseases, unrelated to its calories or its effects on weight… [E]very aspect of their metabolic health improved… all without changing the children’s calorie intake or weight and without exercise.
We simply substituted starch for sugar in their processed food and watched their health improve. This is not correlation. It’s causation — the most robust evidence of all… To turn our epidemic of metabolic syndrome around, the food industry must reduce the sugar it surreptitiously adds to processed foods… Science should drive policy, but the politics get in the way.
And politics is based on money. The food industry nets about $450 billion per year, yet America wastes at least $830 billion per year caring for diseases linked to metabolic syndrome… This is unsustainable, and a major reason why Medicare and Social Security will be broke by 2030. The USDA must do the right thing and curb Americans’ consumption of added sugar, rather than kowtowing to the processed-food industry.”
Are You Eating Too Much Sugar?
The American Heart Association and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend limiting your daily added sugar intake to 9 teaspoons (38 grams) for men and 6 teaspoons (25 grams) for women. The average American, however, consumes around 20 teaspoons of added sugar a day, and this is quite clearly far too much for your body to handle. A meta-review25 published in the Mayo Clinic Proceedings found that once you reach 18 percent of your daily calories from added sugar, there’s a two-fold increase in metabolic harm that promotes pre-diabetes and diabetes.
I strongly recommend limiting your daily fructose intake to 25 grams or less from all sources, including natural sources such as fruit — regardless of whether you’re male or female. That equates to just over 6 teaspoons of total sugar a day. If you’re insulin resistant, which applies to about 80 percent of Americans, you’d be wise to limit your total fructose to 15 grams per day until your insulin resistance is resolved.
You don’t have to become another disease statistic… The power to get healthy really is in your hands, and one of the most powerful strategies to improve your health is to cut down (or eliminate) refined sugar and processed fructose (corn syrup). A good place to start would be to cut down on soda and juice if you’re currently drinking it on a regular basis, until you get to zero. Then, start working on trading out processed foods for whole foods. It’s not rocket science to figure out what a healthy diet is. In short, it’s REAL FOOD — food in its unadulterated state, or as minimally processed as possible.
The following chart will provide a few more clarifying details:
Foods that promote weight gain
Processed foods of all kinds Whole, unadulterated (ideally organic) vegetables, fruits, and berries
Added sweeteners, regardless of whether they have calories or not. This includes all forms of added sugars, especially processed fructose (such as high-fructose corn syrup), but also artificial sweeteners, which confuse your metabolism and trick your body into storing fat Unprocessed, unpasteurized traditionally cultured and fermented foods, such as kefir, kambucha, natto, kimchee, and fermented vegetables of all kinds
Meats from confined animal feeding operations, as they’re typically fed genetically engineered grains contaminated with glyphosate instead of plain grass, plus antibiotics and other growth promoters to fatten up the animals as quickly as possible.
Farmed fish are also fed an inappropriate diet that reduces their nutritional quality
Foods that promote healthy weight
Organically-raised grass-fed meats, pastured chicken, and wild-caught fish that are low in contaminants
Processed grains of all kinds, including organic ones, as they all break down into sugar in your body. Unless organic, grains may also be contaminated with glyphosate even if they’re not genetically engineered. Such is the case with most conventional wheat for example Fresh sprouts, which can be easily grown at home. A wide variety of seeds can be sprouted, which maximizes their nutritional value.
For example, once sunflower seeds are sprouted, their protein, vitamin, and mineral content will typically provide you with 30 times the nutrient content of organic vegetables
Trans fats, found in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, such as margarine, canola, corn, and soy oils Healthy fats, including organically-raised grass-fed meats, fatty fish like wild caught salmon, coconut oil, olives and olive oil,26 avocado, raw nuts,27 organic pastured egg yolks, and butter made from raw grass-fed milk.
For cooking, tallow and lard are ideal. Since they’re saturated fats, they do not oxidize when heated. And, since saturated fats do not have double bonds that can react with oxygen, they also cannot form dangerous aldehydes or other toxic oxidation products.
Coconut oil is another healthy option, as it too resists oxidation when heated.
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When buying fruits and vegetables, look for those which are ‘stunning’ – vivid colored and unwithered – and yield slightly when pressed. Cooking breaks those walls down, releasing the nutrients so your physique can take in them more easily.” Beneath are 5 meals you need to heat earlier than consuming, plus tips about methods to unleash their full potential by way of vitamin and style.
In a survey, the addition of inexperienced, leafy vegetables considerably decreased the probabilities of hip fractures in center-aged women. Be certain that to rinse all vegetables before consuming. Tasty and nutritious vegetables grown in the richest soils in America. You may at all times find the freshest fruits and vegetables on show at your H-E-B.
Keep in mind that more closely dirty vegetables may take longer to prepare for cooking. Peeling or cooking fruit and vegetables can also remove micro organism. Many of the plant meals are low-calorie and low-fat, whereas also protecting you crammed for a longer time.
The beans can be eaten contemporary, when they’re green, or dried, when they have turned brown. A Venn diagram reveals the overlap within the terminology of “vegetables” in a culinary sense and “fruits” within the botanical sense. Whenever you wash vegetables, wash them under a running tap and rub them underneath water, for example in a bowl of fresh water.
Water Content: Vegetables naturally have excessive ranges of water. Examine the label – except packaging round vegetables says “able to eat”, you will need to wash, peel or cook them before consuming. Good Health: Consuming fruits and vegetables might promote emotional properly-being among younger adults. | <urn:uuid:a3c847f9-336a-487f-90cb-176b2cfecfa3> | {
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Cervical screening is one of the best ways to protect yourself from cervical cancer. It's not a test for cancer, it's a test to help prevent cancer. Screening may check for:
- abnormal cell changes in your cervix – left untreated, this could turn into cancer
- human papillomavirus (HPV) – some types of HPV can lead to cell changes in your cervix and cancer
Who's at risk of cervical cancer?
If you have a cervix and have had any kind of sexual contact, with a man or a woman, you could get cervical cancer.
You're still at risk of cervical cancer if:
- you have had the HPV vaccine – it does not protect you from all types of HPV, so you're still at risk of cervical cancer
- you have only had 1 sexual partner – you can get HPV the first time you're sexually active
- you have had the same partner, or not had sex, for a long time – you can have HPV for a long time without knowing it
- you're a lesbian or bisexual – you're at risk if you have had any sexual contact
- you're a trans man with a cervix – read about if trans men should have cervical screening
- you have had a partial hysterectomy that did not remove all of your cervix
Cervical screening is a choice
It's your choice if you want to go for cervical screening. But cervical screening is one of the best ways to protect you from cervical cancer.
Risks of cervical screening
You may have some light bleeding or spotting after cervical screening. This should stop within a few hours.
If abnormal cells are found and you need treatment, there are some risks, such as:
- treating cells that may have gone back to normal on their own
bleeding or an infection
- you may be more likely to have a baby early if you get pregnant in the future – but this is rare
- For more information to help you decide, read the NHS cervical screening leaflet.
How to opt out
If you do not want to be invited for screening, contact your GP and ask to be taken off their cervical screening list. You can ask them to put you back on the list at any time if you change your mind. | <urn:uuid:3b11d134-fffa-42e0-8263-c06f3c104d9c> | {
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Consumers who are in the market for a washing machine have a great deal of advocacy and governmental support to help make sure the purchase goes well. Since these appliances use both electrical and water resources, it is reasonable to assume that the U.S. Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency would play some role in providing consumers with reliable information about washer efficiency. The Federal Trade Commission, a business-oriented agency, also has a hand in the sale of appliances, making sure that the numerous makes and models of washers have an equal and fair comparison right on the label. Additionally, you should look beyond this government-mandated labeling to evaluate washing machines.
Appliance manufacturers commonly divide household washers into two categories -- top-loaders and front-loaders. The tub in a top-loader spins on a vertical axis, and the drum on a front-loader spins on a horizontal axis. Top-loaders commonly do a good job of cleaning your laundry by violently agitating your garments in a tub of detergent and water. Front-loaders are gentler and better for washing clothes because the drum rotates your clothes in and out of the water. Note, however, that some modern top-loaders are just as effective at washing as front-loaders.
Operating Cost and Efficiency
The consensus is that modern front-loaders are more energy and water-efficient than conventional top-loaders. You will also find "high-efficiency" top-loaders on the market. For a more accurate evaluation, compare the yellow Energy Star Energy Guide labels on washers, at the store or online, to determine estimated annual operating costs. Although front-loaders are more expensive upfront, the long-term energy savings may be worth the initial investment cost.
Evaluate washers for special features and cycles, offering enhanced cleaning and greater energy efficiency, beyond general expectations. For example, some high-efficiency washers have a steam nozzle on the interior that uses gaseous water instead of liquid water to gently clean clothes, as well as reduce energy and water consumption. Many modern machines feature a "Sanitize" cycle that kills 99.9 percent of germs and bacteria on garments and fabrics. Front-loaders and high-efficiency top-loaders are loaded with special features that, in part, add to the sales price. Eliminate those washer choices with features that have no use in your home, such as the "Kids Wear" cycle, if you have not yet started a family and do not plan to.
Consumers can shop for refurbished or remanufactured washers as a cost-saving alternative to buying a new appliance at major retailers. Whether the washer is used or new, you should make sure the machine is not on recall by the manufacturer. For example, some recalls might concern the manufacturer replacing a leaky door seal on front-loaders. Usually, retailers and outlet stores pull affected appliances from the showroom floor. For peace of mind, you can visit the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission's Recalls.gov website to evaluate a machine's brand and model against the recall database. Although appliance manufacturers generally repair recalled washers free of charge, parts and labor, you do not want to risk allowing a safety hazard into your home.
- Federal Trade Commission: Buying a Washing Machine? It's a Load-ed Question
- Energy Star.gov: Clothes Washers Buyer's Guide
- GE Appliances: Shopping Guide -- Questions to Consider Before Buying Your New Washer or Dryer
- Frigidaire: Washers -- Buying Guides
- Sears: Product Recalls, Toy & Safety Recall Information
- Ryan McVay/Digital Vision/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:7e91ed95-4f64-49eb-bc71-8eb312e616d9> | {
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Urbanization is a big part of the modern world, without it, we would all be lost. While countries are growing at a rapid rate, the once ‘old’ cities of the past are expanding onto previously un-occupied lands and even sometimes creating new towns and cities. Suburbs of cities spring up all over the world all the time, and populations grow with them. Major areas or cities of countries are usually hubs of economic significance, and help shape the country into it’s true self. These areas help the country grow, and provide hundreds and thousands of jobs and careers for the citizens. Canada’s largest hub is Toronto, but all major Canadian cities have their own pledges to the Canadian and world economy. I’m going to dab a little bit into these metro areas, and explain what they do for Canada. Urbanization is essential for Canada’s economy because of the extensive growth and demand for commodities involved.
How is Urbanization tied into Canada’s Metropolitan Areas? How does it affect the people that live in them?
These questions are probably common, and need to be tended to. Urbanization is what makes Canada’s metro areas metro; people tend to look at most countries and see cities they think just appeared out of thin air. Urbanization is what shaped our cities into what they are today. Long ago, people didn’t live in cities; they tended to live in rural areas with the odd exception of a city or town of significance because of its central role in everyday life. Usually cities before the year 1200 were small with no more than 30,000 inhabitants. These cities were built because they were usually a capital, or a major trading area with markets and bazaars. Over time cities evolved to become walled and protected, and that too ‘stopped’ the growth of the cities. War, droughts, disease, all took a large toll on shaping cities in the past, and once a prosperous age came, people began to multiply. Once populations exceeded the city’s own capacity, suburbs were born. We see this today in many medieval-like towns and cities. Paris for example was once small and busy, now parts of the city walls are gone and roads were constructed to take people to new parts of the city. Paris has well over 9 million people now and is extremely busy. We also see this in Canada; the only walled North American city now exceeds its capacity, and walls were torn down to make way for a larger city. This city is Quebec, and one of Canada’s largest metro areas. Canadian cities are some of the fastest growing cities on the globe because they are so young. Most were founded between 1690 and 1840, which is very young compared to many African, Asian and European cities, which sometimes date back to before Christ.
Today Canada hosts a wide variety of urban sprawl, which is housing that, is put up quickly to house a lot of people fast. An example of urban sprawl can be found in Windsor Ontario’s: The Villages of Riverside, Forest Glade, Green Park, and Blue Heron Point. The highest quality of these urban sprawl lands is Green Park, followed by Forest Glade, Blue Heron Point, and finally The Villages of Riverside. Urban sprawl has its pros and cons, pros being, that people can move in fairly quick, easily afford these housing developments, and live away from the main city. Cons are, usually these housing developments are put up too fast degrading the overall quality of craftsmanship, making the area a low income ‘slum.’ (However, this is not always the case).
Canada’s largest cities are usually quite dense and populated with more than 100,000 people. These cities were once trading posts, forts, or plain old rural farms. Today, with Canada’s population of almost 32 million, 78% live in urban areas. If that’s not urbanization, then what is? The remainder 22% live on farms, or small villages. A settlement with a population over 3,500 is considered to be an urban area according to Canadian standards; anything less is rural. | <urn:uuid:784f8a8b-10cc-42d9-bc00-0dab11086a21> | {
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In another TED Talk from the Mission Blue Voyage, Marine Biologist Stephen Palumbi talks about biomagnification – how mercury from the bottom of the ocean food chain makes its way up into the human body, with terrible results.
With a close link to recent HPD topics on the environment’s link to health and to G3: Impacts of Humans on Ecosystems, Palumbi highlights the tight connection between the oceans and our own health as humans.It might better be entitled “Protecting the Ocean Pyramid,” or “Beach closed due to excess human fecal matter.“
For Option G: Ecology and Conservation. Because we’re learning this concurrently with the Ecology and Evolution core topic, the Essential Biology document has been rolled into one: Essential Biology 5.2 & G3 – Greenhouse Effect and Impacts of Humans on Ecosystems.
The presentation on The Greenhouse Effect will follow soon. | <urn:uuid:384412e6-509d-4ee2-9a5c-72d245c8932c> | {
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(Exam Paper) UPSC IAS Mains 2008: History
Section - A
1. Mark any fifteen of the following places on the map supplied to you and write short descriptive notes on the places marked by you:
(viii) Gangai Kondacholapuram
(xiii) Devni Mori
(xvi) Gingee (Jinjee)
2. Discuss the distribution and significance of farming cultures outside the Indus system.
3. How justified are we in characterizing the postMauryan five centuries as the “Dark Period” of Indian History ? Give reasons in support of your answer.
4. How do recent archaeological findings and Sangam literary texts enlighten us about the early state and society in South India ?
Section - B
5. Write short essays in not more than 200 words each on any three of the following
(a) The Ahom Kingdom
(b) Significance of the arrival of the Portuguese in India
(c) The ‘Corps of Forty’ and its relations with the Sultan
(d) Evolution of the Khalsa Panth.
6. What are the manifestations of Tamil devotional cults ? How do you account for their growth between C. 750 and C. 1200 CE?
7. Delineate the striking features of agricultural and craft production during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in India. How did they impact the social fabric of the country?
8. What are the distinguishing components of the debate on “The Eighteenth Century” ?
Section - A (Modern India)
1. Comment on any three of the following statements in about 200 words each
(a) “Sprung from paternalism, the English Utilitarian philosophy as introduced in India rejected its human warmth between rulers and the ruled”.
(b) “The vernacular press in the nineteenth century was both newspaper as well as ‘viewspaper’ that enlightened the dormant masses”.
(c) “Is moral law, the law of conscience, higher than the law of the state, which is oppressive ?” (Mahatma Gandhi, 1922)
(d) “In exercising its exclusive power the Parliament additionally enacted the Untouchability (Offences) Act in 1955.”
2. Critically examine the impact of the famine policy on rural India. Describe the official remedial measures undertaken.
3. Write a critique on the impact of the Drain Theory of Dadabhai Nauroji in the growth of economic nationalism.
4. Describe the changing nature of revolutionary activities in India between 1905-1946.
Section–B (World History)
5. Comment on any three of the following statements in about 200 words each:
(a) “ France was more fertile than Britain in producing new Socialist theories and movements, though they bore less concrete results in France than in Britain”.
(b) “ Most of the European Revolutions of 1848 were nationalist as well as popular insurrections against foreign rule and repressive policy of Metternich”.
(c) “In the long run, the Locarno Treaty (December 1925) was destructive both of the Treaty of Versailles and of the Covenant “.
(d) “After World War II, the strategy of the West towards Soviet bloc crystallized as a ‘policy of containment”.
6. “The Enlightenment represented alternative approaches to modernity, alternative habits of mind and heart, of conscience and sensibility.” Discuss.
7. Account for the factors that brought about the end of the Cold War.
8. Assess the significance of the political developments that took place in Eastern Europe during 1989 - 2001. | <urn:uuid:38479c33-234a-4f3d-ae02-3d2da46040ca> | {
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In 2015, car-and-rocket man Elon Musk joined with influential startup backer Sam Altman to put artificial intelligence on a new, more open course. They cofounded a research institute called OpenAI to make new AI discoveries and give them away for the common good. Now, the institute’s researchers are sufficiently worried by something they built that they won’t release it to the public.
The AI system that gave its creators pause was designed to learn the patterns of language. It does that very well—scoring better on some reading-comprehension tests than any other automated system. But when OpenAI’s researchers configured the system to generate text, they began to think about their achievement differently.
“It looks pretty darn real,” says David Luan, vice president of engineering at OpenAI, of the text the system generates. He and his fellow researchers began to imagine how it might be used for unfriendly purposes. “It could be that someone who has malicious intent would be able to generate high-quality fake news,” Luan says.
That concern prompted OpenAI to publish a research paper on its results, but not release the full model or the 8 million web pages it used to train the system. Previously, the institute has often disseminated full code with its publications, including an earlier version of the language project from last summer.
OpenAI’s hesitation comes amid growing concern about the ethical implications of progress in AI, including from tech companies and lawmakers.
Google, too, has decided that it’s no longer appropriate to innocently publish new AI research findings and code. Last month, the search company disclosed in a policy paper on AI that it has put constraints on research software it has shared because of fears of misuse. The company recently joined Microsoft in adding language to its financial filings warning investors that its AI software could raise ethical concerns and harm the business.
OpenAI let WIRED play with its text generator, via a web page that lets you type in text the system uses like a writing prompt. The results could be garbled, but the way the system riffed on prompts such as song lyrics, poems, and phrases like “here is a recipe for yogurt pancakes” confirmed Luan’s view that the output can look pretty darn real.
However, it didn’t take much to get the system to unspool paragraphs that resembled the work of disinformation artists. When WIRED typed in the phrase “Hillary Clinton and George Soros,” OpenAI’s system wrote the following:
“...are a perfect match, and their agenda appears to be to create a political movement where Soros and his political machine and Clinton are two of the only major players. This is the first time Soros and Clinton have been caught on tape directly colluding in promoting the same false narrative. One of the key revelations in the leaked audio was Clinton's admission to a Russian banker that she knew about the Uranium One deal before it was approved by Congress. Clinton was shown sharing the same talking points that were originally drafted by a Fusion GPS contractor hired by an anti-Trump Republican donor. The leaked audio is the clearest evidence yet that the Clinton campaign and the Hillary Foundation colluded with Fusion GPS to manufacture propaganda against President Trump.”
Jack Clark, policy director at OpenAI, says that example shows how technology like this might shake up the processes behind online disinformation or trolling, some of which already use some form of automation. “As costs of producing text fall, we may see behaviors of bad actors alter,” he says.
The sample reflects the nature of text on the internet and how machine-learning systems try to mimic what’s in their training data. “This stuff reads great, but it’s not necessarily true,” says Kristian Hammond, a professor at Northwestern. “It’s learning the surface structure—Given what I know, what words can I say that sound right?” OpenAI’s researchers have seen their system write text with nonsensical scenarios, like fires underwater.
The WIRED Guide to Artificial Intelligence
Hammond cofounded a startup called Narrative Science that generates business documents like financial reports by translating data into text. He says OpenAI’s system shows impressive fluency and could be useful in creative projects. OpenAI's research builds on a recent spurt of progress on software that processes text, enabled by new machine-learning systems better at searching through text for contextual clues to a word’s meaning.
In order for machines that write to be broadly useful, however, they probably need to be able to reliably stick to the facts or be grounded in some kind of external data. “I hope we can now find ways to hook in real data about the world, the truth, into this kind of system,” Hammond says.
If your work is posting falsehoods on the internet, the truth doesn’t much matter. Such projects might find uses for text generation like OpenAI’s sooner than financial firms like those working with Narrative Science.
A version of OpenAI’s text generator trained on Amazon product reviews illustrates how a little extra training can adapt it to a specific task—or attack. Fake reviews trying to boost or drag down products or businesses are already a headache for companies such as Yelp, and they have been weaponized in political disputes.
Prompted to write a 1-star book review with the summary “I hate Tom Simonite’s book,” the model wrote:
“Tom Simonite does not keep it simple. He doesn't give you enough info on a subject to make the reading of the book enjoyable. He has over 400 pages of footnotes, so that is a way of getting your work for a subject out of the way. And of course, you never really feel like the author has a clear vision of his subject. He does not give you enough details on how a group of people is going to come together to solve a problem or come about a solution to a problem. This book was so depressing to me, I can't even talk about it without feeling like I want to punch the kindle.”
OpenAI’s concerns about the downsides of AI-generated text echo worries that misleading “deepfake” videoclips made with machine learning could undermine elections or spread false information. Clark of OpenAI likens the lab’s text-generation system to the state of the image-generating technology at the heart of deepfakes in 2015, when no one much worried about fake imagery.
The technology matured fast, and it became easy to access after an anonymous coder released tools he or she had developed to insert Hollywood stars into pornographic videos. The Pentagon is now devoting millions of dollars to figure out how to detect AI-altered imagery, and last month a Republican senator introduced a bill seeking to criminalize the creation and dissemination of deepfakes.
Clark says OpenAI hopes that by voicing its concerns about its own code, it can encourage AI researchers to be more open and thoughtful about what they develop and release. “We’re not sounding the alarm. What we’re saying is, if we have two or three more years of progress,” such concerns will be even more pressing, Clark says.
That timeline is necessarily fuzzy. Although machine-learning software that deals with language has been improving rapidly, no one knows for sure how long, or how far, it will go. “It could be an S-curve and we’re about to saturate, or it could be that we’ll keep accelerating,” says Alec Radford, a researcher who worked on OpenAI’s project.
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- 👀 Looking for the latest gadgets? Check out our latest buying guides and best deals all year round
- 📩 Want more? Sign up for our daily newsletter and never miss our latest and greatest stories | <urn:uuid:77a35067-9b7b-429a-9701-0894b6bd9da5> | {
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Metadata is one of the significant costs of digitization. Although archival items can be digitized without cataloging, a digital collection cannot be created and delivered without metadata.
Providing sufficient metadata promptly for the abundance of digital resources can create a bottleneck in a workflow. Creating and maintaining metadata about objects—and in particular digital information objects—is time consuming and costly. Metadata creators must provide enough information to be useful but cannot afford to be exhaustive.
THE FOUR METADATA TYPES
There are four types of metadata: administrative, descriptive, preservation, and technical.
Administrative metadata captures the context necessary to understand information resources. It documents the life cycle of an electronic resource, including data about ordering, acquisition, maintenance, licensing, rights, ownership, and provenance. It is essential that the provenance of a digital image object is recorded from, where possible, the time of its creation through all successive changes in custody of ownership. Users and curators must be provided with a sound basis for confidence that a digital image is what it is purported to be. There should be an audit trail of all changes.
Descriptive metadata attempts to capture the intellectual attributes of the images, enabling users to locate and select suitable assets based on their subjects.
Preservation metadata is the information about an item used to protect it from deterioration or destruction.
Technical metadata assures that the information content of a digital file can be resurrected even if the viewing applications associated with the file have vanished.
EMBEDDED OR LINKED
Metadata can be embedded in digital images or stored separately. Embedding metadata within the image it describes ensures the metadata will not be lost, obviates problems of linking between data and metadata, and helps ensure that the metadata and image will be updated together. Storing metadata separately can simplify the management of the metadata itself and facilitate search and retrieval. Metadata is usually stored in a database system and linked to the items described.
USEFUL, NOT EXHAUSTIVE
The biggest challenge is balancing the ideal scenario of comprehensive description with the more practical scenario of “good enough” description. Factors influencing this equation are the limited resources available for digitization regarding staff, time, and funding.
In my experience, cataloging and indexing can account for nearly a third of the overall costs of projects. These costs present considerable challenges to the economics of traditional library cataloging, which creates metadata records characterized by precision, detail, and professional intervention. This high price is impractical in the context of the growth of networked resources—and less expensive alternatives are needed.
Metadata creation requires both organizational and subject expertise to describe images effectively. Organizational expertise refers to the ability to apply the correct structure, syntax, and use of metadata elements, while subject expertise refers to the ability to generate a meaningful description of the material for users. High-quality metadata utilizing both expertise types is an integral part of effective searching, retrieval, use, and preservation of digital resources.
Describing images with metadata allows them to be understood by both humans and machines in ways that promote interoperability. Interoperability is the ability of many systems with different hardware and software platforms, levels of granularity, controlled vocabularies, data types, and interfaces to exchange data with minimal loss of content and functionality. Archival assets across the network can be searched more seamlessly using defined metadata schemes and shared transfer protocols.
Metadata crosswalks—mappings of the elements, semantics, and syntax from one metadata scheme to another—further facilitate the exchange of metadata. The degree to which the crosswalk is successful at the item level depends on the similarity of the schemes, the granularity of the elements in the target scheme compared to that of the source, and the compatibility of the content rules used to fill the elements of each scheme.
Crosswalks are essential for collections where resources are drawn from a number of sources and are expected to act as a whole, perhaps with a single search engine applied. While crosswalks are critical, they are also labor-intensive to develop and maintain. The mapping of schemes with fewer elements, or less granularity, to those with more details, or more granularity, is problematic. These problems have led to frustration for users who want consistent metadata interoperability across digital imaging products and services. Manufacturers of digital imaging hardware, software, and services spend substantial resources dealing with these problems. Until these complexities are resolved, the problems will continue to cost users and archivists time and resources.
TRANSLATING METADATA ACROSS COLLECTIONS
Due to these issues, archivists and other information professionals are working towards creating better models for crosswalks that unites the crosswalk, the source metadata standard, and the target metadata standard. With each effort, we improve machine-readable encoding and human-readable description, while bringing together all of the information required to access and interpret information. In time, we will become better at describing complex objects for our users. | <urn:uuid:0188da94-7cf1-40e8-8483-e63cace3ce6c> | {
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18. Education and Training
Chapter Editor: Steven Hecker
Introduction and Overview
Principles of Training
Gordon Atherley and Dilys Robertson
Worker Education and Training
Robin Baker and Nina Wallerstein
Evaluating Health and Safety Training: A Case Study in Chemical Workers Hazardous Waste Worker Education
Thomas H. McQuiston, Paula Coleman, Nina Wallerstein, A.C. Marcus, J.S. Morawetz, David W. Ortlieb and Steven Hecker
Environmental Education and Training: The State of Hazardous Materials Worker Education in the United States
Glenn Paulson, Michelle Madelien, Susan Sink and Steven Hecker
Worker Education and Environmental Improvement
Safety and Health Training of Managers
Training of Health and Safety Professionals
A New Approach to Learning and Training:A Case Study by the ILO-FINNIDA African Safety and Health Project
Antero Vahapassi and Merri Weingerv
Click a link below to view table in article context.
Point to a thumbnail to see figure caption, click to see figure in article context.
Until very recently the effectiveness of training and education in controlling occupational health and safety hazards was largely a matter of faith rather than systematic evaluation (Vojtecky and Berkanovic 1984-85; Wallerstein and Weinger 1992). With the rapid expansion of intensive federally-funded training and education programmes in the past decade in the United States, this has begun to change. Educators and researchers are applying more rigorous approaches to evaluating the actual impact of worker training and education on outcome variables such as accident, illness and injury rates and on intermediate variables such as the ability of workers to identify, handle and resolve hazards in their workplaces. The programme that combines chemical emergency training as well as hazardous waste training of the International Chemical Workers Union Center for Worker Health and Safety Education provides a useful example of a well-designed programme which has incorporated effective evaluation into its mission.
The Center was established in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1988 under a grant which the International Chemical Workers Union (ICWU) received from the National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences to provide training for hazardous waste and emergency response workers. The Center is a cooperative venture of six industrial unions, a local occupational health centre and a university environmental health department. It adopted an empowerment education approach to training and defines its mission broadly as:
… promoting worker abilities to solve problems and to develop union-based strategies for improving health and safety conditions at the worksite (McQuiston et al. 1994).
To evaluate the programme’s effectiveness in this mission the Center conducted long-term follow-up studies with the workers who went through the programme. This comprehensive evaluation went considerably beyond the typical assessment which is conducted immediately following training, and measures trainees’ short-term retention of information and satisfaction with (or reaction to) the education.
Programme and Audience
The course that was the subject of evaluation is a four or five-day chemical emergency/hazardous waste training programme. Those attending the courses are members of six industrial unions and a smaller number of management personnel from some of the plants represented by the unions. Workers who are exposed to substantial releases of hazardous substances or who work with hazardous waste less proximately are eligible to attend. Each class is limited to 24 students so as to promote discussion. The Center encourages local unions to send three or four workers from each site to the course, believing that a core group of workers is more likely than an individual to work effectively to reduce hazards when they return to the workplace.
The programme has established interrelated long-term and short-term goals:
Long-term goal: for workers to become and remain active participants in determining and improving the health and safety conditions under which they work.
Immediate educational goal: to provide students with relevant tools, problem-solving skills, and the confidence needed to use those tools (McQuiston et al. 1994).
In keeping with these goals, instead of focusing on information recall, the programme takes a “process oriented” training approach which seeks “to build self-reliance that stresses knowing when additional information is needed, where to find it, and how to interpret and use it.” (McQuiston et al. 1994.)
The curriculum includes both classroom and hands-on training. Instructional methods emphasize small group problem-solving activities with the active participation of the workers in the training. The development of the course also employed a participatory process involving rank-and-file safety and health leaders, programme staff and consultants. This group evaluated initial pilot courses and recommended revisions of the curriculum, materials and methods based on extensive discussions with trainees. This formative evaluation is an important step in the evaluation process that takes place during programme development, not at the end of the programme.
The course introduces the participants to a range of reference documents on hazardous materials. Students also develop a “risk chart” for their own facility during the course, which they use to evaluate their plant’s hazards and safety and health programmes. These charts form the basis for action plans which create a bridge between what the students learn at the course and what they decide needs to be implemented back in the workplace.
The Center conducts anonymous pre-training and post-training knowledge tests of participants to document increased levels of knowledge. However, to determine the long-term effectiveness of the programme the Center uses telephone follow-up interviews of students 12 months after training. One attendee from each local union is interviewed while every manager attendee is interviewed. The survey measures outcomes in five major areas:
The most recent published results of this evaluation are based on 481 union respondents, each representing a distinct worksite, and 50 management respondents. The response rates to the interviews were 91.9% for union respondents and 61.7% for management.
Results and Implications
Use of resource materials
Of the six major resource materials introduced in the course, all except the risk chart were used by at least 60% of the union and management trainees. The NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards and the Center’s training manual were the most widely used.
Training of co-workers
Almost 80% of the union trainees and 72% of management provided training to co-workers back at the worksite. The average number of co-workers taught (70) and the average length of training (9.7 hours) were substantial. Of special significance was that more than half of the union trainees taught managers at their worksites. Secondary training covered a wide range of topics, including chemical identification, selection and use of personal protective equipment, health effects, emergency response and use of reference materials.
Obtaining worksite improvements
The interviews asked a series of questions related to attempts to improve company programmes, practices and equipment in 11 different areas, including the following seven especially important ones:
The questions determined whether respondents felt changes were needed and, if so, whether improvements had been made.
In general, union respondents felt greater need for and attempted more improvements than management, although the degree of difference varied with specific areas. Still fairly high percentages of both unions and management reported attempted improvements in most areas. Success rates over the eleven areas ranged from 44 to 90% for unionists and from 76 to 100% for managers.
Questions concerning spills and releases were intended to ascertain whether attendance at the course had changed the way spills were handled. Workers and managers reported a total of 342 serious spills in the year following their training. Around 60% of those reporting spills indicated that the spills were handled differently because of the training. More detailed questions were subsequently added to the survey to collect additional qualitative and quantitative data. The evaluation study provides workers’ comments on specific spills and the role the training played in responding to them. Two examples are quoted below:
Following training the proper equipment was issued. Everything was done by the books. We have come a long way since we formed a team. The training was worthwhile. We don’t have to worry about the company, now we can judge for ourselves what we need.
The training helped by informing the safety committee about the chain of command. We are better prepared and coordination through all departments has improved.
The great majority of union and management respondents felt that they are “much better” or “somewhat better” prepared to handle hazardous chemicals and emergencies as a result of the training.
This case illustrates many of the fundamentals of training and education programme design and evaluation. The goals and objectives of the educational programme are explicitly stated. Social action objectives regarding workers’ ability to think and act for themselves and advocate for systemic changes are prominent along with the more immediate knowledge and behaviour objectives. The training methods are chosen with these objectives in mind. The evaluation methods measure the achievement of these objectives by discovering how the trainees applied the material from the course in their own work environments over the long term. They measure training impact on specific outcomes such as spill response and on intermediate variables such as the extent to which training is passed on to other workers and how course participants use resource materials.
The term environmental education covers a potentially wide range of issues and activities when applied to employees, managers and workplaces. These encompass:
This article focuses on the state of worker training and education in the United States in the growing environmental remediation field. It is not an exhaustive treatment of environmental education, but rather an illustration of the link between occupational safety and health and the environment and of the changing nature of work in which technical and scientific knowledge has become increasingly important in such traditional “manual” trades as construction. “Training” refers in this context to shorter-term programmes organized and taught by both academic and non-academic institutions. “Education” refers to programmes of formal study at accredited two-year and four-year institutions. Currently a clear career path does not exist for individuals with interest in this field. The development of more defined career paths is one goal of the National Environmental Education and Training Center, Inc. (NEETC) at Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Meanwhile, a wide range of education and training programmes exist at different levels, offered by a variety of academic and non-academic institutions. A survey of the institutions involved in this type of training and education formed the source material for the original report from which this article was adapted (Madelien and Paulson 1995).
A 1990 study conducted by Wayne State University (Powitz et al. 1990) identified 675 separate and distinct noncredit short courses for hazardous waste worker training at colleges and universities, offering over 2,000 courses nationwide each year. However, this study did not cover some of the primary providers of training, namely community college programmes, US Occupational Safety and Health Administration training programmes and independent firms or contractors. Thus, the Wayne State number could probably be doubled or tripled to estimate the number of noncredit, noncertification course offerings available in the United States today.
The major government-funded training programme in environmental remediation is that of the National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). This program, established under the Superfund legislation in 1987, provides grants to non-profit organizations with access to appropriate worker populations. Recipients include labour unions; university programmes in labour education/labour studies and public health, health sciences and engineering; community colleges; and non-profit-making safety and health coalitions, known as COSH groups (Committees on Occupational Safety and Health). Many of these organizations operate in regional consortia. The target audiences include:
The NIEHS program has resulted in extensive curriculum and materials development and innovation, which has been characterized by considerable sharing and synergy among grantees. The programme funds a national clearinghouse which maintains a library and curriculum centre and publishes a monthly newsletter.
Other government funded programmes offer short courses targeting hazardous waste industry professionals as opposed to front-line remedial workers. Many of these programmes are housed in university Educational Resource Centers funded by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
The broadest change on the hazardous waste education and training landscape in the past few years is the dramatic development of community college programmes and consortia to improve vocational education at the associate’s degree level. Since the 1980s, community colleges have been doing the most organized and extensive curriculum development work in secondary education.
The Department of Energy (DOE) has funded programmes nationwide to provide for a trained workforce at sites where the need has changed from nuclear technicians to hazardous waste clean-up workers. This training is taking place most rigorously at community colleges, many of which have historically provided for personnel needs at specific DOE sites. DOE-funded programmes at community colleges have also given rise to major efforts in curriculum development and consortia for sharing information. Their goals are to establish more consistent and higher standards of training and to provide mobility for the workforce, enabling an individual trained to work at a site in one part of the country to move to another site with minimal retraining requirements.
Several consortia of community colleges are advancing curricula in this area. The Partnership for Environmental Technology Education (PETE) operates in six regions. PETE is working with the University of Northern Iowa to create a world-class network of community college environmental programmes, linked with high schools, that inform and prepare students for entry into these two-year degree programmes. The goals include the development of (1) nationally validated curriculum models, (2) comprehensive professional development programmes and (3) a national clearinghouse for environmental education.
The Hazardous Materials Training and Research Institute (HMTRI) serves the curriculum development, professional development, print and electronic communications needs of 350 colleges with two-year environmental technologies credit programmes. The Institute develops and distributes curricula and materials and implements educational programmes at its own Environmental Training Center at Kirkwood Community College in Iowa, which has extensive classroom, laboratory and simulated field site facilities.
The Center for Occupational Research and Development (CORD) provides national leadership in the US Department of Education’s Tech Prep/Associate Degree initiative. The Tech Prep program requires coordination between secondary and post-secondary institutions to give students a solid foundation for a career pathway and the world of work. This activity has led to the development of several contextual, experiential student texts in basic science and mathematics, which are designed for students to learn new concepts in relationship to existing knowledge and experience.
CORD has also played a significant role in the Clinton administration’s national educational initiative, “Goals 2000: Educate America”. In recognition of the need for qualified entry-level personnel, the initiative provides for the development of occupational skills standards. (“Skills standards” define the knowledge, skills, attitudes and level of ability necessary to successfully function in specific occupations.) Among the 22 skills standards development projects funded under the programme is one for hazardous materials management technology technicians.
Articulation between vocational and baccalaureate programmes
A continuing problem has been the poor linkage between two-year and four-year institutions, which hampers students who wish to enter engineering programmes after completing associate’s (two-year) degrees in hazardous/radioactive waste management. However, a number of community college consortia have begun to address this problem.
The Environmental Technology (ET) consortium is a California community college network that has completed articulation agreements with four four-year colleges. The establishment of a new job classification, “environmental technician”, by the California Environmental Protection Agency provides added incentive for graduates of the ET program to continue their education. An ET certificate represents the entry level requirement for the environmental technician position. Completion of an associate’s degree makes the employee eligible for promotion to the next job level. Further education and work experience allows the worker to progress up the career ladder.
The Waste-management Education and Research Consortium (WERC), a consortium of New Mexico schools, is perhaps the most advanced model which attempts to bridge gaps between vocational and traditional four-year education. Consortium members are the University of New Mexico, the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, New Mexico State University, Navajo Community College, Sandia Laboratory and Los Alamos Laboratories. The approach to curriculum transfer has been an interactive television (ITV) program in distance learning, which takes advantage of the varied strengths of the institutions.
Students enrolled in the environmental programme are required to take 6 hours of courses from the other institutions through distance learning or an offsite semester of coursework. The programme is decidedly inter-disciplinary, combining a minor in hazardous materials/waste management with a major from another department (political science, economics, pre-law, engineering or any of the sciences). The programme is “both broad and narrow” in focus, in that it recognizes a need to develop students with both a broad knowledge base in their field and some specific training in hazardous materials and hazardous waste management. This unique programme couples student participation in realistic applied research and industry-led curriculum development. The courses for the minor are very specific and take advantage of the particularized specialties at each school, but each program, including the associate degree, has a large core requirement in humanities and social sciences.
Another unique feature is the fact that the four-year schools offer two-year associate’s degrees in radioactive and hazardous materials technology. The two-year associate’s degree in environmental science offered at the Navajo Community College includes courses in Navajo history and substantial courses in communications and business, as well as technical courses. A hands-on laboratory has also been developed on the Navajo Community College campus, an unusual feature for a community college and part of the consortium’s commitment to hands-on laboratory learning and technology development/applied research. The WERC member institutions also offer a “non-degree” certificate programme in waste management studies, which seems to be above and beyond the 24-hour and 40-hour courses offered at other colleges. It is for individuals who already have a bachelor’s or graduate degree and who further wish to take advantage of seminars and specialty courses at the universities.
Several significant changes have taken place in the focus of education and training related to the hazardous waste industry in the past few years, in addition to the proliferation of short-course training programmes and traditional engineering programmes. Overall, the Department of Energy seems to have focused education at the community college level on workforce retraining, primarily through the Partnership for Environmental Technology Education (PETE), the Waste-management Education and Research Consortium (WERC) and other consortia like them.
There is a major gap between vocational training and traditional education in the environmental field. Because of this gap, there is not a clear, routine career path for hazardous waste workers, and it is difficult for these workers to advance in industry or government without classic technical degrees. Although inter-departmental options for education at a management level are being established within economics, law and medicine departments which recognize the breadth of the environmental industry, these are still academic-based professional degrees which miss a large part of the available and experienced workforce.
As the environmental clean-up industry matures, the long-term needs of the workforce for more balanced training and education and a well-developed career path become more clear. The large numbers of displaced workers from closed military sites means more people are entering the environmental workforce from other fields, making the demand on union training and placement of displaced workers (both discharged military personnel and displaced civilian personnel) even greater than before. Educational programmes are needed which meet both the needs of personnel entering the industry and of industry itself for a more balanced and better-educated workforce.
Since labour union members are one of the main groups poised to enter the hazardous waste clean-up and environmental remediation field, it would seem that labour studies and industrial relations departments might be logical entities to develop degree programmes that incorporate a hazardous waste/environmental curriculum with development of labour/management skills.
The articles in this chapter have thus far concentrated on training and education regarding workplace hazards. Environmental education serves multiple purposes and is a useful complement to occupational safety and health training. Worker education is a critical and often overlooked aspect of a broad and effective environmental protection strategy. Environmental issues are frequently viewed as purely technological or scientific matters that stand outside the purview of workers. Yet worker knowledge is critical to any effective environmental solutions. Workers are concerned as citizens and as employees about environmental matters because the environment shapes their lives and affects their communities and families. Even when technological solutions are required that use new hardware, software or process approaches, worker commitment and competence are necessary for their effective implementation. This is true for workers whether involved directly in environmental industries and occupations or in other kinds of jobs and industrial sectors.
Worker education can also provide a conceptual foundation to enhance workers’ participation in environmental improvement, health and safety protection, and organizational improvement. The UNEP Industry and Environment Programme notes that “many companies have found that worker involvement in environmental improvement can yield important benefits” (UNEP 1993). The Cornell Work and Environment Initiative (WEI) in a study of US enterprises found that intense worker participation yielded triple the source reduction of technical or external solutions alone and boosted yields of some technological approaches even higher (Bunge et al. 1995).
Worker environmental education comes in a variety of forms. These include trade union awareness and education, occupational training and orientation, connecting environment to workplace health and safety concerns and broad awareness as citizens. Such education occurs in a range of venues including worksites, trade union halls, classrooms and study circles, using both traditional and newer computer-based delivery systems. It is fair to say that workers’ environmental education is an underdeveloped field, especially in comparison with managerial and technical training and school-based environmental education. At the international level, education of front-line workers is often mentioned in passing and is overlooked when it comes to implementation. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions has commissioned a series of studies on the educational dimension of environmental protection, and in its next programme of work will directly look at the shop-floor workers and their environmental educational needs.
What follows are several examples gathered through the WEI at Cornell University that illustrate both practice and possibility in worker environmental education.The WEI is a network of managers, trade unionists, environmentalists and government policy officials from 48 countries in all parts of the world, committed to finding ways that workers and the workplace can contribute to environmental solutions. It addresses a wide range of industries from primary extraction to production, service and public-sector enterprises. It provides a means for education and action on environmental matters that seeks to build knowledge at the workplace and in academic institutions that can lead to cleaner and more productive workplaces and better connection between internal and external environments.
Australia: Eco-Skills Modules
The Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) has developed new approaches to workers’ education for the environment that provides both broad social awareness and specific competencies for employment, especially among young workers.
The ACTU has organized an Environment Training Company with a broad mandate to address a variety of sectors but with an initial focus on land management issues. This focus includes teaching ways to handle reclamation work safely and effectively but also ways to assure compatibility with indigenous peoples and natural environments. With input from trade unionists, environmentalists and employers, the training company developed a set of “Eco-Skills” modules to establish basic environmental literacy among workers from an array of industries. These are integrated with a set of skill competencies that are technical, social and safety oriented.
Eco-Skills modules 1 and 2 contain a broad base of environmental information. They are taught alongside other entry-level training programmes. Levels 3 and higher are taught to people who specialize in work focused on reduction of environmental impacts. The first two Eco-Skills modules are composed of two forty-hour sessions. Trainees attain skills through lectures, group problem-solving sessions and practical hands-on techniques. Workers are assessed through written and oral presentations, group work and role plays.
Concepts covered in the sessions include an introduction to the principles of ecologically sustainable development, efficient resource use and cleaner production and environmental management systems. Once Module 1 is completed workers should be able to:
Module 2 expands upon these initial objectives and prepares workers to begin applying pollution prevention and resource conservation methods.
Some industries are interested in connecting environmental impact skills and knowledge to their industry standards at every level. Awareness of environmental issues would be reflected in the day-to-day work of all industry workers at all skill levels. An incentive for workers lies in the fact that pay rates are linked to industry standards. The Australian experiment is in its infancy, but it is a clear attempt to work with all parties to develop competency-based activities that lead to increased and safer employment while enhancing environmental performance and awareness.
Linking Occupational Health and Safety and Environmental Training
One of the most active unions in the United States in environmental training is the Laborers International Union of North American (LIUNA). US government regulations require that hazardous-waste abatement workers receive 40 hours of training. The union along with participating contractors have developed an intensive 80-hour course designed to provide potential hazardous-waste workers with greater awareness of safety and the industry. In 1995, over 15,000 workers were trained in lead, asbestos and other hazardous-waste abatement and other environmental remediation work. The Laborers–Associated General Contractors programme has developed 14 environmental remediation courses and associated train-the-trainer programmes to assist nationwide efforts at safe and quality remediation. These are conducted at 32 training sites and four mobile units.
In addition to providing safety and technical training, the programme encourages participants to think about larger environmental issues. As part of their classwork, trainees gather materials from local papers on environmental issues and use this local connection as an opening to discuss broader environmental challenges. This joint environmental training fund employs a full-time equivalent staff of 19 at its central office and spends over US$10 million. The materials and training methods meet high quality standards with extensive use of audio-visual and other training aids, specific competency focus, and quality commitment and assessment built in throughout the curricula. A “learn-at-home” video is used to help meet literacy concerns and environmental and basic literacy training are connected. For those who desire it, six of the courses are transferable into college credit. The programme is active in serving minority communities, and over half of the participants come from minority population groups. Additional programmes are developed in partnership with minority consortiums, public housing projects and other training providers.
The union understands that a great deal of its future membership will come in environmentally related businesses and sees the development of worker education programmes as building the foundation for that growth. While both safety and productivity are better on jobs using trained workers, the union also sees the broader impact:
The most interesting impact environmental training has had on members is their increased respect for chemicals and harmful substances in the workplace and at home. … Awareness is also increasing with respect to the consequences of continued pollution and the cost involved with cleaning up the environment. … The true impact is much greater than just preparing people for work (LIUNA 1995).
In the United States, such hazardous-materials training is also conducted by the Operating Engineers; Painters; Carpenters; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers; Chemical Workers Union; Machinists; Teamsters; Ironworkers and Steelworkers.
LIUNA is also working internationally with the Mexican Confederation of Workers (CTM), federal and private training groups and employers to develop training methodologies. The focus is on training Mexican workers in environmental remediation work and construction skills. The Inter-American Partnership for Environmental Education and Training (IPEET) held its first training course for Mexican workers during the summer of 1994 in Mexico City. A number of labour leaders and workers from local industries, including paint manufacturing and metal plating, attended the one-week course on environmental safety and health. Other LIUNA partnerships are being developed in Canada with French editions of the materials and “Canadianization” of the content. The European Institute for Environmental Education and Training is also a partner for similar training in Eastern European and CIS countries.
Zambia: Educational Manual on Occupational Health and Safety
In Zambia, too often occupational health and safety is taken seriously only when there is an incident involving injury or damage to company property. Environmental issues are also ignored by industry. The Manual on Occupational Health and Safety was written in an effort to educate employees and employers on the importance of occupational health and safety issues.
The first chapter of this manual outlines the importance of education at all levels in a company. Supervisors are expected to understand their role in creating safe, healthy working conditions. Workers are taught how maintaining a positive, cooperative attitude relates to their own safety and work environment.
The manual specifically addresses environmental issues, noting that all major towns in Zambia face
threats of increasing environmental damage. In specific, the Zambia Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) identified environmental hazards in the mining industry through strip mining and air and water pollution that results from poor practices. Many factories are responsible for air and water pollution because they discharge their waste directly into nearby streams and rivers and allow smoke and fumes to escape unchecked into the atmosphere (ZCTU 1994).
Though many African trade unions are interested in further education on the environment, lack of adequate funding for worker education and the need for materials that link environmental, community and workplace hazards are major barriers.
Employer-Based Worker Environmental Education and Training
Employers, especially larger ones, have extensive environmental education activities. In many cases, these are mandated training linked to occupational or environmental safety requirements. However, an increasing number of companies recognize the power of broad worker education that goes well beyond compliance training. The Royal Dutch/Shell Group of companies have made health, safety and environment (HSE) part of their overall approach to training, and environment is an integral part of all management decisions (Bright and van Lamsweerde 1995). This is a global practice and mandate. One of the company’s goals is to define HSE competencies for appropriate jobs. Worker competence is developed through improved awareness, knowledge and skill. Appropriate training will increase worker awareness and knowledge, and skills will develop as new knowledge is applied. A wide range of delivery techniques helps share and reinforce the environmental message and learning.
At Duquesne Light in the United States, all 3,900 employees were successfully trained “on how the company and its employees actually affect the environment.” William DeLeo, Vice-President of Environmental Affairs said:
To develop a training programme that enabled us to meet out strategic objectives we determined that our employees needed a general awareness of the importance of environmental protection as well as specific technical training relative to their job responsibilities. These two points became the guiding strategy for our environmental education program (Cavanaugh 1994).
Worker and Union-Based Environmental Education Programmes
The Workers’ Education Branch of the ILO has developed a six-booklet set of background materials to spark discussion among trade unionists and others. The booklets address workers and the environment, the workplace and the environment, the community and the environment, world environmental issues, the new bargaining agenda, and provide a guide to resources and a glossary of terms. They provide a broad, insightful and easy-to-read approach that can be used in both developing and industrial countries to discuss topics relevant to workers. The materials are based on specific projects in Asia, the Caribbean and Southern Africa, and can be used as a whole text or can be separated in a study circle format to promote general dialogue.
The ILO in a review of training needs pointed out:
Trade unionists must increase their awareness about environmental concerns in general and the impact their employing firms are having on the environment, including the safety and health of their workers, in particular. Trade unions and their members need to understand environmental issues, the consequences that environmental hazards have on their members and the community at large, and be able to develop sustainable solutions in their negotiations with company management and employers’ organizations. (ILO 1991.)
The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions has observed:
Local trade unions and other employee representatives are in a particularly difficult situation. They will have the relevant knowledge of the local situation and the workplace but will, in most cases, not be sufficiently specialised in complex environmental and strategic issues.
They will, therefore, be unable to exercise their functions unless they received additional and specialised training. (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions 1993.)
A number of national unions have urged increased workers’ education on the environment. Included among them is the LO in Sweden, whose 1991 Environmental Programme called both for more education and action at the workplace and for additional study circle material on the environment to promote awareness and learning. The Manufacturing Workers Union in Australia has developed a training course and set of materials to assist the union in providing environmental leadership, including how to address environmental issues through collective bargaining.
Good worker-based environmental education provides both conceptual and technical information to workers that assists them in increasing environmental awareness and in learning concrete ways to change work practices that are damaging to the environment. These programmes also learn from workers at the same time to build on their awareness, reflection and insight about workplace environmental practice.
Workplace environmental education is best done when it is connected to community and global environmental challenges so that workers have a clear idea of how the ways they work are connected to the overall environment and how they can contribute to a cleaner workplace and global ecosystem.
Following a brief review of the development of educational contributions to worker health and safety and of the first attempts to establish the foundations of management education, this article will address curriculum development. The two career paths along which future senior managers develop will be considered as an issue relevant to the educational needs of managers. The curriculum content for managerial issues will be set forth first, to be followed by that pertinent to an understanding of injury causation.
Education for occupational safety and health has been directed, in the main, to people such as safety managers and occupational physicians, and more recently, to occupational health nurses, ergonomists and hygienists—people who have been appointed to specialist staff positions in organizations.
The advisory roles of these specialists have incorporated tasks such as the administration of pre-employment medical examinations, health surveillance, monitoring employee exposures to a range of hazards and environmental examination. Their activities moreover include contributing to job and task design in order to adjust engineering or administrative controls by way of minimizing if not eliminating (for example) the harmful effects of postural demands or of exposure to toxic hazards.
This specialist-oriented educational approach has tended to ignore the central fact that the provision of safe and healthy workplaces requires an extraordinarily broad scope of operational knowledge necessary to make them a reality. It must be borne in mind that managers carry the responsibility for planning, organizing and controlling work activities in public and private enterprises across all industry sectors.
During the decade of the 1970s many initiatives were taken to offer study programmes at the tertiary level to provide a professional education with practical training for the range of specialist engineers, scientists and health care workers entering the field of occupational safety and health.
In the 1980s it was recognized that the people most directly concerned with occupational safety and health, the managers, the workers themselves and their associations, were the most significant entities in the move to reduce workplace injury and ill health. Legislation in many jurisdictions was introduced to provide education for workers serving on safety committees or as elected safety and health representatives. These changes highlighted for the first time the very limited education and training facilities then available to managers.
An early initiative to address management education
Several steps were taken to overcome this problem. The most widely known is Project Minerva, an initiative of the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), which represented an early effort to inculcate that body of specific managerial skills which is necessary to ensure workplace safety and which “generally exceeds that which is offered through courses in the traditional business curriculum” (NIOSH 1985). Teaching materials intended to address the more urgent safety and health concerns were provided for business schools. The resource guide comprised instructional modules, case studies and a book of readings. Module topics are listed in figure 1.
Figure 1. Modular curriculum content, Project Minerva resource guide.
The Canadian Society of Safety Engineers has recommended this structure to business schools seeking to incorporate occupational safety and health materials into their curricula.
Fundamentals of Managing: General Rather Than Specific Needs
Any job responsibility entails the acquisition of relevant knowledge and appropriate skills in order to discharge it. Responsibility for managing occupational safety and health within any organization will be placed increasingly upon line managers at each level in the job hierarchy. Associated with that responsibility ought to be commensurate accountability and the authority to command the necessary resources. The knowledge and skills needed to discharge this responsibility form the curriculum for occupational safety and health management education.
At first sight, it would seem necessary that a curriculum of this sort be developed with the aim of meeting all the special demands of the whole range of management functions as they relate to such a diversity of positions as office administrator, nurse manager, operations director, supplies and purchasing superintendent, fleet coordinator and even ship’s captain. The curricula need also, perhaps, address the whole range of industries and the occupations found within them. However, experience strongly suggests that this is not so. The necessary skills and knowledge are, in fact, common to all management functions and are more fundamental than those of the specialists. They are operative at the level of basic management expertise. However, not all managers arrive at their position of responsibility by taking similar paths.
Managerial Career Paths
The usual path to a managerial career is through either supervisory or specialist functions. In the former case, career development is dependent on work experience and job knowledge and in the latter it ordinarily presupposes off-the-job college education and postgraduate study, for example as an engineer or nurse manager. Both streams need to develop occupational safety and health (OSH) skills. For the latter this may be done in graduate school.
It is usual today for successful managers to acquire the degree of Master of Business Administration (MBA). For this reason the Minerva Project directed its attention to the 600 or more graduate management schools in the United States. By incorporating into MBA curricula such aspects of occupational safety and health as were determined to be critical for successful management of the field, it was believed that this material would be integrated into the formal studies of middle management.
Given the extremely high rate of technological invention and scientific discovery, undergraduate courses, particularly in engineering and scientific disciplines, have only limited opportunities to integrate broadly-based safety theory and practice into design, process and operation studies.
Since managerial roles begin fairly soon after graduation for those with specialist education, there is a need to provide the knowledge and skills that will support the safety and health responsibility of both specialist and generalist managers.
It is important that an awareness of the content of any curriculum devoted to occupational safety and health objectives among management be promoted among other personnel having related responsibilities. Thus, the training of such key employees as safety and health representatives should be designed to keep them current with such curricular developments.
Curriculum for Managing Occupational Safety and Health
There are two broad classes of knowledge into which the discipline of occupational safety and health falls. One is that relating to the functions and principles of management and the other deals with the nature and proactive control of hazards. The model of curriculum development set forth below will follow this division. Both the supervisory path to management and the specialist path will require their own particular coverage of each of these classes.
The question of what level of complexity and technological detail needs to be provided to students may be determined by the purpose of the course, its length and the intention of the providers regarding subsequent education and skills development. These issues will be addressed in a later section.
Specifically, curricula should address machinery and plant safety, noise, radiation, dust, toxic materials, fire, emergency procedures, medical and first aid arrangements, workplace and employee monitoring, ergonomics, environmental hygiene, workplace design and maintenance and, most importantly, the development of standard operating procedures and training. This last is an essential component of managerial understanding. Not only must tasks and processes be the subject of operator training but the requirement for continuous improvement of people and processes makes training and retraining the most critical step in improving the quality of both. Adult learning theory and practice needs to be applied in the development of the curricular materials that guide this continuing training process.
The functions and principles of management
The fundamental purposes of management embrace the planning, organizing and control of workplace activities. They also embrace the incorporation of practices which maximize opportunities for workforce participation in goal setting, team operation and quality improvement. Furthermore, successful management requires the integration of occupational safety and health into all the organization’s activities.
It is rare for undergraduate programmes, outside those of colleges of business, to cover any of this knowledge. However, it is a most essential component for the specialist practitioners to have incorporated into their undergraduate study.
The mission statement, strategic plan and structure set up to guide and facilitate the attainment of the organization’s objectives must be understood by the managers to be the basis for their individual activities. Each division of the organization whether it is a hospital, trucking business or coal mine, will in turn have its own goals and structure. Each will reflect the need to achieve organizational goals, and, taken together, will drive the organization towards them.
Policies and procedures
The primary embodiment of an organization’s goals are comprised by policy documents, the guides for individual employees on specific topics. (In some jurisdictions, the publication of an organization’s overall policy is required by law.) These documents ought to include reference to the range of occupational safety and health programmes designed with regard to the activities and processes which occupy the working time of employees. A sample of some general policy statements might include documents on emergency evacuation, fire fighting, purchasing procedures, injury reporting and accident and incident investigation. On the other hand, specific hazards will require their own process-specific policy materials concerning, for example, hazardous substances management, ergonomic interventions or entry into confined spaces.
After establishing policy, an activity preferably carried out with worker representative participation and union involvement, detailed procedures would then be put in place to give effect to them. Again, participative practices will contribute to the wholehearted acceptance of them by the workforce as a valuable contribution to their safety and health.
Figure 2. A health and safety management system.
Organizational structures defining key roles
The next stage in the management process is to define an organizational structure which characterizes the roles of key people—for example, the chief executive—and professional advisors such as safety advisors, occupational hygienists, the occupational health nurse, the physician and the ergonomist. In order to facilitate their roles, the relationships of these people and elected safety and health representatives (required in some jurisdictions) and worker members of safety committees to the organizational structure need to be explicit.
The planning and organizing functions of management will integrate structures, policies and procedures into the operational activities of the enterprise.
Control activities—establishing processes and goals, determining standards of acceptable achievement and measuring performance against those standards—are the operational steps which bring to realization the intentions of the strategic plan. They also need to be established through co-determination. The tools for control are workplace audits, which may be continuous, frequent, random or formal.
An understanding of these activities is an important component of a management education syllabus, and skills should be developed in carrying them out. Such skills are as essential to the success of an integrated safety and health plan as they are to the discharge of any other management function, whether purchasing or fleet operation.
Organizational development and curriculum
Since the introduction of new organizational structures, new equipment and new materials is occurring at a rapid pace, special attention must be given to the processes of change. The employees who will be affected by these changes can have a deciding influence on their effectiveness and on the efficiency of the work group. An understanding of the psychosocial factors influencing the activities of the organization must be acquired and skills must be developed in using this knowledge to reach organizational objectives. Of particular importance is the delegation of the authority and the accountability of the manager to work groups formed into autonomous or semi-autonomous work teams. The management education curriculum must place at the disposal of its students the tools necessary to carry out their obligation to ensure not only process improvement and quality but the development of the multiple skills and quality awareness of personnel with which the issue of safety is so closely involved.
There are two further components of the management curriculum requiring examination. One of these is the activity of incident investigation and the other, on which the whole of this activity rests, is an understanding of the accident phenomenon.
The accident phenomenon
The work of Derek Viner (1991) in clearly expounding the significance of energy sources as the potential hazards in all workplaces has defined half of the accident equation. In conjunction with Viner’s work, the contribution of Dr. Eric Wigglesworth (1972) in identifying human error, the crucial element in managing workplace safety activities, completes its definition. An emphasis on the process of each damaging occurrence has been shown by Benner (1985) when considering accident investigation methods to be the most productive approach to managing worker safety and health.
Wigglesworth’s visualization of the sequence of events which results in injury, damage and loss appears in figure 3. It highlights the role of nonculpable human error, as well as the essential element of loss of energy containment and the potential for the injury outcome where this occurs.
Figure 3. The error/injury process.
The implications of the model for management become clear when planning for work processes takes account of the behavioural inputs which affect those processes. This is so in particular when the role of design is given its rightful place as the initiating mechanism for both equipment and process development. When planning takes account both of the design of plant and equipment and of the human factors influencing work activity, coordination and control mechanisms can then be implemented to assure containment of the identified hazards.
A model may be used to illustrate the significance of the interaction between the worker, the equipment, tools and machines employed to further the task objectives and the environment within which the activity takes place. The model highlights the need to address factors within all three elements which may contribute to damaging events. Within the workstation environment, which encompasses the thermal, aural and lighting components, among others, the worker interacts with the tools and equipment necessary to get the work done (see figure 4).
Figure 4. Representation of workstation elements relevant to injury causation and control.
Accident investigation and analysis
Accident investigation serves a number of important functions. First, it can be a proactive process, being used in situations where an incident occurs which results in no damage or injury but where there is a potential for harm. Studying the sequence of events can uncover features of the work process which could lead to more serious consequences. Second, one may gain an understanding of the process by which the events unfolded and thus can identify the absence of, or weakness in, process or task design, training, supervision or controls over energy sources. Third, many jurisdictions legally require investigations of certain types of incidents, for example, scaffolding and trench collapses, electrocutions and failures of hoisting equipment. The work of Benner (1985) illustrates well the importance of having a clear understanding of the accident phenomenon and an effective protocol for investigating injury and damage events.
The nature and control of hazards
All injury results from some form of energy exchange. The uncontrolled release of physical, chemical, biological, thermal, or other forms of energy is a source of potential harm to a variety of workers. Containment by suitable engineering and administrative mechanisms is one essential aspect of suitable control. Identifying and evaluating these energy sources is a prerequisite for control.
A management education curriculum would thus contain topics covering a range of activities which includes establishing objectives, planning the work, developing policy and procedures, undertaking organizational change and installing controls over work processes (and specifically the energy sources utilized in carrying out that work), all aimed at injury prevention. While curricula designed for the technical areas of operations need address only fundamental principles, organizations that make use of very hazardous materials or processes must have in their employ a senior member of management with sufficient training in the specific modes of handling, storage and transport of such technology to ensure the safety and health of workers and members of the community.
Larger enterprises and small business
Managers who work in larger organizations employing, say, a hundred or more people usually have one or only a few functional responsibilities and report to a senior manager or a board of directors. They have occupational safety and health responsibility for their own subordinates and act within established policy guidelines. Their educational needs may be addressed by the formal programmes offered in business schools at the undergraduate or graduate level.
On the other hand, the sole managers or partners in small enterprises are less likely to have had graduate education, and, if they have, it is more likely to be of a technological than managerial sort, and it is more difficult to address their needs for the management of occupational health and safety.
Small business needs
Providing training programmes for these managers, who often work very long hours, has represented a difficulty of long standing. Although a number of large legislative jurisdictions have produced guidance booklets setting out minimum performance stands, the more promising approaches are being made available through industry associations, such as the Ontario Industrial Accident Prevention Associations funded by levies placed by the Workers’ Compensation Board upon all businesses in the given industrial sector.
A body of knowledge and skills which addresses the needs of managers at the first-line supervisory level, middle management and senior executives is outlined in figure 5 by topic. Individual short-form syllabuses follow in figure 6. These have been collated from the syllabuses of a number of university graduate study programmes.
Figure 5. Syllabus for an OSH study programme.
The needs of first-line supervisors will be met through the acquisition of knowledge and skills covered by those topics that relate to operational demands. The training of senior executives will concentrate on such topics as strategic planning, risk management and compliance matters as well as initiating policy proposals. The allocation of hours for each course of study should reflect student needs.
Management education for occupational safety and health demands an eclectic approach to the broadest range of issues. It shares with quality the imperative of being integrated into every management and worker activity, into every employee’s job description and should be a part of the performance appraisal of all.
Categories of Occupational Safety and Health Professionals Requiring Training and Education
The delivery of occupational safety and health services requires a highly-trained and multidisciplinary team. In a few less-developed countries, such a team may not exist, but in the vast majority of countries in the world, experts in different aspects of OSH are usually at least available though not necessarily in sufficient numbers.
The question of who belong to the categories of OSH professionals is fraught with controversy. Usually there is no dispute that occupational physicians, occupational nurses, occupational hygienists and safety professionals (sometimes referred to as safety practitioners) are OSH professionals. However, there are also members of many other disciplines who can make a plausible claim to belonging to the OSH professions. They include those ergonomists, toxicologists, psychologists and others who specialize in the occupational aspects of their subjects. For the purpose of this article, nevertheless, the training of these latter types of personnel will not be discussed, as the main focus of their training is often not on OSH.
In most countries, specific OSH training is of fairly recent origin. Until the Second World War, most OSH professionals received little or no formal training in their chosen calling. Few schools of public health or universities provided formal OSH courses, though some such institutions offered OSH as a subject in the context of a wider degree course, usually in public health. Segments of OSH were taught at the postgraduate level for physicians training in disciplines such as dermatology or respiratory medicine. Some engineering aspects of safety, such as machine guarding, were taught in technological and engineering schools. In most countries, even training in individual components of occupational hygiene courses were hard to find before the Second World War. The development of occupational nursing training is even more recent.
In the developed countries, OSH training received a boost during the Second World War, just as OSH services did. The mass mobilization of whole nations for the war effort led to greater emphasis on protecting the health of workers (and therefore their fighting capability or productivity with respect to the manufacturing of more munitions, warplanes, tanks and warships). At the same time, however, wartime conditions and the drafting of both university teachers and students into the armed forces made it extremely difficult to set up formal courses of OSH training. After the Second World War, however, many such courses were established, some with the help of the generous study grants for demobilized servicemen awarded by grateful governments.
After the Second World War, most colonies of European empires achieved independence and embarked upon the path of industrialization to a greater or lesser extent as a means to national development. Before long, such developing countries found themselves confronting the ills of the industrial revolution of nineteenth-century Europe, but within a much telescoped time span and on an unprecedented scale. Occupational accidents and diseases and environmental pollution became rampant. This led to the development of OSH training, although even today there are large variations in the availability of such training in these countries.
Review of Current International Initiatives
International Labour Organization (ILO)
There have been several initiatives of the ILO in recent years which relate to OSH training. Many of them relate to practical training for interventive measures at the worksite. Some other initiatives are carried out in collaboration with national governments (Rantanen and Lehtinen 1991).
Other ILO activities since the 1970s have been carried on largely in developing countries throughout the world. Several such activities relate to the upgrading of training of factory inspectors in countries such as Indonesia, Kenya, the Philippines, Tanzania, Thailand, and Zimbabwe.
The ILO, together with other United Nations agencies such as the United Nations Development Programme, has also assisted in the establishment or upgrading of national institutes of OSH, the training functions of which are usually among their top priorities.
The ILO has also produced several practical monographs which are very useful as training materials for OSH courses (Kogi, Phoon and Thurman 1989).
World Health Organization (WHO)
The WHO has held in recent years a number of important international and regional conferences and workshops on OSH training. In 1981, a conference entitled “Training of Occupational Health Personnel” was held under the auspices of the Regional Office for Europe of the WHO. In the same year, the WHO convoked with the ILO a Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health which focused on “educational and training in occupational health, safety and ergonomics” (WHO 1981). That meeting assessed the needs for education and training at different levels, developed policies in education and training and advised on methodology and programmes for education and training (WHO 1988).
In 1988 a WHO Study Group published a report entitled Training and Education in Occupational Health to address particularly the new policies on primary health care strategies adopted by the WHO member states, new needs resulting from technological developments and new approaches to health promotion at work (WHO 1988).
International Commission on Occupational Health (ICOH)
In 1985, the ICOH established a Scientific Committee on Education and Training in Occupational Health. This Committee has organized four international conferences as well as mini-symposia on the subject in the International Congresses on Occupational Health (ICOH 1987). Among the conclusions of the second conference, the need to develop training strategies and training methodologies received prominent mention in the list of priority issues (ICOH 1989).
A main feature of the third conference was the methodology of OSH training, including such functions as learning by participation, problem-based learning and evaluation of courses, teaching and students (ICOH 1991).
In different parts of the world, regional bodies have organized training activities in OSH. For example, the Asian Association of Occupational Health, established in 1954, has a Technical Committee in Occupational Health Education which conducts surveys on training of medical students and related subjects.
Types of Professional Programmes
Degree-granting and similar programmes
Probably the prototype of degree-granting and similar programmes is the sort which was developed in schools of public health or equivalent establishments. Higher education for public health is a relatively recent development. In the United States, the first school dedicated to this purpose was established in 1916 as the Institute of Hygiene at Johns Hopkins University. At that time, the overriding public health concerns centred around the communicable diseases. As time went on, education about the prevention and control of man-made hazards and about occupational health drew increasing emphasis in the training programmes of schools of public health (Sheps 1976).
Schools of public health offer OSH courses for a postgraduate diploma or for the degree of Master of Public Health, allowing students to concentrate in occupational health. Usually entry requirements include the possession of a tertiary educational qualification. Some schools insist upon relevant prior experience in OSH as well. The duration of training on a full-time basis is usually one year for the diploma and two years for the Master’s course.
Some of the schools train the different OSH personnel together in core courses, with training in the specific OSH disciplines (e.g., occupational medicine, hygiene or nursing) being offered to students specializing in these areas. This common training is probably a great advantage, as trainees of the different OSH disciplines could develop a greater understanding of each other’s functions and a better experience of team work.
Especially in recent years, schools of medicine, nursing and engineering have offered courses similar to those in schools of public health.
A few universities are offering OSH courses at the basic or undergraduate level. Unlike the traditional OSH tertiary courses, admission to which is usually dependent upon the acquisition of a previous degree, these newer courses admit students who have just graduated from high school. Much controversy still surrounds the merits of this development. Proponents of such courses argue that they produce more OSH professionals in less time and at lower cost. Their opponents argue that OSH practitioners are more effective if they build their OSH training on a basic discipline into which they integrate their special OSH practice, such as occupational medicine or nursing. Knowledge of basic sciences may be acquired at the specialization level if they have not been taught as part of undergraduate training.
Training courses in OSH for physicians vary in their clinical component. The conference, mentioned above, on the training of occupational health personnel organized by the WHO/Regional Office for Europe emphasized that “occupational medicine is fundamentally a clinical skill and its practitioners must be fully competent in clinical medicine”. It must also be stressed that the diagnosis of chemical intoxication among workers is largely clinical, as is the differentiation between “occupational disease” and other diseases and their management (Phoon 1986). It has become, therefore, a worldwide trend to insist upon postings to different clinics as part of the training of the occupational physician. In the United States and Canada, for example, trainees undergo a four-year residency programme which includes a substantial clinical component in such subjects as dermatology and respiratory medicine in addition to the curriculum required for the degree of Master of Public Health or its equivalent.
Formal training for occupational nurses probably varies even more in different parts of the world than that for occupational physicians. These differences hinge on the variations of responsibilities and functions of occupational nurses. Some countries define occupational health nursing as “the application of nursing principles in conserving the health of workers in all occupations. It involves prevention, recognition, and treatment of illness and injury and requires special skills and knowledge in the fields of health education and counselling, environmental health, rehabilitation and human relations” (Kono and Nishida 1991).On the other hand, other countries understand occupational nursing as the role of the nurse in an interdisciplinary occupational health team, who is expected to participate in all the fields of general health management, delivery of health services, environmental control, healthy and safe working procedures and OSH education. A survey in Japan showed, however, that not all the graduates from an occupational nursing staff took part in all these activities. This was probably due to a lack of understanding of the nurse’s role in OSH and to inadequate training in some of the fields (Kono and Nishida 1991).
The discipline of occupational hygiene has been defined by the American Industrial Hygiene Association as the science and art devoted to the recognition, evaluation and control of those environmental factors and stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among the citizens of the community. Speciality training has also emerged within the general field of occupational hygiene, including that in chemistry, engineering, noise, radiation, air pollution and toxicology.
Curricula for Occupational Safety and Health Personnel
The detailed contents of the curricula for the training of occupational physicians, nurses, hygienists and safety personnel, as recommended by the 1981 Joint ILO/WHO Committee an Occupational Health mentioned above will be represented in the pages to follow. As regards the main subject areas to be taught, the Committee recommends:
According to the profile of the personnel, the educational programmes will go more or less deeply into different subjects to meet the demands of the respective professions, as discussed below for several categories.
It is difficult to comment in detail what should go into the curricula of OSH courses. It is generally agreed that such courses should have a greater input of behavioural sciences than is now the case, but such input should be relevant to the sociocultural milieu of a particular country or region for which a course is designed. Moreover, OSH should not be taught in isolation from the general health services and the community health situation in a given country or region. The fundamentals of management science should be included in OSH curricula to improve the understanding of organizational structures and practices in enterprises as well as to enhance administrative skills of OSH professionals. The art of communication and the ability to conduct an investigation of OSH problems scientifically and to formulate solutions were also recommended for inclusion in all OSH curricula (Phoon 1985b).
Physicians and nurses
All medical students should be taught some occupational health. In some countries, there are separate courses; in others, occupational health is dealt with in such courses as physiology, pharmacology and toxicology, public health, social medicine and internal medicine. Nevertheless, medical students do not, as a rule, acquire sufficient knowledge and skill to allow them to practice occupational health independently, and some postgraduate training in occupational health and safety is necessary. For further specialization in occupational health (e.g., occupational diseases, or even more narrow fields, like occupational neurology or dermatology), postgraduate training programmes should be available. For nurses active in occupational health services, both long-term and short-term courses need to be organized, depending on their range of activities.
Figure 1. Postgraduate training syllabus for physicians and nurses.
Safety and health engineers and safety officers
The practice of occupational safety is concerned with such failures of materials, machines, processes and structures as may give rise to dangerous situations, including the release of harmful agents. The aim of education in this field is to enable students to foresee danger, both at the planning stage of projects and in existing situations, to quantify the danger and to design measures to combat it. Training in occupational safety involves the student in a substantial study of selected topics from engineering and materials science, particularly those related to mechanical, civil, chemical, electrical and structural engineering.
Separate curricular units would be concerned, for example, with the structure and strength of materials, in mechanical engineering; with forces in structures, in civil engineering; with handling and transportation of chemicals, in chemical engineering; with design standards, protective equipment and the theory of preventive maintenance, in electrical engineering; and with the behaviour of strata, in mining engineering.
Safety engineers, in addition to acquiring a basic knowledge, should also undergo a course of specialization. The 1981 Joint ILO/WHO Committee recommendations for a specialized safety engineering course of study are listed in figure 2.
Figure 2. A syllabus for specialization in safety engineering.
Courses can be either full-time, part-time or “sandwich courses”—in the lattermost case, periods of studying are interspersed with periods of practice. The selection of which courses to take is very much a matter of individual circumstances or preference. This is especially true since many safety practitioners have extensive knowledge gained through on-the-job experience in particular industries. However, within a large community or a country, there should preferably be a large range of choices to cater for all these different needs.
The recent enormous advances in communications technology should enable the greater usage of distance-learning courses which can be delivered both to remote areas of a country or even across national frontiers. Unfortunately, such technology is still quite expensive, and countries or areas which need such distance-learning capabilities most may be the very ones least able to afford them.
Primary health care practitioners
There is a severe shortage of OSH professionals in developing countries. In addition, among primary health care practitioners and health professionals as a whole, there is a tendency to direct their main activities to curative services. This should be counterbalanced with the help of appropriate training to emphasize the great value of instituting preventive measures at the workplace in collaboration with other responsible parties such as workers and managers. This would help, to a certain extent, to alleviate the problems caused by the present shortage of OSH personnel in developing countries (Pupo-Nogueira and Radford 1989).
A number of developing countries have recently embarked on short courses of OSH training for primary health care and public health personnel. There is a wide spectrum of organizations which have undertaken such training. They include national productivity boards (Phoon 1985a), farmers’ associations, national safety councils, national institutes of health, and professional bodies such as medical and nurses’ associations (Cordes and Rea 1989).
A scarcity of OSH professionals affects not only developing countries, but many developed ones as well. In the United States, one response to this problem took the form of a joint report by a preventive medicine and internal medicine study group that recommended that training programmes in internal medicine emphasize controls of hazards in the workplace and in the environment, since most patients seen by internists are members of the workforce. Furthermore, the American Academy of Family Physicians and the American Medical Association have published several monographs on occupational health for the family physician. A study by the American Institute of Medicine reaffirmed the role of the primary care physician in occupational health, outlined the basic skills required and emphasized the need to enhance occupational health activity in basic training and continuing education (Ellington and Lowis 1991). In both developed and developing countries, however, there is still an inadequate number of OSH training programmes for primary health care personnel and an insufficient number of trained personnel.
Training in the multidisciplinary nature of OSH can be enhanced by making sure that everyone who trains is fully familiar with the roles, activities and areas of concern of the other OSH personnel. In an OSH course in Scotland, for example, members of the different OSH professions participate in the teaching programme. The students are also provided with self-instruction packages designed to give them detailed knowledge of and insight into the different OSH professional areas. Extensive use is also made of experiential learning techniques such as role-playing simulations and participative case studies. For example, students are asked to complete personal checklists on how each particular area of occupational health activity is likely to affect them in their own work situations, and on how they can cooperate effectively with other occupational health professionals.
In the running of a multidisciplinary OSH course, a key element is the mix of learners of different professional backgrounds in the same class. The course material, such as group exercises and essays, must be carefully selected without any bias to a particular discipline. Lecturers must also receive training in the setting of multidisciplinary questions and problems (D’Auria, Hawkins and Kenny 1991).
In professional education as a whole, there is an increasing awareness of the need for continuing education. In the field of OSH, new knowledge concerning old hazards and new problems arising from changes in technology are developing so rapidly that no OSH practitioner could hope to keep up to date without making a systematic and constant effort to do so.
Continuing education in OSH can be formal or informal, voluntary or obligatory in order to maintain certification. It is essential for every OSH practitioner to keep up with reading the key professional journals, at least in his or her own disciplines. When a new hazard is encountered, it would be very useful to mount a literature search on that subject through a library. If such a library is unavailable, the CIS service of the ILO could be asked to undertake that service instead. Moreover, having continual and direct access to at least a few up-to-date texts on OSH is essential to any kind of OSH practice.
More formal kinds of continuing education could take the form of conferences, workshops, lectures, journal clubs or seminars. Usually tertiary institutions of learning or professional organizations can provide the means of delivery of such programmes. Whenever possible, there should be annual events in which a broader range of views or expertise could be canvassed than is usually available within the framework of a small community or town. Regional or international conferences or seminars can provide extremely useful opportunities for participants, not only to take advantage of the formal programme but also to exchange information with other practitioners or researchers outside the formal sessions.
Nowadays, more and more OSH professional organizations require members to attend a minimum number of continuing education activities as a condition for extension of certification or membership. Usually only the fact of attendance at approved functions is required. Attendance by itself is, of course, no guarantee that the participant has benefited from being present. Alternatives such as subjecting OSH professionals to regular examinations are also fraught with problems. Within a single OSH discipline, there is such a wide diversity of practice even within the same country that it is extremely difficult to devise an examination equitable to all the OSH practitioners concerned.
In every OSH training course there should be emphasis on the need for self-learning and its continuing practice. To this end, training in information retrieval and critical analysis of published literature is imperative. Training on the use of computers to facilitate obtaining of information from the many excellent OSH resources around the world would be also beneficial. Several courses have been developed in recent years to promote self-learning and information management through microcomputers (Koh, Aw and Lun 1992).
There is an increasing demand on the part of trainees and the community to ensure that curricula are constantly evaluated and improved. Many modern curricula are competency-based. A series of professional competencies required is first compiled. Since competence may be defined by different groups in different ways, extensive consultations on this matter should be held with faculty members and OSH practitioners (Pochyly 1973). In addition, there is a need for consultations with “consumers” (e.g., students, workers and employers), an inbuilt evaluation programme and well-defined but flexible educational objectives (Phoon 1988). Sometimes the establishment of advisory committees on curriculum or teaching programmes, which normally include faculty and student representatives, but sometimes also involve members of the general community, can provide a useful forum for such consultations.
Infrastructure is often ignored in discussions on OSH training and education. Yet supporting facilities and human resources such as computers, libraries, efficient administrative staff and procedures and safe and convenient access are among the host of infrastructure considerations which could be crucial to the success of training courses. Proper monitoring of students’ progress, counselling and assistance of students with problems, health care of students and their families (where indicated), minding of students’ children, canteen and recreational facilities and provision of lockers or cupboards for the storage of personal possessions of trainees are all important details which should receive careful attention.
Faculty Recruitment and Development
The quality and popularity of a training programme are often vital factors in determining the quality of staff applying for a vacant position. Obviously, other factors such as satisfactory service conditions and opportunities for career and intellectual development are also important.
Careful consideration should be given to job specifications and job requirements. Faculty should have the necessary OSH qualifications, though flexibility should be exercised to allow the recruitment of staff from non-OSH disciplines who may be able to make special contributions to teaching or especially promising applicants who may have the capability but not all the qualifications or experience normally required for the job. Whenever possible, faculty should have practical OSH experience.
After recruitment, it is the responsibility of the leadership and senior members of the school or department to make sure that new staff are given as much encouragement and opportunity to develop as possible. New staff should be inducted into the culture of the organization but also encouraged to express themselves and to participate in decision-making processes related to teaching and research programmes. Feedback should be given to them concerning their teaching performance in a sensitive and constructive manner. Whenever necessary, offers of help to remedy identified limitations should be given. Many departments have found the regular holding of teaching or evaluation workshops for staff to be extremely useful. Cross-postings to industries and sabbatical leave are other important measures for staff development. Some extent of consultancy work, which could be either clinical, worksite or laboratory (depending on the discipline and areas of activity of the faculty member) helps to make academic teaching more practical.
Classrooms should be designed and furnished according to appropriate ergonomic principles and equipped with audio-visual aid equipment and video projection facilities. The lighting and acoustics should be satisfactory. Access to an exit should be located in such a way as to minimize the disturbance of an ongoing class.
Proper principles of OSH should be applied to the design and construction of laboratories. Such safety equipment as showers, eye washing facilities, first aid supplies and resuscitation equipment and fume cupboards should be installed or made available where indicated, and laboratories should be bright, airy and odourless.
Venues for field visits should be chosen to provide a wide range of OSH experiences for the trainees. If possible, worksites with different levels of OSH standards should be chosen. However, on no account should the safety or health of trainees be compromised.
Locations for clinical work would very much depend on the nature and level of the training course. In some circumstances, bedside teaching may be indicated to demonstrate the appropriate clinical approach to skills in history taking. In some other circumstances, presentation of cases with or without patients could serve the same purpose.
Examinations and Assessment
The recent trend has been to seek alternatives to administering an all-important and single final examination at the end of a course. Some courses have abolished formal examinations altogether and replaced them with assignments or periodic assessments. Some other courses have a combination of such assignments and assessments, open book examinations and closed book examinations as well. It is nowadays increasingly understood that examinations or assessments are as much measures of the quality of courses and teachers as of the trainees.
A feedback of trainees’ opinions concerning the entire course or components thereof through questionnaires or discussions is invaluable in the evaluation or revision of a course. As far as possible, all courses should be constantly evaluated, at least on an annual basis, and revised if necessary.
Insofar as modes of examination are concerned, essay questions can test organization, integrating ability and writing skills. The precision and validity of essay examinations, however, have been found to be weak. Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are less subjective, but good ones are difficult to formulate and do not allow a display of practical knowledge. Modified essay questions (MEQs) differ from essays or MCQs in that the candidate is presented with a progressive amount of information about a problem. It avoids cueing by requesting short-answer responses rather than presenting candidates with alternatives from which to choose the appropriate answer. Oral examinations can measure problem-solving skills, professional judgement, communication skills and ability to retain composure under stress. The main difficulty with the oral examination is the potential for so-called “lack of objectivity”. The oral examination can be made more reliable by imposing some structure on it (Verma, Sass-Kortsak and Gaylor 1991). Perhaps the best alternative is to use a battery of these different types of examination rather than to rely on one or two of them only.
Certification and Accreditation
The word certification usually refers to the conferment upon a professional of authorization to practise. Such certification could be conferred by a national board or a college or an institution of practitioners of an OSH discipline. Usually, the OSH professional is given certification only after fulfilling a stipulated period of training in connection with an approved course or positions and also upon passing an examination. In general, such “global certification” is valid for life, unless there is proven professional negligence or misconduct. However, there are other forms of accreditation which require periodic renewal. They include such accreditation as that required in some countries to either conduct special statutory medical examinations or to report on radiographs of asbestos-exposed persons.
Accreditation, on the other hand, refers to the recognition of OSH courses by a national board or professional organization or a scholarship-granting body. Such accreditation should be subject to periodic reappraisal to ensure that courses keep to an appropriate level of currency and effectiveness.
Abuya: What’s the matter? You look worn out.
Mwangi: I am worn out—and disgusted. I was up half the night getting ready for this lecture I just gave and I don’t think it went very well. I couldn’t get anything out of them—no questions, no enthusiasm. For all I know, they didn’t understand a word I said.
Kariuki: I know what you mean. Last week I was having a terrible time trying to explain chemical safety in Swahili.
Abuya: I don’t think it’s the language. You were probably just talking over their heads. How much technical information do these workers really need to know anyway?
Kariuki: Enough to protect themselves. If we can’t get the point across, we’re just wasting our time. Mwangi, why didn’t you try asking them something or tell a story?
Mwangi: I couldn’t figure out what to do. I know there has to be a better way, but I was never trained in how to do these lectures right.
Abuya: Why all the fuss? Just forget about it! With all the inspections we have to do, who’s got time to worry about training?
The above discussion in an African factory inspectorate, which could take place anywhere, highlights a real problem: how to get the message through in a training session. Using a real problem as a discussion starter (or trigger) is an excellent training technique to identify potential obstacles to training, their causes and potential solutions. We have used this discussion as a role play in our Training of Trainers’ workshops in Kenya and Ethiopia.
The ILO-FINNIDA African Safety and Health Project is part of the ILO’s technical cooperation activities aimed to improve occupational safety and health training and information services in 21 African countries where English is commonly spoken. It is sponsored by FINNIDA, the Finnish International Development Agency. The Project took place from 1991 to 1994 with a budget of US$5 million. One of the main concerns in the implementation of the Project was to determine the most appropriate training approach by which to facilitate high quality learning. In the following case study we will describe the practical implementation of the training approach, the Training the Trainers’ (TOT) course (Weinger 1993).
Development of a New Training Approach
In the past, the training approach in most African factory inspectorates, and also in many technical cooperation projects of the ILO, has been based on randomly selected, isolated topics of occupational safety and health (OSH) which were presented mainly by using lecturing methods. The African Safety and Health Project conducted the first pilot course in TOT in 1992 for 16 participating countries. This course was implemented in two parts, the first part dealing with basic principles of adult education (how people learn, how to establish learning objectives and select teaching contents, how to design the curriculum and select instructional methods and learning activities and how to improve personal teaching skills) and the second part with practical training in OSH based on individual assignments which each participant completed during a four month’s time period following the first part of the course.
The main characteristics of this new approach are participation and action orientation. Our training does not reflect the traditional model of classroom learning where participants are passive recipients of information and the lecture is the dominant instructional method. In addition to its action orientation and participatory training methods, this approach is based on the latest research in modern adult education and takes a cognitive and activity-theoretical view of learning and teaching (Engeström 1994).
On the basis of the experience gained during the pilot course, which was extremely successful, a set of detailed course material was prepared, call the Training of Trainers Package, which consists of two parts, a trainer’s manual and a supply of participants’ handout matter. This package was used as a guideline during planning sessions, attended by from 20 to 25 factory inspectors over a period of ten days, and concerned with establishing national TOT courses in Africa. By the spring of 1994, national TOT courses had been implemented in two African countries, Kenya and Ethiopia.
High Quality Learning
There are four key components of high quality learning.
Motivation for learning. Motivation occurs when participants see the “use-value” of what they are learning. It is stimulated when they can perceive the gap that separates what they know and what they need to know to solve a problem.
Organization of subject matter. The content of learning is too commonly thought of as separate facts stored in the brain like items in boxes on a shelf. In reality, people construct models, or mental pictures, of the world while learning. In promoting cognitive learning, teachers try to organize facts into models for better learning and include explanatory principles or concepts (the “but whys” behind a fact or skill).
Advancing through steps in the learning process. In the learning process, the participant is like an investigator looking for a model by which to understand the subject matter. With the help of the teacher, the participant forms this model, practices using it and evaluates its usefulness. This process can be divided into the following six steps:
Social interaction. The social interaction between participants in a training session is an essential component of learning. In group activities, participants learn from one another.
Planning training for high quality learning
The kind of education aimed at particular skills and competencies is called training. The goal of training is to facilitate high quality learning and it is a process that takes place in a series of steps. It requires careful planning at each stage and each step is equally important. There are many ways of breaking the training into components but from the point of view of the cognitive conception of learning, the task of planning a training course can be analysed into six steps.
Step 1: Conduct a needs assessment (know your audience).
Step 2: Formulate learning objectives.
Step 3: Develop an orientation basis or “road map” for the course.
Step 4: Develop the curriculum, establishing its contents and associated training methods and using a chart to outline your curriculum.
Step 5: Teach the course.
Step 6: Evaluate the course and follow up on the evaluation.
Practical Implementation of National TOT Courses
Based on the above-mentioned training approach and experience from the first pilot course, two national TOT courses were implemented in Africa, the one in Kenya in 1993 and the other in Ethiopia in 1994.
Training needs were based on the work activity of factory inspectors and were determined by means of a pre-workshop questionnaire and a discussion with the course participants about their everyday work and about the kinds of skills and competencies necessary to carry it out (see figure 1). The course has thus been designed primarily for factory inspectors (in our national TOT courses, usually 20 to 25 inspectors participated), but it could be extended to other personnel who may need to carry out safety and health training, such as shop stewards, foremen, and safety and health officers.
Figure 1. Orientation basis for the factory inspector's work activity.
A compilation of course objectives for the national TOT course was assembled step by step in cooperation with the participants, and is given immediately below.
Objectives of the national TOT course
The aims of the training of trainers (TOT) course are as follows:
The key subject areas or curriculum units that guided the implementation of the TOT course in Ethiopia are outlined in figure 2. This outline may also serve as an orientation basis for the whole TOT course.
Figure 2. The key subject areas of the TOT course.
Determining training methods
The external aspect of the teaching method is immediately observable when you step into a classroom. You might observe a lecture, a discussion, group or individual work. However, what you do not see is the most essential aspect of teaching: the kind of mental work being accomplished by the student at any given moment. This is called the internal aspect of the teaching method.
Teaching methods can be divided into three main groups:
Most of the above methods were used in our TOT courses. However, the method one selects depends on the learning objectives one wants to achieve. Each method or learning activity should have a function. These instructional functions, which are the activities of a teacher, correspond with the steps in the learning process described above and can help guide your selection of methods. There follows a list of the nine instructional functions:
Planning the curriculum: Charting your course
One of the functions of curriculum or course plan is to assist in guiding and monitoring the teaching and learning process. The curriculum can be divided into two parts, the general and the specific.
The general curriculum gives an overall picture of the course: its goals, objectives, contents, participants and guidelines for their selection, the teaching approach (how the course will be conducted) and the organizational arrangements, such as pre-course tasks. This general curriculum would usually be your course description and a draft programme or list of topics.
A specific curriculum provides detailed information on what one will teach and how one plans to teach it. A written curriculum prepared in chart form will serve as a good outline for designing a curriculum specific enough to serve as a guide in the implementation of the training. Such a chart includes the following categories:
Time: the estimated time needed for each learning activity
Curriculum Units: primary subject areas
Topics: themes within each curriculum unit
Instructional function: the function of each learning activity in helping to achieve your learning objectives
Activities: the steps for conducting each learning activity
Materials: the resources and materials needed for each activity
Instructor: the trainer responsible for each activity (when there are several trainers)
To design the curriculum with the aid of the chart format, follow the steps outlined below. Completed charts are illustrated in connection with a completed curriculum in Weinger 1993.
Evaluating the course and follow-up
The last step in the training process is evaluation and follow-up. Unfortunately, it is a step that is often forgotten, ignored and, sometimes, avoided. Evaluation, or the determination of the degree to which course objectives were met, is an essential component of training. This should include both programme critique (by the course administrators) and participant evaluation.
Participants should have an opportunity to evaluate the external factors of teaching: the instructor’s presentation skills, techniques used, facilities and course organization. The most common evaluation tools are post-course questionnaires and pre- and post-tests.
Follow-up is a necessary support activity in the training process. Follow-up activities should be designed to help the participants apply and transfer what they have learned to their jobs. Examples of follow-up activities for our TOT courses include:
Selection of trainers
Trainers were selected who were familiar with the cognitive learning approach and had good communication skills. During the pilot course in 1992 we used international experts who had been involved in development of this learning approach during the 1980s in Finland. In the national courses we have had a mixture of experts: one international expert, one or two regional experts who had participated in the first pilot course and two to three national resource persons who either had responsibility for training in their own countries or who had participated earlier in this training approach. Whenever it was possible, project personnel also participated.
Discussion and Summary
Factory training needs assessment
The factory visit and subsequent practice teaching are a highlight of the workshop. This training activity was used for workplace training needs assessment (curriculum unit VI A, figure 1). The recommendation here would be to complete the background on theory and methods prior to the visit. In Ethiopia, we scheduled the visit prior to addressing ourselves to the question of teaching methods. While two factories were looked at, we could have extended the time for needs assessment by eliminating one of the factory visits. Thus, visiting groups will visit and focus on only that factory where they will be actually training.
The risk mapping component of the workshop (this is also part of curriculum unit VI A) was even more successful in Ethiopia than in Kenya. The risk maps were incorporated in the practice teaching in the factories and were highly motivating for the workers. In future workshops, we would stress that specific hazards be highlighted wherever they occur, rather than, for example, using a single green symbol to represent any of a variety of physical hazards. In this way, the extent of a particular type of hazard is more clearly reflected.
The instructional methods focused on audio-visual techniques and the use of discussion starters. Both were quite successful. In a useful addition to the session on transparencies, the participants were asked to work in groups to develop a transparency of their own on the contents of an assigned article.
Flip charts and brainstorming were new teaching methods for participants. In fact, a flip chart was developed especially for the workshop. In addition to being an excellent training aid, the use of flip charts and “magic markers” is a very inexpensive and practical substitute for the overhead projector, which is unavailable to most inspectors in the developing countries.
“Microteaching”, or instruction in the classroom focusing on particular local problems, made use of videotape and subsequent critique by fellow participants and resource people, and was very successful. In addition to enhancing the working of external teaching methods, the taping was a good opportunity for comment on areas for improvement in content prior to the factory teaching.
A common error, however, was the failure to link discussion starters and brainstorm activities with the content or message of an activity. The method was perfunctorily executed, and its effect ignored. Other common errors were the use of excessively technical terminology and the failure to make the training relevant to the audience’s needs by using specific workplace examples. But the later presentations in the factory were designed to clearly reflect the criticisms that participants had received the day before.
Practice teaching in the factory
In their evaluation of the practice teaching sessions in the factory, participants were extremely impressed with the use of a variety of teaching methods, including audiovisuals, posters that they developed, flip charts, brainstorming, role plays, “buzz groups” and so on. Most groups also made use of an evaluation questionnaire, a new experience for them. Of particular note was their success in engaging their audiences, after having relied solely on the lecture method in the past. Common areas for improvement were time management and the use of overly technical terms and explanations. In the future, the resource persons should also try to ensure that all groups include the application and evaluation steps in the learning process.
Course planning as a training experience
During these two courses it was possible to observe significant changes in the participants’ understanding of the six steps in high quality learning.
In the last course a section on writing objectives, where each participant writes a series of instructional objectives, was added into the programme. Most participants had never written training objectives and this activity was extremely useful.
As for the use of the curriculum chart in planning, we have seen definite progress among all participants and mastery by some. This area could definitely benefit from more time. In future workshops, we would add an activity where participants use the chart to follow one topic through the learning process, using all of the instructional functions. There is still a tendency to pack the training with content material (topics) and to intersperse, without due consideration of their relevance, the various instructional functions throughout a series of topics. It is also necessary that trainers emphasize those activities that are chosen to accomplish the application step in the learning process, and that they acquire more practice in developing learners’ tasks. Application is a new concept for most and difficult to incorporate in the instructional process.
Finally the use of the term curriculum unit was difficult and sometimes confusing. The simple identification and ordering of relevant topic areas is an adequate beginning. It was also obvious that many other concepts of the cognitive learning approach were difficult, such as the concepts of orientation basis, external and internal factors in learning and teaching, instructional functions and some others.
In summary, we would add more time to the theory and curriculum development sections, as outlined above, and to the planning of future curriculum, which affords the opportunity of observing individual ability to apply the theory.
The ILO-FINNIDA African Safety and Health Project has undertaken a particularly challenging and demanding task: to change our ideas and old practices about learning and training. The problem with talking about learning is that learning has lost its central meaning in contemporary usage. Learning has come to be synonymous with taking in information. However, taking in information is only distantly related to real learning. Through real learning we re-create ourselves. Through real learning we become able to do something we were never able to do before (Senge 1990). This is the message in our Project’s new approach on learning and training.
A 1981 study of worker safety and health training in the industrial nations begins by quoting the French writer Victor Hugo: “No cause can succeed without first making education its ally” (Heath 1981). This observation surely still applies to occupational safety and health in the late twentieth century, and is relevant to organization personnel at all levels.
As the workplace becomes increasingly complex, new demands have arisen for greater understanding of the causes and means of prevention of accidents, injuries and illnesses. Government officials, academics, management and labour all have important roles to play in conducting the research that furthers this understanding. The critical next step is the effective transmission of this information to workers, supervisors, managers, government inspectors and safety and health professionals. Although education for occupational physicians and hygienists differs in many respects from the training of workers on the shop floor, there are also common principles that apply to all.
National education and training policies and practices will of course vary according to the economic, political, social, cultural and technological background of the country. In general, industrially advanced nations have proportionally more specialized occupational safety and health practitioners at their disposal than do the developing nations, and more sophisticated education and training programmes are available to these trained workers. More rural and less industrialized nations tend to rely more on “primary health care workers”, who may be worker representatives in factories or fields or health personnel in district health centres. Clearly, training needs and available resources will vary greatly in these situations. However, they all have in common the need for trained practitioners.
This article provides an overview of the most significant issues concerning education and training, including target audiences and their needs, the format and content of effective training and important current trends in the field.
In 1981, the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health identified the three levels of education required in occupational health, safety and ergonomics as (1) awareness, (2) training for specific needs and (3) specialization. These components are not separate, but rather are part of a continuum; any person may require information on all three levels. The main target groups for basic awareness are legislators, policy makers, managers and workers. Within these categories, many people require additional training in more specific tasks. For example, while all managers should have a basic understanding of the safety and health problems within their areas of responsibility and should know where to go for expert assistance, managers with specific responsibility for safety and health and compliance with regulations may need more intensive training. Similarly, workers who serve as safety delegates or members of safety and health committees need more than awareness training alone, as do government administrators involved in factory inspection and public health functions related to the workplace.
Those doctors, nurses and (especially in rural and developing areas) nonphysician primary health care workers whose primary training or practice does not include occupational medicine will need occupational health education in some depth in order to serve workers, for example by being able to recognize work-related illnesses. Finally, certain professions (for example, engineers, chemists, architects and designers) whose work has considerable impact on workers’ safety and health need much more specific education and training in these areas than they traditionally receive.
Specialists require the most intensive education and training, most often of the kind received in undergraduate and postgraduate programmes of study. Physicians, nurses, occupational hygienists, safety engineers and, more recently, ergonomists come under this category. With the rapid ongoing developments in all of these fields, continuing education and on-the-job experience are important components of the education of these professionals.
It is important to emphasize that increasing specialization in the fields of occupational hygiene and safety has taken place without a commensurate emphasis on the interdisciplinary aspects of these endeavours. A nurse or physician who suspects that a patient’s disease is work-related may well need the assistance of an occupational hygienist to identify the toxic exposure (for example) in the workplace that is causing the health problem. Given limited resources, many companies and governments often employ a safety specialist but not a hygienist, requiring that the safety specialist address health as well as safety concerns. The interdependence of safety and health issues should be addressed by offering interdisciplinary training and education to safety and health professionals.
Why Training and Education?
The primary tools needed to achieve the goals of reducing occupational injuries and illnesses and promoting occupational safety and health have been characterized as the “three E’s”—engineering, enforcement and education. The three are interdependent and receive varying levels of emphasis within different national systems. The overall rationale for training and education is to improve awareness of safety and health hazards, to expand knowledge of the causes of occupational illness and injury and to promote the implementation of effective preventive measures. The specific purpose and impetus for training will, however, vary for different target audiences.
Middle and upper level managers
The need for managers who are knowledgeable about the safety and health aspects of the operations for which they are responsible is more widely acknowledged today than heretofore. Employers increasingly recognize the considerable direct and indirect costs of serious accidents and the civil, and in some jurisdictions, criminal liability to which companies and individuals may be exposed. Although belief in the “careless worker” explanation for accidents and injuries remains prevalent, there is increasing recognition that “careless management” can be cited for conditions under its control that contribute to accidents and disease. Finally, firms also realize that poor safety performance is poor public relations; major disasters like the one in the Union Carbide plant in Bhopal (India) can offset years of effort to build a good name for a company.
Most managers are trained in economics, business or engineering and receive little or no instruction during their formal education in occupational health or safety matters. Yet daily management decisions have a critical impact on employee safety and health, both directly and indirectly. To remedy this state of affairs, safety and health concerns have begun to be introduced into management and engineering curricula and into continuing education programmes in many countries. Further efforts to make safety and health information more widespread is clearly necessary.
Research has demonstrated the central role played by first-line supervisors in the accident experience of construction employers (Samelson 1977). Supervisors who are knowledgeable about the safety and health hazards of their operations, who effectively train their crew members (especially new employees) and who are held accountable for their crew’s performance hold the key to improving conditions. They are the critical link between workers and the firm’s safety and health policies.
Law, custom and current workplace trends all contribute to the spread of employee education and training. Increasingly, employee safety and health training is being required by government regulations. Some apply to general practice, while in others the training requirements are related to specific industries, occupations or hazards. Although valid evaluation data on the effectiveness of such training as a countermeasure to work-related injuries and illnesses are surprisingly sparse (Vojtecky and Berkanovic 1984-85); nevertheless the acceptance of training and education for improving safety and health performance in many areas of work is becoming widespread in many countries and companies.
The growth of employee participation programmes, self-directed work teams and shop floor responsibility for decision-making has affected the way in which safety and health approaches are taken as well. Education and training are widely used to enhance knowledge and skills at the level of the line worker, who is now recognized as essential for the effectiveness of these new trends in work organization. A beneficial action employers can take is to involve employees early on (for example, in the planning and design stages when new technologies are introduced into a worksite) to minimize and to anticipate adverse effects on the work environment.
Trade unions have been a moving force both in advocating more and better training for employees and in developing and delivering curricula and materials to their members. In many countries, safety committee members, safety delegates and works council representatives have assumed a growing role in the resolution of hazard problems at the worksite and in inspection and advocacy as well. Persons holding these positions all require training that is more complete and sophisticated than that given to an employee performing a particular job.
Safety and health professionals
The duties of safety and health personnel comprise a broad range of activities that differ widely from one country to another and even within a single profession. Included in this group are physicians, nurses, hygienists and safety engineers either engaged in independent practice or employed by individual worksites, large corporations, government health or labour inspectorates and academic institutions. The demand for trained professionals in the area of occupational safety and health has grown rapidly since the 1970s with the proliferation of government laws and regulations paralleling the growth of corporate safety and health departments and academic research in this field.
Scope and Objectives of Training and Education
This ILO Encyclopaedia itself presents the multitude of issues and hazards that must be addressed and the range of personnel required in a comprehensive safety and health programme. Taking the large view, we can consider the objectives of training and education for safety and health in a number of ways. In 1981, the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health offered the following categories of educational objectives which apply in some degree to all of the groups discussed thus far: (1) cognitive (knowledge), (2) psychomotor (professional skills) and (3) affective (attitude and values). Another framework describes the “information–education–training” continuum, roughly corresponding to the “what”, the “why” and the “how” of hazards and their control. And the “empowerment education” model, to be discussed below, puts great emphasis on the distinction between training—the teaching of competency-based skills with predictable behavioural outcomes—and education—the development of independent critical thinking and decision-making skills leading to effective group action (Wallerstein and Weinger 1992).
Workers need to understand and apply the safety procedures, proper tools and protective equipment for performing specific tasks as part of their job skills training. They also require training in how to rectify hazards that they observe and to be familiar with internal company procedures, in accordance with the safety and health laws and regulations which apply to their area of work. Similarly, supervisors and managers must be aware of the physical, chemical and psychosocial hazards present in their workplaces as well as the social, organizational and industrial relations factors that may be involved in the creation of these hazards and in their correction. Thus, gaining knowledge and skills of a technical nature as well as organizational, communication and problem-solving skills are all necessary objectives in education and training.
In recent years, safety and health education has been influenced by developments in education theory, particularly theories of adult learning. There are different aspects of these developments, such as empowerment education, cooperative learning and participative learning. All share the principle that adults learn best when they are actively involved in problem-solving exercises. Beyond the transmission of specific bits of knowledge or skills, effective education requires the development of critical thinking and an understanding of the context of behaviours and ways of linking what is learned in the classroom to action in the workplace. These principles seem especially appropriate to workplace safety and health, where the causes of hazardous conditions and illnesses and injuries are often a combination of environmental and physical factors, human behaviour and the social context.
In translating these principles into an education programme four categories of objectives must be included:
Information objectives: the specific knowledge that trainees will acquire. For example, knowledge of the effects of organic solvents on the skin and on the central nervous system.
Behavioural objectives: the competencies and skills that workers will learn. For example, the ability to interpret chemical data sheets or to lift a heavy object safely.
Attitude objectives: the beliefs that interfere with safe performance or with response to training that must be addressed. The belief that accidents are not preventable or that “solvents can’t hurt me because I’ve worked with them for years and I’m fine” are examples.
Social action objectives: the ability to analyse a specific problem, identify its causes, propose solutions and plan and take action steps to resolve it. For example, the task of analysing a particular job where several people have sustained back injuries, and of proposing ergonomic modifications, requires the social action of changing the organization of work through labour-management cooperation.
Technological and Demographic Change
Training for awareness and management of specific safety and health hazards obviously depends on the nature of the workplace. While some hazards remain relatively constant, the changes that take place in the nature of jobs and technologies require continuous updating of training needs. Falls from heights, falling objects and noise, for example, have always been and will continue to be prominent hazards in the construction industry, but the introduction of many kinds of new synthetic building materials necessitates additional knowledge and awareness concerning their potential for adverse health effects. Similarly, unguarded belts, blades and other danger points on machinery remain common safety hazards but the introduction of industrial robots and other computer-controlled devices requires training in new types of machinery hazards.
With rapid global economic integration and the mobility of multinational corporations, old and new occupational hazards frequently exist side-by-side in both highly industrialized and developing countries. In an industrializing country sophisticated electronics manufacturing operations may be located next door to a metal foundry that still relies on low technology and the heavy use of manual labour. Meanwhile, in industrialized countries, garment sweatshops with miserable safety and health conditions, or lead battery recycling operations (with its threat of lead toxicity) continue to exist alongside highly automated state-of-the-art industries.
The need for continual updating of information applies as much to workers and managers as it does to occupational health professionals. Inadequacies in the training even of the latter is evidenced by the fact that most occupational hygienists educated in the 1970s received scant training in ergonomics; and even though they received extensive training in air monitoring, it was applied almost exclusively to industrial worksites. But the single largest technological innovation affecting millions of workers since that time is the widespread introduction of computer terminals with visual display units (VDUs). Ergonomic evaluation and intervention to prevent musculoskeletal and vision problems among VDU users was unheard of in the 1970s; by the mid-nineties, VDU hazards have become a major concern of occupational hygiene. Similarly, the application of occupational hygiene principles to indoor air quality problems (to remedy “tight/sick building syndrome”, for example) has required a great deal of continuing education for hygienists accustomed only to evaluating factories. Psychosocial factors, also largely unrecognized as occupational health hazards before the 1980s, play an important role in the treatment of VDU and indoor air hazards, and of many others as well. All parties investigating such health problems need education and training in order to understand the complex interactions among environment, the individual and social organization in these settings.
The changing demographics of the workforce must also be considered in safety and health training. Women make up an increasing proportion of the workforce in both developed and developing nations; their health needs in and out of the workplace must be addressed. The concerns of immigrant workers raise numerous new training questions, including those to do with language, although language and literacy issues are certainly not limited to immigrant workers: varying literacy levels among native-born workers must also be considered in the design and delivery of training. Older workers are another group whose needs must be studied and incorporated into education programmes as their numbers increase in the working population of many nations.
Training Venues and Providers
The location of training and education programmes is determined by the audience, the purpose, the content, the duration of the programme and, to be realistic, the resources available in the country or region. The audience for safety and health education starts with schoolchildren, trainees and apprentices, and extends to workers, supervisors, managers and safety and health professionals.
Training in schools
Incorporation of safety and health education into elementary and secondary education, and especially in vocational and technical training schools, is a growing and very positive trend. The teaching of hazard recognition and control as a regular part of skills training for particular occupations or trades is far more effective than trying to impart such knowledge later, when the worker has been in the trade for a period of years, and has already developed set practices and behaviours. Such programmes, of course, necessitate that the teachers in these schools also be trained to recognize hazards and apply preventive measures.
On-the-job training at the worksite is appropriate for workers and supervisors facing specific hazards found onsite. If the training is of significant length, a comfortable classroom facility within the worksite is strongly recommended. In cases where locating the training at the workplace may intimidate workers or otherwise discourage their full participation in the class, an offsite venue is preferable. Workers may feel more comfortable in a union setting where the union plays a major role in designing and delivering the programme. However, field visits to actual work locations which illustrate the hazards in question are always a positive addition to the course.
Training of safety delegates and committee members
The longer and more sophisticated training recommended for safety delegates and committee representatives is often delivered at specialized training centres, universities or commercial facilities. More and more efforts are being made to implement regulatory requirements for training and certification of workers who are to perform in certain hazardous fields such as asbestos abatement and hazardous waste handling. These courses usually include both classroom and hands-on sessions, where actual performance is simulated and specialized equipment and facilities are required.
Providers of onsite and offsite programmes for workers and safety representatives include government agencies, tripartite organizations like the ILO or analogous national or sub-national bodies, business associations and labour unions, universities, professional associations and private training consultants. Many governments provide funds for the development of safety and health training and education programmes targeted at specific industries or hazards.
Academic and professional training
The training of safety and health professionals varies widely among countries, depending on the needs of the working population and the country’s resources and structures. Professional training is centred in undergraduate and postgraduate university programmes, but these vary in availability in different parts of the world. Degree programmes may be offered for specialists in occupational medicine and nursing and occupational health may be incorporated into the training of general practitioners and of primary care and public health nurses. The number of degree-granting programmes for occupational hygienists has increased dramatically. However, there remains a strong demand for short courses and less comprehensive training for hygiene technicians, many of whom have received their basic training on the job in particular industries.
There is an acute need for more trained safety and health personnel in the developing world. While more university-trained and credentialed physicians, nurses and hygienists will undoubtedly be welcomed in these countries, it is nonetheless realistic to expect that many health services will continue to be delivered by primary health care workers. These people need training in the relationship between work and health, in the recognition of the major safety and health risks associated with the type of work carried on in their region, in basic survey and sampling techniques, in the use of the referral network available in their region for suspected cases of occupational illness and in health education and risk communication techniques (WHO1988).
Alternatives to university-based degree programmes are critically important to professional training in both developing and industrialized nations, and would include continuing education, distance education, on-the-job training and self-training, among others.
Education and training cannot solve all occupational safety and health problems, and care must be taken that the techniques learned in such programmes are in fact applied appropriately to the identified needs. They are, however, critical components of an effective safety and health programme when employed in conjunction with engineering and technical solutions. Cumulative, interactive and continuous learning is essential to prepare our rapidly changing work environments to meet the needs of workers, especially as regards the prevention of debilitating injuries and illnesses. Those who labour in the workplace as well as those who provide support from the outside need the most up-to-date information available and the skills to put this information to use in order to protect and promote worker health and safety.
Training can and will produce positive results if it is based on clearly defined needs specific to the workplace and if it is delivered with a view to those needs and the ways in which adults learn. This is, of course, true for safety and health training as well. The principles of safety and health training are no different from those which apply to any form of industrial training. Indeed, a good case can be made for the integration of skill training along with safety training wherever possible. Safety and health training which fails to produce positive results because it is not based on sound analysis is, at best, a waste of time and money. At worst, such training may result in false confidence, thus increasing the risk of accidents.
The first step in safety and health training design is to identify the problems which need to be addressed. This may be done for the entire organization, for a particular location or for a particular job. Alternatively, the analysis of training needs may have a specific focus, for example, compliance with safety and health legislation or the performance of the joint safety and health committee. However, not all problems can be solved by training; in some cases, other action is needed to supplement it. A simple example of this is the case where the problem identified is a low level of compliance with the rule obliging workers to wear personal protective equipment. While part of the problem may be due to the fact that employees do not understand why the equipment is needed or how to use it correctly, it is equally possible that some or all of the problem may be caused by the fact that there is consistent failure to replace broken or missing equipment.
The existence of problems may surface in the form of a high rate of accidents, refusal-to-work situations or government inspectors' orders or citations. However, it is the problems which underlie such outward signs of trouble that need to be clearly identified. A training needs assessment may be defined as the process of identifying problems that are signalled by deficiencies in compliance with standards or external requirements and that can be resolved wholly or partly by training. A systems approach to training needs analysis involves a number of logical steps: problem identification, analysis, identification of training needs, the ranking of needs in order of urgency and the setting of training goals or objectives.
The sorts of problems that lend themselves to solution by means of training include the following:
Those that are identified after accidents have already happened. In this case, problems may be identified through review of accident statistics, accident investigation reports or, more broadly, through the failure to meet organizational goals for safety and health.
Problems that can be anticipated. Dangers can be identified before actual harm is done—for example, hazards can be foreseen when new machinery, substances or processes are introduced into the workplace, where there exist processes that have never been thoroughly analysed or where existing practice conflicts with known safe procedures .
The existence of external requirements. New legal requirements which either impose specific safety and health training duties or other requirements suggesting the need for training are examples of external requirements. The development of new industry codes of practice or national or international standards affecting safety and health are other examples.
The next step is to analyse the problems so that necessary training may be identified. Problem analysis involves collecting information about the problem so that its causes can be determined. It also requires determining an appropriate standard which should be met. If, for example, the problem identified relates to a lack of effectiveness of the joint safety and health committee, analysis seeks to answer several questions. First, what is the committee supposed to be doing? Second, how well is the committee performing each of its required tasks? (This question requires the analyst to determine appropriate performance standards which should apply.) Third, why is the committee not performing particular tasks effectively?
Once the problem has been analysed, the next step is to determine suitable solutions. If training is the solution or part of the solution, the particular training needs must be identified. What combination of skills and knowledge is required and by whom?
A critical part of the investigation of training needs is the assessment of the people involved. The purpose of this is threefold: first, people are likely to be more committed to training (and thus more likely to learn) if they have played a part in identifying the needs themselves; second, it is often necessary to assess the current level of required skill and knowledge among the target group of employees (for example, one might investigate whether joint safety and health committee members actually know what it is they are supposed to be doing); third, basic educational levels and literacy and language skills must be known so that appropriate instructional methods are applied. Surveys can be used to assess a number of these variables. If they are used, however, care should be taken to ensure individual confidentiality.
Setting priorities and goals
Once training needs have been clearly identified, the next step is to set priorities and objectives. Consideration must be given to the relative urgency of various training needs, taking into account factors such as the relative severity of consequences should accidents occur, the frequency with which problems are likely to occur, the number of people affected and legal compliance.
Training objectives must be specific because, if they are not, evaluating whether the training has been successful will prove difficult. Specifically defined objectives also help determine appropriate training content and delivery method. Training objectives or goals establish the results that training should achieve. Examples of specific training objectives might include (a) to ensure that every manager and supervisor knows and understands legal safety and health duties and rights applying to themselves and to all workers, (b) to ensure that all welders know and understand the hazards of welding and the required control procedures or (c) to provide fork-lift truck operators with the skill to operate their vehicles safely according to required procedures
Needs Assessment Methods
Methods for analysing training needs depend on the scope of the assessment and on available resources. All or some of the following methods may be used:
Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods
Instructional methods include a number of techniques such as lectures, problem-solving exercises, small group discussion and role-playing.The methods chosen must be appropriate to what is being learned (whether knowledge, skills or concepts) and the training objectives. If, for example, the training objective is to impart knowledge about basic safety rules in the workplace, then a short lecture may be appropriate. However, there are different levels of learning in adults. The lowest level of learning is listening to information; the next level is acquiring knowledge; then, developing understanding; and finally, at the highest level, the ability to apply what is learned to different situations. In most training situations, participants will need to learn at more than one level and so a variety of instructional techniques will be required. Instructional methods must also be based upon sound principles of how adults learn best.
Principles of Adult Learning
The way in which adults learn differs from the way children learn in several important respects. Adults approach the task of learning in possession of life experiences and a developed concept of self. The process of learning is an individual experience which takes place within the learner and depends on the learner's willingness to learn, the ability to relate his or her own experiences to what is being learned and the perceived value of what is being learned to the learner. In many cases, adults make a free choice to learn and so, unlike school children, they are voluntary participants. However, when safety and health training is provided in the workplace, workers and managers may be required to attend training sessions, with little room for individual choice. Where this is so, particular attention needs to be paid to involving learners both in the process of identifying training needs and in the design of the programme itself. Addressing the perceived training needs of workers may be as important as the identification of needs in other areas. Above all, adult training involves change. As with any change, acceptance is dependent on the learners’ belief that they have some control over the change and that the change is not perceived as threatening.
Research has identified a number of factors which facilitate learning in adults:
Careful consideration should be given to the selection of trainers, the scheduling of training and pilot testing. In selecting trainers, two equally important abilities must be sought: knowledge of the subject and teaching ability. Not everyone who has the required safety and health knowledge will necessarily have teaching ability. On the whole, it is easier for people to acquire knowledge than it is to acquire teaching ability. In most workplaces, including the shop floor, there will be a number of people who have a natural teaching ability, and they will have the advantage of knowing the workplace and being able to understand practical examples. In small group learning, a “group learning facilitator” may be used in place of a trainer. In this case, the facilitator is learning along with the group but has responsibilities for the process of learning.
The scheduling of training involves several important considerations. For example, it should be arranged at a time convenient for the learners and when interruptions can be minimized. Training can also be packaged in self-contained modules so that it can be spread out over time—perhaps a three hour module once a week could be scheduled. Not only does this approach sometimes cause less interference with production, it also allows time between sessions for learners to try to apply what has been learned.
Every training programme should be pilot tested before initial use. This allows the programme to be tested against training objectives. Pilot testing should involve not only the trainers but a representative sample of the prospective learners as well.
The purpose of evaluating training is quite simply to establish whether the training objectives have been met and, if so, whether this has resulted in solving the problem addressed by those objectives. Preparation for training evaluation should begin at the training design stage. In other words, the problem to be addressed by training must be clear, the training objectives must be specific and the status quo prior to training must be known. For example, if the problem to be addressed is poor observance of safe working practices in material handling operations, and training has been designed to address part of this problem by providing information and skills to, say, fork-lift operators, then a successful outcome in this case would be high observance of correct safe working practices.
Evaluation of training can be done at various levels. At the first level, the aim is simply to assess student reactions to the training programme. Did they like the programme, the instructor and the course material, were they bored, did they feel that they had learned something? This approach may be useful in assessing whether or not the programme was perceived to be of value by the students. Such evaluations are most usefully conducted through an attitude survey and should not generally be administered by the course instructor. Participants are unlikely to provide candid answers at this point even if the questionnaires are anonymous. As an aid to this type of evaluation, students can be allowed to test themselves on the training content.
The next level of evaluation is the assessment of whether or not the learning objectives have been met. Learning objectives are related to the content of the training and they define what the student should be able to do or know when training is completed. Learning objectives are usually developed for each part of the course content and are shared with students so that they know what they should expect to learn. Evaluation at this level is designed to assess whether or not students have learned what is defined in the learning objectives. This can be done by testing participants at the end of the course. Knowledge, concepts and abstract skills can be assessed in written tests whereas practical skills can be assessed by direct observation of students demonstrating the skill. Where this level of evaluation is used, it is absolutely necessary to have prior knowledge of the knowledge or skill baseline of the students before training begins.
The third level of evaluation is the assessment of whether or not the knowledge and skills learned in the training are actually being applied on the job. Such assessment can be made through direct observation at specified intervals of time following training. Evaluation of application on the day following training may produce a result quite different from that based on an evaluation some three months later. It is important to note, however, that if the evaluation shows a lack of application after three months, it may not be the training itself which is defective; it may be due to a lack of reinforcement in the workplace itself.
Finally, the highest level of evaluation is the determination of whether or not the problem addressed by the training has been resolved. If the problem identified was a high rate of musculoskeletal injuries in the shipping and receiving area, is there evidence of the desired drop in the injury rate? Here again, timing is important. In this case, it may take time for the training to become effective. The rate may not drop for a number of months because such injuries are often cumulative; and so the rate for some time may reflect conditions prior to training. Furthermore, the training may result in greater awareness of the problem leading to increased reporting soon after training.
Ideally, all four levels of training evaluation should be built into the training design and implementation. However, if only one level is used, its limitations should be clearly understood by all concerned.
Where training is designed and provided by an external agency, the organization can and should nevertheless evaluate its potential usefulness by applying criteria based on the principles outlined in this article.
No matter how successful training is in meeting objectives, its effect will decline with time if reinforcement is not provided in the workplace on a regular and consistent basis. Such reinforcement should be the routine responsibility of supervisors, managers and joint safety and health committees. It can be provided through regular monitoring of performance on the job, recognition of proper performance and routine reminders through the use of short meetings, notices and posters.
Worker training in occupational safety and health may serve many different purposes. Too often, worker training is viewed only as a way to comply with governmental regulations or to reduce insurance costs by encouraging individual workers to follow narrowly defined safe work behaviours. Worker education serves a far broader purpose when it seeks to empower workers to take an active part in making the workplace safe, rather than simply to encourage worker compliance with management safety rules.
Over the past two decades, there has been a move in many countries toward the concept of broad worker involvement in safety and health. New regulatory approaches rely less on government inspectors alone to enforce safety and health on the job. Labour unions and management are increasingly encouraged to collaborate in promoting safety and health, through joint committees or other mechanisms. This approach requires a skilled and well-informed workforce that can interact directly with management on issues of safety and health.
Fortunately, there are many international models for training workers in the full range of skills necessary to participate broadly in workplace health and safety efforts. These models have been developed by a combination of labour unions, university-based labour education programmes and community-based non-governmental organizations. Many innovative worker training programmes were developed originally with financing from special government grant programmes, union funds or employer contributions to collectively bargained safety and health funds.
These participatory worker training programmes, designed in a variety of national settings for diverse worker populations, share a general approach to training. The educational philosophy is based on sound adult education principles and draws upon the empowerment philosophy of “popular education”. This article describes the educational approach and its implications for designing effective worker training.
Two disciplines have influenced the development of labour-oriented safety and health education programmes: the field of labour education and, more recently, the field of “popular” or empowerment education.
Labour education began simultaneously with the trade union movement in the 1800s. Its early goals were directed towards social change, that is, to promote union strength and the integration of working people into political and union organizing. Labour education has been defined as a “specialized branch of adult education that attempts to meet the educational needs and interests arising out of workers’ participation in the union movement”. Labour education has proceeded according to well-recognized principles of adult learning theory, including the following:
Since the beginning of the 1980s, worker safety and health training has also been influenced by the perspective of “popular” or “empowerment” education. Popular education since the 1960s has developed largely from the philosophy of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire. It is an approach to learning that is participatory and is based on the reality of student/worker experiences in their worksites. It fosters dialogue between educators and workers; critically analyses the barriers to change, such as organizational or structural causes of problems; and has worker action and empowerment as its goals. These tenets of popular education incorporate the basic principles of adult education, yet stress the role of worker action in the educational process, both as a goal to improve worksite conditions and as a mechanism for learning.
Participatory education in an empowerment context is more than small group activities that involve students/workers in active learning within the classroom. Participatory popular education means students/workers have the opportunity to acquire analytic and critical thinking skills, practice social action skills and develop the confidence to develop strategies for the improvement of the work environment long after the education sessions end.
Design of Education Programmes
It is important to realize that education is a continuing process, not a one-time event. It is a process that requires careful and skilful planning though each major stage. To implement a participatory education process that is based on sound adult education principles and that empowers workers, certain steps must be taken for planning and implementing participatory worker education which are similar to those used in other training programmes (see “Principles of Training”), but require special attention to meeting the goal of worker empowerment:
Step one: Assess needs
Needs assessment forms the foundation for the entire planning process. A thorough needs assessment for worker training includes three components: a hazards assessment, a profile of the target population and background on the social context of training. The hazards assessment is aimed at identifying high-priority problems to be addressed. The target population profile attempts to answer a broad set of questions about the workforce: Who can most benefit from training? What training has the target population already received? What knowledge and experience will the trainees bring to the process? What is the ethnic and gender makeup of the workforce? What is the literacy level of the workers and what languages do they speak? Whom do they respect and whom do they mistrust? Finally, gathering information on the social context of training allows the trainer to maximize the impact of training by looking at the forces that may support improved safety and health conditions (such as strong union protection that allow workers to speak out freely about hazards) and those that may pose barriers (such as productivity pressures or lack of job security).
Needs assessment can be based on questionnaires, review of documents, observations made in the workplace and interviews with workers, their union representatives and others. The popular education approach utilizes an ongoing “listening” process to gather information about the social context of training, including people's concerns and the obstacles that might inhibit change.
Step two: Gain support
Successful worker education programmes rely on identifying and involving key actors. The target population must be involved in the planning process; it is difficult to gain their trust without having sought their input. In a popular education model, the educator attempts to develop a participatory planning team from the union or shop floor who can provide ongoing advice, support, networking and a check on the validity of the needs assessment findings.
Labour unions, management and community-based groups are all potential providers of worker safety and health education. Even if not sponsoring the training directly, each of these groups may have a key role to play in supporting the educational effort. The union can provide access to the workforce and back up the efforts for change that hopefully will emerge from the training. Union activists who are respected for their knowledge or commitment can assist in outreach and help ensure a successful training outcome. Management is able to provide paid released time for training and may more readily support efforts to improve safety and health that grow out of a training process they have “bought into”. Some employers understand the importance and cost-effectiveness of comprehensive worker training in safety and health, while others will not participate without government-mandated training requirements or a collectively bargained right to paid educational leave for safety and health training.
Community-based non-governmental organizations can provide training resources, support or follow-up activities. For non-union workers, who may be especially vulnerable to retaliation for safety and health advocacy on the job, it is particularly important to identify community support resources (such as religious groups, environmentalist organizations, disabled worker support groups or minority workers’ rights projects). Whoever has a significant role to play must be involved in the process through co-sponsorship, participation on an advisory committee, personal contact or other means.
Step three: Establish education objectives and content
Using information from the needs assessment, the planning team can identify specific learning objectives. A common mistake is to assume that the objective of workshops is simply to present information. What is presented matters less than what the target population receives. Objectives should be stated in terms of what workers will know, believe, be able to do or accomplish as a result of the training. The majority of traditional training programmes focus on objectives to change the individuals' knowledge or behaviours. The goal of popular worker education is to create an activist workforce that will advocate effectively for a healthier work environment. Popular education objectives may include learning new information and skills, changing attitudes and adopting safe behaviours. However, the ultimate goal is not individual change, but collective empowerment and workplace change. The objectives leading to this goal include the following:
There is a hierarchy of these objectives (figure 1). Compared with the other training objectives, knowledge objectives are the easiest to achieve (but they are by no means easy to attain in an absolute sense); skill objectives require more hands-on training to ensure mastery; attitude objectives are more difficult because they may involve challenging deeply held beliefs; individual behaviour objectives are achievable only if attitude barriers are addressed and if performance, practice and on-the-job follow-up are built into the training; and social action objectives are most challenging of all, because training must also prepare participants for collective action in order to achieve more than they can on an individual basis.
Figure 1. Hierarchy of training objectives.
For example, it is a reasonably straightforward task to communicate the risks that asbestos poses to workers. The next step is to ensure that they have the technical skills to follow all safety procedures on the job. It is more difficult still to change what workers believe (e.g., to convince them that they and their fellow workers are at risk and that something can and should be done about it). Even armed with the right skills and attitudes, it may be difficult for workers to actually follow safe work practices on the job, especially since they may lack the proper equipment or management support. The ultimate challenge is to promote social action, so that workers may gain the skills, confidence and willingness to insist on using less hazardous substitute materials or to demand that all necessary environmental controls be used when they are working with asbestos.
Empowerment-oriented labour education always aims to have an impact on the highest level—social action. This requires that workers develop critical thinking and strategic planning skills that will allow them to set achievable goals, constantly respond to barriers and reshape their plans as they go. These are complex skills that require the most intensive, hands-on approach to training, as well as strong on-going support that the workers will need in order to sustain their efforts.
The specific content of educational programmes will depend on the needs assessment, regulatory mandates and time considerations. Subject areas that are commonly addressed in worker training include the following:
Step four: Select education methods
It is important to select the right methods for the chosen objectives and content areas. In general, the more ambitious the objectives, the more intensive the methods must be. Whatever methods are selected, the profile of the workforce must be considered. For example, educators need to respond to workers’ language and literacy levels. If literacy is low, the trainer should use oral methods and highly graphic visuals. If a variety of languages is in use among the target population the trainer should use a multilingual approach.
Because of time limitations, it may not be possible to present all of the relevant information. It is more important to provide a good mix of methods to enable workers to acquire research skills and to develop social action strategies so that they can pursue their own knowledge, rather than attempt to condense too much information into a short period of time.
The teaching methods chart (see table 1) provides a summary of different methods and the objectives which each might fulfil. Some methods, such as lectures or informational films, primarily fulfil knowledge objectives. Worksheets or brainstorming exercises can fulfil information or attitude objectives. Other more comprehensive methods, such as case studies, role-plays or short videotapes that trigger discussion may be aimed at social action objectives, but may also contain new information and may present opportunities to explore attitudes.
Table 1. Teaching methods chart
|Teaching methods||Strengths||Limitations||Objectives achieved|
|Lecture||Presents factual material in direct and logical manner. Contains experiences which inspire.
Stimulates thinking to open a discussion.
For large audiences.
|Experts may not always be good teachers.
Audience is passive. Learning difficult to gauge.
Needs clear introduction and summary.
|Worksheets and questionnaires||Allow people to think for themselves without being influenced by others in discussion.
Individual thoughts can then be shared in small or large groups.
|Can be used only for short period of time. Handout requires preparation time. Requires literacy.||Knowledge Attitudes/emotions|
|Brainstorming||Listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas. Encourages full participation because all ideas equally recorded.||Can become unfocused.
Needs to be limited to 10 to 15 minutes.
|Planning deck||Can be used to quickly catalogue information.
Allows students to learn a procedure by ordering its component parts.
Group planning experience.
|Requires planning and creation of multiple planning decks.||Knowledge|
|Risk mapping||Group can create visual map of hazards, controls, and plans for action.
Useful as follow-up tool.
|Requires workers from same or similar workplace.
May require outside research.
|Knowledge Skills/social action|
|Audiovisual materials (films, slide shows, etc.)||Entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues.
Keeps audience’s attention.
Effective for large groups.
|Too many issues often presented at one time.
Too passive if not combined with discussion.
|Audiovisuals as triggers||Develops analytic skills.
Allows for exploration of solutions.
|Discussion may not have full participation.||Social action Attitudes/emotions|
|Case studies as triggers||Develops analytic and problem-solving skills.
Allows for exploration of solutions.
Allows students to apply new knowledge and skills.
|People may not see relevance to own situation.
Cases and tasks for small groups must be clearlydefined to be effective.
|Social action Attitudes/emotions
|Role playing session (trigger)||Introduces problem-situation dramatically.
Develops analytic skills.
Provides opportunity for people to assume roles of others.
Allows for exploration of solutions.
|People may be too self-conscious.
Not appropriate for large groups.
|Social action Attitudes/emotions
|Report back session||Allows for large group discussion of role plays, case studies, and small group exercise. Gives people a chance to reflect on experience.||Can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing. Instructors need to prepare focused questions to avoid repetitiveness.||Social action skills Information|
|Prioritizing and planning activity||Ensures participation by students. Provides experience in analysing and prioritizing problems. Allows for active discussion and debate.||Requires a large wall or blackboard for posting. Posting activity should proceed at a lively pace to be effective.||Social action
|Hands-on practice||Provides classroom practise of learned behaviour.||Requires sufficient time, appropriate physical space, and equipment.||Behaviours
Adapted from: Wallerstein and Rubenstein 1993. By permission.
Step five: Implementing an education session
Actually conducting a well-designed education session becomes the easiest part of the process; the educator simply carries out the plan. The educator is a facilitator who takes the learners through a series of activities designed to (a) learn and explore new ideas or skills, (b) share their own thoughts and abilities and (c) combine the two.
For popular education programmes, based on active participation and sharing of worker’s own experiences, it is critical that workshops establish a tone of trust, safety in discussion and ease of communication. Both physical and social environments need to be well planned to allow for maximum interaction, small group movement and confidence that there is a shared group norm of listening and willingness to participate. For some educators, this role of learning facilitator may require some “retooling”. It is a role that relies less on a talent for effective public speaking, the traditional centrepiece of training skills, and more on an ability to foster cooperative learning.
The use of peer trainers is gaining in popularity. Training workers to train their peers has two major advantages: (1) worker trainers have the practical knowledge of the workplace to make training relevant and (2) peer trainers remain in the workplace to provide on-going safety and health consultation. The success of peer trainer programmes is dependent on providing a solid foundation for worker trainers through comprehensive “training of trainer” programmes and access to technical experts when needed.
Step six: Evaluate and follow up
Though often overlooked in worker education, evaluation is essential and serves several purposes. It allows the learner to judge his or her progress toward new knowledge, skills, attitudes or actions; it allows the educator to judge the effectiveness of the training and to decide what has been accomplished; and it can document the success of training to justify future expenditures of resources. Evaluation protocols should be set up in concert with the education objectives. An evaluation effort should tell you whether or not you have achieved your training objectives.
The majority of evaluations to date have assessed immediate impact, such as knowledge learned or degree of satisfaction with the workshop. Behaviour-specific evaluations have used observations at the worksite to assess performance.
Evaluations that look at workplace outcomes, particularly injury and illness incidence rates, can be deceptive. For example, management safety promotion efforts often include incentives for keeping accident rates low (e.g., by offering a prize to the crew with the least accidents in a year). These promotional efforts result in under-reporting of accidents and often do not represent actual safety and health conditions on the job. Conversely, empowerment-oriented training encourages workers to recognize and report safety and health problems and may result, at first, in an increase in reported injuries and illnesses, even when safety and health conditions are actually improving.
Recently, as safety and health training programmes have begun to adopt empowerment and popular education goals and methods, evaluation protocols have been broadened to include assessment of worker actions back at the worksite as well as actual worksite changes. Social action objectives require long-term evaluation that assesses changes on both the individual level and on the environmental and organization level, and the interaction between individual and environmental change. Follow-up is critical for this long-term evaluation. Follow-up phone calls, surveys or even new sessions may be used not only to assess change, but also to support the students/workers in applying their new knowledge, skills, inspiration or social action resulting from training.
Several programmatic components have been identified as important for promoting actual behavioural and worksite changes: union support structures; equal union participation with management; full access to training, information and expert resources for workers and their unions; conducting training within the context of a structure for comprehensive changes; programme development based on worker and workplace needs assessments; use of worker-produced materials; and integration of small group interactive methods with worker empowerment and social action goals.
In this article, the growing need for preparing workers for broad participation in workplace injury and illness prevention efforts has been depicted as well as the critical role of workers as advocates for safety and health. The distinct role of labour empowerment training in responding to these needs and the educational principles and traditions that contribute to a labour empowerment approach to education were addressed. Finally, a step-by-step educational process that is required to achieve the goals of worker involvement and empowerment was described.
This learner-centred approach to education implies a new relationship between occupational safety and health professionals and workers. Learning can no longer be a one-way street with an “expert” imparting knowledge to the “students”. The educational process, instead, is a partnership. It is a dynamic process of communication that taps the skills and knowledge of workers. Learning occurs in all directions: workers learn from the instructors; instructors learn from workers; and workers learn from one another (see figure 2).
Figure 2. Learning is a three-way process.
For a successful partnership, workers must be involved in every stage of the educational process, not just in the classroom. Workers must participate in the who, what, where, when and how of training: Who will design and deliver the training? What will be taught? Who will pay for it? Who will have access to it? Where and when will training take place? Whose needs will be met and how will success be measured? | <urn:uuid:6187f055-82e9-44bb-9abb-f4ac5724fad6> | {
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Step 1: Ensure an adequate supply of health workers
An adequate supply of human resources for health on a national and subnational level is a foundation for implementing interventions intended to improve availability of effective PHC services. Training, recruiting, and deploying an appropriately sized and adequately trained workforce is discussed in greater detail in the Workforce module (forthcoming). However, an adequate supply of competent providers is only a first step towards achieving high-quality, available, and effective services.4
Step 2: Ensure that trained and competent PHC providers are available to patients
The presence of an appropriate number of providers is of limited benefit if providers are absent from their planned shifts or if service delivery is structured in such a way that patients are unable to access a skilled provider at convenient times. Patients can only receive high-quality care from competent providers if those providers are present in facilities or communities and trained in the relevant care. If provider absenteeism is driven by facility-level factors such as inadequate supervision, poor remuneration, a sense of ineffectiveness due to poor training or inadequate supplies, or a lack of professional development, improving provider motivation may concurrently address provider availability.
Even with the availability of large numbers of health workers, inadequately trained and skilled providers will likely not contribute to improving either individual or population-level health outcomes. Frontline primary care service delivery is a highly complex task, requiring the ability to diagnose and manage a wide range of possible illnesses in undifferentiated patients presenting at the first contact point with the health system. Additionally, providers health workers require appropriate and comprehensive training in prevention and promotion to engage with individuals and communities to promote health and wellbeing and address risk factors. Competency at these tasks requires substantial experience and training that often goes beyond typical academic degree-based educational programs, requiring post-graduate experience and supervision. It is this comprehensive set of skills effectively applied in community settings that are likely to be responsible, at least in part, for overall improvements in morbidity and mortality.
Step 3: Ensure respect and safe practices throughout
There are some overlaps between provider competence and patient-provider respect and trust. Experiential quality of care – measured from the patient perspective – may influence patient choice and utilization of primary care facilities. Competence and safety have similar overlaps – a system staffed with a workforce without the necessary clinical competency will most certainly perform poorly on safety. Safety includes not only provider knowledge in safe diagnostic, prescribing, and procedural practices, but also accessibility to the necessary supplies and equipment for a provider to perform his or her job. | <urn:uuid:3caa2258-9fc5-47c0-9c00-38e8459f3d36> | {
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It should not surprise us that history has honored Moses and his descendantsof rule-writing companions. If realism is your master context, these oldrules still breathe deep common sense. Here is my 21st Century wording ofthe classical Ten Commandments as listed in Exodus 20:
1. You shall not devote your life to any reality more than to Reality with acapital R.
2. You shall not mistake any names, thoughts, ideas, or symbols, for thisunnamable Reality.
3. You shall not trivialize the symbols that do illuminate this Reality.
4. Keep free a seventh of your time for nurturing your Reality devotion.
5. Honor your ancestry in Reality-devoted living.
6. You shall not murder your neighboring beings.
7. You shall not misuse your sexual powers.
8. You shall not take for yourself what belongs to another.
9. You shall not falsely accuse the life of another.
10. You shall not covet having a life that is not your very own potential.
All the stories surrounding Moses are the wildest sort of historical fiction,but this truth need not diminish the rich meaning of these old stories. As thestory goes, Moses, in his concern for his enslaved brothers and sisters, losthis cool and killed an oppressing soldier. He then had to flee to the desert.Walking about one day he spied a strange sight: an ordinary bush, a smallpiece of the natural world was enflamed with the Awesome Wholeness ofRealitywith a burning of Awe that did not quit, but turned the spacearound it into Holy groundthat is, into an Awe-invested space.
The truth that was breaking through to Moses in that signal event was avocational calling of astonishing magnitude. He was to lead slaves fromtheir captors without getting killed by the pursuing armies of Egyptiancivilization into the wilderness and there construct for them a new kind oflife. Surely we can all identify with Moses when he cried out, Callsomebody else.
We can also surely identify with Moses when he wanted to know who it wasthat was calling him to such a radical vocation. The answer he got from theburning-bush revelation was not very satisfying. Just say that the IS inevery is has sent you. The Final Reality of the Moses dedication was, andshall ever be, an unnamable mystery. We still ask the Moses-typequestions: Who or what sourced this cosmos What are we up against inthe horrific events of our overall history Will human effort ever makesense of it all Is it truly my best case scenario to devote my life to aradicalform of realism. Would I be better off creating for myself a morecomforting view of reality
Also, in spite of the fact that freedom from the slavery of Egypt was ablessing to be intensely celebrated on the other side of the Red Sea whileEgypts chariots sunk into the mud, this freedom is also an anxiety. Thosepeople knew how to be slaves in the then well-ordered Egyptian society;they didnt have any experience being freedom in the wilderness. Werethey sure they wanted to be free Surely we can identify with thatquestion. We still have to answer it for ourselves.
It really does not matter to us that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were devotedto this course of living These flawed patriarchs whom we also meet inthese ancient stories were pretty weak recommendationseven if they trulyare ancestors of the Mosaic Spirit wisdom
Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and a lot of other men, as well as women,plus Jesusall thought that the devotion of Moses was right on. But whowere they Even if Jesus did turn out to be another hot burning bush ofAwed expression, he was indeed only an unauthorized peasant, in an out ofthe way place, centuries and centuries ago. It still takes some strongimagination to see the full blaze of Final Reality in his birth, life, teaching,death, and living presence among a small selection of ancient religiousfanatics.
Nevertheless, this small community of men and women have expanded, andtheir Spirit descendants are still recommending to us that realistic living isthe best case scenario for our one and only lives. | <urn:uuid:b35cc747-e7de-4ce5-b80d-7ca5a762227d> | {
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One of our ancestral species, Australopithecus afarensis, used stone tools to flay meat off bones, leaving small nicks with every cut. Now, newly-discovered marked bones push back the earliest estimates of human tool use by 800,000 years.
In January 2009, a team led by Shannon McPherron from the Max Planck Institute found bones which had clearly been worked over with stone tools. The bones, uncovered in Dikika, Ethiopia, include the rib of a cow-sized animal and the thighbone of a goat-sized one. Both bore cuts and scratches inflicted by sharp objects and dents produced by crushing hammers.
By peering at the marks under powerful microscopes and analysing their chemical composition, McPherron confirmed that they were made by stone rather than teeth, and they were created before the bones fossilised. These were not accidental scratches, but the remnants of strikes used to carve off the meat and break into the marrow.
Based on the surrounding rock layers, which have been very accurately dated, McPherron calculated that the bones are at least 3.39 million years old. These relics push back both the history of butchery and the use of stone tools by human ancestors, by almost a million years. Until now, the oldest evidence for the manufacture of stone tools comes from finds in Gona, Ethiopia that are just 2.6 million years old, while the oldest cut-marked bones were found in nearby Bouri and dated to around 2.5 million years ago.
The Dikika site has been thoroughly studied by a team led by Zeresenay Alemseged (photo below), who also had a hand in the latest discovery. In fact, the new bones were found just 200 metres away from Alemseged's most famous find – the bones of a three-year-old Australopithecus afarensis girl, known as Selam. No other hominin (a term for members of the human lineage) lived in the same area. This provides strong evidence that A.afarensis , such as the famous Lucy, used stone tools and ate meat. Selam may even have watched or helped as her family members carved up the carcass of a large animal.
In a way, this isn't surprising. Recent discoveries have done much to strip A.afarensis of its early reputation as a primitive hominin and even other primates like chimpanzees use stone tools. McPherron says, "A. afarensis had a similar sized brain and perhaps somewhat better hands for the job, at some level it is not surprising that A. afarensis should use stone tools. However, we can't assume that simply because chimps use stone tools and we use tools that the behaviour is as old as our common ancestor."
Nonetheless, both tool use and meat-eating are critically important events in human evolution. "Some have argued that meat consumption is what set us down the path towards the large brained, behaviorally complex species that we are today," says McPherron. "It has been said that meat made us human. It provides a more nutrient rich diet that made possible a larger brain."
The use of tools also gave our ancestors access to rich sources of meat, namely the carcasses of large, dead animals. Most other primates would turn their noses up at such foods but it's clear that A.afarensis did not. Indeed, the costs of eating such carcasses, such as competition with predators, may have driven the use of more sophisticated tools and close teamwork.
For now, McPherron hasn't actually found any of the actual cutting tools or, in fact, any sharp-edged stones nearby. That's to be expected – the area where the bones were found used to be part of the floodplain of a river and probably didn't contain any stones larger than fine gravel. The nearest suitable materials were around 6 kilometres away. "If the stone tool had been made elsewhere and carried to this spot, as it almost certainly was, the odds of us finding it would be small even if they dropped it there," says McPherron.
There is, of course, another explanation: McPherron's team could be wrong. Sileshi Senaw, who discovered the Gona tools, certainly thinks so and says that the data just aren't strong enough to support their conclusions. The Dikika researchers are making a huge claim based on very meager data," he says. "Researchers who study bone surface modifications from archeological sites have shown that fresh bones trampled by animals can create marks that mimic stone tool cut marks… I am not convinced of the new discovery."
But McPherron stands by his interpretation and has other explanations: the butchers might just have picked up naturally sharp rocks from their surroundings; they could have made them so infrequently that they'll be hard to find; or, simply, no one has looked hard enough. "I favor a combination of the last two," he says.
Alison Brooks from George Washington University agrees. She thinks the sudden appearance of stone tools in the archaeological record, some 2.6 million years ago, doesn't represent the point where early humans started using them, but the point where they started making them at concentrated sites where they're more likely to be found. There was a long time window before that when stone tools were used in a more scattered way, a window that McPherron's team have been lucky enough to look through.
McPherron plans to return to Dikika in January 2011 for a more intensive search. "There's a location nearby where raw materials for stone tool production may have been available 3.4 [million years ago], and I hope to target this area to see if we can find evidence of stone tool manufacture."
Reference: Nature http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature…
Images by the Dikika Research Project | <urn:uuid:40fae858-384c-4656-997f-8358cb4bb370> | {
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