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	claims	1. A micro-column electron beam apparatus comprising:a base;an electron lens bracket having an electron lens module mounted thereon in a central portion of the base;an electron beam source tip module vertically disposed on the electron lens module;a pan spring plate stage module mounted over the base;a three-coupling pan spring plate portion comprising a first, second, and third spring units disposed within the pan spring plate stage module,wherein the spring units of the three-coupling pan spring plate portion are perpendicularly coupled to the sides of the vertically disposed electron beam source tip module to elastically support the electron beam source tip module and allow movement of the electron beam source tip module in three orthogonal directions;a first piezoelectric actuator coupled to the pan spring plate stage module to move the electron beam source tip module along a first axis perpendicular to the vertical axis; anda second piezoelectric actuator coupled to the pan spring plate stage module to move the electron beam source tip module along a second axis perpendicular to the vertical axis and the first axis. 2. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first spring unit is disposed along the first axis, the second spring unit is disposed along the second axis, and the third spring unit is spaced 135 degrees apart from each of the first and second spring units. 3. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first piezoelectric actuator is disposed on a first straight line parallel to the first axis, and the pan spring plate stage module includes a first support member that is disposed between the first axis and the first straight line, closer to the first straight line, and a first lever that contacts both the first piezoelectric actuator and the electron beam source tip module and rotates about the first support member,wherein, when the first piezoelectric actuator is lengthened and moved, the electron beam source tip module is moved a distance equal to the distance the first piezoelectric actuator is lengthened and moved times the ratio of the distance between the first axis and the first support member to the distance between the first support member and the first straight line,wherein the second piezoelectric actuator is disposed on a second straight line parallel to the second axis, and the pan spring plate stage module includes a second support member that is disposed between the second axis and the second straight line, closer to the second straight line, and a second lever that contacts both the second piezoelectric actuator and the electron beam source tip module and rotates about the second support member,wherein, when the second piezoelectric actuator is lengthened and moved, the electron beam source tip module is moved a distance equal to the distance the second piezoelectric actuator is lengthened and moved times the ratio of the distance between the second axis and the second support member to the distance between the second support member and the second straight line. 4. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 3, wherein a portion of the first lever for pushing the electron beam source tip module is vertically divided into two portions and the first spring unit is disposed between the vertically divided portions of the first lever, and a portion of the second lever for pushing the electron beam source tip module is vertically divided into two portions and the second spring unit is disposed between the vertically divided portions of the second lever. 5. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 3, further comprising a metal ball disposed between the first piezoelectric actuator and the first lever and a metal ball between the second piezoelectric actuator and the second lever to transfer a force through a spot contact. 6. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 1, further comprising:a third piezoelectric actuator coupled to the pan spring plate stage module and vertically separated from the electron beam source tip module;a third lever having a first end connected to the third piezoelectric actuator and a second end coupled to the electron beam source tip module; anda hinge unit disposed closer to the first end of the third lever than the second end of the third lever,wherein, when the third piezoelectric actuator is moved, the electron beam source tip module is moved along the vertical axis a distance equal to the distance the third piezoelectric actuator is moved times the ratio of the distance between the first end of the hinge unit and the hinge axis to the distance between the hinge axis and the second end of the hinge unit. 7. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 6, wherein the second end of the third lever has a throughthole through which the electron beam source tip module passes. 8. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 1, wherein the pan spring plate stage module includes at least one vertically perforated wire path through which a plurality of wires connected to the electron lens module and the first and second piezoelectric actuators pass. 9. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 8, further comprising a land board that is mounted on an upper portion of the pan spring plate stage module and has a plurality of upwardly protruding electrical connectors to which the plurality of wires passing through the wire path are connected. 10. The micro-column electron beam apparatus of claim 9, further comprising heat pipe coupling units disposed on the land board to couple heat pipes for exhausting heat generated in the electron beam source tip module. 11. A micro-column electron beam apparatus assembly comprising:a plurality of micro-column electron beam apparatuses of any one of claims 1 through 10 horizontally disposed in a multi-array pattern;an upper flange; anda lower flange disposed under the upper flange and parallel to the upper flange, and fixed to the upper flange by a plurality of assembly stays,wherein upper and lower portions of each of the micro-column electron beam apparatuses are respectively fixed to the upper flange and the lower flange.
	description	This application claims priority to Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/884,707, filed Jan. 12, 2007 and 60/888,347, filed Feb. 6, 2007. 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to nuclear reactor containment arrangements, and more particularly to permanent seal rings extending across an annular thermal expansion gap between a peripheral wall of a nuclear reactor vessel and a containment wall wherein the seal ring provides a water tight seal across the expansion gap allowing for lateral and vertical translation of the reactor vessel relative to the containment wall. 2. Description of the Prior Art Refueling of pressurized water reactors is an established routine operation carried out with a high degree of reliability. For normal load requirements, refueling is provided approximately every 12 to 22 months. The complete refueling operation normally takes approximately four weeks. In a number of nuclear containment arrangements the reactor vessel is positioned within a concrete cavity having an upper annular portion above the vessel which defines a refueling canal. The canal is maintained dry during reactor operations; however, during refueling of the nuclear power plant, the canal is filled with water. The water level is high enough to provide adequate shielding in order to maintain the radiation levels within acceptable limits when the fuel assemblies are removed completely from the vessel. Boric acid is added to the water to ensure sub-critical conditions during refueling. At the beginning of the refueling operation, before the refueling canal is flooded, the reactor vessel flange is sealed to the lower portion of the refueling canal. Originally, this seal was achieved by a clamped gasket seal ring which prevents leakage of refueling water to the well in which the reactor vessel is seated. This gasket was fastened and sealed after reactor cool down prior to flooding of the canal. Typically this removable seal ring was made up of four large diameter elastomer gaskets which are susceptible to leakage and must be replaced at each refueling operation. The annular thermal expansion gap between the reactor vessel and the concrete wall surrounding the reactor vessel is provided to accommodate thermal expansion of the vessel and other vessel movements such as in a seismic event and permit cooling of the cavity walls and the excore detectors embedded within the concrete cavity walls. Pressurized water reactor plants have two basic expansion gap sizes, i.e., wide and narrow. The wide gaps tend to be in the range of two to three feet, while narrow gaps tend to be in the range of two to four inches. In all plants, the gap area must be sealed during refueling. While the upper portion of the cavity, i.e., the refueling canal may be flooded, no water is permitted in the lower portion of the cavity. Typically, the reactor vessel has a horizontally extending flange and the containment wall surrounding the reactor cavity has a horizontally extending ledge or shelf at the floor of the refueling canal at about the same elevation as the flange, which the temporary seal ring spanned during refueling. In plants with wide thermal expansion gaps permanent seal rings such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,323,427; 4,905,260; 4,904,442; 4,747,993; and 4,170,517 have been employed to reduce the time required for the refueling operation. However, permanent seal rings need to allow for thermal expansion of the reactor vessel that reduces the gap between the peripheral wall of the reactor vessel and the containment wall in the area of the reactor well, and also ideally accommodate some vertical and lateral movement of the reactor vessel relative to the containment wall. In addition, the seal ring should be able to withstand heavy blows from objects such as fuel assemblies, accidentally dropped during refueling. A permanent seal ring also must permit the passage of cooling air from the lower reactor cavity along the wall surrounding the vessel up to the refueling canal. Thus, the seal ring must have (1) strength to retain the large volume of water used in the refueling operation; (2) flexibility to accommodate movement of the reactor vessel within the containment wall; (3) structural integrity to resist damage from falling objects; and (4) an air path between the lower reactor cavity and the refueling canal for cooling of the cavity walls during reactor operation. The foregoing patents describe various designs that achieved these objectives for wide gap plants; however, do not satisfy all of these objectives for narrow expansion gap plants. There are approximately 40 plants in the United States that have narrow expansion gaps that could take advantage of a permanent seal fixture if a design was available that could achieve all of the foregoing objectives. Accordingly, it is an object of this invention to provide such a design that will satisfy all of the foregoing objectives for narrow expansion gap plants. The foregoing objectives are achieved by employing an annular stainless steel ring which sealingly engages and is affixed to and extends between the refueling ledge adjacent the reactor vessel flange and the containment wall at the floor of the refueling canal. The annular ring seal includes a rigid cantilevered annular support that is anchored at a first end to one of the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge and extends above and over the expansion gap preferably extending over at least a portion of the other of the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge. A distal portion of the rigid cantilevered annular support has one end of a generally C-shaped flexure member attached thereto. Another end of the C-shaped flexure member is anchored to the other of the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge. In the preferred embodiment the rigid cantilever annular support includes a substantially horizontal foot that is anchored to one of either the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge. A leg having one end connected to the foot extends from the foot in a generally vertical direction and is attached at an elevation spaced from the foot to an arm or top plate which extends laterally out in a generally radial direction over the expansion gap. Desirably the arm or top plate extends radially in a horizontal direction. Preferably, the foot extends from the leg radially toward the expansion gap and is bolted to the surface on the one of the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge. A seal weld is supplied around the interface between the rigid cantilevered annular support and the one of the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge. Alternately, the foot can be attached by a structural weld. In an alternate embodiment, an end of the arm opposite the distal end that extends over the expansion gap, extends radially past the leg and is attached to a distal end of an L shaped flexure member that has another end anchored to the one of the floor of the refueling canal or the refueling ledge. In still another embodiment the first end of the generally C-shaped flexure member is attached to the rigid cantilevered annular support through a substantially vertically extending flexure link. The embodiments of this invention thus permit hatch openings to be placed in the arm or top plate of the rigid cantilevered annular support of sufficient size as to not add additional constrictions to the cooling air flow in a narrow gap plant arrangement, without sacrificing the structural strength and flexibility of the seal. This invention provides a nuclear reactor vessel to cavity seal arrangement that forms a permanent flexible seal between the reactor vessel and the reactor refueling canal floor that is capable of being used in nuclear plants that have a narrow expansion gap. The design of the seal of this invention will affect a water tight seal for the refueling canal during refueling operations while accommodating material expansions and contractions that occur during normal reactor operations and enable sufficient coolant air flow, without destroying the water tight integrity of the seal. The environment in which the invention operates can best be understood by reference to the side view, partially in cross-section, of a reactor containment illustrated in FIG. 1, which shows a nuclear steam generating system of the pressurized water type incorporating the permanent water tight seal ring of this invention. A pressurized vessel 10 is shown which forms a pressurized container when sealed by its head assembly 12. The vessel has cooling flow inlet nozzles 20 and cooling flow outlet nozzles 14 formed integral with and through its cylindrical walls. As is known in the art, the vessel 10 contains a nuclear core (not shown) consisting mainly of a plurality of clad nuclear fuel elements which generates substantial amounts of heat depending primarily upon the position of control means, the pressure vessel housing 18 of which is shown. The heat generated by the reactor core is conveyed from the core by coolant flow entering through inlet nozzles 20 and exiting through outlet nozzles 14. The flow exiting through outlet nozzles 14 is conveyed through hot leg conduit 28 to a heat exchange steam generator 22. The steam generator 22 is of the type wherein heated coolant flow is conveyed through tubes (not shown) which are in heat exchange relationship with water which is utilized to produce steam. The steam produced by the steam generator 22 is commonly utilized to drive a turbine (not shown) for the production of electricity. The flow is conveyed from the steam generator 22 through cold leg conduit 24 through a pump 26 from which it proceeds through a cold leg conduit to the inlet nozzles 20. Thus, it can be seen that a closed recycling primary or steam generating loop is provided with coolant piping communicably coupling the vessel 10, the steam generator 22, and the pump 26. The generating system illustrated in FIG. 1 has three such closed fluid flow systems or loops. The number of such systems should be understood to vary from plant to plant, but commonly 2, 3 or 4 are employed. Within the containment 42 the reactor vessel 10 and head enclosure 12 are maintained within a separate reactor cavity surrounded by a concrete wall 30. The reactor cavity is divided into a lower portion 32 which completely surrounds the vessel structure and an upper portion 34 which is commonly utilized as a refueling canal. During reactor operation air flow communication is maintained between the lower reactor vessel well 32 and the refueling canal 34 to assist cooling of the concrete walls of the reactor cavity and the excore detectors 44 embedded within the concrete walls. The air flow is facilitated by exhaust fans positioned within the containment 42 outside of the concrete barrier 30. During refueling operations the reactor vessel flange 36 is sealed to the reactor cavity shelf 40 which is the floor of the refueling canal. In FIG. 1 a wide expansion gap 46 is shown for clarity. For plants with such wide gaps 46 permanent seal rings of the type previously described would normally be employed. By placing a fixture over the gap 46 the heat emanating around the reactor vessel is constricted. For a wide gap plant having an annulus width in the order of three feet the permanent seal fixture designs generally use welded, flexible steel pieces on the side, with several large hatches on a top steel plate. Before refueling, the hatches are locked into position to create a water tight seal. After the refueling canal is drained, the hatches are removed and stored to allow air flow during standard operation. Because the wide gaps are large, sizing and placing hatches to allow for adequate air flow is relatively easy. However, the narrow gaps are so small that hatches become a limiting design factor. Without enough hatches, the air flow during reactor operation is significantly constricted. Of particular concern is the structural strength of the permanent seal fixture. One wide gap seal fixture that is commonly used is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,904,442, which employs two steel legs supporting a rigid top plate. Attached to a top plate on either side are two L-shaped flexures. The main structure supports the load, but is not fixed to the refueling ledge or compartment floor. The flexures which are made up of thin sheet metal are the only portion fixed to the refueling ledge and refueling canal floor, creating the water tight seal, while allowing the seal structure to deflect as necessary to accommodate movement of the vessel. The two legs are not welded to the ledge. Instead, the two flexures are welded to the top plate and ledge. This allows the seal structure to have the needed support for dropped load cases such as catastrophic drop of a fuel assembly. However, the structure can also move as needed for expansion due to loads such as operational temperature change and seismic activity. The largest problem with applying the structure of the wide gap permanent fixture seal to a narrow gap plant is one of heat flow. The two legs and the top plate trap heat. To alleviate this problem the design of this invention removed one leg. In doing so, the remaining leg and top plate were modified to accommodate design structural loads. In addition, a new flexure design was developed that would withstand the movement caused by required design load cases and allow more area to accommodate cooling air flow. In the design of this invention, the hatches have also become a structural concern because they occupy a good deal of the volume of the top plate. Similar to the wide gap design, hatches are used to allow air flow through the structure during normal operation. However, the hatches for the wide gap structure take up a smaller portion of the top plate than those required for the narrow gap structure. Traditionally, the hatch plates are not as thick as the top plate to which they are attached. This means that in the narrow expansion gap design a significant amount of support material is lost causing more stress reactive sections. The narrow expansion gap seal design of this invention installed in the plant refueling configuration, i.e., hatch cover plates installed, is shown in FIG. 2. The reactor vessel 10 is shown centered in the lower portion 32 of the reactor cavity surrounded by insulation 68. A refueling ledge 66 is shown as an extension of the reactor vessel flange 36 and extends radially from the flange 36 towards the containment cavity wall 30 where it defines the cavity thermal expansion gap 46 between the refueling ledge 66 and an embedment plate 64 anchored in the containment wall 30. A steel liner 70 covers the outside of the concrete containment wall. The permanent reactor cavity seal ring of this invention 78 is shown anchored to the embedment plate 64 by bolts 60 which pass through a foot 48 of a cantilevered portion of the seal 78. The foot 48 is welded to one end of a leg portion 50 of the cantilevered section which is in turn welded to a horizontally extending arm or top plate 52, which extends over the expansion gap 46 and, preferably, over at least a portion of the refueling ledge 66. The top plate 52 has a hatch 54 which is held in place by bolts 56 which compress seal rings 58 to create a water tight seal. A seal weld 80 surrounds the intersection of the foot 48 and the embedment plate 64. A flexure member 62 is connected at one end to the arm 52 within the vicinity of the distal end 82 of the arm 52. The flexure member 74 is a generally C-shaped member that is connected at its other end to the upper surface of the refueling ledge 66. The thin gauge, e.g., less than about 0.2″ (0.51 cm) construction of the C-shaped flexure is designed to accommodate the radial and vertical thermal expansion of the reactor vessel. It combines the function of the L-shaped flexures used in the wide gap permanent cavity seal ring described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,747,993. The thin gauge C-shaped flexure is protected from an inadvertent fuel assembly drop by the robust top plate 54. Preferably the permanent reactor cavity seal is constructed out of stainless steel. After refueling when the spent fuel canal 34 is drained the air hatches 54 are removed to provide a flow path for the reactor cavity cooling air. FIG. 3 illustrates the cooling air flow path with the hatch cover plates removed during plant operation. FIG. 4 shows a typical orientation of the hatch 54 openings in plan view. An alternate design is illustrated in FIG. 5 which uses a C-shaped outer flexure 74 welded to the refueling cavity embedment ring 64 and an L-shaped inner flexure 86 having a short leg 88 welded to the reactor vessel refueling ledge 66 and a long leg 90 secured to the extended portion 84 of the arm 54. In this embodiment the cantilevered annular support 47 which is made up of the leg 50 and arm or top plate 52 rests on the refueling ledge 66 and the bottom link 72 of the outer C-shaped flexure 62 is secured to the embedment plate 64. Like reference characters are used for the corresponding elements shown in FIG. 5 that are common to both FIGS. 2 and 5. The embodiment shown FIG. 5 differs from that shown in FIG. 2 in several other respects as well. For example, the C-shaped flexure 62 in the embodiment shown in FIG. 5 is facing away from the reactor vessel 10 while in FIG. 2 the C-shaped flexure is facing towards the reactor vessel 10. Furthermore, the arm or top plate 52 in the embodiment shown in FIG. 5 has a segment 84 that extends beyond the leg 50 in a direction away from the C-shaped flexure 62. The inner L-shaped flexure functions similarly to that described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,904,442. The design shown in FIG. 5 shares many of the same attributes as that described above with respect to FIG. 2, but also provides additional flexibility due to the increase total length of the flexure material associated with the combination of two flexures 86 and 62. This design would use a support leg 50 that rests directly on the reactor refueling ledge to provide the required support for the seal ring during refueling operations when the refueling cavity is flooded. The water tight seal is achieved with the fully welded inner and outer flexures 86 and 62. FIG. 6 illustrates an optional design for the outer flexure 62. This design has an added flexure link 92 inserted between the distal end 84 of the horizontal arm 52 and the upper link 76 of the C-shaped flexure 62. The shape of the flexure 62 is modified to allow for a larger hatch 54 thus enabling a larger air opening in the top plate 52. The modified flexure shape shown in FIG. 6 maintains the same flexure characteristics as the C-shaped design shown in FIG. 5. A larger opening may be required for some applications to compensate for the increased pressure drop in the reactor cavity air cooling system associated with the seal ring. FIG. 7 shows the reactor cavity air flow path through the two flexure seal design shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, during plant operation. While specific embodiments of the invention have been described in detail, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. Accordingly, the particular embodiments disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the invention, which is to be given the full breadth of the appended claims and any and all equivalents thereof.
046408126	description	DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT General Description Instrument Case The instrument is shown in FIG. 1. The nuclear system test simulator (NSTS) instrument 10 comes in a watertight case 12. When a cover is removed a front panel 14 with a cathode ray tube (CRT) display 16 and operator pushbuttons are exposed. Without cover, the instrument measures 10 inches high, 20.5 inches wide and 20 inches deep. Its weight is approximately 55 pounds. A removable lid on top covers a set of signal input/output jacks 18 and the power connector 20. Front Panel In addition to the CRT display 16, the front panel 14 contains eleven (11) backlighted pushbuttons which are the only keys required to operate the instrument (the power on/off switch is mounted elsewhere). To the left of the screen 16 are six (6) "softkeys" 22 used to select instrument functions and enter data. To the right are four (4) keys 24 to control the movement of a cursor when it appears on the screen, and a "break" key 26. During the course of operation, the specific actions assigned each of the six softkeys 22 will change depending on current instrument function and video display. Moreover, all six keys may not be "active" (i.e. needed) at any given time. However, the current function of each key will always be shown on the screen 16 and all active keys will be backlighted. The assignment of functions to softkeys 22 follows a "tree oriented" structure such that a technician will only be able to perform those actions that are consistent with his or her menu selections. This feature reduces both setup time and the chances of operator error. Like the softkeys, the four cursor control keys 24 are backlighted whenever they become active. The break key 26, used to halt continuously running simulations, is similarly backlighted. Top Panel With reference to FIG. 2, the top panel of the instrument 10 is covered by a watertight lid when the instrument is not in use, and contains a set of twelve connectors 28 that allow the NSTS to be electrically connected, via cables, to the selected point within the nuclear control and monitoring network. A set of adapters is provided to facilitate the required interconnections without undue disruption of existing plant cables. Also mounted on the top panel are a CRT brightness control 30, and a connector 32, an on/off switch 34 and fuse holder 36 for incoming AC power. A picture of the top panel as shown in FIG. 2, with prompting aids, is stored in the NSTS and may be viewed on the CRT through use of the built-in software, specifically, the HELP system to be described below. Application When configured as a control rod simulator, the NSTS is designed to work with General Electric's BWR/4, 5 and 6 Boiling Water Reactors. For purposes of illustration, its use with a BWR/6 Rod Control and Information System (RC&IS) will be described. Rod Control and Information System With reference to FIG. 3, the Rod Control and Information System (RC&IS) is the system in a BWR/6 that enables a plant operator to select and maneuver control rods and that displays rod positions at all times. It consists of a set of components, both in the control room shown to the left of the dotted line as "A" in FIG. 3 and inside the containment shown to the right of the dotted line as "B" in FIG. 3, that generate, check and distribute digital electronic messages ("words") sent from an operator's console 36 to hydraulic control units 44 and from rod position probes 50 back to the console 36. A signal flow diagram, taken from an installation manual, is shown in FIG. 3. A simplified version of this diagram, with prompting aids, is also available through the HELP system for display on the CRT of the instrument. With reference to FIG. 3, a general overview of the operation of the RC&IS is as follows: (1) The plant operator selects the rod or rods to move at the Rod Interface System (RIS) benchboard console 36. Request words are sent to two redundant Rod Action Control System (RACS) cabinets 38 and 40. (2) Each RACS cabinet independently evaluates the operator's request to insure that the desired rod motion will result in a permissible control rod pattern. Validated requests are transmitted to a Rod Gang Drive System (RGDS) cabinet 42. (3) The RGDS cabinet 42 compares the validated rod movement commands from the two RACS cabinets 38 and 40 and, if they agree, sends Command words to a set of hydraulic control rod drive units 44 via a set of Branch Junction Amplifiers and Transponders 48. (4) A set of Position Probes 50 underneath the pressure vessel measure rod positions and send Probe word messages to two redundant Rod Position Multiplexer (MUX) cabinets 52 and 54. (5) The two RACS cabinets 38 and 40 independently compare measured rod positions against allowed rod pattern configurations. Position information is requested from the MUX cabinets 52 and 54 via IDENT words and received via Probe words. (6) The RACS cabinets 38 and 40 send position information to the RGDS cabinet 42 for further transmittal to an operator's display 56 on the RIS console 36. (7) The RGDS cabinet 42 sends position data to a plant process computer (not shown) by means of Process words sent via a Computer Interface Module 58. In addition to the signal processing described above, RC&IS has a built-in diagnostic system for the detection and evaluation of hardware malfunctions, improper operator requests, etc. The principal online diagnostic tools are Rod Pattern Controllers in the RACS cabinets 38 and 40 and an analyzer in the RGDS cabinet 42. Simulator The NSTS 10 of the present invention (FIG. 1) is a simulator designed to check out components of RC&IS when the reactor is shut down and is not designed for use during actual operation. The instrument may be connected into any of the communications paths shown in FIG. 3 in order to monitor, inject or simulate signals. For example: (1) The NSTS can interface with the RC&IS (FIG. 3) to check out the operator benchboard control and display console. As a technician issues commands from this console 36, rods will appear to move in real time on the position display 56 matrix. (2) The NSTS 10 can simulate the position multiplexer (MUX) cabinets 52 and 54 so that the RACS 38 and 40 and the RGDS 42 electronics can be checked out from the operator console 36 as if rods were actually being moved. Without this simulation, the MUX cabinets 52 and 54 would always be reporting the same rod positions thereby causing the RACS cabinets 38 and 40 to issue rod motion blocks (i.e. the system would always appear to be in error). (3) The NSTS 10 can simulate the position probes 50 to check out the MUX cabinets 52 and 54. (4) In addition to working with valid (correct) signals, predetermined faults can be injected into the system to check for proper system response. It should be noted that for Nuclear Regulatory Commission safety requirements, the capability to actually move control rods has not been built into the NSTS 10. In fact, connection of the NSTS 10 necessitates disconnection of the portion of the RC&IS from the point of connection to the control rod drivers 44 and from the position probes 50 back to the point of connection of the NSTS 10, thereby disabling that portion of the RC&IS. Operation Turn On When the backlighted ON/OFF button 34 on top of the instrument 10 is depressed the instrument is powered, the CRT 16 will warm up, and all front panel keys 22, 24 and 26 will be backlighted. After a few seconds, a welcoming message appears on the CRT screen 16 to be replaced by the Main Menu once a seven second initialization period has been completed. Only the softkeys 22 needed to select from this menu will remain backlighted. Main Menu The Main Menu offers the user the following five choices by pressing an appropriate one of the softkeys 22: (1) SIMULATE--When pressed, a menu of all available simulations will appear on the screen (i.e. the NSTS 10 will simulate the operation of one or more RC&IS components). Upon making a selection an appropriate graphic will appear on the screen 16 with softkeys 22 and prompts layed out so as to guide the user through the instrument's operation. For every view shown the user, a HELP softkey is available (see below). (2) INJECT--When pressed, a menu of all words that can be injected into RC&IS will appear (i.e. the NSTS 10 will inject known words into RC&IS so that resulting behavior can be observed). Once a selection has been made, basic NSTS operation is the same as for SIMULATE. (3) MONITOR--Same as for INJECT, except that the designated word will be monitored rather than injected. Exact word formats can be entered for comparison against those actually received. (4) OVERVIEW--When pressed, a series of views explaining both RC&IS and the NSTS, a dictionary of terms, and various diagrams will be presented to the user. (5) HELP--When pressed, an information screen will appear. Typical Operation As the user operates the instrument 10 he or she will be making menu selections, positioning the cursor via keys 24 when it appears, and entering data via softkeys 22. As he or she does this, various views will appear on the screen 16 to guide him in setting up desired words and messages, rod patterns, faults to be injected, etc. An example of such a view, for a control rod core map, is shown in FIG. 4. To illustrate the use of the various keys, a description of a user-generated word follows: The serial format for a 33-bit Process word which carries information from the RGDS to the Computer Interface Module can be simulated by the user by selecting each bit individually using the up/down cursor keys 24 and setting the bit to either a 1 or 0 using a Data Select softkey 22. A description accompanies each bit. During simulation, faults may be encountered which will cause the Process word to change. A Clear Fault softkey will return the word to its "no fault" condition. The Return to Previous Display softkey is self-explanatory. The use of the Help softkey is indicated below. The core map illustrated in FIG. 4 is one associated with the Process word and gives the user an alternate means for its simulation. He or she may select any given rod through use of the four cursor control keys 24 and enter its simulated position via the two Rod Position softkeys 22. All rods in the selected rod's gang or group, or all control rods, may also be set to this same position by pushing a single softkey. Another set of possible user actions are presented when the -ETC- softkey is pressed. HELP For every functional display a series of HELP messages are available to the user whenever the HELP softkey is depressed. These messages, always in the same format, contain the following information for the display just vacated: (1) A brief description of the display. (2) The status of the NSTS. (3) The required action of the user. (4) A description of the function of every softkey. In addition, the user can call up several other HELP displays on the CRT 16. These include: (1) A picture of the RC&IS system diagram, similar to FIG. 3, with the point(s) of NSTS connection highlighted. (2) A picture of the top of the NSTS instrument showing where to connect signal cables as shown in FIG. 2. (3) A dictionary of often used terms and phrases. Detailed Description Of The Rod Control Information System The NSTS of the present invention is designed to operate in the electrical environment illustrated in FIG. 3. Operator inputs of the console 36 are: (1) the rod selected from a pushbutton array having one button for each rod; (2) the motion desired, either in or out; and (3) plant status information which is used to determine if rod motion is permissible. Control rods are assigned in gangs based upon reactor core flux distribution characteristics. The Rod Action Control Systems 38 and 40 assign these gang members of the selected rod. The request for rod motion is first compared against the plant status information as described earlier, and then, if permitted, causes a timed sequence of outputs to be generated on appropriate gang members. The system applies signals to each rod, for the control function, on lines running from the control console 36 to the remote solenoid valves 44, a distance of several hundred feet. In addition, a status indication for each rod is returned in parallel form from the hydraulic control unit 44 to the control console display 56. A time-multiplexed method of signal transmission is utilized by the rod gang drive system. The operator inputs, for both rod selection and motion control, are multiplexed at the manual switches in the Rod Interface System 36. Description of the NSTS Chassis The NSTS 10 includes a 16-bit microprocessor augmented with specially-designed printed circuit (PC) boards that adapt it to perform specified instrument functions. The rear half of the chassis is occupied by a cardfile which holds the following five subassemblies; each located on a separate PC board or boards: (1) 16-Bit General Purpose Computer Board--This subassembly, based on the Intel 8088 microprocessor, exercises central control over all circuit subassemblies via the computer bus structure, determines the specific test instrument function to be performed at any given time, directs test signal input and output via the special circuit boards, and performs high speed simulation algorithms. (2) ROM Memory Board--The various computer programs, data tables and operating aids are stored in 256 kilobytes of read only memory (ROM). (3) Graphics Display Board--This subassembly generates high resolution character and line graphics for the CRT display. (4) Standard I/O Board--This subassembly interfaces the front panel pushbuttons to the computer and performs digital test signal input/output. (5) Special Purpose Boards--In order for the NSTS to transmit and receive signals compatible in format, level and timing with the network portion under test, special purpose circuit boards are required (two are used for the control rod simulator application). In addition, these boards monitor input signals, generate output signals and performs real time simulations under computer control. This particular design permits a single NSTS to be used for the simulation of several plant systems through the exchange of one set of memory and special purpose boards for another. The side of the chassis also houses a power supply for all electronics and lamps. The front of the instrument contains a high resolution, 9 inch, green phosphor CRT monitor together with its controller. Detailed Description of NSTS Circuit Subassemblies As mentioned above, the NSTS 10 comprises five subassemblies. FIG. 5 is a functional block diagram of the NSTS, as configured for control rod simulation. Connection Diagram 945E111, which is part of Appendix B, shows this in greater detail. A 16-bit microprocessor 110 provides control functions to the other subassemblies via a bus 112 interconnecting microprocessor 110 with all other subassemblies. Bus 112 conforms to the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) "Multibus Standard 796." Microprocessor 110 is connected via parallel signal lines 114 to the six front panel pushbutton softkeys 116 (shown in FIG. 1 as 22). The microprocessor 110 can be connected via serial signal lines 118 to an external monitor or recording device such as a computer terminal, printer, or strip-chart. A 256K-byte read only memory (ROM) 120 is connected to microprocessor 110 via bus 112 and is programmed to contain various utility driver and analysis routines coded in an assembly language compatible with microprocessor 110, and graphics libraries, computational and system software in a high-level language. A listing of the contents of ROM 120 is appended hereto as Appendix A. The function of microprocessor 110 is to identify, access and execute various of these routines, as needed, in response to the operator-selected softkeys 116 and the signals received at the serial inputs, to be described below. The NSTS display is produced by a high-resolution character and line graphics display interface 130 connected to microprocessor 110 via bus 112. Interface 130 generates outputs on signal lines 132 a video signal which is received by a CRT controller and display 134. The CRT display (shown in FIG. 1 as 16) within block 134 is a 40-line by 84-column matrix display, preferably Model CIQ9 manufactured by ITOH Electronics, Inc., 5301 Beethoven Street, Los Angeles, Calif. 90066. The microprocessor 110 executes standard graphics libraries stored in ROM 120, and generates standard graphics signals on bus 112 which are used by interface 130 to provide the CRT controller 134 with standard video signals to display information on the CRT display 16 in response to commands from microprocessor 110. Interface 130 is preferably Micro Angelo Model MA 520 manufactured by SCION Corp., 12310 Pinecrest Road., Reston, Va. 22091. An input/output (I/O) subassembly 140 provides a standard parallel interface between the backlighting of the front panel pushbutton softkeys 116, which are connected thereto by lines 142, and the bus 112, and between a set of external control rod position probe simulators and the bus 112. I/O subassembly 140 is preferably a Model SBC 519 Programmable I/O Expansion Board manufactured by INTEL, 3065 Bowers Avenue, Santa Clara, Calif. 95051. A signal cable 144 connects eleven control rod position probe simulators connected to the (I/O) subassembly 140 (via two rod position multiplexers), whenever the NSTS 10 is used to simulate position probes when testing the rod position multiplexer cabinets 52 and 54. The above-mentioned microprocessor 110, ROM 120, graphics interface 130, and parallel I/O 140 subassemblies are well-known to those skilled in the art, and their structure, function and interconnection is apparent in view of the preceding description of the function of the overall NSTS 10, and particularly after the following discussion of the heart of the instant invention, being a fifth subassembly comprising a set of two word generator/receivers and a set of four transponders. Each word generator receives via receptacles 28 interconnecting the NSTS 10 to the nuclear control rod network. The twelve cable receptacles 28 appear on the right-hand side of FIG. 2. Illustrated in FIG. 5 are the word generator/receiver 150, connected to bus 112, which receive serial command words on input lines 152, and generate serial response words on output lines 154. These command and response words are sent via the interconnecting word generator/receiver cables to the control rod network. Serial word input lines 152 are further connected to a set of four transponders 160, 162, 164 and 166. The transponders 160, 162, 164 and 166 generate serial acknowledge words on output lines 170, 172, 174 and 176, respectively. These words similarly are conveyed to the control network via the cables interconnecting the NSTS 10 to the network. FIG. 6 illustrates the internal architecture of one of the two word generator/receiver 150, typical of the other, the NSTS having a total of twelve input channels and one of the four transponders 160, typical of the remaining three, 162, 164 and 166, shown in FIG. 5. The word generator/receivers 150 include a switching network 200 which receives the serial inputs 152 (FIG. 5) which includes an IDENT word "A" received on signal input line 202 and a redundant IDENT word portion "B" received on signal input line 204. Also input to switching network 200 are the remaining portions of the serial inputs on signal input lines 206. Switching network 200 is connected to bus 112 (FIG. 5) via a bus interface 208. A detailed description of the bus interface is given below in connection with the transponder 160. Bus interface 208 is connected to the various elements of the word generator/receiver, including switching network 200, via signal lines 210. Switching network 200 processes the serial word received on signal lines 206 based on the leading identifier portions of the word received on signal lines 202 and 204. A received serial command word has the so-called "General Electric (GE) serial format" illustrated in FIG. 7 and labelled 400. Under the control of microprocessor 110, while executing the appropriate routine stored in ROM 120, accessed in response to the identifier portions of the word received on lines 202 and 204, produces a "snapshot" whereby a (32-bit) byte-by-(32-bit) byte analysis in real time is performed by microprocessor 110 while executing the appropriate analysis routine stored in ROM 120. This analysis is stored in random access memory (not shown) for subsequent display on CRT display 16. Switching network 200 is connected to a word receiver 212 which provides the switching network with information via signal lines 210 to facilitate further processing of the serial command word received on signal lines 206. Switching network 200 is also connected to a word generator "A" 214 via signal lines 216. The word generator 214 is also connected to microprocessor 110 via bus interface 208 and signal lines 210. As will be described below, under control of microprocessor 110 executing the appropriate driver utility routine stored in ROM 120, word generator 214 generates a serial response word 410 (FIG. 7) on signal line 218 simulating the response word which the proper positioning of the control rod would cause to be transmitted at this point in the system under the response to IDENT word as received at serial inputs 152 to dual generator/receiver 150. The word generator/receivers 150 include a word generator "B" 220 connected to switching network 200 via signal lines 222 and connected to microprocessor 110 via bus interface 208 and signal lines 210. Word generator "B" 220 functions as does word generator "A" 214 in all respects except that it responds to an identifier portion on input signal lines 204. Word generator B generates its serial response word on signal line 224. FIG. 6 also illustrates the internal architecture of the transponder 160, typical of the transponders 162, 164 and 166. Transponder 160 includes a synchronizer and counter circuit 230 which receives on input signal lines 232 one of the serial inputs on signal lines 206. The synchronizer and counter circuit 230 recognizes the start of a GE serial format command word 400 (FIG. 7) received on serial input lines 152 and "frames up" this word for further processing by transponder 160, as will be described more fully below. A detailed description and circuit diagram of the synchronizer and counter circuit 230, typical of other synchronizer and counter circuits 302 and 308 illustrated in FIG. 8, will be given on sheet 21. Connected to the output of synchronizer and counter circuit 230 are an operator follow state logic circuit 234 and a serial circuit 236. The operator follow state logic circuit 234 continually monitors each command word received by the transponder 160 at input signal lines 232 and if the operator requests a change, such as moving a control rod, the command so received will cause follow logic circuit 234 to generate an interrupt on line 238 which is transmitted to microprocessor 110 (on a signal line not shown in FIG. 5). This process is effected by comparing several past command words received on lines 232 with the present word received as will be described more fully below. A peak insertion circuit 240 injects a signal into the serial circuit 236 as required by the GE serial format. FIG. 7 also illustrates an "acknowledge" word stored in a random access memory (RAM) 242. RAM 242 is connected to serial circuit 236 and acknowledge words can be serially conveyed to the circuit following the injection of the signal by circuit 240. Serial circuit 236 generates the acknowledge word on a signal line 244 (170 on FIG. 5). To further describe the structure and operation of the word generator/receivers 150, reference should be had to FIG. 8, which illustrates the internal structure of the word generator "A" 214 (FIG. 6), typical of the other word generator used within the NSTS instrument of the present invention. FIG. 6 also illustrates the internal structure of the bus interface 208 (FIG. 6) typical of each such interface used within all word generator/receivers of the NSTS 10. An IDENT word portion 420 of the serial word (FIG. 7) received on signal input line 202 (FIG. 6) is recognized and passed by the switching network 200 (FIG. 6) to the word generator "A" 214 via signal line 300 (216 on FIG. 6). Signal line 300 is connected to a synchronizer and counter circuit 302 and to a serial register 304. Reception of the identifier portion of the serial command word by the synchronizer and counter circuit 302 causes the circuit to generate timing signals on timing signal lines 306 via an internal read only memory (ROM) which are received on lines 306 by a 16-bit synchronous counter 308, and used thereby as a seed which is unique to the particular identifier received by word generator 214. Contemporaneously with the above process, the proper serial response word 410 (FIG. 7) has been read from ROM 120 (FIG. 5) under control of the microprocessor 110 (FIG. 5) and is available for transmittal via bus 310 (112 on FIG. 5). Bus interface 208 (FIG. 6) includes a buffer circuit 312, an input/output (I/O) map 314 and a memory map 316 which each are connected to bus 310 and receive a portion of the information thereon. The I/O map 314 is configured by a combinatorial logic circuit 318 consisting of a digital comparator and ROM. Generator modes and receiver reads are controlled by this I/O Map. The memory map 316 is also connected to a combinatorial logic circuit 318 and the memory map 316 generates a signal to the logic circuit 318 indicating that the particular word generator, here "A" or 214, has been selected. Logic circuit 318 supplies this information to serial register 304 via a mode selection signal line 320. In response to reception from the memory map 316, logic circuit 318 generates an enable signal which is received by a random access memory (RAM) 322 on an enable signal line 324. The appropriate serial response word read from ROM 120 (FIG. 5) is available on buffer circuit 312 and will be transmitted therefrom via an internal bus 326 to the RAM 322, in response to the enable signal. Once stored in RAM 322, the various portions of the serial response word as shown in FIG. 7 can be addressed via internal bus 326 as dictated by the timing pattern circulated in the 16-bit synchronous counter 308 which is connected to the RAM 322 and a transpose logic circuit 328 via the internal bus 326. The transpose logic circuit 328 is connected via internal bus 326 with the serial register 304 so that following storage of the mode selection information therein, the timing pattern circulating in counter 308 can be loaded from register 304 via transpose logic circuit 328 into counter 308. A data bus 332 connects the RAM 322 to an output register 330 and the serial response word pattern stored within the RAM 322 can be transmitted to the output register 330 under control of the synchronous counter 308 which synchronizes the transmittal of addresses to the RAM so that the various portions of the serial response word 410 (FIG. 7) are conducted to the output register 330 on signal lines 332 in accordance with the GE format timing pattern. The resulting response word stored input register 330 can be serially transmitted on a signal line 334 (154 on FIG. 5). Both the serial command word received 400 and the serial response word 4I0 generated by the NSTS 10 can be displayed as on the CRT by having the microprocessor 110 execute appropriate graphics routines stored in the ROM 120. Once connected within the RC&IS (FIG. 3), the NSTS 10 of the instant invention simulates reception of command words at the serial inputs 152 (FIG. 5) from where they are communicated to the generator/receiver 150 (FIG. 5). With reference to FIG. 6, switching network 200 performs the above-mentioned comparison and if agreement is indicated thereby, the command words are passed via switching network 200 to word generator "A" 214 via signal lines 216 and to word generator "B" 220 via signal lines 222. In normal operation, every Transponder 44 (FIG. 3) also receives and demultiplexes the command word and compares its own identity to that contained in the word. The one whose identity matches (called the "selected" Transponder) decodes the valve control signal and acts upon it. It also generates an "acknowledge word" 430 (FIG. 7) containing its identity and its drive unit status (including the status of the valve drive circuitry) and sends the word back to the console 36. The NSTS 10 similarly provides the simulation of the Transponders by the transponder circuits 0, 1, 2 and 3 shown on FIG. 5 as 160, 162, 164 and 166, respectively. The command word as received on signal lines 152 (FIG. 5) and transmitted to the four transponders as shown. With reference to FIG. 6, the command word is transmitted via signal line 232 to synchronizer and counter circuit 230 which recognizes the particular identity portion of the command word received on input lines 232 and proceeds to "frame up" the remaining portion of the word if it is to be processed by this particular Transponder. In this case, peak insertion circuit 240 places the correct identifier portion into serial circuit 236 and the remainder of the appropriate "acknowledge word" stored in RAM 242 is loaded into the serial circuit 236 thereby forming the proper "acknowledge word" to be returned via signal line 244. At the operator control console 36, the operator may request a change at any time, such as moving a control rod, by sending the proper command signals. Under normal conditions, such a change would be recognized by the transponder. The NSTS simulates this by causing operator follow state logic circuit 234 to generate an interrupt on line 238 which is transmitted to microprocessor 110 (FIG. 5). The Nuclear Power Plant coordinates of control rods as displayed on the system core map as shown on FIG. 4, have no meaning to the hardware used in the RC&IS system. Instead the hardware responds to binary X and Y addresses in the range of (X,Y)=(2,2) to (19,19). Conversion of Plant coordinates to a serial word bit addressing scheme can be easily accomplished by referring to the appropriate Plant arrangement of the control rods. The NSTS 10 of the present invention reproduces this conversion by having the microprocessor 110 execute the appropriate conversion routines stored in ROM 120 so that the appropriate core map display is generated by CRT controller 134, in response to graphics routines also stored in ROM 120. As mentioned above, the NSTS 10 uses various synchronizing and counting circuits, such as 230 (FIG. 6) and 302 and 308 (FIG. 8), which accept serial word format inputs. A circuit diagram of one of these circuits, typical of the others, is shown in FIG. 9 which consists of four integrated circuit four-bit binary counters 500, 502, 504, and 506, which are preferably Model No. 74LS393 as manufactured by Signetics Corporation, 811 E. Argues Avenue, Sunnyvale, Calif. 94086. Counter 500 receives at an asynchronous input terminal MRO the serial word input on signal line 508. A synchronizing clock pulse from a system clock (not shown) is received at an input terminal CP2 of counter 502, which also receives at an MR2 the output of the fourth stage of counter 500 via signal line 510. Counters 504 and 506 also receive the output of the fourth stage of counter 508 via signal line 510 at input terminals MR4 and MR6, respectively. The output of the third stage of counter 502 is supplied to a CP4 input to counter 504 and the output of the third stage of counter 504 is supplied to a CP6 input to counter 506. The outputs of the first three stages of counters 502, 504 and 506 are communicated to the address selection section of a read only memory (ROM) (not shown) which is associated with the synchronizing and rounding circuit of FIG. 9, to form a nine-bit address A.sub.0, A.sub.1, . . . A.sub.8. A signal line 512 communicates the low-order bit of information of the ROM address specified by the address A.sub.0, A.sub.1, . . . A.sub.8 to a CPO input to counter 500. This bit is used as the shift/load signal for the synchronizing and counting circuit. With reference to FIG. 7, the system clock includes a microclock portion which contains three components, labelled .mu..sub.A, .mu..sub.B, .mu..sub.C shown on FIG. 7 as 440, 442 and 444, respectively. The frequency of .mu..sub.B is twice that of .mu..sub.C and that of .mu..sub.A is twice that of .mu..sub.B. The three microclock signal components are applied to the CP2 input of counter 502 and will appear on the outputs, as synchronized by the input on line 510, so that .mu..sub.A is at the output of stage one of counter 502, .mu..sub.B is at the output of stage two, and .mu..sub.C is at the output of stage three simultaneously and form the high-order address bits A.sub.0, A.sub.1 and A.sub.2 for the ROM. The system clock also includes a program clock portion used as a state counter which contains five components, labelled .pi..sub.A, .pi..sub.B, .pi..sub.C, .pi..sub.D and .pi..sub.E shown in FIG. 7 as 446, 448, 450, 452, and 454, respectively. These five program clock components are also applied to the CP2 input of counter 502, and have frequencies wherein .pi..sub.A is twice that of .pi..sub.B, .pi..sub.B is twice that of .pi..sub.C, .pi..sub.C is twice that of .pi..sub.D, .pi..sub.D is twice that of .pi..sub.E and .pi..sub.A is half that of .mu..sub.C. Thus when .mu..sub.A at the output of stage one of counter 502 and .mu..sub.B and .mu..sub.C are at the output of stages two and three as mentioned above, .pi..sub.A will be at the output of stage one of counter 504, and so on, so that at any given clock synchronizing pulse, the nine-bit ROM address consists of the serial word formed as .mu..sub.A .mu..sub.B .mu..sub.C .pi..sub.A .pi..sub.B .pi..sub.C .pi..sub.D .pi..sub.E. The shift/load signal is shown on the timing diagram FIG. 7 as 458 and is applied to the CPO input of counter 500. Since the output of the fourth stage of the four-bit, counter 500 serves as the master reset for the remaining counters 502, 504 and 506. The counter is reloaded at every thirty-second pulse received at the CPO input to counter 500. FIG. 7 therefore illustrates the signals present within the synchronizing and counter circuit for one such 32-pulse period. Applicant has gone to length to set forth in the block diagrams herein the architecture and theory of operation of the logic components used herein. Out of an abundance of caution, applicant includes microfiche and actual production drawings appended hereto as Appendix B. These production drawings have the generic areas of the respective block diagrams labeled thereon and show by standard part number, as of the application date hereof, standard, ordinarily-produced components, that can be used to produce the block diagram circuits shown in the drawings, especially in FIGS. 6, 8, and 9. Using the production drawings with the architecture description given herein, construction of the logic constituting the novel portion of this invention can occur.
	abstract	In a method for the production of x-ray-optical gratings composed of a first material forming of periodically arranged grating webs and grating openings, a second material is applied by electroplating to fill the grid openings. The electroplating is continued until a cohesive layer of the second material with uniform height is created over the grating webs with this layer having a large absorption coefficient, the absorption properties of the grating structure of the grating are homogenized, so an improvement of the measurement signals that are generated with this grating is improved. Moreover, the mechanical stability of gratings produced in such a manner is improved.
	claims	1. A sensor system for a fuel rod including a fuel pellet stack, the sensor system comprising:a wireless interrogator disposed outside the fuel rod, the wireless interrogator comprising:a primary transmitter structured to wirelessly output an interrogation signal; anda secondary receiver;a passive sensor component disposed within the fuel rod, the passive sensor component comprising:a primary receiver structured to receive the interrogation signal and output an excitation signal in response to receiving the interrogation signal;a linear differential variable transformer (LVDT) including a core coupled to move in conjunction with expansion or contraction of the fuel pellet stack, wherein the LVDT is structured to receive the excitation signal and to output an output signal indicative of a position of the core; anda secondary transmitter structured to receive the output signal from the LVDT and to output a response signal proportional to the output signal to the secondary receiver. 2. The sensor system of claim 1, further comprising:an elongated member disposed between the core and the fuel pellet stack such that the core moves in conjunction with expansion or contraction of the fuel pellet stack,wherein the output signal of the LVDT is indicative of the position of the core. 3. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the LVDT includes a primary coil, a first secondary coil, and a second secondary coil, wherein the primary coil is electrically connected to the primary receiver and is disposed between the first and second secondary coils. 4. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the first secondary coil and the second secondary coil are substantially similar. 5. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the first and second secondary coils each have a first end closest to the primary coil and a second end furthest from the primary coil,wherein the first end of the first secondary coil is electrically connected to an output of the LVDT and the second end of the first secondary coil is electrically connected to the first end of the second secondary coil, andwherein the second end of the second secondary coil is electrically connected to the output of the LVDT. 6. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein at least one of the primary transmitter, the primary receiver, the secondary transmitter, and the secondary receiver are inductors. 7. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the core is composed of ferrite material. 8. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the wireless interrogator is disposed within an instrument thimble. 9. The sensor system of claim 1, further comprising:an electronic processing apparatus electrically connected to the wireless interrogator and structured to provide an input signal to the primary transmitter structured to cause the primary transmitter to output the interrogation signal,wherein the electronic processing apparatus is structured to receive the response signal from the wireless interrogator and to determine a position or temperature of the core based on the response signal. 10. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the LVDT has a substantially cylindrical shape with a hollow core, andwherein the core is structured to be able to pass through the hollow core.
	description	Applicant claims, under 35 U.S.C. §§ 120 and 365, the benefit of priority of the filing date of Oct. 18, 2002 of a Patent Cooperation Treaty patent application Serial Number PCT/DE02/03945, filed on the aforementioned date, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, wherein Patent Cooperation Treaty patent application Serial Number PCT/DE02/03945 was not published under PCT Article 21(2) in English. Applicant claims, under 35 U.S.C. § 119, the benefit of priority of the filing date of Nov. 8, 2001 of a German patent application Serial Number 101 54481.2, filed on the aforementioned date, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. The invention relates to, in general, to medical x-ray imaging systems, and in particular to an apparatus for filtering an x-ray beam, having a filter which is adjustable from a parked position outside the x-ray beam or the x-ray beam path into a filtering position in the x-ray beam path. The invention also relates to a medical x-ray system. In a medical x-ray imaging system, a “quality” of a radiation, that is, an energy distribution of the radiological quanta, is determined not only by a voltage at an x-ray tube but also essentially by a downstream filtration. The filtration of the x-ray radiation is intended to substantially minimize low-energy quanta, which do not contribute substantially to an imaging and may lead only to an unnecessary radiation exposure. As a result of the filtration, a concentration point of or center of gravity of the energy distribution may shift toward higher values; the radiation is said to be “hardened”. Particularly for cardiological examinations, copper pre-filters with various filter stages, that is with different absorption values, are necessary. A filter changer with various filter stages is disclosed in German Patent Disclosure DE 198 32 973 A1 and in German Patent DE 42 29 319 C2. An object is to disclose a filter apparatus which may enhance an operating safety for a patient to be examined using the filtered x-rays. With respect to the apparatus referred to at the outset, this object is attained by a first sensor device for detecting the filter in the filter or filtering position and a second sensor device for detecting the filter in the parked position. With the filter apparatus, one advantage is attained that incorrect positioning, for instance caused by failure of a structural part or a malfunction, can be ascertained substantially quickly and directly. Until now, such incorrect positioning could be ascertained only indirectly, from corresponding signs in the x-ray examination image or view found in an evaluation or observation of the x-ray image taken (reading the x-ray image). This may have caused unnecessary radiation exposure to the patient, because another x-ray image may have to be taken or a longer exposure time was necessary. In a preferred feature, for each additional or further filter, a respective further first sensor device for detecting its filtering position and a further second sensor device for detecting its parked position may be present. Thus advantageously, filter apparatuses with a plurality of filter stages, in which a probability of incorrect or inaccurate positioning of individual filters is inevitably increased unless further precautions are taken, can be operated especially safely. Preferably, the first and second sensor devices are embodied as photoelectric gates. Embodiments as electro-inductive, electro-capacitive or electro-resistive sensors are alternatively possible. The first and second sensor devices can also be embodied by a mechanical feeling or switch. In another preferred feature, sensor signals are delivered or communicated to an evaluation device, which may generate a report if the filter, or one of the filters, is in neither its desired parked position nor its desired filtering position. With an evaluation device of this kind, preferably controlled electronically and/or by software, monitoring the respective positions can be automated, with a view to further enhancing safety. The apparatus may be especially advantageous if a drive device or machine, such as a stepping motor, for moving the filter is present, as such, a corrective function of the drive device, and optionally of a control unit or device associated with the drive device as well, can also be monitored. The filter apparatus is preferably embodied as a structural group or ensemble together with a multileaf diaphragm or collimator assembly, both of which are disposed in particular in a common housing. For moving the filters, preferably present as a plurality of filters, in order to achieve various filter stages, an arm or handle can be separately present for each of the filters, and a first end of each arm may engage the applicably corresponding filter, while a respective second end of the arm can be subjected to a force generated by the drive device. As such, the x-ray apparatus is advantageously embodied such that as a function of a motion of the common drive device, one of the filters is either adjustable into the beam path by exertion of an adjusting force on the associated arm, or can be retrieved out of the beam path by exertion of a restoring or retrieving force on the arm. In connection with this discussion, the term “arm” is understood to additionally mean or represent any mechanism for force transmission, for instance including a pusher, lever, rod linkage, or pivot joint. In a preferred embodiment, a mechanism or device for holding, keeping or retaining each of the filters in a corresponding position in the beam path is present, in particular a detent mechanism or a magnetic coupling. As a result, it may be advantageously unnecessary for the drive device to generate a holding or retaining force for continuously holding the filter positioned in the beam path. Preferably, there is a mechanism for holding and/or returning each of the filters in and/or into its position outside the beam path, in particular a restoring spring. Thus one further position is replicably defined in a simple way. The mechanism for holding the filters in their respective positions in the beam path, in particular the spring or detent mechanism, are in particular dimensioned such that the restoring force of the restoring spring does not by itself suffice to allow a filter to leave its position, and that a filter can leave its position and return to its position outside the beam path when the restoring force generated by the drive device is exerted in addition. In a preferred feature, the arms are mechanically encoded differently, specifically for both the adjusting motion and the retrieval motion. In particular, these arms are encoded mechanically differently such that as a function of predefined motions, different from one another, of the drive device, either one or more of the filters can be adjusted into the beam path, and that as a function of other predefined motions, also different from one another, of the drive device, either one or more of the filters can be retrieved from the beam path. With increasing motion of the drive device in one direction, all the filters are preferably gradually adjustable into the beam path, and with increasing motion of the drive device in the opposite direction, all the filters can be retrieved gradually from the beam path. In another preferred feature, the filters can be retrieved from the beam path in the same order in which they are adjusted into the beam path, and the adjustment and retrieval are done in particular in accordance with a first-in, first-out rule. In addition, the filter apparatus is advantageously designed such that there is a drive device-driven slaving mechanism, which can be put into contact with two stops on each of the arms; an ON stop may be provided for subjecting the arm to the adjusting force, and an OFF stop may be provided for subjecting the arm to the restoring force. The slaving mechanism, which can also be designed as an intervention, has the advantage that the arms need not be coupled rigidly to the drive device, and so after the drive device has executed a first motion, the drive device can execute a second motion independently of the first motion. In another special feature, for mechanically encoding the arms, the positions of the stops on different arms may be different from one another. A further preferred feature provides a control unit for triggering the drive device; the control unit includes a memory device, in which codes of the arms that are different from one another and/or predefined motions of the drive device that are different from one another are or can be stored in memory. Preferably, motions that must be performed to realize different filter stages, that is, for introducing the filter or a combination of a plurality of filters into the beam path, are stored in memory. The stored motions can be read out electronically and are usable by the control unit for adjusting a desired filter stage or selected filter stages. Alternatively, the codes of the arms that are used by corresponding software program or programs can be stored, in order to calculate the particular motions required and trigger the drive device accordingly. The control unit can also be embodied such that it substantially constantly records or keeps a log of which filters are located in the beam path at a given time and which ones are not. This embodiment has the advantage that the necessary motions of the drive device for adjusting a desired filter stage need not necessarily always be performed from a defined outset position of all the filters, such as all the filters not being in the beam path, but instead that under some circumstances, faster motion sequences can be employed from one filter stage to another. The required motion sequences in each case can be calculated by software, for instance. This embodiment produces the commands for driving the drive device. The filters are, in particular, copper and/or aluminum filters or pre-filters and/or are distinguished or defined by different transmission values. An additional scope also includes a medical x-ray system or machine, in particular for cardiology, having an x-ray source and having a filter apparatus, as described above, for filtering the x-ray beam emitted by the x-ray source. The x-ray system is preferably designed such that an operation is interrupted if the evaluation device, which is in communication with the sensor devices, generates the report that the filter, or one of the filters, is in neither its parked position nor its filtering position. Especially advantageously, a signal perceptible to an operator or user is output, in particular an optical or acoustical signal, if the evaluation device generates the report. FIG. 1 shows a medical x-ray system 1 with an x-ray tube or source 3, a multileaf diaphragm assembly 5, and a detector means 7 for taking an x-ray. The x-ray tube 3 emits an x-ray beam 9 for x-raying a patient, not shown. Between the x-ray tube 3 and the multileaf diaphragm assembly 5, a filter apparatus 13 for filtering the x-ray beam 9 is disposed. Further, the filter apparatus together with the multileaf diaphragm assembly 5 is disposed in a common housing 11. The filter apparatus 13 shown in detail in FIG. 2 includes, as three filters 15, 16, 17, three variously thick copper plates, with thicknesses of 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm and 0.6 mm, respectively; in FIG. 2, only the filter 17 that is adjustable in the topmost plane is fully visible by an uppermost surface. The two filters 15, 16 that are displaceable linearly in planes below the top filter 17 are only partly visible. Each of the filters 15, 16, 17 can be positioned in both a parked position, or OFF position, in which all three filters 15, 16, 17 are located in FIG. 2, and in an ON or active position, in which the x-ray beam 9 passes through the filters 15, 16, 17. For guiding the preferably rectangular or square filters 15, 16, 17, a corresponding guide 18, 19, 20 formed as a slit-like groove or slot is provided on one side of each of the filters 15, 16, 17, and a guide rail or guide rod 22, 23, 24 of round cross section is present on another side of each of the filters 15, 16 and 17. Along each of the guide rods 22, 23, 24, a respective slider can be moved, to which the associated filter 15, 16, 17 is secured via screws or clamped in place. For moving each of the filters 15, 16, 17, a separate pusher, pivot joint or arm 25, 26, 27 is present; the respective first end 25A, 26A, 27A of each arm engages the associated filter 15, 16, 17, and the respective opposite, second end 25B, 26B, 27B of each arm is rotatably supported along a common imaginary axis 29. On the first end 25A, 26A, 27A, the arms 25, 26, 27 are solidly joined to the associated filter 15, 16, 17 via two hinges each, which are joined to one another via a joint or linking element, such as a hinge pin. The joint elements, of which in FIG. 2 only the uppermost joint element 31 for the thickest filter 17 is visible, may compensate for a relative motion, caused upon pivoting of the arms 25, 26, 27, between the respective ends 25A, 26A, 27A of each arm 25, 26, 27, remote from the axis 29 and the respective filter 15, 16, 17. A respective third end 25C, 26C, 27C of each arm 25, 26, 27 is engaged by a respective return spring or restoring spring 35, 36, 37, counter to whose spring-based restoring force the filters 15, 16, 17 are movable into their respective ON or active position. For moving the filters, there is a drive device or machine 33, which is embodied as an electric motor that is rotatable in both directions. With an adjusting force generated by the drive device 33, the filters 15, 16, 17 are adjustable into the ON or active position, that is, into the x-ray beam 9 or the x-ray beam path, counter to the spring force of their restoring springs 35, 36, 37. For each filter 15, 16, 17, there is a detent spring as a detent mechanism 45, 46, 47 on the end of the guide rods 22, 23, 24, and the slider of the applicable filter 15, 16, 17 can latch into this detent mechanism once the filter has reached its ON or active position in the x-ray beam path. This means that the drive device 33 need not generate any holding or retaining force for holding the filter 15, 16, 17 in the x-ray beam path. The detent mechanism 45, 46, 47 is dimensioned such that the spring-based restoring force of the restoring springs 35, 36, 37 is not sufficient by itself for departure from the detent device 45, 46, 47. Conversely, a filter 15, 16, 17 can leave the corresponding detent mechanism 45, 46, 47 if—at least until leaving an operative range of the restoring springs 35, 36, 37—a restoring force generated by the drive device 33 additionally acts on the filter 15, 16, 17, a generation of which restoring force will be described in further detail hereinafter. After leaving the operative range of the restoring spring 35, 36, 37 (“unlatching”), the filter 15, 16, 17 is moved into the OFF position (“ejection”) solely by the spring-based restoring force of the restoring springs 35, 36, 37. It is advantageous in this respect if in the OFF position, damping devices are present by which the particular arm 25, 26, 27 that is being accelerated is braked or slowed. Via a belt 49, the drive device 33 drives a turntable 51, which is rotatable about the axis 29 and is located below the second ends 25B, 26B, 27B of the arms 25, 26, 27. A slaving mechanism 53 on the order of a cylindrical pin, protruding upward through recesses in the arms 15, 16, 17 is secured eccentrically to the turntable 51. For the description below, FIG. 3 will be referred to, in which the arms 25, 26, 27 are shown in the dismantled state, located side by side and viewed from above. The recesses form stops 55, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67 on the inner edges of the arms for the rotatable slaving mechanism 53. Each arm 25, 26, 27 has, as its defined ON code, an ON stop 55, 56, 57 for subjecting the arm 25, 26, 27 to the adjusting force, for which purpose the slaving mechanism rotates clockwise, carrying the applicable arm 25, 26, 27 along with it, and as its defined OFF code, it has an OFF stop 65, 66, 67, for subjecting the arm 25, 26, 27 to the restoring force, for which purpose the slaving mechanism 53 rotate counterclockwise, carrying the applicable arms 25, 26, 27 along with it. In addition, the arms 25, 26, 27 are essentially identical outer contours, i.e. matching or congruent outer contours. These arms 25, 26, 27 differ in terms of a shape of their respective recesses, in which the positions of the stops 55, 65; 56, 66; and 57, 67, respectively, for each of the arms 25, 26, 27 are different. With respect to the imaginary common axis 29, which extends parallel to the arms 25, 26, 27 and in this example defines the OFF position of the filters 15, 16, 17, an angular position of the ON stops 55, 56, 57 increases in substantially equal increments, beginning at the thinnest filter 15 (arm 25) and extending to the thickest filter 17 (arm 27), while an angular position of the OFF stops 65, 66, 67 decreases in substantially equal increments. A free angle opening, which is a difference between the angular position of the respective OFF stop and the angular position of the ON stop, is the greatest for the thinnest filter. The free angle position may decrease substantially steadily toward the thickest filter. Below is a table illustrating individual angles corresponding to each of the filters. ONOFF StopFreeFilterArmStopthe RecessOpening of15 (0.1 mm)2520.4°92.4°72.0°16 (0.2 mm)2624.0°84.0°60.0°17 (0.6 mm)2727.6°75.6°48.0° A function of the filter apparatus 13 for an example of a motion sequence will now be explained. For this purpose, a state will be assumed in which all the arms 25, 26, 27—in the same angular position, that is, covering one another when viewed from above—are in the parked position. This state is illustrated in FIG. 3. When the slaving mechanism 53 moves clockwise, it comes into contact successively, that is, at staggered times, with the ON stops 55, 56, 57, specifically first with the ON stop 57 of the arm 27 for the thickest filter 17. Upon further rotation of the slaving mechanism 53, it also comes into contact with the ON stop 56 of the arm 26 for the middle filter 16 and pivots it along with it, with an angular offset of 3.6°. A similar result is subsequently obtained for the arm 25 (ON stop 55) for the thinnest filter 15. The arms 25, 26, 27 fanned out in this way are then moved onward synchronously counter to the forces of the restoring springs 35, 36, 37 upon further rotation of the slaving mechanism 53, until the forward most arm 27 has pivoted so far that the thickest filter 17 has been moved to over a protruding hump or threshold on the detent spring of the detent mechanism 47 (“latching”). Once in this position, the thickest filter 17 has been adjusted into the x-ray beam path 9. If no further filter is to be adjusted, then the slaving mechanism 53 could be moved back again in the opposite direction. For explanatory purposes, however, it is assumed here that the other filters 15, 16 are also to be adjusted. For that purpose, the slaving mechanism 53 is moved onward in the same direction, carrying all the arms 25, 26, 27 with it, until with the middle arm 26, its filter 16 has likewise been moved to above the hump or threshold in the associated detent mechanism 46, or in other words comes to be latched. This motion is possible because each of the filters 15, 16, 17 is movable even beyond its hump or threshold, or in other words an overrun is possible. The thickest filter 17 that has already latched into place can therefore be carried by the slaving mechanism 53 for a certain distance (overrun length), adapted to the maximum angular difference between the ON stops 55, 56, 57, past its hump or threshold, so as to attain latching of the middle filter 16 as well. Upon further rotation of the slaving mechanism 53 beyond the latching of the middle filter 16, then by the slaving mechanism 53—with a synchronous onward motion of all the arms 25, 26, 27 and optionally utilizing corresponding applicable overrun lengths—with the lowermost arm 25 of the thinnest filter 15 is likewise fixed in its detent means 45. Finally, after this filter 15 has moved past its hump or threshold, the slaving mechanism 53 can be moved in the opposite direction. Then in particular the thickest filter 17 and the middle filter 16 likewise move, by the length of their current respective overrun travel, back in the opposite direction as well, until they substantially reach and remain at the respective humps or thresholds of their detent mechanism 45, 46, 47 (active position). In this state, the arms 25, 26, 27 are again substantially layered one above another—covering axially one another as viewed from above. From that state, the slaving mechanism 53 moves back without being in contact with the ON stops 55, 56, 57. The retrieval of the filters 15, 16, 17 from this state or position, in which all the filters 15, 16, 17 are in the active position and the arms 25, 26, 27 are congruent, takes place in the same order, by rotation of the slaving mechanism 53 counterclockwise. Once the slaving mechanism 53 has lost contact with the ON stops 55, 56, 57, it moves freely at first for some time. Then it comes first into contact with the OFF stop 67 of the arm 27 for the thickest filter 17, as a result of which the thickest filter 17 is moved past its hump or threshold (“unlatching”), and from there on, solely by an influence of its restoring spring 37, reaches its parked position (“ejection”). Upon further rotation of the slaving mechanism 53, this slaving mechanism then comes into contact with the OFF stop 66 of the arm 26 for the middle filter 16 and finally with the OFF stop 65 of the arm 25 for the thinnest filter 15. The filter 17, which is moved first into the x-ray beam path 9, is thus also the first to be “ejected” again. Based on the motions described, only the filter stages 0.6 mm, 0.8 mm (=0.6 mm+0.2 mm), 0.9 mm (=0.6 mm+0.2 mm+0.1 mm) would be possible upon successive adjustments, and only the filter stages 0.3 mm (=0.9 mm−0.6 mm=0.2 mm+0.1 mm), 0.1 mm (=0.9 mm−0.6 mm−0.2 mm) would be possible upon successive ejections, or in other words 5 filter stages (not counting the unfiltered stage=0.0 mm). These last two filter stages can be generated by moving the drive device first in one direction and then in the other. Additional filter stages can be generated by performing a change in the direction of motion of the drive device 33 at a time in which not all the filters have been adjusted into the x-ray beam 9 path (for instance, for filter stage 0.2 mm), and/or by repeatedly performing a change multiple times in the direction of motion of the drive device 33 (for instance for the filter stage 0.7 mm). In total, the following filter stages, each resulting from the addition in the filter thicknesses, may be possible with a combination of filter motion sequences as shown in the table given below: Filter Stage(thickness in mm)Motion Sequence0—0.1latch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.1 mmunlatch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mm0.2latch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mmunlatch filter 0.6 mm0.3latch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.1 mmunlatch filter 0.6 mm0.6latch filter 0.6 mm0.7latch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.1 mmunlatch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mmlatch filter 0.6 mm0.8latch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mm0.9latch filters 0.6 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.1 mm In the motion sequences as given, it has been assumed that a respective filter stage is to be reached beginning from the filter stage 0 mm. Other motion sequences can result, beginning at a different filter stage. Whichever motion sequence is required at a given time is calculated by the software program, which is executed in a control unit 82 (see FIG. 1) communicating with an input device 80 (see FIG. 1) for triggering the drive device 33. The electronic-digital control unit 82 acts on the drive device 33 via a line 84. The control unit 82 includes a memory device 86 (see FIG. 1), in which the various codes of the arms 25, 26, 27, that is, the angular positions of the ON stops 55, 56, 57 and the angular positions of the OFF stops 65, 66, 67 are stored or can be stored in memory. The software program furthermore stores a current instantaneous position of all the filters 15, 16, 17 in memory, beginning at a reset position (not all the filters being in the beam path 9). As a function of a desired filter stage, selected via the input device 80, and as a function of the instantaneous position of the filters 15, 16, 17, the software determines the requisite motion sequence for the drive device 33. By means of the mechanical encoding of the individual filter planes, all the different filter stages that are in principle possible, which is a total of 8, can be achieved with only three different filters 15, 16, 17. The filter apparatus 13 requires only little space and moreover makes very short filter changing times possible. A maximum time required to change from one filter stage to another is approximately 0.6 seconds. For detecting both the filtering position (active or ON position) and the parked position (OFF position) of each of the filters 15, 16, 17, there is a sensor module 91, which is visible in FIG. 1 along with a photoelectric gate board mounted laterally next to the filters 15, 16, 17. A function of the sensor module 91 will be described in further detail in conjunction with FIG. 4, in which the filters 15, 16, 17 along with their guides 18, 19, 20 and guide rods 22, 23, 24 are shown in a dismantled state of the apparatus 13. The three filter planes of the apparatus 13 are shown in FIG. 4—side by side—each viewed from above. In each filter plane, there is a corresponding first sensor device 95, 96, 97 for detecting the applicable filter 15, 16, 17 in its filtering position, namely F, and a corresponding second sensor device 105, 106, 107 for detecting this filter 15, 16, 17 in its parked position, namely P. The positions of the sensor devices 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 107, which are each mounted as electronic components on a side toward the filter of the photoelectric gate board of FIG. 1, are shown in dashed lines in FIG. 1. Each of the sensor devices 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 107 includes a light source and a light detector. The slides 112, 113, 114 to which the filters 15, 16, 17 are secured each carry a respective reflector 109, 110, 111. If the reflector 109, 110, 111 comes to be located in front of or next to one of the sensor devices 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 107, the light of the light source is reflected and converted by the applicable light detector into a sensor signal, which indicates a presence of the filter 1 5, 16, 17 belonging to that particular reflector 109, 110, 111. In FIG. 4, the filters 15, 16 are in the filtering position F, so that their first sensor devices 95, 96 output a sensor signal that indicates a corresponding presence of the filters 15, 16, and their second sensor devices 105, 106 output a sensor signal indicating a corresponding absence. Conversely, the filter 17 is in the parked position P, so that its second sensor device 107 outputs a sensor signal indicating the presence of the filters 17, and its first sensor device 97 outputs a sensor signal indicating the absence of the filters 17. Each one of the first sensor devices 95, 96, 97 and each one of the second sensor devices 105, 106, 107 are spaced apart from one another in a direction of displacement travel of the filters 15, 16, 17, made possible essentially by an allowable displacement travel, and in particular by the spacing of the parked position P from the filter position F. The sensor devices 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 107 are positioned such that each of the filters 15, 16, 17 generates a presence signal in its first sensor device 95, 96, 97 or its second sensor device 105, 106, 107, as applicable, only in the correct filter position F and the correct parked position P, respectively. In other potential positions or intermediate positions, none of the sensor devices 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 107 generates any presence signal. The sensor signals are delivered to an evaluation device 121 (see FIG. 1), which generates a report if one of the filters 15, 16, 17 is in neither its parked position P nor its filtering position F. This report, generated in the form of an electronic signal, is converted, optionally in a display device 123 (see FIG. 1) communicating with the evaluation device 121, into a warning report that can be perceived or viewed by the operator. As such, an acoustical warning is outputted by a speaker 125, or a visual alert or warning is viewed on a screen 123 (see FIG. 1).
	description	This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/229,355, filed Jul. 29, 2009, titled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PLASMA COMPRESSION AND HEATING WITH RECYCLING OF PROJECTILES,” which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 1. Field The present disclosure relates to embodiments of systems and methods for plasma compression. 2. Description of Related Art Some systems for compressing plasma to high temperatures and densities typically are large, expensive, and are limited in repetition rate and operational lifetime. The addition of a magnetic field within the plasma is a promising method for improving the effectiveness of any given heating scheme due to decreased particle and energy loss rates from the plasma volume. Methods of compressing a plasma include the following six schemes. (1) Direct compression of a plasma using an external magnetic field that increases with time. (2) Compression by an ablative rocket effect of an outer surface of an implosion capsule, with the compression driven by intense electromagnetic radiation or high energy particle beams (such as certain Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) devices). See, for example, R. W. Moir et al., “HYLIFE-II: An approach to a long-lived, first-wall component for inertial fusion power plants,” Report Numbers UCRL-JC--117115; CONF-940933-46, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, August 1994, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. (3) Compression by electromagnetic implosion of a conductive liner, typically metal, driven by large pulsed electric currents flowing in the implosion liner. (4) Compression by spherical or cylindrical focusing of a large amplitude acoustic pulse in a conducting medium. See, for example, the systems and methods disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2006/0198483 and 2006/0198486, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In some implementations, the compression of a conductive medium can be performed using an external pressurized gas. See, for example, the LINUS system described in R. L. Miller and R. A. Krakowski, “Assessment of the slowly-imploding liner (LINUS) fusion reactor concept”, Rept. No. LA-UR-80-3071, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, N. Mex. 1980, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. (5) Passive compression by injecting a moving plasma into a static but conically converging void within a conductive medium, such that the plasma kinetic energy drives compression determined by wall boundary constraints. See, for example, C. W. Hartman et al., “A Compact Torus Fusion Reactor Utilizing a Continuously Generated String of CT's. The CT String Reactor”, CTSR Journal of Fusion Energy, vol. 27, pp. 44-48 (2008); and “Acceleration of Spheromak Toruses: Experimental results and fusion applications,” UCRL-102074, in Proceedings of 11th US/Japan workshop on field-reversed configurations and compact toroids; 7-9 Nov. 1989; Los Alamos, N. Mex., each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. (6) Compression of a plasma driven by the impact of high kinetic energy macroscopic projectiles, for example, by a pair of colliding projectiles, or by a single projectile impacting a stationary target medium. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,328,070, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. See, also, the above-incorporated paper by C. W. Hartmann et al., “Acceleration of Spheromak Toruses: Experimental results and fusion applications.” An embodiment of a system for compressing plasma is disclosed. The system can include a plasma injector that comprises a plasma formation system configured to generate a magnetized plasma and a plasma accelerator having a first portion, a second portion, and a longitudinal axis between the first portion and the second portion. The plasma accelerator can be configured to receive the magnetized plasma at the first portion and to accelerate the magnetized plasma along the longitudinal axis toward the second portion. The system for compressing plasma may also include a liquid metal circulation system configured to provide liquid metal that forms at least a portion of a chamber configured to receive the magnetized plasma from the second portion of the plasma accelerator. The magnetized plasma can have a first pressure when received in the chamber. The system may also include a projectile accelerator configured to accelerate a projectile along at least a portion of the longitudinal axis toward the chamber. The system may be configured such that the projectile compresses the magnetized plasma in the chamber such that the compressed magnetized plasma can have a second pressure that is greater than the first pressure. An embodiment of a method of compressing a plasma is disclosed. The method comprises generating a toroidal plasma, accelerating the toroidal plasma toward a cavity in a liquid metal, accelerating a projectile toward the cavity in the liquid metal, and compressing the toroidal plasma with the projectile while the toroidal plasma is in the cavity in the liquid metal. In some embodiments, the method may also include flowing a liquid metal to form the cavity. In some embodiments, the method may also include recycling a portion of the liquid metal to form at least one new projectile. An embodiment of an apparatus for compressing plasma is disclosed. The apparatus can comprise a plasma injector configured to accelerate a compact toroid of plasma toward a cavity in a liquid metal. The cavity can have a concave shape. The apparatus can also include a projectile accelerator configured to accelerate a projectile toward the cavity, and a timing system configured to coordinate acceleration of the compact toroid and acceleration of the projectile such that the projectile confines the compact toroid in the cavity in the liquid metal. Overview The plasma compression schemes described above have various advantages and disadvantages. However, a significant obstacle in the effective implementation of any plasma compression scheme is typically the monetary cost of constructing such a device at the necessary physical scale. For some of the above schemes, construction costs impede or even prohibit testing and development of prototypes at full scale. Thus it may be beneficial to consider technologies that can be affordably constructed in prototype and full-scale, using some conventional methods and materials, and which have relatively straightforward overall design and relatively small physical scale. Embodiments of the above-described compression schemes are generally pulsed in nature. Two possible factors to consider are the cost per pulse and the pulse repetition rate. Schemes that use high precision parts that are destroyed each pulse cycle (for example, schemes 2, 3, and some versions of scheme 6) may typically have a significantly higher cost per pulse than schemes that are either non-destructive (for example, scheme 1) or employ passive recycling of material (for example, schemes 4, 5, and some versions of scheme 6). Non-destructive pulse schemes tend to have the highest repetition rate (which may be limited by magnetic effects) that may be as high as in a kHz range in certain implementations. Passive recycling may be the next fastest with repetition rates (which may be limited by liner fluid flow velocities) that may be as high as several Hz in certain implementations. Schemes where the central assembly for the pulsed compression is destroyed every pulse tend to have the slowest intrinsic repetition rate, determined by time taken to clear destroyed elements and insert a new assembly. This is not likely to be more than once every few seconds at best in some implementations. Because of the potential for emission of intense x-rays and energetic particles from plasmas at high density and temperature, it may be advantageous to consider schemes that incorporate a large volume of replaceable absorber material to reduce the extent to which radiation products from the plasma reach the permanent structural elements of the compression device. Devices that do not incorporate such an absorber material or blanket may tend to suffer from radiation damage in their structural components and have correspondingly shorter operational lifetimes. While some embodiments of schemes 1, 2, and 3 can be adapted to accommodate some amount of absorber material, this can complicate the design (see for example, the HYLIFE-II reactor design described in the above-incorporated article by Moir et al.). In contrast, schemes 4, 5, and 6 incorporate an absorber material, either by choice of material used for the compression liner fluid, and/or by the addition of material into large unused volumes surrounding the device. Systems with a recirculating absorber fluid can also provide a low cost method for extracting heat produced during compression. Recirculation of an absorber fluid can also allow radiation products from the compressed plasma to be used to transmute isotopes included in the absorber fluid. This approach can be used for processing waste material, or for providing a cost effective method of producing rare isotopes. Impact driven compression schemes have typically involved methods to accelerate small but macroscopic projectiles to the ultra-high velocities needed to compress and heat the solid projectiles into an extremely dense, hot plasma state, typically with no magnetic field, or a magnetic field with only marginal confinement properties. This typically requires the use of an extremely long electromagnetic accelerator (for example, up to several kilometer long) to develop the requisite velocity, resulting in prohibitive construction costs. Various embodiments of the present disclosure address some of these and other challenges. For example, in most systems using projectiles, there has not been any method for recycling the projectile material, which results in the destruction of high-precision parts, greatly increasing the cost per pulse. In addition, the mechanisms for absorbing plasma radiation products for useful purposes has not been integrated into some prior designs, and so any absorber blanket must be added on as an afterthought, possibly with significant engineering complications. Some embodiments of the present approach involve the use of the impact of a projectile to drive plasma compression, and provide a system configuration that enables a significantly smaller scale system with higher repetition rates and/or longer system lifetime than previous approaches. In contrast to some impact compression methods (see for example U.S. Pat. No. 4,435,354, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety), certain embodiments of the present approach utilize a larger mass traveling at lower velocity, which acts to compress a well-magnetized plasma. This can allow for the use of a less complex and less costly projectile acceleration method for compressing the plasma. For example, a light gas gun can be used to accelerate the projectile to a speed of up to several km/s over a span of, for example, approximately 100 meters. Examples of light gas guns and projectile launchers that can be used with embodiments of the plasma compression system disclosed herein are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,429,030 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,534,263, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The projectile launcher described in the publication by L. R. Bertolini, et al., “SHARP, a first step towards a full sized Jules Verne Launcher”, Report Number UCRL-JC--114041; CONF-9305233-2, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, May 1993, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, may also be used with embodiments of the plasma compression system. Embodiments of the present approach may incorporate an integrated passive recycling system for the projectile material. This can allow for an improved (e.g., relatively high) repetition rate and/or an increase in system lifetime. With suitable choice of materials, the projectile and liner fluid can act as an efficient absorber of plasma radiation products, resulting in a system that has an economic feasibility and practical utility. Example Systems and Methods for Compressing Plasma Embodiments of systems and methods for plasma compression are described. In some embodiments, plasma can be compressed by impact of a projectile on a magnetized plasma toroid in a liquid metal cavity. The projectile can melt in the liquid metal cavity, and liquid metal can be recycled to form new projectiles. The plasma can be heated during compression. With reference to the drawings, a schematic cross-sectional diagram of an embodiment of a new and improved example plasma compression system 10 is shown in FIG. 1. The example system 10 includes a magnetized plasma formation/injection device 34, an accelerator 40 (for example, a light gas pneumatic gun or an electromagnetic accelerator), which fires projectiles 12 along an acceleration axis 40a toward compression chamber 26 defined in part by a converging flow of liquid metal 46. Liquid metal 46 is contained within liquid metal recirculating vessel 18, and a conical nozzle 24 directs the flow of liquid metal 46 into a magnetic flux conserving liner having a surface 27 with a desired shape at compression chamber 26. The compression chamber 26 may be substantially symmetric around an axis. The axis of the compression chamber 26 may be substantially collinear with the acceleration axis 40a (see, e.g., FIGS. 1 and 2). The system 10 may include a timing system (not shown) configured to coordinate the relative timing of events such as, e.g., formation of the plasma, acceleration of the plasma, firing or acceleration of the projectile, etc. For example, since, in some embodiments, the projectile velocity may be significantly less than the plasma injection velocity, plasma formation and injection can be delayed and can be triggered by the timing system when the projectile 12 reaches a prescribed position (e.g., near the muzzle) of the accelerator 40. FIG. 1 schematically illustrates three example projectiles 12a, 12b, and 12c moving toward the compression chamber 26. A fourth projectile 12d is in the liquid metal 46 near the point of maximum compression of the plasma. The four projectiles 12a-12d are intended to illustrate features of the system 10 and are not intended to be limiting. For example, in other embodiments, different numbers of projectiles (e.g., 1, 2, 4, or more) may be accelerated by the accelerator 40 at any time. FIG. 1 also schematically illustrates a plasma torus in three different positions in the system 10. In the illustrated embodiment, the magnetized plasma torus can be formed near a formation region 36a of the formation/injection device 34. The magnetized plasma shown at the position 36b has been accelerated and compressed between coaxial electrodes 48 and 50. At the position 36c, near the muzzle of the accelerator 40, the magnetized plasma expands off the end of the coaxial electrodes 48 and 50 into the larger volume of the compression chamber 26 defined by the front surface of projectile 12c (see FIG. 1) and the surface 27 of the liquid metal. The magnetized plasma can persist at the position 36c in the compression chamber 26 with a magnetic decay time that is several times longer than the compression time. The motion of the projectile 12c can compress the plasma near the position 36c, with the internal magnetic confinement of the plasma reducing or preventing significant particle loss back up into the plasma injector during the early phase of compression. In the system 10 schematically illustrated in FIG. 1, the size of the projectile 12c transverse to the acceleration axis 40a is smaller than the size of the opening to the compression chamber 26 so that an annular opening exists around the outside of the projectile when the projectile is near the position 36c. A later phase of compression begins after the projectile 12c closes off the opening to the chamber, and the compression chamber 26 is substantially or fully enclosed by the surface 27 of the liquid metal and the projectile 12c. See, e.g., FIG. 3 which schematically depicts a simulated time sequence of the compression geometry. Therefore, impact of the projectile 12 on the plasma in the compression chamber can increase the pressure, density, and/or temperature of the plasma. For example, the plasma may have a first pressure (or density or temperature) when in the compression chamber 26, and a second pressure (or density or temperature) after impact of the projectile 12, the second pressure (or density or temperature) greater than the first pressure (or density or temperature). The second pressure (or density or temperature) can be greater than the first pressure (or density or temperature), for example, by a factor of 1.5, 2, 4, 10, 25, 50, 100, or more. After the projectile is engulfed in liquid metal 46 (depicted in FIG. 1 as projectile 12d), the projectile can rapidly disintegrate and melt back into the metal 46. As will be further described below, liquid metal 46 from the vessel 18 can be recycled to form new projectiles. As a result of the compression, the plasma may be heated. Net heating of the liquid metal 46 can occur due to the absorption of radiation products from the compressed plasma as well as thermalization of the projectile kinetic energy. For example, in some implementations, the liquid metal 46 can be heated by as much as several hundred degrees Celsius by the plasma compression event. Thus, as shown in the example in FIG. 1, as the liquid metal 46 is recirculated by a pump 14, the liquid metal can be cooled via a heat exchange system 16 to maintain a desired temperature at inlet pipe 28 or at the conical nozzle 24. In some implementations, heat generated by plasma compression can extracted by the heat exchanger and used in an electrical power generation system (e.g., a turbine driven by steam generated from the extracted heat). In some embodiments, the temperature of the liquid metal can be maintained moderately above its melting point (e.g., Tmelt+approximately 10-50° C.). The heat exchanger 16 can be any suitable heat exchanger. In some embodiments, the heat exchanger output may be used in other processes. For example, in addition to the inlet pipe 28 which directs the flow of liquid metal 46 to the conical nozzle 24 to create the surface 27 of the compression chamber 26, a recirculation pipe 30 can deliver a supply of the liquid metal 46 to projectile molds 32 in a subsystem for making new batches of projectiles (e.g., projectile factory 37 shown in FIG. 1). In some embodiments, a loading mechanism 38 can be used to automatically load new projectiles into the breach of the accelerator 40. In certain embodiments, an array of projectiles 12 can be situated within a cartridge structure that can be loaded by the loading mechanism 38 into the breach of the accelerator 40 and fired in relatively rapid sequence along the acceleration axis 40a. In some cases, a brief time period, possibly as brief as 1-2 seconds in some implementations, without the accelerator 40 firing can be provided to allow for loading of the next cartridge of projectiles. In some embodiments, the loading mechanism 38 can have a direct load-shoot-load-shoot cycle in which case a cartridge structure need not be used, and a substantially steady rate of projectile fire can be maintained. In some embodiments, projectile molds 32 can be automated to receive recycled liquid metal 46, and provide a cooling cycle suitable to allow casting of new projectiles using various manufacturing methods. The rate of liquid metal recirculation and new projectile production can be sufficient to supply projectiles at the desired launch rate. The total cooling time for the liquid metal to sufficiently solidify within the molds can be taken up by parallelism within the method of preparing batches of new projectiles. In some implementations of the system 10, the cooling time may be made as short as practical and/or may be determined by the amount of rigidity needed for proper mechanical function of the loading mechanism and/or the ability of the projectile 12 to survive acceleration down the gun. With this highly automated firing cycle, a reasonably high repetition rate can be achieved for extended durations. Also, with the possible exception of injecting plasma for each shot, certain embodiments of the system 10 have the advantages of being effectively a closed-loop in which the solid projectile 12 can be fired into a vessel 18 filled with substantially the same material in liquid form, and the liquid metal 46 can be recycled to form new projectiles 12. In some embodiments, manufacturing of projectiles can be performed using the systems and methods described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,687,045, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The system 10 may be used in a variety of practical and useful applications. For example, in applications involving transmutation of isotopes by absorption of radiation products, there can be another branch of the liquid metal flow cycle (not shown) in which isotopes may be extracted from the liquid metal 46, for example, using standard getter-bed techniques. If necessary in some embodiments, additional metal may be added to the flow to replenish amounts that are lost to transmutation or other losses or inefficiencies. In some implementations of the system 10, some or all of the recirculating liquid metal system may be similar to the systems used for some implementations of the above-described compression schemes 4 and 5. Certain implementation of this scheme may be different than certain implementations of scheme 4 in that no vortex hydrodynamics are used to create the central cavity of compression chamber 26, instead linear nozzle flow may be used. Some implementations of the present approach may also be different than some implementations of scheme 4 in that only a single projectile is used to drive each compression, and synchronization of the impact of a number of pistons used to create a substantially symmetric acoustic pulse may not be needed. Certain embodiments of the present approach also have some possible advantages over scheme 5, which typically uses a significantly longer and more powerful plasma injector to develop the kinetic energy needed to develop full compression of the plasma, resulting in a higher construction cost due to the price of capacitive energy storage. In some embodiments of the present approach, the energy that can be used to compress the plasma may be primarily derived from pressurized gas that accelerates the projectile 12 in the accelerator 40. In some cases, this may be a less complex and less expensive technology than used in certain implementations of scheme 5. Embodiments of the plasma compression system 10 can include the accelerator 40 for firing a projectile 12 along a substantially linear path that passes along the axis 40a substantially through the center of the plasma injector 34 and ends in impact with the plasma and liquid metal walls of compression chamber 26 within the recirculating vessel 18. In some embodiments, the accelerator 40 may be configured so that it can efficiently obtain high projectile velocities (such as, for example, approximately 1-3 km/s) for a large caliber projectile (such as, for example, approximately 100 kg mass, approximately 400 mm diameter) and can be able to operate in a mode of automated repeat firing. There are a number of known accelerator devices that may be adapted for this application. One possible approach can be to use a light gas gun. In some implementations, the design of the gun may allow rapid recharging of the plenum volume behind the projectile with a pressurized light “pusher gas” (which may comprise, e.g., hydrogen or helium). In some implementations, it may be advantageous for the region in front of the projectile to be at least partially evacuated before subsequent firing of the gun. For example, as a projectile 12 moves forward, it can push a fraction of the gas in its path into compression chamber 26. Depending on the gas composition, this may possibly contaminate the plasma that is injected into compression chamber 26. The presence of another (impurity) gas may in some cases cool the plasma through emission of line radiation, which reduces the energy available for heating the plasma. In embodiments in which hydrogen is used as the pusher gas, the hydrogen can be fully ionized and incorporated into the plasma without a high probability of such cooling problems. Further, residual gas in front of the projectile acts as a drag force, slowing the projectile's acceleration in the gun. Thus, in embodiments with at least a partial vacuum in front of the projectile, enhanced gun efficiency may be achieved. In some embodiments, a conventional light gas gun may provide for rapid evacuation of gun barrel 44 during the intershot time period. For example, in one possible gun design, the main gun barrel 44 may be surrounded by a significantly larger vacuum tank (not shown in FIG. 1), with a large number of actuatable vent valves 42 distributed along the length of gun 44. One possible example method of operation of the valves includes the following. During the intershot time period all (or at least a substantial fraction) of the valves 42 can be open and the pusher gas from previous projectile firing can be exhausted into the vacuum tank. Once the valves open, without including the effect of outflow due to active pumping at the surface of the vacuum tank, an estimate for the initial equilibrium pressure isPequPpushVgun/Vtank=Ppush(rgun/rtank)2,where Ppush is the final pressure in the gun after the projectile has left the muzzle, Vgun, Vtank are the volumes of the gun barrel 44 and vacuum tank respectively, which for a coaxial cylindrical gun-tank system is also proportional to the square of the ratios of the radii of the gun barrel and the tank. For example, if (rgun/rtank)= 1/10, and the final pushing pressure is Ppush=1 atmosphere (where 1 atmosphere is approximately 1.013×105 Pa), then the initial equilibrium pressure would be about 1/100 of an atmosphere. In certain system embodiments, this volumetric drop in pressure allows the use of standard high-speed turbo pump technology for evacuating the system, which typically are not used at the very high pressures provided in some gas gun designs. In certain such embodiments, the vacuum turbo pumps (not shown) may be distributed along the surface of the vacuum tank and, in the case of pumping in parallel, may have a combined pumping rate that equals or exceeds the time averaged gas inflow rate due to injection of the pusher gas to drive the projectile. One possible arrangement can be a closed-loop for the pusher gas, in which compressors take the exhaust from the vacuum pumps and pressurize the gun plenum directly. Heat energy from the heat exchange system 16 can additionally or alternatively be used to thermally pressurize the gas in the plenum. Continuing with the example method of valve operation, once the pressure in the gun 40 is reduced to sufficient levels, valves 42 can start to close and may be synchronized such that the valves closest to the breach of the gun 40 may fully close first. In some cases, the time of full closing of valves 42 can be staggered in a linear sequence along the length of gun 40, such that it tracks the trajectory of the projectile. Other synchronization patterns can be used. With suitable synchronization, some embodiments of the gun 40 can be configured to fire another projectile 12 as soon as the valves 42 near the breach have closed, and then as the projectile 12 advances down the gun 40, the projectile can pass by newly closed valves, with the valves ahead of the projectile being in the process of closing, yet still open enough for any residual gas to be pushed out into the vacuum tank. Other gun firing patterns may be used in other embodiments. Actuated vent valves 42 may, for example, operate via motion that may be linear or rotary in nature. FIG. 5 schematically illustrates an example of timing of rotary gas vent valves 42a-42d in an embodiment of a projectile accelerator. Motors 78a-78d may be used to rotate valve rotors 72a-72d, respectively. In this example, the timing can be arranged such that the valve rotors 72a and 72b at least partially closed over one or more vent holes 74a and 74b, respectively, behind the location 76 of the projectile (which is moving to the right in this example), and valve rotors 72c and 72d leave at least partially open one or more vent holes 74c and 74d, respectively, ahead of the location 76 of the projectile such that gas can be at least partially confined in the region behind the projectile, while the region in front of the projectile can be at least partially evacuated. In some implementations, recycling of the pusher gas through the system may require significant energy expenditure during a short (e.g., sub-second) intershot time period. In other methods of gun operation, the vent valves (if used) may be operated differently than described above. In certain embodiments, the repetition rate of the projectile acceleration system can be greater than or equal to the intrinsic repetition rate of the compression scheme. In other embodiments, the repetition rate of the projectile acceleration system can be less than the intrinsic repetition rate of the compression scheme. Other projectile acceleration methods may be used. For example, another possible method of projectile acceleration includes use of an inductive coil gun, which in some embodiments, uses a sequence of pulsed electromagnetic coils to apply repulsive magnetic forces to accelerate the projectile. One possible advantage of the inductive coil gun may be that the coil gun can be maintained at a high state of evacuation in a steady fashion. In some embodiments of the system 10, additional sensors (not shown) and a triggering circuit (not shown) may be incorporated for precise triggering of firing the accelerator 40. Embodiments of the projectile 12 and/or the liquid metal 46 can be made from a metal, alloy, or combination thereof. For example, an alloy of lead/lithium with approximately 17% lithium by atomic concentration can be used. This alloy has a melting point of about 280° C. and a density of about 11.6 g/cm3. Other lithium concentrations can be used (e.g., 5%, 10%, 20%), and in some implementations, lithium is not used. In some embodiments, the projectile 12 and the liquid metal 46 have substantially the same composition (e.g., in some pulsed, recycled implementations). In other embodiments, the projectile 12 and the liquid metal 46 can have different compositions. In some embodiments, the projectile 12 and/or the liquid metal 46 can be made from metals, alloys, or combinations thereof. For example, the projectile and/or the liquid metal may comprise iron, nickel, cobalt, copper, aluminum, etc. In some embodiments, the liquid metal 46 can be selected to have sufficiently low neutron absorption that a useful flux of neutrons escapes the liquid metal. Embodiments of the plasma torus injector 34 may be generally similar to certain known designs of the coaxial railgun-type. See, for example, various plasma torus injector embodiments described in: J. H. Degnan, et al., “Compact toroid formation, compression, and acceleration,” Phys. Fluids B, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 2938-2958, 1993; R. E. Peterkin, “Direct electromagnetic acceleration of a compact toroid to high density and high speed”, Physical Review Letters, vol. 74, no.16, pp. 3165-3170, 1995; and J. H. Hammer, et al., “Experimental demonstration of acceleration and focusing of magnetically confined plasma rings,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 61, no. 25, pp. 2843-2846, December 1988. See, also, the injector design that was experimentally tested and described in H. S. McLean et al., “Design and operation of a passively switched repetitive compact toroid plasma accelerator,” Fusion Technology, vol. 33, pp. 252-272, May 1998. Each of the aforementioned publications is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Also, embodiments of the plasma generators described in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2006/0198483 and 2006/0198486, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all it discloses, can be used with embodiments of the plasma torus injector 34. The toroidal plasma generated by the plasma injector 34 can be a compact toroid such as, e.g., a spheromak, which is a toroidal plasma confined by its own magnetic field produced by current flowing in the conductive plasma. In other embodiments, the compact toroid can be a field-reversed configuration (FRC) of plasma, which may have substantially closed magnetic field lines with little or no central penetration of the field lines. Some such plasma torus injector designs can produce a high density plasma with a strong internal magnetic field of a toroidal topology, which acts to confine the charged plasma particles within the core of the plasma for a duration that can be comparable to or exceeds the time of compression and rebound. Embodiments of the injector can be configured to provide significant preheating of the plasma, for example, ohmically or resistive heating by externally driving currents and allowing partial decay of internal magnetic fields and/or direct ion heating from thermalization of injection kinetic energy when the plasma comes to rest in the compression chamber 26. As schematically shown in FIG. 2, some embodiments of the plasma injector 34 can include several systems or regions: a plasma formation system 60, a plasma expansion region 62, and a plasma acceleration/focusing system or accelerator 64. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, the plasma acceleration/focusing system or accelerator 64 is bounded by electrodes 48 and 50. One or both of the electrodes 48, 50 may be conical or tapered to provide compression of the plasma as the plasma moves along the axis of the accelerator 64. In the illustrated embodiment, the formation system 60 has the largest diameter and includes a separate formation electrode 68, coaxial with the outer wall of the plasma formation system 60, which can be energized in order to ionize the injected gas by way of a high voltage, high current discharge, thereby forming a plasma. The plasma formation system 60 also can have a set of one or more solenoid coils that produce the initial magnetic field prior to the ionization discharge, which then becomes imbedded within the plasma during the formation. After being shaped by plasma processes during the expansion and relaxation in the expansion region 60, the initial field can develop into a set of closed toroidal magnetic flux surfaces, which can provide strong particle and energy confinement, which is maintained primarily by internal plasma currents. Once this magnetized plasma torus 36 has been formed, an acceleration current can be driven from the center conical accelerator electrode 48 across the plasma, and back along the outer electrode 50. The resulting Lorentz force (J×B) accelerates the plasma down the accelerator 64. The plasma accelerator 64 can have an acceleration axis that is substantially collinear with the accelerator axis 40a. The converging, conical electrodes 48, 50 can cause the plasma to compress to a smaller radius (e.g., at the positions 36b, 36c as schematically shown in FIG. 1). In some embodiments, a radial compression factor of about 4 can be achieved from a moderately-sized injector 34 that is approximately 5 m long with an approximately 2 m outer diameter. This can result in an injected plasma density that can be about 64 times the original density in the expansion region of the injector, thus providing the impact compression process with a starting plasma of high initial density. In other embodiments, the compression factor may be, e.g., 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, or more. In some embodiments, compression in the plasma accelerator is not used, and the system 10 compresses the plasma primarily through impact of the projectile on the plasma. In the illustrated embodiment, electrical power for formation, magnetization and acceleration of the plasma torus can be provided by pulsed electrical power system 52. The pulsed electrical power system 52 may comprise a capacitor bank. In other embodiments, electrical power may be applied in a standard way such as described in, e.g., J. H. Hammer, et al., “Experimental demonstration of acceleration and focusing of magnetically confined plasma rings,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 61, no. 25, pp. 2843-2846, December 1988, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Embodiments of the liquid metal circulating vessel 18 may be configured to have a central substantially cylindrical portion that is shown in cross-section in FIG. 1, and which supports a net flow of liquid metal along the axial direction that enters the main chamber through a tapered opening 24 (conical nozzle) at one end and exits at the opposing end through a pipe 20 or a set of such pipes. Also shown in FIG. 1 is an optional recirculation pipe 30 for directing liquid metal 46 to projectile molds 32. Optionally recirculation pipe 30 may be a separate pipe from another region of vessel 18. In various embodiments, flow velocities in the liquid metal 46 can range from a few m/s to a few tens of m/s, and in some implementations, it may be advantageous for substantially laminar flow to be maintained substantially throughout the system 10. To promote laminar flow, honeycomb elements may be incorporated into vessel 18. Directional vanes or hydrofoil structures may be used to direct the flow into the desired shape in the compression region. The cone angle of the converging flow can be chosen to improve the impact hydrodynamics for a given cone angle of the projectile shape. Recirculating vessel 18 may be made of materials of sufficient strength and thickness to be able to withstand the outgoing pressure wave that emanates from the projectile impact and plasma compression event. Optionally, special flow elements near the exit of the vessel 18 (or at other suitable positions) may be used to dampen pressure waves that might cause damage to the heat exchange system. Optionally heaters (not shown) may be used to increase the liquid metal temperature above its melting point for startup operations or after maintenance cycles. In certain embodiments, the systems and methods for liquid metal flow disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2006/0198483 and 2006/0198486, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all it discloses, can be used with the system 10. During the projectile acceleration and impact there may be significant momentum transfer resulting in recoil forces applied to the structures of the apparatus. In some implementations, the mass of the bulk fluid in the recirculation vessel 18 can be sufficient (for example, greater than about 1000 times the mass of the projectile) that recoil forces from the impact can be handled by mounting vessel 18 on a set of stiff shock absorbers so that the displacement of vessel 18 may be on the order of about one cm. The accelerator 40 may also experience a recoil reaction as it acts to accelerate the projectile. In some embodiments, the accelerator 40 may be a few hundred times as massive as the projectile 12, and the accelerator 40 may tend to experience correspondingly higher recoil accelerations, and total displacement amplitude during firing, than the vessel 18. With these finite relative motions, the three system components in the illustrated embodiment (e.g., the accelerator 40, the plasma injector 34, and the recirculating vessel 18) can advantageously be joined by substantially flexible connections such as, e.g., bellows, in order to maintain a desired vacuum and fluid seals. During full operation of some systems 10, the driving force may be approximately periodic at a frequency of a few Hz (e.g., in a range from about 1 Hz to about 5 Hz). Therefore, it may be advantageous for the mechanical oscillator system (e.g., mass plus shock absorber springs) to be constructed to have a resonant frequency significantly different from the driving frequency, and that strong damping be present. In some embodiments, the size of the recirculating vessel 18 can be selected such that the volume of liquid metal 46 surrounding the point of maximum compression 22 provides enough absorption of radiation by an absorber element (e.g., lithium) so there may be very little, if any, radiation transfer to solid metal structures of the system 10. For example, in some embodiments, a liquid thickness of approximately 1.5 meters for a lead/lithium mixture of about 17% Li atomic concentration may reduce the radiation flux to the solid support structure by a factor of at least about 104. FIG. 3 shows cross-sectional diagrams (A-I) schematically illustrating a time-sequence of an example of possible compression geometry during an impact of a projectile 12 on a fluid comprising liquid metal 46. The diagrams show the density of the fluid and the projectile material during the impact event. The diagrams are based on a simulation using an inviscid finite volume method on a fixed mesh, and where the plasma volume 36 has been added in by hand to schematically illustrate the approximate dynamics of collapse. In this example, prior to the time shown in diagram A, the accelerator 40 launches the projectile 12, which passes sensors near the end of the muzzle that in turn trigger the firing sequence of the plasma injector. The plasma torus in this example can then be injected into the steadily closing volume between the projectile 12 and the conical surface 27 of the compression chamber 26 formed in part by the flow of the liquid metal 46. As the projectile 12 impacts the compression chamber 26, the plasma torus 36 in this example is substantially uniformly compressed to a smaller radius into the conical compression chamber 26 formed by the liquid metal flow. The plasma may be compressed such that there can be an increase in density (or pressure or temperature) by a factor of two or more, by a factor of four or more, by a factor of 10 or more, by a factor of 100 or more, or by some other factor. When the leading tip of the projectile 12 impacts the surface 27 of the liquid metal (as shown in diagram A), the plasma 36 becomes sealed within a closed volume. As the edge of the projectile begins to penetrate the liquid metal (e.g., as shown in diagrams B, C, and D) the rate of compression increases. For a projectile impact velocity at or exceeding the speed of sound in the liquid metal, the impact can produce a bow shock wave that moves with the projectile. The front surface of the projectile 12 may comprise a shaped portion to increase the amount of compression. For example, in the illustrative simulation depicted in FIG. 3, the projectile 12 comprises a concave, cone-shaped front portion (see, e.g., FIG. 4A). In some embodiments, the angle of the projectile cone may be selected to be substantially the same as the angle of the bow shock for a given impact velocity. In some such embodiments, this selection of cone angle may be such that the compression occurs during the slowing down time of the projectile 12 rather than earlier during the crossing of the bowshock, which can be ahead of the surface of the projectile 12. As the projectile 12 first encounters resistance from the impact, a compressional wave 70 can be launched backward through the projectile causing bulk compression of the projectile, while at the same time the normal impact force tends to cause a flaring of the opening of the projectile and begins the process of deformation. On the outer edge of the projectile a possibly turbulent wake 72 may form in the liquid. As the projectile slows below the liquid metal speed of sound (e.g., diagram E), a compressional wave 70 can also be launched forward into the liquid metal flow. Peak compression of the plasma may occur after this compression wave has passed beyond the compression chamber 26 (e.g., diagram F). When the backwards going compression wave reaches the back surface of the projectile it can reflect, yielding a decompression wave 74 that propagates forward through the projectile. After the decompression wave reaches the plasma containing cavity, the collapse of the inner wall surface may begin to decelerate in pace, stagnate at peak plasma pressure, temperature and magnetic field strength and then begin to re-expand, driven by the increased net pressures in the plasma. As an illustrative, non-limiting example, for the case of a 100 kg projectile traveling at an impact speed of 3 km/s, having a kinetic energy of 450 MJ, there may be an energy transfer time of approximately 200 microseconds, resulting in an average power of 2×1012 Watts. Since the time of peak compression may be approximately ½ the energy transfer time, and there can be an angular divergence of energy into the fluid with approximately ⅓ of the energy going into compressing the plasma at any given time. For example, in this illustrative simulation, there may be a maximum of approximately ⅙ of the total energy going into compressing the plasma. Thus, in this illustrative simulation, approximately 75 MJ of work would be done to compress the plasma. After the projectile has become fully immersed in the liquid metal flow, the projectile may develop fracture lines 76 and begin to break up into smaller fragments, which remelt into the flow over the span of several seconds or less. The projectile 12 shown in the simulations illustrated in FIG. 3 comprises a concave, conical surface. There are other possible projectile designs that may provide different compression characteristics, and some examples of projectile designs 12a-12f are schematically shown in FIGS. 4A-4F, respectively. The projectiles 12a-12f have a surface 13a-13f, respectively, that confines the liquid metal in the compression chamber 26. In some embodiments, the surface can be substantially conical, and portions of the surface may be concave or convex. Other surface shapes can be used, e.g., portions of spheres, other conic sections, etc. In some embodiments comprising a conical surface, one possible parameter that may be adjusted to provide various concave surface designs is a cone angle, shown as angle Φ in FIGS. 4A and 4B. The cone angle can be chosen to improve the shock and flow dynamics as the projectile impacts the liquid metal liner. The cone angle Φ is larger in the projectile 12a than in the projectile 12f. The cone angle Φ can be about 20 degrees, about 30 degrees, about 40 degrees, about 45 degrees, about 50 degrees, about 60 degrees, or some other angle. In various embodiments, the cone angle Φ can be in a range from about 20 degrees to about 80 degrees, in a range from about 30 degrees to about 60 degrees, etc. In some embodiments, the projectile 12c includes an elongated member 15 (e.g., a central spike; see FIG. 4C) that can act to continue the center electrode of the plasma injector 34. In some implementations of the system 10, such an elongated member 15 may prevent flipping of the magnetized plasma torus when it comes off the plasma injector 34. In some such implementations, the plasma advantageously can be injected just as the forward end of the spike 15 contacts the liquid metal 46 in the compression chamber 26, and the plasma volume can be maintained in a substantially toroidal topology during the compression. Such implementations may advantageously allow for better magnetic confinement than a spherical collapse topology, but may have more surface area of metal exposed directly to the plasma, which may possibly increase impurity levels and lower the peak plasma temperature in some cases. In some projectile designs, it can also be possible to have plasma compression less dominated by the fluid shock effect by using an appropriately shaped convex projectile 12d (see, for example FIG. 4D), which may compress the plasma for a significant fraction of total collapse time before the projectile intersects the liquid metal surface. To reduce or mitigate plasma impurities, the surface 13e of the projectile 12e may comprise a coating 19 formed from a second material (see, for example, FIG. 4E), such as, for example, lithium or lithium-deuteride. Other portions of the projectile may include one or more coatings. Materials such as these typically are less likely to introduce impurities that may lead to, e.g., undesired plasma cooling if the impurities are swept into the edge of the plasma. In some embodiments, multiple coatings may be used. In some designs, the projectile may have features such as, e.g., grooves and/or indentations, around its surface to accommodate mechanical functioning of the loading system, or as a seal for a pneumatic accelerator gun. The projectile 13f schematically illustrated in FIG. 4F has a groove 17 around the circumference of the back edge into which a reusable sealing flange may be fitted, for example, during the initial casting of the projectile. In some embodiments using a pneumatic gun to accelerate the projectile 12f, the firing of the projectile 12f may occur when the pusher gas reaches sufficiently high pressure that the lead ring behind the sealing flange may be sheared off, thus freeing the projectile for acceleration, somewhat like the action of a burst diaphragm in a conventional gas gun. FIG. 6 is a flowchart that schematically illustrates an example embodiment of a method 100 of compressing plasma in a liquid metal chamber using impact of a projectile on the plasma. At block 104, a projectile 12 is accelerated towards a liquid metal compression chamber. The projectile can be accelerated using an accelerator such as, e.g., the accelerator 40. For example, the accelerator can be a light gas gun or electromagnetic accelerator. The compression chamber can be formed in a liquid material such liquid metal. For example, in some implementations, at least a portion of the compression chamber is formed by the flow of a liquid metal as described herein with reference to FIG. 1. At block 108, a magnetized plasma is accelerated toward the liquid metal chamber. For example, the magnetized plasma may comprise a compact torus (e.g., a spheromak or FRC). The magnetized plasma may be accelerated using the plasma torus accelerator 34 in some embodiments. In some such embodiments, the magnetized plasma is generated and accelerated after the projectile has begun its acceleration toward the compression chamber, because the speed of the magnetized plasma can be much higher than the speed of the projectile. At block 112, impact of the projectile on the liquid metal (when the plasma is in the compression chamber) compresses the magnetized plasma in the compression chamber. The plasma can be heated during the compression. The projectile can break up and can melt into the liquid metal. At optional block 116, a portion of the liquid metal is recycled and used to form one or more new projectiles. For example, the liquid metal recirculation system and projectile factory 37 described with reference to FIG. 1 may be used for the recycling. The new projectiles can be used at block 104 to provide a pulsed system for plasma compression. Embodiments of the above-described system and method are suited for applications in the study of high energy density plasma including, for example, applications involving the laboratory study of astrophysical phenomena or nuclear weapons. Certain embodiments of the above-described system and method can be used to compress a plasma that comprises a fusionable material sufficiently that fusion reactions and useful neutron production can occur. The gas used to form the plasma may comprise a fusionable material. For example, the fusionable material may comprise one or more isotopes of light elements such as, e.g., isotopes of hydrogen (e.g., deuterium and/or tritium), isotopes of helium (e.g., helium-3), and/or isotopes of lithium (e.g., lithium-6 and/or lithium-7). Other fusionable materials can be used. Combinations of elements and isotopes can be used. Accordingly, certain embodiments of the system 10 may be configured to act as pulsed-operation high flux neutron generators or neutron sources. Neutrons produced by embodiments of the system 10 have a wide range of uses in research and industrial fields. For example, embodiments of the system 10 may be used for nuclear waste remediation and generation of medical nucleotides. Additionally, embodiments of the system 10 configured as a neutron source can also be used for materials research, either by testing the response of a material (as an external sample) to exposure of high flux neutrons, or by introducing the material sample into the compression region and subjecting the sample to extreme pressures, where the neutron flux may be used either as a diagnostic or as a means for transmuting the material while at high pressure. Embodiments of the system 10 configured as a neutron source can also be used for remote imaging of the internal structure of objects via neutron radiography and tomography, and may be advantageous for applications requiring a fast pulse (e.g., several microseconds) of neutrons with high luminosity. For some large scale industrial applications it may be economical to run several plasma compression systems at the same facility, in which case some savings may accrue by having a single shared projectile casting facility that recycles liquid metal from more than one system, and then distributes the finished projectiles to the loading mechanisms at the breach of each accelerator. Some such embodiments may be advantageous in that a misfire in a single accelerator may not bring the entire facility cycle to a halt, because the remaining compression devices may continue operating. The systems and methods described herein may be embodied in a wide range of ways. For example, in one embodiment, a method for compressing a plasma is provided. The method includes (a) circulating a liquid metal through a vessel and directing the liquid metal through a nozzle to form a cavity, (b) generating and injecting a magnetized plasma torus into the liquid metal cavity, (c) accelerating a projectile, having substantially the same composition as the liquid metal, toward the cavity so that it impacts the magnetized plasma torus, whereby the plasma is heated and compressed, and the projectile disintegrates and melts into the liquid metal. The method may also include (d) directing a portion of the liquid metal to a projectile-forming apparatus wherein new projectiles are formed to be used in step (c). One or more steps of the method may be performed repeatedly. For example, in some embodiments, steps (a)-(c) are repeated at a rate ranging from about 0.1 Hz to about 10 Hz. In some embodiments of the method, the cavity can be roughly conical in shape. In some embodiments, the liquid metal comprises a lead-lithium alloy. In some embodiments, the liquid metal comprises a lead-lithium alloy with about 17% atomic concentration of lithium. In some embodiments, the liquid metal comprises a lead-lithium alloy with an atomic concentration of lithium in a range from about 5% to 20%. In some embodiments, the liquid metal may be circulated through a heat exchanger for reducing the temperature of the liquid metal. In some embodiments of the method, the plasma comprises a fusionable material. In some embodiments, the fusionable material comprises deuterium and/or tritium. In some embodiments, the deuterium and tritium are provided in a mixture of about 50% deuterium and about 50% tritium. In some embodiments of the method, compression of the plasma results in heating of the plasma and/or production of neutrons and/or other radiation. An embodiment of a plasma compression system is provided. The system comprises a liquid metal recirculation subsystem that comprises a containment vessel and a circulation pump for directing the liquid metal through a nozzle to form a cavity within the vessel. The system also comprises a plasma formation and injection device for repeatedly forming a magnetized plasma torus and injecting it into the metal cavity. The system also comprises a linear accelerator for repeatedly directing projectiles, having substantially the same composition as the liquid metal, toward the cavity. The system also comprises a projectile-forming subsystem comprising projectile-shaped molds in which new projectiles are formed and then directed to the linear accelerator, wherein the molds are connected to at least periodically receive liquid metal, comprising melted projectiles, that are recirculated from the containment vessel. An embodiment of a plasma compression device is provided. The device comprises a linear accelerator for firing a projectile at high speeds into a muzzle coupled to a vacuum pump for creating at least a partial vacuum inside the muzzle. The system also comprises a conical focusing plasma injector having coaxial tapered electrodes connected to a power supply circuit to provide an electrical current. The electrodes may form a cone tapering to a focusing region. The system also includes a magnetized coaxial plasma gun for injecting material for generating a magnetized compact torus (e.g., a spheromak), and the open end of gun muzzle can be seated inside the cone in conductive contact with the inner electrode. The system also includes a recirculating vessel suitable for containing metal fluid and having an opening for receiving the tapered cone of accelerator and a base region, and a heat exchange line connected between the base and conical opening regions with a recirculation pump to pump fluid from the base to the conical opening. The tapered electrodes of the accelerator are seated within the conical opening such that the outer electrode surface guides a convergent flow path for the pressurized metal fluid creating a focusing region within the tapered fluid walls that confines and further focuses the magnetized spheromak compact torus, which can be compressed to a maximum compression zone in the inner cavity of the vessel. When the recirculating vessel is filled with fluid metal and fusionable material is injected, a projectile is fired by the gun to intercept the magnetized plasma ring when it has traveled near the tapered fluid wall, and compresses the plasma within the fluid to an increased pressure, thereby imparting kinetic energy to the plasma to increase ion temperature. An embodiment of a plasma compression system includes an accelerator for firing a projectile toward a magnetized plasma (e.g., a plasma torus) in a cavity in a solid metal or a liquid metal. The system also may include a plasma injector for generating the magnetized plasma and injecting the magnetized plasma into the cavity. In embodiments comprising a cavity in liquid metal, the system may include a vessel configured to contain the liquid metal and having a tapered nozzle to form the cavity by flow of the liquid metal. The magnetized plasma is injected into the cavity, and a projectile fired by the accelerator intercepts the plasma and compresses the plasma against the surface of the cavity, creating a high pressure impact event that compresses the magnetized plasma. The plasma compression may result in heating of the plasma. Impact of the projectile with the cavity can cause the projectile to disintegrate. In embodiments comprising a liquid metal cavity, the projectile may melt into the liquid metal. In some such embodiments, a portion of the liquid metal may be diverted to cast new projectiles that can be used to maintain a repetitive firing cycle with a substantially closed inventory of liquid metal. While particular elements, embodiments and applications of the present disclosure have been shown and described, it will be understood, that the scope of the disclosure is not limited thereto, since modifications can be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present disclosure, particularly in light of the foregoing teachings. Thus, for example, in any method or process disclosed herein, the acts or operations making up the method/process may be performed in any suitable sequence and are not necessarily limited to any particular disclosed sequence. Elements and components can be configured or arranged differently, combined, and/or eliminated in various embodiments. The various features and processes described above may be used independently of one another, or may be combined in various ways. All possible combinations and subcombinations are intended to fall within the scope of this disclosure. Reference throughout this disclosure to “some embodiments,” “an embodiment,” or the like, means that a particular feature, structure, step, process, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Thus, appearances of the phrases “in some embodiments,” “in an embodiment,” or the like, throughout this disclosure are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment and may refer to one or more of the same or different embodiments. Indeed, the novel methods and systems described herein may be embodied in a variety of other forms; furthermore, various omissions, additions, substitutions, equivalents, rearrangements, and changes in the form of the embodiments described herein may be made without departing from the spirit of the inventions described herein. Various aspects and advantages of the embodiments have been described where appropriate. It is to be understood that not necessarily all such aspects or advantages may be achieved in accordance with any particular embodiment. Thus, for example, it should be recognized that the various embodiments may be carried out in a manner that achieves or optimizes one advantage or group of advantages as taught herein without necessarily achieving other aspects or advantages as may be taught or suggested herein. Conditional language used herein, such as, among others, “can,” “could,” “might,” “may,” “e.g.,” and the like, unless specifically stated otherwise, or otherwise understood within the context as used, is generally intended to convey that certain embodiments include, while other embodiments do not include, certain features, elements and/or steps. Thus, such conditional language is not generally intended to imply that features, elements and/or steps are in any way required for one or more embodiments or that one or more embodiments necessarily include logic for deciding, with or without operator input or prompting, whether these features, elements and/or steps are included or are to be performed in any particular embodiment. No single feature or group of features is required for or indispensable to any particular embodiment. The terms “comprising,” “including,” “having,” and the like are synonymous and are used inclusively, in an open-ended fashion, and do not exclude additional elements, features, acts, operations, and so forth. Also, the term “or” is used in its inclusive sense (and not in its exclusive sense) so that when used, for example, to connect a list of elements, the term “or” means one, some, or all of the elements in the list. The example calculations, simulations, results, graphs, values, and parameters of the embodiments described herein are intended to illustrate and not to limit the disclosed embodiments. Other embodiments can be configured and/or operated differently than the illustrative examples described herein. Accordingly, while certain example embodiments have been described, these embodiments have been presented by way of example only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the inventions disclosed herein. Thus, nothing in the foregoing description is intended to imply that any particular feature, element, component, characteristic, step, module, or block is necessary or indispensable. Indeed, the novel methods and systems described herein may be embodied in a variety of other forms; furthermore, various omissions, substitutions and changes in the form of the methods and systems described herein may be made without departing from the spirit of the inventions disclosed herein. The accompanying claims and their equivalents are intended to cover such forms or modifications as would fall within the scope and spirit of certain of the inventions disclosed herein.
051924943	abstract	A penetration (51) through the bottom of a pool in the reactor containment below a reactor vessel is protected against the effects of a core meltdown, by the penetration (51) being surrounded by a pipe (60) having an inlet (61) located below the surface (31) of the water and above the highest level (41) which the bed (4) of granulate formed by the descending molten core material could be expected to reach. The pipe (60) has an outlet (62) at its lower end, located in the bed (4). The gap (64) between the penetration (51) and the pipe (60) is covered by a screen (7) which prevents granulate from entering. Granulate is also prevented from entering the outlet (62). The pool water flows in through the inlet (61), down through the gap (64), out through the outlet (62) and into the particle bed (4) where the water is vaporized and rises through the bed without obstructing the flow of water through the gap for cooling the penetration. The pipe (60) prevents contact between the particle bed (4) and the penetration (51). Said pipe is cooled by the flow of water through the gap (64) and promotes improved cooling of the particle bed.
	summary
	abstract	A fuel rod for a nuclear reactor includes the fuel rod having a first axial zone positioned proximate to a bottom end, a second axial zone positioned adjacent to the first axial zone in the intermediate region, and a third axial zone positioned proximate to a top end. The first axial zone has an enrichment greater than the second axial zone and the second axial zone has an enrichment greater than or equal to the third axial zone. Also includes fuel assemblies having a plurality of fuel rods and methods of designing and manufacturing of fuel rods and fuel assemblies.
	abstract	A method is provided for producing a grid structure using an extrusion process. In order to extrude a layered structure exhibiting a high aspect ratio, a multiplication die is used. Such a method is also suited to manufacture X-ray scatter grids, which include X-ray absorbing and X-ray transmitting regions. The X-ray scatter grid is designed to be used in an X-ray examination apparatus.
	description	This application is a continuation of International PCT Patent Application Serial No. PCT/KR2013/005562 filed on Jun. 24, 2013 which, in turn, claims the benefit of priority to Korean Patent Application Serial Nos. KR 10-2012-0067503 filed Jun. 22, 2012 and KR 10-2013-0072273 filed Jun. 24, 2013, the entire disclosure of each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. The invention relates to a non-destructive evaluation of intergranular stress corrosion cracking in structural components made of metal alloys and more particularly, in the structural components of metal alloys of nuclear power plants, and a method for lifetime evaluation of the structural components. All the structural components being used in nuclear power plants that are into contact with coolant water are made from austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys. For example, coolant pipes, core barrels, baffle former bolts are Fe-based austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys such as, for example, 300 series austenitic stainless steels. All these structural components that are into contact with coolant are made from austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys because of their superior resistance to intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC). However, when the age of the nuclear power plants exceeds 20 years, austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys turn out to be susceptible particularly to IGSCC in which cracking occurs mainly along grain boundaries. Intergranular (IG) cracking of the structural components in primary water reactor environment is particularly termed ‘primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC)’ or ‘intergranular stress corrosion cracking’, while IG cracking in neutron irradiation environment is called ‘irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC)’. The above-mentioned cracking phenomena are often collectively referred to as ‘Intergranular (IG) cracking’. As the lifetime of the nuclear power plants is being extended from 40 to 60 years or even beyond, the aging management of nuclear power plants is particularly one of the hot issues to assure the safety of the aged nuclear power plants. From the perspective of the aging management of the nuclear power plants, the core technology particularly relates to the management of IG cracking of the structural components made of austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys which are exposed to primary water. Unfortunately, no particular technology has been made available so far, in association with the management of IG cracking, albeit either active or proactive, mainly because the intergranular cracking mechanism of austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys has not been fully clarified yet. Instead, the nuclear industry focuses on repair technology of degradated structural components by overlay welding, rather than the proactive management of IG cracking of the structural components itself. Although efforts are made to develop alternative techniques to detect and monitor intergranular cracks in the austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloy structural components before propagation of IG cracks into a through-wall crack, IG cracks are too fine to be detected with high reliability by the conventional non-destructive examination techniques. In other words, non-destructive examination techniques to detect and monitor IG cracks of the structural components made of austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys is the core technology for the aging management of nuclear power plants, but no current techniques available so far has fully resolved technical difficulties related to non-destructive examination of IG cracks despite much efforts put forward to date. Recently, the present inventors showed that austenitic 316L stainless steel, one of the structural materials being used for the structural components of nuclear power plants, had lattice contraction to some extents in reactor operating conditions, due to short range ordering (Young Suk Kim et al., Transactions of the Korean Nuclear Society Autumn Meeting, Jeju Korea, 2010, pp. 1079-1080.) Accordingly, given the inventors' observation, the inventors proposes a hypothesis that short range order occurring in austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys during plant operation would cause intergranular stress corrosion cracking, and that intergranular stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of the structural components of metal alloys for nuclear power plants can be evaluated non-destructively by measuring variations in their properties accompanying SRO. In short, the inventors attempts to establish the non-destructive evaluation methods to detect and monitor intergranular stress corrosion cracks in the structural components made of austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys and furthermore to assess the remaining lifetime of the structural components made of austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys by accounting for the variations in their properties. The present invention aims to provide non-destructive assessment methods for evaluating intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) of the structural components made of metal alloys. The present invention also aims to provide a method for evaluating the remaining lifetime of the structural components of metal alloys which are degraded by IGSCC. In order to achieve the aims described above, the present invention provides non-destructive assessment methods for evaluating intergranular stress corrosion cracking of the structural components made of metal alloys, which include the measurements of changes in the properties of the structural components due to SRO of the solute atoms in the austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys. Further, the present invention provides a method for evaluating the remaining lifetime of a metal alloy structural component, comprising the steps of: measuring changes in the properties of the structural components due to SRO of the alloying elements (step 1); and evaluating the remaining lifetime of the structural components of metal alloys based on the change in the properties (Step 2). The present invention is capable of non-destructively detecting and monitoring initiation and growth of very fine IG cracks or stress corrosion cracks which may occur in the structural components made of metal alloys being used in nuclear power plants, which have been otherwise impossible to be detected by the conventional nondestructive examination methods. Furthermore, it is possible to reliably evaluate the remaining lifetime of the structural component made of metal alloys used in operating nuclear power plants. Considering that the non-destructive assessment methods for evaluating IG cracking of the structural components and their remaining lifetime can assure the safety of nuclear power plants with life extension, this invention can be used in the effective aging management of the structural components made of metal alloys. [Best Mode] Hereinafter, the present invention will be explained in greater detail. The primary objective of the present invention is to provide non-destructive assessment methods for evaluating intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) of the structural components made of metal alloys, and, as a detailed countermeasure to implement it, to include a method to determine changes in properties due to the formation of SRO in the structural components made of metal alloys by which non-destructive assessment for intergranular stress corrosion cracking of the structural components made of metal alloys can be made. The method of the present invention is applicable to degradation evaluation of structural components made of metal alloys such as intergranular stress corrosion cracking of structural components made of metal alloys being used in the entire industry, and more particularly, is applicable to non-destructive assessment of intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) of the structural components made of metal alloys in nuclear power plants which are degraded during their reactor operation. The structural components being used in nuclear power plants is made from austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys, or more specifically, from 300 series austenitic stainless steel, in which all the solute atoms consisting of either Fe-based or Ni-based austenitic alloys, are dissolved in the face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Meanwhile, the 300 series austenitic stainless steels explained above are widely used in various industrial fields including railways, vehicles, gas and oil pipes, construction exterior materials, bolts or nuts, heat-exchangers, reactor vessels, ships, various plant structural components, as well as nuclear power plants. Irrespective of whether austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys are either Fe-based or Ni-based alloys, the fcc structure where Fe, Cr and Ni atoms are co-existing can be categorized mainly into three kinds of atomic arrangements. The first is long-range order (LRO) where the positions of the different species of atoms are not random so that Fe, Cr and Ni atoms are positioned in orderly manner, the second is disorder where the positions of different species of atoms are random and the third is short-range order (SRO) which refers to an intermediate structure that is neither LRO nor DO. From the perspective of thermodynamics, the third one, i.e., SRO would be the most stable structure. Accordingly, austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloy has SRO, but with the supply of sufficient heat and mechanical strain energy, SRO gradually transforms into LRO. When the temperature increases beyond a threshold, due to high thermal agitation, SRO transforms into DO in which the arrangements of all solute atoms are completely random. When austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys are water quenched after solution annealing at and above 950° C. which is above the order-disorder phase transition temperature, all the water-cooled Fe—Cr—Ni alloys would have DO. At reactor operating conditions (300-350° C., 15 MPa), however, atomic ordering occurs in austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys so that it transform from DO to SRO. With the formation of SRO, the number of unlike atoms increases, resulting in lattice contraction due to attractive forces between the unlike atoms, hardness increase and a change in electrical resistivity (A. Marucco, Materials Science and Engineering, A189, 1994, 267-276). 316L stainless steel, one of the representative austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys and also one of the structural component materials, also has lattice contraction due to SRO during operation of the plant. (Young Suk Kim et al., Transactions of the Korean Nuclear Society Autumn Meeting, Jeju Korea, 2010, pp. 1079-1080). In order to demonstrate the formation of SRO in the structural components made of 316L stainless steel in reactor operating conditions, 316L stainless steel given solution annealing at 1100° C., 1 hr followed by water-cooling were aged at 400° C. and then analyzed with atom probe tomography (APT). As shown in FIG. 1, several dozens of (Fe, Cr)3Ni phase of nano size were observed to form in 316L stainless steel after aging at 400° C. for 960 h. The observation shown in FIG. 1 reveals, for the first time, that atomic ordering occurs in the structural component materials in reactor operating conditions. Thus, this fact suggests that a change in atomic arrangements from DO to SRO due to atomic ordering degrades the mechanical and physical properties of the structural components in reactor operating conditions. Considering that atomic ordering occurs by diffusion of atoms, the formation of SRO is enhanced with increasing reactor operating temperature and by moving dislocations by high stresses. To show a correlation between degradation and the formation of SRO in reactor operating conditions, lattice spacing of 40% cold worked 316L stainless steel were determined using neutron diffraction. As shown in FIG. 2, lattice contraction occurred upon aging at 400° C. and the amount of lattice contraction reached 0.07% at the maximum after 20,000 h aging. Given that the structural components of 316L stainless steel are exposed to plastic deformation due to stress concentration at local areas such as a crack tip and high temperature coolant ranging from 300 to 350° C., the observations shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 demonstrate that SRO is formed in 316L stainless steel in reactor operating conditions, causing lattice contraction to occur and resulting in degradation of 316L stainless steel. When lattice contraction due to SRO occurs in the grains, the grain boundary when they meet together is subject to tensile stresses so that intergranular cracking occurs. The effect of lattice contraction on material degradation can be found from cracking of mud as shown in FIG. 3 which occurs by contraction due to water evaporation in a drought. Likewise, metals such as 316L stainless steel also suffer from cracking generated particularly at the grain boundary subjected to tensile stresses as a result of lattice contraction due to SRO. Accordingly, in nuclear operating conditions, the more the SRO is formed, the more the amount of lattice contraction becomes, which leads to enhanced IGSCC susceptibility of the structural components made of austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloys. On the contrary, if the formation rate of SRO is considerably slow so that no SRO is accompanied in reactor operating conditions, little lattice contraction occurs, leading to no IG cracking. Accordingly, IG cracking of the austenitic stainless steel is an intrinsic phenomenon which occurs in the grains irrespective of grain boundary corrosion or oxidation. Supportive evidence is provided by the following experimental facts; IG cracking occurred in irradiated 304 stainless steels used in nuclear power plants when slow strain rate tests were conducted in argon atmosphere without exposure to water, where no grain boundary corrosion or oxidation occurred (T. Onchi, K. Dohi, N. Sonata, M. Navas, M. L. Castano, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 340 (2005) pp. 219-236). In summary, the structural components of nuclear power plants undergo atomic ordering transformation from DO to SRO during operation, leading to lattice contraction in the grains. The higher the degree of lattice contraction becomes, the higher the susceptibility of IG cracking of the structural components. Thus, the degree of IG cracking susceptibility or degradation of the structural components can be evaluated by conducting quantitative analysis of SRO with atom probe tomography (APT). However, considering that the APT analysis is a destructive examination and requires long time and careful sample preparation, it is clear that the APT analysis is inappropriate for non-destructive evaluation of degradation of the structural materials of metal alloys being used in nuclear power plants. Meanwhile, the formation of SRO causes changes in mechanical or physical properties of all the austenitic Fe—Cr—Ni alloy materials including 316L stainless steel. For example, the formation of SRO increases bond strengths between unlike atoms, resulting in an increase in hardness and thermal conductivity and a change in electrical resistivity. (A. Marucco, Materials Science and Engineering, A189, 1994, 267-276). Therefore, it is possible to quantitatively and non-destructively evaluate the degree of SRO formed in the structural component materials by evaluating changes in physical properties such as hardness or electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity and etc. For proactive management of degraded structural components of nuclear power plants, many attempts have been made to examine and measure the presence and size of fine IG cracks by numerous non-destructive examination techniques, but none have been successful. Indeed, it is very difficult to detect fine IG cracks present in the bulk of the structural components with the conventional non-destructive methods. Compared to the conventional methods, the non-destructive evaluation method according to the present invention is characterized by the evaluation of intergranular cracking susceptibility of the structural component materials by measuring changes in their mechanical or physical properties due to the formation of SRO, based on the initial experimental data that indicates that SRO occurs within the structural component materials during operation (see FIGS. 1 and 2) and that the structural component materials undergo changes in their mechanical and physical properties due to SRO. In other words, since the formation of SRO causes not only lattice contraction, but also changes in properties such as increased hardness and changes in thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity, it is possible to evaluate the degree of intergranular cracking susceptibility of 316L stainless steel by tracking the changes in the properties. According to a method for evaluating intergranular stress corrosion cracking of structural components made of metal alloys according to the embodiment of the present invention, the properties, which are subject to change due to atomic ordering in the structural components made of metal alloys during reactor operation, may include hardness, thermal conductivity, or electrical resistivity, and the main idea is to evaluate the degree of SRO and then intergranular stress corrosion cracking susceptibility by measuring changes in the properties of the structural components made of metal alloys. The hardness may be measured by a nano indentation method. Additionally, electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity may also be measured by a four point probe method and by a transient plane source measurement or laser flash method, respectively. The method for evaluating the presence and degree of intergranular stress corrosion cracking may be performed in the following manner. For example, based on assumption that the initial hardness of the austenitic stainless steel of the nuclear structural components is 170 Hv by Vickers hardness test, and that a critical hardness at which intergranular cracking initiates in a austenitic stainless steel used in the nuclear structural component is, for example, 230-250 Hv, if there are empirical or experimental values indicative of the rate of hardness increase for the austenitic stainless steel over operation time, it is possible to evaluate the intergranular cracking susceptibility and also the lifetime of the nuclear structural component, based on the hardness of a structural component that is measured at a specific time. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method for evaluating the remaining lifetime of the structural components of metal alloys against intergranular stress corrosion cracking thereof. According to the present invention, a method for evaluating the remaining lifetime of structural components made of metal alloys is provided, which may include the steps of: measuring changes in the property of structural components made of metal alloys in accordance with an ordering of alloying elements (step 1); and evaluating the remaining lifetime of the structural components of metal alloys based on the change in the properties (Step 2). For a method for evaluating the remaining lifetime of the structural components made of metal alloys against intergranular stress corrosion cracking according to an embodiment of the present invention, step 1 may be performed in the manner of the non-destructive evaluation method as explained above. Step 2, which is the step of evaluating the remaining lifetime of the structural components of metal alloys based on the change in the properties (Step 2). To be specific, a correlation between a change in properties of the structural components made of metal alloys and initiation and crack growth rate of intergranular cracking both of which are dictated by the degree of SRO formed may be obtained in advance, and then the remaining lifetime may be determined by calculating the change ratio of the properties of the structural components made of metal alloys with operational time. To investigate if SRO occurring in the structural component materials in reactor operating conditions causes intergranular cracking of the structural components of nuclear power plants due to lattice contraction, an ingot of Fe3Ni composition was prepared, which has the same alloying composition as that of the SRO phase-(Fe,Cr)3Ni as illustrated in FIG. 1. The Fe3Ni ingot was made by vacuum induction melting and hot rolled into plates and solution annealed at 1050° C. for 1 h followed by cooling by two ways: water quenching (WQ) and furnace cooling (FC). Thus, the WQ sample has DO structure and the FC sample has SRO structure due to atomic ordering accompanied during slow cooling. Tensile tests were conducted at room temperature in order to demonstrate the effects of atomic arrangements such as DO and SRO on intergranular cracking. As shown in FIG. 4, the WQ-Fe3Ni sample with DO had dimple ductile fracture, while the FC—Fe3Ni sample with SRO showed brittle fracture by intergranular cracking. The observation of FIG. 4 shows that the formation of SRO causes lattice contraction as shown in FIG. 2, resulting in IG cracking with brittle fracture during tensile tests at room temperature. 300 series austenitic stainless steels forms SRO in reactor operating conditions as shown in FIG. 1, and lattice contraction due to SRO degradates austenitic stainless steels with intergranular cracking, as confirmed in the tensile tests at room temperature on furnace-cooled Fe3Ni as shown in FIG. 4. As one of non-destructive parameters for the evaluation of degradation of the structural component materials, to confirm if the structural components made of metal alloys of nuclear power plants show hardness increase, the hardness of 316L stainless steel given solution annealing and 40% cold working were determined with aging time at 400° C. whew a change in atomic arrangements of austenitic stainless steels in reactor operating conditions can be simulated. As shown in FIG. 5, the hardness of 40% cold worked 316L stainless steel increased with aging time from 350 Hv to 400 Hv. Given that the SRO phase formed is harder than the matrix, the observation in FIG. 5 shows that the formation of SRO during reactor operation increases with operational time, leading to an increase in hardness of 300 series austenitic stainless steels in proportion to the degree of SRO formed. In general, aging is recognized to decrease the hardness of materials. Accordingly, the above result that the hardness of 316L stainless steel has increased with aging time in simulated reactor operating conditions indicates the formation of SRO and thereby a change in properties of 316L stainless steel during reactor operation. Additionally, considering that aging degradation, i.e., intergranular cracking increases in accordance with nuclear plant operation time, it is possible to perform non-destructive evaluation on intergranular cracking based on the changes in properties, such as hardness increase, or the like, which occur due to the formation of SRO. Accordingly, the result of FIG. 5 indicates that, by non-destructively detecting hardness increase of the structural components made of metal alloys, it is possible to evaluate the degree of SRO occurring in the nuclear structural component and thus to non-destructively evaluate the intergranular cracking susceptibility and the remaining lifetime of the structural components made of metal alloys. Further, considering the result of FIG. 4 that the formation of SRO causes intergranular cracking of the structural components made of metal alloys, the result of FIG. 5 is in agreement with the reported result which explains that the intergranular cracking susceptibility of the nuclear structural components including austenitic stainless steel increases in proportion to the amount of cold-working. (EPRI-1007380: Quantification of yield strength effects on IGSCC in austenitic stainless steels and its implication to IASCC, EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., 2002). The 300 series austenitic stainless steels under nuclear power plant operating conditions forms SRO, and the lattice contraction by SRO degradates the austenitic stainless steel with intergranular cracking, as is confirmed in the test on whether SRO causes intergranular cracking, as shown in Experimental Example 2. Accordingly, it is possible to evaluate the intergranular crack susceptibility of the austenitic stainless steel using quantitative and direct method of measuring the degree of SRO being accompanied with operational time. The problem is that while it is possible to observe the SRO occurring in the austenitic stainless steels by destructive test, direct and non-destructive measurements are not possible. Accordingly, the following experiment was conducted to show that the degree of SRO can be evaluated by detecting a change in electrical resistivity of the austenitic stainless steels. Samples with various electrical resistivities were made by cold working and aging of 316L stainless steel in conditions to simulate microstructural changes in the structural components made of metal alloys in reactor operating conditions. To be more specific, the electrical resistivity of 40% cold worked 316L stainless steel was determined with aging time at 400° C. FIG. 7 shows the ratio of electrical resistivity of 316L stainless steel after aging when compared to that of the unaged one ((electrical resistivity after aging−electrical resistivity before aging)/(electrical resistivity before aging)) as a function of aging time. The electrical resistivity can be measured by 4 point probe measurement. Referring to FIG. 7, the electrical resistivity of 316L stainless steel when compared to that of the unaged one rapidly decreased upon aging at 400° C., i.e., under a simulated condition of nuclear power plant operation, and then increased linearly as SRO is formed. This shows that it is possible to non-destructively evaluate the intergranular cracking susceptibility of the stainless steel due to SRO, because it is possible to quantitatively evaluate the degree of SRO occurring in the stainless steel by tracking a change in the electrical resistivity of the 316L stainless steel during operation of nuclear power plants. The 300 series austenitic stainless steels under nuclear power plant operation temperature condition forms SRO, and the lattice contraction occurred by SRO degradates the austenitic stainless steel by intergranular cracking, as is confirmed in the test results of FIG. 4. Accordingly, it is possible to evaluate the intergranular crack susceptibility of the austenitic stainless steel using quantitative and direct method of measuring a degree of SRO as occurred. The problem is that while it is possible to observe the SRO occurring on the base of the austenitic stainless steel by destructive test, direct, non-destructive measurement is not possible. Accordingly, the following experiment was conducted to investigate if it is possible to evaluate the degree of SRO occurring in the structural components made of metal alloys by tracking changes in their thermal conductivity. Samples with various thermal conductivities were made by cold working and aging of 316L stainless steel in conditions to simulate microstructural changes in the structural components made of metal alloys in reactor operating conditions. To be more specific, the thermal conductivity of 40% cold worked 316L stainless steel was determined with aging time at 400° C. FIG. 8 shows the ratio of thermal conductivity of 316L stainless steel after aging when compared to before aging ((thermal conductivity after aging−thermal conductivity before aging)/(thermal conductivity before aging)). The thermal conductivity can be measured by transient plane source measurement or laser flash method. Referring to FIG. 8, as the degree of SRO increased, the thermal conductivity at room temperature of 316L stainless steel when compared to that of the unaged one increased with increasing aging time at 400° C. i.e., under a simulated condition of a nuclear power plant operation. For example, upon aging at 400° C., the thermal conductivity after aging when compared to that before aging increased sharply at the beginning and increased linearly after that. This shows that it is possible to non-destructively evaluate the intergranular cracking susceptibility of the stainless steel due to SRO, because it is possible to quantitatively evaluate the degree of SRO occurring in the stainless steel by tracking a change in thermal conductivity of the 316L stainless steel during operation of nuclear power plants. That is, SRO is the factor that causes intergranular cracking, which are characteristics of degraded nuclear structural components, and it is possible to evaluate the degree of degradation of the nuclear materials and lifetime thereof with a non-destructive manner by evaluating changes in property of the nuclear structural component such as, for example, hardness, electrical resistivity or thermal conductivity, which occur due to the formation of SRO. To show if hardness increase of 316L stainless steel enhances the intergranular cracking susceptibility and crack growth rate of structural components in reactor operating conditions, the hardness of the solution-annealed (SA) 316L stainless steel was changed by cold working and long-term aging at 400° C. The hardness of the SA 316L stainless steel was increased from 174 Hv to 350 Hv by changing the amount of cold working and it was further increased from 350 Hv to 400 Hv by change aging time at 400° C. following 40% cold working, as shown in FIG. 5. The SA 316L stainless steels with different hardness were exposed to simulated primary water of 360° C. (2 ppm Li, 500 ppm B, O2<5 ppb) using compact tension specimens with 0.5 T (12.7 mm) or 1 T (25.4 mm) thickness to detect crack initiation and crack growth rate. As shown in FIG. 6, the SA 316L stainless steel equal to or lower than 210 Hv showed no initiation of IG cracking. However, the SA 316L stainless steel with the hardness increased to 230 Hv showed initiation of IG cracking, and once IG cracking occurred, the crack growth rate of SA 316L stainless steel increased in almost linear proportion to the hardness. The results of FIG. 6 reveal that intergranular cracking is initiated in SA 316L stainless steel only when the hardness of the 316L stainless steel increases to above 230 Hv. Furthermore, the results also indicate that the rate of intergranular cracking of the 316L stainless steel increases in proportion to the hardness. Accordingly, considering that IG cracking was initiated in SA 316L stainless steel whose hardness reaches a threshold value, i.e., 230 Hv, when the hardness of the stainless steel in operation reaches a threshold hardness, i.e., 230 Hv, it is possible to quantitatively evaluate the PWSCC susceptibility of the austenitic stainless steel by tracking changes in the hardness, and also possible to evaluate the remaining lifetime of the stainless steel by quantitatively evaluating the growth time between initiation of intergranular cracking until penetration defect occurs, based on a correlation formula on hardness-based crack growth rate of IG cracking. That is, it is possible to measure the hardness of the austenitic stainless steel over operational time, and using a previously-determined relationship of hardness-based cracking growth rate, to non-destructively evaluate the degree of IG cracking susceptibility and the remaining lifetime, accordingly. Based on the above test results, it is confirmed that SRO is accompanied in reactor operating conditions, and hardness increase and lattice contraction due to SRO enhances the intergranular cracking susceptibility as well as crack growth rate. Accordingly, the increase of hardness due to SRO is applicable as an index to evaluate the degree of intergranular cracking susceptibility. Since the degree of SRO can be non-destructively evaluated based on hardness increase, etc., this in turn indicates that intergranular cracking susceptibility of structural components made of metal alloys can be non-destructively evaluated with the hardness increase, etc. To show if a change in electrical resistivity of the 316L stainless steel affects the intergranular cracking susceptibility and crack growth rate of structural components in reactor operating conditions, electrical resistivity of the solution-annealed (SA) 316L stainless steel was changed by cold working and long-term aging at 400° C. With aging time, the ratio of electrical resistivity of the SA 316L stainless steel when compared to that of the unaged one decreased rapidly and then increased with aging time, as shown in FIG. 7. The transition point corresponding to onset of an increase in electrical resistivity ratio occurs due to onset of SRO formation. The SA 316L stainless steels with different electrical resistivity were exposed to simulated primary water of 360° C. (2 ppm Li, 500 ppm B, O2<5 ppb) using compact tension specimens with 0.5 T (12.7 mm) or 1 T (25.4 mm) thickness to detect crack initiation and crack growth rate. When electrical resistivity ratio of SA 316L stainless steel showed the minimum value or a transition point above which it increased with aging time, initiation of IG cracking occurred and then crack growth rate of SA 316L stainless steel increased almost linearly with electrical resistivity. Based on the above test results, it is confirmed that initiation of IG cracking occurs when electrical resistivity ratio of SA 316L stainless steel reached a minimum value or a transition point, corresponding to onset of the formation of SRO. Accordingly, a change in electrical resistivity ratio due to SRO is applicable as an index to the quantitative evaluation of IG cracking susceptibility of austenitic stainless steels. Furthermore, the remaining lifetime of the cracked austenitic stainless steels can be evaluated by quantitative assessment of the time required for an IG crack to grow to a through-wall crack using a predetermined correlation between electrical resistivity ratio and crack growth rate of structural component materials. Since the degree of SRO can be non-destructively evaluated based on a change in electrical resistivity ratio, etc., this in turn indicates that intergranular cracking susceptibility of structural components made of metal alloys can be non-destructively evaluated with a change in electrical resistivity ratio, etc. To show if a change in thermal conductivity of solution annealed (SA) 316L stainless steel enhances the intergranular cracking susceptibility and crack growth rate of structural components in reactor operating conditions, thermal conductivity of the solution-annealed (SA) 316L stainless steel was changed by cold working and long-term aging at 400° C. With aging time, thermal conductivity ratio of SA 316L stainless steel when compared to that of the unaged one increased rapidly and then showed a linear increase with aging time, as shown in FIG. 8. The SA 316L stainless steels with different thermal conductivity were exposed to simulated primary water of 360° C. (2 ppm Li, 500 ppm B, O2<5 ppb) using compact tension specimens with 0.5 T (12.7 mm) or 1 T (25.4 mm) thickness to detect crack initiation and crack growth rate. When an increased ratio of thermal conductivity of SA 316L stainless steel reached 2.6%, initiation of IG cracking occurred and then crack growth rate of SA 316L stainless steel increased almost linearly with increasing thermal conductivity ratio. Based on the above test results, it is confirmed that initiation of IG cracking occurs when an increased ratio of thermal conductivity of SA 316L stainless steel due to SRO reached a critical value of 2.6%. Accordingly, a change in thermal conductivity due to SRO is applicable as an index to the quantitative evaluation of IG cracking susceptibility of austenitic stainless steels. Furthermore, the remaining lifetime of the cracked austenitic stainless steels can be evaluated by quantitative assessment of the time required for an IG crack to grow to a through-wall crack using a predetermined correlation between an increased ratio of thermal conductivity and crack growth rate of structural component materials. Since the degree of SRO can be non-destructively evaluated based on a change in thermal conductivity, etc., this in turn indicates that intergranular cracking susceptibility of structural components made of metal alloys can be non-destructively evaluated with a change in thermal conductivity, etc. The foregoing exemplary embodiments and advantages are merely exemplary and are not to be construed as limiting the present invention. The present teaching can be readily applied to other types of apparatuses. Also, the description of the exemplary embodiments of the present inventive concept is intended to be illustrative, and not to limit the scope of the claims.
	description	This invention relates to a reactor cooling system for cooling a nuclear reactor using nitrogen in a closed-loop system. Current emergency cooling systems rely heavily on a mass storage of water, and a comparatively small temperature difference for cooling. Further, current systems are large scale and massive in size, and rely on generated power, gravity feed and/or pressurized systems and manual activation of several components to secure the shutdown of a nuclear plant in the event of natural disaster, damage or attack, etc. Therefore, there is a need for emergency cooling system that can be activated automatically, and passively, to immediately, by means of the application of liquid Nitrogen in a closed loop system, cool overheated equipment to a safe working temperature. Further, there is a need for an emergency cooling system that eliminates the production of Hydrogen or other hazardous gases caused by the overheating of equipment, and the subsequent danger of explosion, by using liquid Nitrogen in a closed loop system. Further, there is also a need for a system that provides for a differential of over a greater range from coolant to “boil off” temperatures, providing a more efficiency in cooling, while producing no explosive gasses (such as hydrogen, etc.) which can be produced by current cooling systems. In the present invention a reactor cooling system for cooling a nuclear reactor using nitrogen is presented comprising a refrigeration unit for cooling and compressing nitrogen gas into liquid nitrogen, a liquids storage tank to store liquid nitrogen, the tank in fluid communication with the refrigeration unit, a heat exchanger drop system in fluid communication with the liquids storage tank, adjacent to the nuclear reactor, wherein the nitrogen absorbs heat by becoming gaseous, a tank for receiving and holding nitrogen gas in fluid communication with the heat exchanger and in fluid communication with the refrigeration unit; and wherein the system is a closed-loop system. In an embodiment of the invention, the system includes a gas-powered generating unit, for generating electricity from the nitrogen gas as it expands. In another embodiment, the system further includes a hydraulic system for using the power of the expanding gas from an outlet of the heat exchanger drop. In this embodiment, the hydraulic system can either be used to restart the nuclear power plant or to provide hydraulic power. Moreover, the hydraulic system opens and shuts valves as needed for the safe continued operation of under normal circumstances, in the event of a near failure, and for emergency shut down. In yet another embodiment, the system can include an overpressure relief valve system for bypassing the refrigeration unit. In yet another embodiment, the system can include a relief valve to relieve excess pressure in the system. In an embodiment, the relief valve may be evacuated to an expansion tank. The foregoing, and other features and advantages of the invention, will be apparent from the following, more particular description of the preferred embodiments of the invention, the accompanying drawings, and the claims. In its current form, the system will utilize current “waste energy” and/or engineered energy, produced by an electrical generation plant to continuously collect, condense, cool, store and recycle nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere for use in the system. The waste energy is that energy which is normally produced as a stand-by amount, and which must be continually produced “in case” a demand is placed on the power grid. This is an unavoidable energy, which represents drag, and therefore loss, on the generation system, without being used for practical purposes. The N2 is extracted from the atmosphere by a separation system, which is already widely available. The N2 is compressed to pressure, and cooled to liquid, and then stored in liquid form for use in the system, which is passively activated. Part of the N2 is continuously cycled to produce electricity for on-site usage, and to recharge an electrical storage unit. This N2 is recovered in a closed system. Once activated, the liquid N2 that is stored is applied to cool overheated equipment, and is recovered in an “operating pressure” safety system, which is more efficient than current systems which merely exhaust the containment heat by water cooling through heat exchange. Operating pressure, is a low pressure system used to recycle the N2 back to the liquefaction unit to be reused in the system. N2 is a natural component of the atmosphere, comprising approximately 80% of the air, non-reactive and is non-explosive. The N2 will, upon expansion be held in a closed low, medium or high-pressure system. Even if that closed system were to be breached, the N2 would be released at atmospheric pressure with no pollution generated. Finally, N2 is safe to use in the system, and even if exposed to nuclear material, it has no long-lasting residual effects, and does not pose any significant danger to people, soil, air, animals or plants. There are no long-lasing radioactive isotopes which would result in contamination or pose health risks. Natural Nitrogen (N) consists of two stable isotopes, 14N, which makes up the vast majority of naturally occurring nitrogen, and 15N. Fourteen radioactive isotopes have also been identified, with atomic masses ranging from 10N to 25N, and 1 nuclear isomer, 11 mN. All are short-lived, the longest-lived being 13N with a half-life of 9.965 minutes. All others have half-lives under 7.15 seconds, with most under five-eighths of a second. Most of the isotopes with mass below 14 decay to isotopes of carbon, while most of the isotopes with mass above 15 decay to isotopes of oxygen. The shortest-lived isotope is 10N, with a half-life of 2.3 MeV. (Source available.) FIG. 1 shows the operation of the Liquid Nitrogen Emergency Cooling System for Nuclear Power Plants, designated generally as 100, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Atmospheric nitrogen (N2), which exists naturally as a diatomic molecule (i.e., a 2 atom molecule) in a gaseous state, is filtered from the atmosphere, compressed and cooled to a liquid state using readily available equipment, for example the cooler compressor refrigeration unit 118. The liquefied gas is delivered to the liquid N2 storage tank 102. Storage tank 102 operates as a buffer or bellows, storing a sufficient amount of liquid nitrogen to provide cooling when necessary. Under non-emergency operation conditions, the liquid nitrogen continuously expands within the storage tank 102 and is diverted by means of a liquid N2 boil-off overpressure line 122, which is fitted with an overpressure relief valve system 124, to a N2 gas powered generating unit 110, which generates electrical and/or hydraulic power, which is used to power a cooling, compressor, refrigeration unit 118, making the closed-loop operation efficient. Under non-emergency operation conditions, the “spent” gaseous N2, from N2 gas powered generating unit 110 is cycled back to cooling, compressor, refrigeration unit 118, through a loop including a accumulator tank for N2 gas 116, which increases efficiency by reducing the amount of atmospheric filtering required by cooling, compressor, refrigeration unit 118 to deliver liquid nitrogen (N2) to liquid N2 storage tank 102. In addition, the N2 can be used to decontaminate equipment on site without removal of said equipment. Under non-emergency operation conditions, N2 gas powered generating unit 110 also supplies electrical energy to an electrical energy storage system 114 for use during emergency operation conditions. In an embodiment, under non-emergency operation conditions, N2 gas powered generating unit 110 also supplies electrical energy to a hydraulic system 112 for use during emergency operation conditions (e.g., to operate valves, and other equipment independently of electrical mechanisms). This assists to keep hydraulic psi of the N2 at a workable state when at rest. Under emergency operation conditions, an activation mechanism 120 operates in a “fail-safe” manner, automatically applying liquid nitrogen to a heat exchanger-drop system 106. When the heat in the reactor rises above a pre-determined threshold, the nitrogen cooling system is descended into the reactor by the drop system. With further reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, under emergency operation conditions, an emergency drop system 105 is triggered to bring heat exchanger 106 into proper position to cause cooling of the nuclear power plant. The drop system operates with one or more nested sections of piping 104 on either side of the heat exchanger 106. As the heat exchanger 106 lowers, the piping 104 expands such that the lip 103 of the inner pipe catches against the narrowing 103b of the outer pipe. This may be extended to several pipes 104 in a telescopic fashion, and O-rings or gaskets are present wherever the pipes 104 extend and the lips 103a meet the narrowing 103b, to seal the joints. The piping is held in place by mounts 109 connected to the structure by heat activated fusible links 107 or by other, computer-controlled mechanisms that operate by excessive heat. Once the heat fusible links 107 heat up enough to collapse and release the piping 104, the piping 104 extends downwardly to lower the heat exchanger 106 into the reactor. In an alternative embodiment, the heat causes the N2 to boil and differential pressure causes a burst disc (rupture disc) 108 to open, pushing the drop system and pipe 104 rapidly downward to minimize loss of the N2 through the pipe junctions. The burst disc 108 is designed to burst at a precise differential pressure to release N2 as required to achieve cooling as needed, depending on the size of the system. The piping seals once the system has dropped into the reactor and prevents the escape of N2 gas. In an embodiment, the dropped heat exchanger 106 is held in place by a locking mechanism 111 having a counterweight 131 holding the dropped pipe in place, with facility to raise the heat exchanger 106 when it is no longer needed. In order to reduce pipe hammer from liquefied N2 in the pipes, the pipes may contain a heat exchanger which enables the N2 to be converted into a gaseous form, reducing pipe hammer. Alternatively, the pipes may be made thicker and stronger to withstand pipe hammer. Liquid nitrogen from liquid N2 storage tank 102 flows through heat exchanger-drop system 106 and removes heat by becoming gaseous. The expanded, gaseous nitrogen from exhaust of N2 gas 108, which acts as a receiver for gaseous N2, is delivered to the N2 gas powered generating unit 110 to supply both electrical and hydraulic power. In an embodiment, stored power, held in hydraulic system 112 and electrical energy storage system 114 is used to restart the nuclear power plant. During emergency operation conditions, the “spent” gaseous N2, from N2 gas powered generating unit 110 is cycled back to cooling, compressor, refrigeration unit 118, through a loop including accumulator tank for N2 gas 116, which allows system 100 to be recharged in real time for continuous operation in cooling the nuclear power plant. The condensers may in effect be used as a battery pack. Under all conditions, in the event of overpressure of system 100, nitrogen gas is released into the atmosphere by means of overpressure relief valve system 124 after it is vented to an evacuated expansion tank. System 100 is efficient, affordable and readily available to retrofit to existing nuclear power generation plants, and can be incorporated into new facilities. System 100 is needed to accomplish the automatic operation and safe application of liquid N2 coolant, extraction and storage of liquid N2 for use as coolant, and the recapture system for the N2, and the reduction of radiation danger potential. Regarding applications, in addition to large-scale nuclear generation units, system 100 can be applied to other systems, for example: (1) Small-scale applications for nuclear generation units—further research will be needed to determine how the system can best be adapted for use in small-scale nuclear generators; (2) Small-scale application for portable nuclear generation units—further research will be conducted to determine how the system can best be adapted for use in small-scale nuclear generators on board aircraft, shipping, spacecraft, rural and residential applications; and (3) heavy and light manufacturing process power supply configurations—further research will be conducted to determine how the system can best be adapted for use in small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale applications suited for power-grid-independent nuclear generators, which can operate in as stand-alone configuration for such operations. With all of these applications in mind, system 100 achieves the basic goal of providing safety for emergency shut down and cooling of power generation plants.
047643404	description	DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Relief of thermally induced stresses in a nuclear fuel assembly may require the use of a stress relieving fastener. The invention described herein is a nuclear fuel assembly stress relieving fastener capable of relieving thermally induced stresses developed in a nuclear fuel assembly when the nuclear fuel assembly is disposed in a nuclear reactor and when the nuclear reactor is brought to its operating temperature. A more satisfactory solution to the problems described above in the Background of the Invention is to employ a stress relieving fastener for attaching a first nozzle to a stud; the fastener having a deformable portion for relieving thermally induced stresses developed in the stud by the differential thermal expansion of the stud and the first nozzle. Therefore, this device comprises a stress relieving fastener nut which may include a small, thin and deformable ring disposed on the seating surface of the nut whereby the deformable ring contacts the first nozzle. This ring is machined integrally with the nut such that there is no potential for additional loose parts in the fuel assembly. During the process of mounting the first nozzle on the channel, the nuts are torqued on the studs to provide a small preload between the first nozzle and the channel. This eliminates the need for a small gap between the nut and the first nozzle. A joint, which is herein defined by the nut, stud, and first nozzle tightens as the fuel assembly is heated when the reactor is brought to its operating temperature. As the temperature increases, the yield and ultimate strengths of the nut are substantially reduced. The tightening of the joint and the reduction in yield and ultimate strengths cause the ring on the seating surface of the nut to deform. The deformation of the ring limits the thermal stresses in the studs to desirable levels. Referring to FIG. 1, the nuclear fuel assembly is referred to generally as 20 and comprises a first material first nozzle 30, a second material channel 40 and a first material second nozzle 50. The first nozzle 30, which may be 304L stainless steel, may be an elongated square approximately 5.5 inches on each side and approximately 4 inches in length. Channel 40, which may be Zircaloy, is disposed such that first nozzle 30 is mounted thereon. The channel 40 may be an elongated square approximately 5.5 inches on each side and approximately 16.8 inches in length. Attached, which may be by a plurality of Inconel-800 screws, to the lower portion of channel 40 is second nozzle 50, which may be 304L stainless steel. The second nozzle 50 may be a substantially elongated square approximately 5.5 inches on each side and 5.8 inches in length and having a substantially tapered lower end portion. The channel 40 is disposed substantially in vertical alignment with first nozzle 30 and with second nozzle 50. Again referring to FIG. 1, a water cross 60 which may be of the type generally used in the art is disposed in fuel assembly 20 and extends from near first nozzle 30 to near second nozzle 50, which water cross 60 defines a plurality of elongated chambers 70 extending the length of water cross 60. Water cross 60 generally comprises eight sides substantially defining a cross-shaped cavity 80 which is disposed in a horizontal plane perpendicular to the vertical axis of fuel assembly 20. Disposed in cavity 80 is a substance, such as water, for moderating neutrons produced by the fission of nuclear material. Disposed in each chamber 70 and extending substantially the length thereof is a plurality of cylindrical fuel rods 85 having nuclear fuel material therein. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, disposed in first nozzle 30 is a bearing member 90, which may be integrally formed with first nozzle 30, horizontally extending a predetermined distance from an inside vertical surface of first nozzle 30 and having an upwardly facing bearing surface 100 disposed thereon. Extending through bearing member 90 and bearing surface 100 is a vertical continuous aperture 110 for receiving an attachment device generally referred to as 120, which attachment device is capable of attaching channel 40 to first nozzle 30. Attachment device 120, which may be Zircaloy, may comprise a substantially L-shaped stud 130 having a horizontal leg 140 integrally formed with a vertical leg 150 which is disposed perpendicularly to horizontal leg 140. Disposed about a predetermined upper portion of the external surface of vertical leg 150 is a plurality of helically aligned longitudinal threads 160. An end 170 of horizontal leg 140 is attached, which may be by welding, to an inside surface of channel 40 at a predetermined location above fuel rods 85 such that leg 150 and threads 160 extend through aperture 110. Referring to FIGS. 2 and 3, engaged on stud 130 is a stress relieving fastener comprising a first embodiment of a nut 180 having a screw threaded bore 190 formed therethrough, which bore 190 matingly engages threads 160. Formed in a top-most surface 179 of nut 180 is a substantially rectangular first slot 181 having predetermined height and width and extending from one marginal edge of top-most surface 179 to the other marginal edge thereof. Slot 181 is capable of providing a means for engaging nut 180 on stud 130. Disposed on nut 180 is a deformable ridge 200 contacting bearing surface 100 when nut 180 is engaged on stud 130. The ridge 200, which is shown in FIGS. 3 and 7, is capable of deforming for relieving thermally induced stresses developed in stud 130. The ridge 200, which may be substantially recessed from the marginal edge of nut 180 downwardly extends a predetermined distance from the bottom surface of nut 180 and extends substantially circumferentially around the bottom surface of nut 180. Referring to FIGS. 4-6, engaged on stud 130 is a stress relieving fastener comprising a second embodiment of a nut 210 having a screw threaded bore 220 therethrough, which bore 220 matingly engages threads 160. Formed in a top-most surface 209 of nut 210 is a substantially rectangular second slot 211 have predetermined height and width and extending from one marginal edge of top-most surface 209 to the other marginal edge thereof. Slot 211 is capable of providing a means for engaging nut 210 on stud 130. Disposed on nut 210 is a deformable portion which may comprise a circumferential, deformable ridge 230 contacting bearing surface 100 when nut 210 is engaged on stud 130. As shown in FIGS. 5, 6 and 8, ridge 230, which may be disposed substantially flush with the marginal edge of nut 210 downwardly extends a predetermined distance from the bottom surface of nut 210 and extends substantially circumferentially around the bottom surface of nut 210. Referring to FIGS. 5, 6 and 8, the deformable portion of nut 210 may further comprise a circumferential, deformable first groove 240 having a predetermined height and formed in the lower portion of nut 210. First groove 240 extends substantially circumferentially around the external surface of nut 210 and horizontally extends from the marginal edge of nut 210 to substantially near the central longitudinal axis of nut 210. Again referring to FIGS. 5, 6 and 8, the deformable portion may further comprise a second groove 250 having predetermined height and width and formed in the bottom portion of nut 210 and horizontally extending from substantially near the marginal edge of nut 210 to substantially near the central longitudinal axis of nut 210. When reactor heatup occurs, thermal expansion occurs in stud 130 and first nozzle 30 causing ridge 230, first groove 240 and second groove 250 to deform such that the thermally induced stresses in stud 130 are relieved. During reactor heatup, stainless steel first nozzle 30 expands at a different rate than Zircaloy stud 130 because the thermal expansion rate for stainless steel is approximately three times that of Zircaloy. When the first embodiment of the nut is utilized, as the temperature of fuel assembly 20 increases, the joint defined by nut 180, stud 130 and first nozzle 30 tightens due to the differential thermal expansion rate between stud 130 and first nozzle 30. Thermal stresses develop in stud 130 because the expansion of first nozzle 30 is restrained by nut 180 and stud 130 when nut 180 threadedly engages stud 130 and when ring 200 contacts bearing surface 100. As the temperature increases, the yield and ultimate strengths of nut 180 decrease. Therefore, due to the joint tightening and due to the decrease in the yield and ultimate strengths of nut 180, ring 200 deforms thereby reducing the thermal stresses developed in stud 130. Similarly, when the second embodiment of the nut is utilized, as the temperature of fuel assembly 20 increases, the joint defined by nut 210, stud 130 and first nozzle 30 tightens, thereby deforming ridge 230, first groove 240 and second groove 250 such that thermally indluced stresses in stud 130 are relieved. Therefore, the invention described herein provides a nuclear fuel assembly stress relieving fastener for relieving thermally induced stresses developed in a nuclear fuel assembly when the fuel assembly is disposed in a nuclear reactor and when the reactor is brought to its operating temperature.
	description	This application is a divisional application of U.S. Ser. No. 12/063,604, filed Feb. 12, 2008, which is a 371 of International Application No. PCT/JP2006/315812 filed on Aug. 10, 2006, which is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from the prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2005-234079, filed on Aug. 12, 2005, the entire contents of all of which are incorporated herein by reference. The present invention relates a detector for capturing electron beams or optical signals. More particularly, the present invention relates to an inspecting apparatus which has two ore more detectors disposed within a single barrel, one of which is selected in accordance with the amount of electronic or optical signals or an S/N ratio, thereby allowing for detection and measurement of images on the surface of a sample. With the use of this inspecting apparatus, a sample can be efficiently inspected for evaluating the structure on the surface thereof, observing the surface in enlarged view, evaluating the material thereof, inspecting an electrically conductive state thereof, and the like. Accordingly, the present invention relates to a method of accurately and reliably inspecting highly dense patterns having a minimum line width of 0.15 μm or less for defects at a high throughput, and a device manufacturing method which involves inspecting patterns halfway in a device manufacturing process. A conventional inspecting apparatus switches a detector comprising an electron sensor for detecting electrons and a detector comprising an optical sensor for detecting light for use in detecting electrons or light. Particularly, one detector is switched to the other as mentioned above for capturing electrons or light emitted from the same object to detect the amount of electrons or light and a changing amount thereof, or capturing an image. For example, electron or light incident conditions are adjusted on the basis of conditions detected by a CCD (charge coupled device) based detector, followed by replacing the CCD detector with a TDI (time delay integration) detector to make a high-speed inspection, measurement, and the like of the object. Specifically, when the incident conditions are adjusted using the TDI sensor, a low scaling factor of image in the adjustments of the incident condition causes secondary electrons from a sample to impinge and not impinge on some regions of a MCP (micro-channel plate), which receives secondary electrons from a sample, resulting in local damages to the MCP. For this reason, the incident conditions are mainly adjusted using a CCD sensor. An example of a conventional inspecting apparatus is shown in FIGS. 28 and 29. FIG. 28(A) shows a CCD inspecting apparatus 300. The CCD inspecting apparatus 300 comprises a CCD sensor 301 and a camera 302 which are placed in the atmosphere. Secondary electrons emitted from a sample (not shown) are amplified by an MCP 303 and then impinge on a fluorescent plate 304 which converts the secondary electrons into an optical signal representative of the image of the sample. The optical signal output from the fluorescent plate 304 is converted by the optical lens 306 placed in the atmosphere through a feed through 305 formed in a vacuum chamber MC, and focused on the CCD sensor 301 to form the image of the sample in the camera 302. FIG. 28(B) in turn shows a TDI detector 310, where a TDI sensor 311 is placed within a vacuum chamber MC. A fluorescent plate 313 is disposed in front thereof through light transmission means such as an FOP (fiber optic plate) 3444 or the like, so that secondary electrons from a sample enter the fluorescent plate 313 through the MCP 314, where the secondary electrons are converted into an optical signal which is then transmitted to the TDI sensor 311. An electric signal output from the TDI sensor 311 is transmitted to a camera 317 through a pin 316 provided in a feed through unit 315. Accordingly, in the case of FIG. 28, a change of the CCD detector 300 to the TDI detector 310 involves changing a unit of a flange and a set of essential parts mounted thereon. Specifically, the inspecting apparatus 300 is opened to the atmosphere, the flange, fluorescent plate 304, optical lens 306, and CCD sensor 301 are removed from the CCD detector 300, and then the feed through flange 315, fluorescent late 313, FOP 3444, TDI sensor 311, and camera 317 of the TDI detector 301 are mounted in unit. For changing the TDI detector 310 with the CCD detector 300, the foregoing works are performed in the reverse procedure to the above. In this regard, light or electrons emitted from a sample under observation may be enlarged by an optical system, and the enlarged electrons or light is amplified, followed by observation of the amplified signal by a detector. In FIGS. 29(A) and (B), in turn, MCPs 303, 314 and fluorescent plates 304, 313 are disposed within a vacuum chamber MC. Therefore, in the configuration shown in FIG. 29, when a change is made between a CCD detector 300 and a TDI detector 310, elements placed in the atmosphere, i.e., a set including an optical lens 306, a CCD sensor 301, and a camera 302 is changed with a set including a TDI sensor 311, a camera 317, and an optical lens 318, or vice versa. An apparatus for creating image data of a sample using a detection result thus provided by a detector, and comparing the image data with data on a die-by-die basis to inspect the sample for defects is known (see JP-5-254140423 and JP-6-141416424 for the apparatus). The conventional scheme as described above, when used, will require not only an immense time for assembly, vacuum abandonment, adjustments and the like involved in the change of the detector, but also works for adjusting the alignment of the electron or optical axis, associated with the change of the detector. For example, assuming that the TDI detector 310 is substituted for the CCD detector 300 for converting a secondary electron beam into an optical signal within the vacuum chamber MC as shown in FIG. 28, works such as stop of the apparatus, purging, opening to the atmosphere, change of the detector, evacuation, breakdown adjustment such as conditioning, adjustment of a beam axis, and the like are performed in order, and a time required therefor amounts to 50 to 429 hours each time. Therefore, assuming that an electro-optical system is adjusted and conditioned, for example, ten times a year, the foregoing works are involved each time, thus resulting in 500 to 4290 hours required therefor. The configuration shown in FIG. 29 has been conventionally employed for solving the problem inherent in FIG. 28. This configuration is employed because the MCP 303, 314 and fluorescent plates 304, 313 are disposed within the vacuum chamber MC as shown in FIG. 29, so that the unit of the CCD sensor 301 and camera 302 can be readily changed to the unit of the TDI sensor 311 and camera 317 in the atmosphere. However, a problem arises in deterioration of MTF due to the feed through 305 which is made of hermetic optical glass which cannot provide a wide viewing field. As a result, the viewing field generally extends on the order of 1×1 to 10×10 mm at the position of the fluorescent plate, and for providing a wider viewing field, it is necessary to prevent the deterioration of the MFT due to a defective flatness and non-uniformity of the optical glass and fluctuations in focus, and it is also necessary to prevent deteriorations in MTF and luminance by providing an optical lens which has a viewing field approximately five to six times wider. An optical lens system which achieves this requires a highly accurate and expensive lens, resulting in a cost 10 to 15 times higher, by way of example. Further, since the optical system is increased in size by a factor of 5 to 15, the resulting inspecting apparatus may be unavailable if there are limitations to the height of the apparatus. To solve the problems mentioned above, the present invention provides an inspecting apparatus characterized by comprising: a plurality of detectors each for receiving an electron beam emitted from a sample to acquire image data representative of the sample; and a switching mechanism for causing the electron beam to be incident on one of the plurality of detectors, wherein the plurality of detectors are disposed within the same vacuum chamber. Also, the present invention provides a defect inspecting apparatus comprising: a primary optical system having an electron gun for emitting a primary electron beam for guiding the primary electron beam to a sample; and a secondary optical system for guiding a secondary electron beam emitted from the sample to a detection system, characterized in that the detection system comprises: a first EB-CCD sensor for adjusting the optical axis of an electron beam; an EB-TDI sensor for capturing an image of the sample; and a second EB-CCD sensor for evaluating a defective site based on the image captured by the EB-TDI sensor. Further, the present invention provides a defect inspecting method for inspecting a sample for defects in a defect inspecting apparatus having a primary optical system for guiding the primary electron beam to a sample, and a secondary optical system for guiding a secondary electron beam emitted from the sample to a detection system. The defect inspecting method is characterized by: adjusting an optical axis using the EB-CCD sensor; capturing an image of a sample using the EB-TDI sensor; specifying a defective site on the sample from the image captured by the EB-TDI sensor; capturing an image of the defective site on the sample using the EB-CCD sensor; and comparing the image of the defective site captured by the EB-TDI sensor with the image of the defective site captured by the EB-CCD sensor to determine a false defect or a true defect. As described above, the present invention disposes a plurality of detectors within a vacuum chamber and can detect an electronic or an optical signal using one of the detectors. A detector suitable for electrons or light to be captured is selected in accordance with the amount of signal, the S/N ratio and the like, and a signal is applied to the selected detector to perform required detecting operations. Advantageously, in this way, it is possible to not only save a time taken to change one detector to another but also perform works such as beam condition adjustments, inspection, measurement and the like by immediately using an optimal detector when it is needed. Further, a signal can be applied to the detector while minimizing degradations in image quality without lower MTF or image distortions due to optical lenses and lens systems. In this regard, the MTF and contrast are used as indexes for the resolution. For example, the surface of a sample can be inspected, measured, and observed at high speeds by capturing a still image and adjusting the optical axis using a CCD detector, and subsequently directing a beam into a TDI detector to capture image without changing the detector, as has been previously required. In the past, detectors are change from one to another upon adjustments to a variety of use conditions, so that the changing works are generally performed approximately ten times a year on average. Specifically, 1000 hours (10×100) have been spent for the changing works every year, but according to the present invention, such a loss of time can be reduced. Also, when a vacuum chamber is opened to the atmosphere, particles and dust are likely to stick to the inner wall of the vacuum chamber and parts within the vacuum chamber, but the present invention can eliminate such a risk. Also, since parts in the vacuum environment can be prevented from surface oxidization due to the exposure to the atmosphere, voltages and magnetic flux generated from electrodes, magnetic poles and the like can be used with stability without influences of unstable operations possibly resulting from oxidized parts. Particularly, in an aperture having a small diameter such as an NA opening on which an electron beam impinges, it is thought that during the exposure to the atmosphere, moisture and oxygen in the air stick to the aperture to promote the sticking and production of contamination, but the present invention solves such a problem. For adjusting an electro-optical system for guiding an electron beam generated from the surface of a sample such as a wafer to a detector, signals often concentrate on a sensor. In other words, the sensor simultaneously includes an area which exhibits a higher signal strength and an area which exhibits a lower signal strength. As a result, if the area of higher signal strength is damaged, the sensor is rendered non-uniform in sensitivity. If an inspection or a measurement is made using such a sensor which is non-uniform in sensitivity, the result of the measurement involves large variations because a smaller signal representative of an image is captured in the non-uniform area, leading to a false defect. Even if the intensity of incident electrons or the like is uniform, an output signal from a damaged area varies in strength, resulting in a non-uniform sensor output. It is thought that erroneous measurements can be made due to such non-uniform output of the sensor. Such a problem can be solved by the present invention. In the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, a beam irradiated to a sample may be an electron beam or light such as UV light, DUV light, laser light or the like, or a combination of an electron beam and light. Any of reflected electrons, secondary electrons, back scattered electrons, and Auger electrons may be used for the electron beams to capture a required image. When using light such as UV light, DUV light, laser light or the like, an image is detected by optical electrons. It is also possible to detect defects on the surface of a sample using scattered light which occurs when such light is irradiated to the surface of the sample. A quartz fiver or a hollow fiber can be used to efficiently introduce light such as UV light, DUV light, laser light or the like onto the surface of the sample. When a combination of an electron beam and light is used for irradiating the surface of a sample therewith, it is possible to solve a problem of the inability to uniformly irradiate the sample with electrons due to charge-up which causes a change in the potential on the surface when an electron beam alone is used. Accordingly, by using light which can be irradiated irrespective of the potential on the surface, electrons can be stably and efficiently captured from the surface of the sample for use in image capturing. For example, when the sample is irradiated with UV light, not only optical electrons are generated, but also a number of electrons are excited to a metastable state, so that free electrons are increased when an electron beam is irradiated thereto, resulting in an efficient emission of secondary electrons. Semiconductor devices can be manufactured at a high throughput and with a high yield rate by applying the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention to an inspection of wafers for defects halfway in a manufacturing process. First, the general configuration of a semiconductor inspection system will be described with reference to FIG. 1-1. The semiconductor inspection system comprises an inspecting apparatus, a power supply rack, a control rack, an image processing rack, a deposition apparatus, an etching apparatus, and the like. Roughing vacuum pumps such as a dry pump are installed outside of a clean room. Main components within the inspecting apparatus comprises an electron beam vacuum chamber, a vacuum transfer system, a main housing which contains a stage, a vibration isolator, turbo molecular pump, and the like. When viewing the inspection system from a functional standpoint, the electron beam vacuum chamber is mainly composed of an electro-optical system, a detection system, an optical microscope, and the like. The electro-optical system is composed of an electron gun, lenses and the like, while the transfer system is composed of a vacuum transfer robot, an atmosphere transfer robot, a cassette loader, a variety of position sensors, and the like. The deposition apparatus, etching apparatus, and washing apparatus (not shown) may be installed side by side near the inspecting apparatus or incorporated in the inspecting apparatus. They are used, for example, to prevent a sample from being charged, or to clean the surface of the sample. A sputter scheme, when used, can provide both functions of deposition and etching. Thought not shown, in some applications, associated apparatuses may be installed side by side near the inspecting apparatus, or these associated apparatuses may be incorporated in the inspecting apparatus for use therewith. Alternatively, these associated apparatuses may be incorporated in the inspecting apparatus. For example, a chemical mechanical polishing apparatus (CMP) and a washing apparatus may be incorporated in the inspecting apparatus, or alternatively, a CVD (chemical vacuum deposition) apparatus may be incorporated in the inspecting apparatus, in which case the area required for installation, and the number of units for transferring samples can be saved, a transfer time can be reduced, and other advantages can be provided. Likewise, a deposition apparatus such as a plating apparatus may be incorporated in the inspecting apparatus. Also, the inspecting apparatus can be used in combination with a lithography apparatus in a similar manner. In the following, one embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention will be described with reference to the drawings, as a semiconductor inspecting apparatus for inspecting a substrate or a wafer formed with patterns on the surface thereof as an object under inspection. Main components of the semiconductor inspecting apparatus of this embodiment are shown in front elevation and plan view in FIGS. 1-2 and 1-3. The semiconductor inspecting apparatus 400 of this embodiment comprises a cassette holder 401 for holding a cassette which stores a plurality of wafers W; a mini-environment device 402; a main housing 403 which defines a working chamber; a loader housing 404 disposed between the mini-environment device 402 and main housing 403 for defining two loading chambers; a loader 406 for loading a wafer from the cassette holder 401 onto the stage device 405 disposed within the main housing 403; and an electro-optical system 407 attached to the vacuum housing. These components are laid out in a positional relationship as illustrated in FIGS. 1-2 and 1-3. The semiconductor inspecting apparatus 400 also comprises a pre-charge unit 408 disposed in the main housing 403 in vacuum; a potential application mechanism (not shown) for applying a potential to a wafer W; an electron beam calibration mechanism (described later with reference to FIG. 1-7), and an optical microscope 410 which forms part of an alignment controller 409 for positioning a wafer W on the stage device. The cassette holder 401 is configured to hold a plurality (two in this embodiment) of cassettes c (for example, closed cassettes such as SMIF, FOUP manufactured by Assist Co.) in which a plurality (for example, twenty-five) wafers W are placed side by side in parallel, oriented in the vertical direction. In this embodiment, the cassette holder 401 is a type adapted to automatically load the cassette c, and comprises, for example, an up/down table 411, and an elevating mechanism 444 for moving the up/down table 411 up and down. The cassette c can be automatically set on the up/down table 411 in a state indicated by chain lines in FIG. 1-3. After the setting, the cassette c is automatically rotated to a state indicated by solid lines in FIG. 1-3 so that it is directed to the axis of pivotal movement of a first carrier unit within the mini-environment chamber. It should be noted that substrate or wafers accommodated in the cassette c are subjected to an inspection which is generally performed after a process for processing the wafers or in the middle of the process within semiconductor manufacturing processes. Specifically, accommodated in the cassette are wafers which have undergone a deposition process, CMP, ion implantation and so on; wafers formed with wiring patterns on the surface thereof; or wafers which have not been formed with wiring patterns. Since a large number of wafers accommodated in the cassette c are spaced from each other in the vertical direction and arranged side by side in parallel, and the first carrier unit has an arm which is vertically movable, a wafer at an arbitrary position can be held by the first carrier unit which will be described later in detail. In FIGS. 1-2 and 1-5, the mini-environment device 402 comprises a housing 414 defining a mini-environment space 413 that is controlled for the atmosphere; a gas circulator 415 for circulating a gas such as clean air within the mini-environment space 413 to execute the atmosphere control; a discharger 416 for recovering a portion of air supplied into the mini-environment space 413 to discharge the same; and a prealigner 417 for roughly aligning a sample, i.e., a wafer placed in the mini-environment space 413. The housing 414 has a top wall 418, bottom wall 419, and peripheral wall 420 which surrounds four sides of the housing 414, to provide a structure for isolating the mini-environment space 413 from the outside. Also, a sensor may be provided within the environment space for observing the cleanness such that the apparatus can be shut down when the cleanness exacerbates. An access port 421 is formed in a portion of the peripheral wall 87 of the housing 414 that is adjacent to the cassette holder 401. A shutter device of a known structure may be provided near the access port 421 for closing the access port 421 from the mini-environment device side. An air supply unit may not be provided within the mini-environment space but outside thereof. The discharger 416 comprises a suction duct 422 disposed at a position below the wafer carrying surface of the carrier unit and below the carrier unit; a blower 423 disposed outside the housing 414; and a conduit 424 for connecting the suction duct 422 to the blower 423. The discharger 416 aspires a gas flowing down around the carrier unit and including particle, which could be produced by the carrier unit, through the suction duct 422, and discharges the gas outside the housing 414 through the conduit 424 and the blower 423. The prealigner 417 disposed within the mini-environment space 413 optically or mechanically detects an orientation flat (which refers to a flat portion formed along the outer periphery of a circular wafer and hereinafter called as orientation flat) formed on the wafer, or one or more V-shaped notches formed on the outer peripheral edge of the wafer, and previously aligns the position of the wafer in a rotating direction about the axis O-O at an accuracy of approximately ±one degree. The prealigner is responsible for a rough alignment of the wafer. In FIGS. 1-2 and 1-3, the main housing 403, which defines a working chamber 426, comprises a housing body 427 that is supported by a housing supporting device 430 carried on a vibration blocking device, i.e., vibration isolator 429 disposed on a base frame 428. The housing supporting device 430 comprises a frame structure 431 assembled into a rectangular form. The housing body 427 comprises a bottom wall 432 mounted on and securely carried on the frame structure 431; a top wall 433; and a peripheral wall 434 which is connected to the bottom wall 432 and the top wall 433 and surrounds four sides of the housing body 427, and isolates the working chamber 426 from the outside. In this embodiment, the housing body and the housing supporting device 430 are assembled into a rigid construction, and the vibration isolator 429 blocks vibrations from the floor, on which the base frame 428 is installed, from being transmitted to the rigid structure. A portion of the peripheral wall 434 of the housing 427 that adjoins the loader housing 404 is formed with an access port 435 for introducing and removing a wafer therethrough. The working chamber 426 is kept in a vacuum atmosphere by a vacuum device (not shown) of a known structure. A controller 2 is disposed below the base frame 428 for controlling the operation of the overall apparatus. In FIGS. 1-2, 1-3, and 1-6, the loader housing 404 comprises a housing body 438 which defines a first loading chamber 436 and a second loading chamber 438. The housing body 438 comprises a bottom wall 439; a top wall 440; a peripheral wall 441 which surrounds four sides of the housing body 438; and a partition wall 442 for partitioning the first loading chamber 436 and the second loading chamber 438 to isolate the two loading chambers from the outside. The partition wall 442 is formed with an aperture, i.e., an access port 443 for passing a wafer W between the two loading chambers. Also, a portion of the peripheral wall 441 that adjoins the mini-environment device 402 and the main housing 403, is formed with access ports 444 and 445. The housing body 438 of the loader housing 404 is carried on and supported by the frame structure 431 of the housing supporting device 430. This prevents the vibrations of the floor from being transmitted to the loader housing 404 as well. The access port 444 of the loader housing 404 is in alignment with the access port 446 of the housing 414 of the mini-environment device 402, and a shutter device 447 is provided for selectively blocking a communication between the mini-environment space 413 and the loading chamber 436. Likewise, the access port 445 of the loader housing 404 is in alignment with the access port 435 of the housing body 427, and a shutter device 448 is provided for selectively blocking a communication between the loading chamber 438 and the working chamber 426 in a hermetic manner. Further, the opening formed through the partition wall 442 is provided with a shutter device 450 for closing the opening with a door 449 to selectively block a communication between the first and second loading chambers in a hermetic manner. Within the first loading chamber 436, a wafer rack 451 is disposed for supporting a plurality (two in this embodiment) of wafers spaced in the vertical direction and maintained in a horizontal state. The loading chambers 436, 438 are controlled for the atmosphere to be maintained in a high vacuum state (at a vacuum degree of 10−5 to 10−6 Pa) by a vacuum evacuator (not shown) in a conventional structure including a vacuum pump, not shown. In this event, the first loading chamber 436 may be held in a low vacuum atmosphere as a low vacuum chamber, while the second loading chamber 438 may be held in a high vacuum atmosphere as a high vacuum chamber, to effectively prevent contamination of wafers. The employment of such a loading housing structure including two loading chambers allows a wafer W to be carried, without significant delay from the loading chamber the working chamber. The employment of such a loading chamber structure provides for an improved throughput for the defect inspection, and the highest possible vacuum state around the electron source which is required to be kept in a high vacuum state. The first and second loading chambers 436, 438 are connected to vacuum pumping pipes and vent pipes for an inert gas (for example, dried pure nitrogen) (neither of which are shown), respectively. In this way, the atmospheric state within each loading chamber is attained by an inert gas vent (which injects an inert gas to prevent an oxygen gas and so on other than the inert gas from attaching on the surface). In the inspecting apparatus of the present invention which uses electron beams, when representative lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) used as an electron source for an electro-optical system is once heated to such a high temperature that causes emission of thermal electrons, it is critical that it is not exposed to oxygen within the limits of possibility so as not to shorten the lifetime. However, by carrying out the atmosphere control as mentioned above at a stage before introducing the wafer into the working chamber in which the electro-optical system is disposed, the foregoing can be more certainly carried out. The stage device 405 comprises a fixed table 452 disposed on the bottom wall 432 of the main housing 403; a Y-table 453 movable in a Y direction on the fixed table (the direction vertical to the drawing sheet in FIG. 1-2); an X-table 454 movable in an X direction on the Y-table 453 (in the left-to-right direction in FIG. 1-2); a turntable 455 rotatable on the X-table; and a holder 456 disposed on the turntable 455. A wafer W is releasably held on a wafer carrying surface 551 of the holder 456. The holder may be of a known structure which is capable of releasably chucking a wafer by means of a mechanical or electrostatic chuck feature. The stage device 405 uses servo motors, encoders and a variety of sensors (not shown) to operate the plurality of tables 453-455 mentioned above to permit highly accurate alignment of a wafer W held on the carrying surface 130 by the holder 456 in the X direction, Y direction and Z-direction (the Z-direction is the up-down direction in FIG. 1-2) with respect to electron beams irradiated from the electro-optical system, and in a direction (θ direction) about the axis normal to the wafer supporting surface. In this regard, the alignment in the Z-direction may be made such that the position on the carrying surface of the holder, for example, can be finely adjusted in the Z-direction. In this event, a reference position on the carrying surface is sensed by a position measuring device using a laser of an extremely small diameter (a laser interference range finder using the principles of interferometer) to control the position by a feedback circuit, not shown. Additionally or alternatively, the position of a notch or an orientation flat of a wafer is measured to sense a plane position or a rotational position of the wafer relative to the electron beam to control the position of the wafer by rotating the turntable by a stepping motor which can be controlled in extremely small angular increments. In order to maximally prevent particle produced within the working chamber 426, servo motors 131, 132 and encoders 133, 134 for the stage device 405 are disposed outside the main housing 403. It is also possible to establish a basis for signals which are generated by previously inputting a rotational position, and X-Y-positions of a wafer relative to the electron beams in a signal detecting system or an image processing system, later described. The loader 406 comprises a robot-based first carrier unit 462 disposed in the housing 414 of the mini-environment device 402, and a robot-based second carrier unit 463 disposed in the second loading chamber 438. The first carrier unit 462 has a multi-node arm 465 for rotation about an axis O1-O1 relative to a driver 464. While an arbitrary structure may be applied to the multi-node arm, this embodiment employs the multi-node arm 465 which has three parts attached for rotation relative to each other. A part of the arm 465 of the first carrier unit 462, i.e., a first part closest to the driver 464 is attached to a shaft 466 which can be rotated by a driving mechanism (not shown) in a general-purpose structure arranged in the driver 464. The arm 465 is rotatable about the axis O1-O1 by the shaft 466, and is telescopical in a radial direction relative to the axis O1-O1 as a whole through relative rotations among the parts. At the leading end of the third part furthest away from the shaft 466 of the arm 465, a chuck 467 is attached for chucking a wafer, such as a mechanical chuck in a general-purpose structure, an electrostatic chuck or the like. The driver 464 is vertically movable by an elevating mechanism 468 in a general-purpose structure. In this first carrier unit 462, the arm 465 extends toward one of two cassettes c held in the cassette holder 10 in a direction M1 or M2, and a wafer W stored in the cassette c is carried on the arm, or is chucked by the chuck (not shown) attached at the leading end of the arm for removal. Subsequently, the arm is retracted (to the state illustrated in FIG. 1-3), and the arm is rotated to a position at which the arm can extend toward the pre-aligner 417 in a direction M3, and is stopped at this position. Then, the arm again extends to the pre-aligner 417 to transfer the wafer held by the arm thereto. After receiving the wafer from the pre-aligner 417 in a manner reverse to the foregoing, the arm is further rotated and stopped at a position at which the arm can extend toward the first loading chamber 436 (in a direction M4), where the wafer is passed to a wafer receiver 451 within the first loading chamber 436. It should be noted that when a wafer is mechanically chucked, the wafer should be chucked in a peripheral zone (in a range approximately 5 mm from the periphery). This is because the wafer is formed with devices (circuit wires) over the entire surface except for the peripheral zone, so that if the wafer were chucked at a portion inside the peripheral zone, some devices would be broken or defects would be produced. The second carrier unit 463 is basically the same as the first carrier unit 462 in structure, and differs only in that the second carrier unit 463 carries a wafer W between the wafer rack 451 and the carrying surface of the stage device 405. In the loader 406 described above, the first and second carrier units 462, 463 carry wafers from the cassette c held in the cassette holder onto the stage device 405 disposed in the working chamber 426 and vice versa while holding the wafer substantially in a horizontal posture. Then, the arms of the carrier units 462, 463 are moved up and down only when a cassette is extracted from the cassette c and loaded into the same, when a wafer is placed on the wafer lack and is extracted from the same, and when a wafer is placed on the stage device 405 and removed from the same. Therefore, the carrier units 462, 463 can smoothly move even a large wafer which may have a diameter of, for example, 30 cm. Next, a description will be made in order of the transfer of a wafer from the cassette c supported by the cassette holder 401 to the stage device 405 disposed in the working chamber 426. In this embodiment, as the cassette c is set on the up/down table 411, the up/down table 411 is moved down by the elevating mechanism 412 to bring the cassette c into alignment to the access port 421. As the cassette c is in alignment to the access port 421, a cover (not shown) disposed on the cassette c is opened, whereas a cylindrical cover is arranged between the cassette c and the access port 421 of the mini-environment device 402 to block the cassette c and mini-environment space 402 from the outside. When the mini-environment device 402 is equipped with a shutter device for opening/closing the access port 421, the shutter device is operated to open the access port 421. On the other hand, the arm 465 of the first carrier unit 462 remains oriented in either the direction M1 or M2 (in the direction M1 in this description), and extends to receive one of wafers stored in the cassette c with its leading end as the access port 421 is opened. Once the arm 465 has received a wafer, the arm 465 is retracted, and the shutter device (if any) is operated to close the access port 421. Then, the arm 465 is rotated about the axial line O1-O1 so that it can extend in the direction M3. Next, the arm 465 extends to transfer the wafer carried on the leading end thereof or chucked by a chuck onto the pre-aligner 417 which determines a direction in which the wafer is rotated (direction about the center axis perpendicular to the surface of the wafer) within a predetermined range. Upon completion of the positioning, the first carrier unit 462 retracts the arm 465 after the wafer is received from the pre-aligner 417 to the leading end of the arm 465, and takes a posture in which the arm 465 can be extended in the direction M4. Then, the door 469 of the shutter device 447 is moved to open the access ports 226, 436, permitting the arm 465 to place the wafer on the upper shelf or lower shelf of the wafer rack 451 within the first loading chamber 436. It should be noted that before the shutter device 447 opens the access ports to pass the wafer to the wafer rack 451, the opening 443 formed through the partition 442 is hermetically closed by the door 449 of the shutter device 450. In the wafer transfer process by the first carrier unit 462, clean air flows in a laminar state (as a down flow) from the gas supply unit 231 disposed in the housing body 414 of the mini-environment device 402, for preventing dust from sticking to the upper surface of the wafer during the transfer. Part of air around the carrier unit is aspired from the suction duct 422 of the discharger 416 for emission out of the housing body 414. The remaining air is recovered through the recovery duct 89 arranged on the bottom of the housing body 414, and again returned to the gas supply unit 470. As a wafer is placed on the wafer rack 451 within the first loading chamber 436 of the loader housing 404 by the first carrier unit 462, the shutter device 447 is closed to hermetically close the loading chamber 436. Then, the loading chamber 436 is brought into a vacuum atmosphere by expelling the air within the loading chamber 436, filling an inert gas in the loading chamber 436, and then discharging the inert gas. The vacuum atmosphere in the loading chamber 436 may have a low degree of vacuum. As the degree of vacuum has reached a certain level in the loading chamber 436, the shutter device 450 is operated to open the access port 442, which has been hermetically closed by the door 449, and the arm 472 of the second carrier unit 463 extends to receive one wafer from the wafer receiver 451 with the chuck at the leading end thereof (placed on the leading end or chucked by a chuck attached to the leading end). As the wafer has been received, the arm 472 is retracted, and the shutter device 450 is again operated to close the access port 443 with the door 449. It should be noted that before the shutter device 450 opens the access port 443, the arm 472 has previously taken a posture in which it can extend toward the wafer rack 451 in a direction N1. Also, as described above, before the shutter device 450 opens the access port 443, the shutter device 448 closes the access ports 445, 435 with the door 473 to block communications between the second loading chamber 438 and the working chamber 426, and the second loading chamber 438 is evacuated. As the shutter device 450 closes the access port 443, the second loading chamber 438 is again evacuated to a degree of vacuum higher than that of the first loading chamber 436. In the meantime, the arm 465 of the second carrier unit 462 is rotated to a position from which the arm 465 can extend toward the stage device 405 within the working chamber 426. On the other hand, in the stage device 405 within the working chamber 426, the Y-table 202 is moved upward, as viewed in FIG. 13, to a position at which the center line X0-X0 of the X-table 203 substantially matches an X-axis line X1-X1 which passes the axis of rotation O2-O2 of the second carrier unit 463. Also, the X-table 203 has moved to a position close to the leftmost position, as viewed in FIG. 1-3, and is waiting at this position. When the degree of vacuum in the second loading chamber 438 is increased to a level substantially identical to that of the working chamber 426, the door 473 of the shutter device 448 is moved to open the access ports 445, 435, and the arm extends so that the leading end of the arm, which holds a wafer, approaches the stage device 405 within the working chamber 426. Then, the wafer W is placed on the carrying surface 130 of the stage device 405. Once the wafer W has been placed on the stage device 405, the arm is retracted, and the shutter device 448 closes the access ports 445, 435. The foregoing description has been made on the operation until a wafer in the cassette c is carried and placed on the stage device. For returning a wafer, which has been carried on the stage device and processed, from the stage device into the cassette c, the operation reverse to the foregoing is performed. Since a plurality of wafers are stored in the wafer rack 451, the first carrier unit can carry a wafer between the cassette and the wafer rack while the second carrier unit is carrying a wafer between the wafer rack and the stage device, so that the inspecting operation can be efficiently carried out. FIGS. 1-7(A) and (B) are diagrams showing an exemplary electron beam calibration mechanism. The electron beam calibration mechanism 480 comprises a plurality of Faraday cups 482, 483 disposed at a plurality of positions on the side of the wafer W placement face 481 on the turntable 455 (FIG. 1-2). The respective Faraday cups are provided to measure a beam current, where the Faraday cup 482 is used for a fine beam of approximately 2 μmφ, for example, while the Faraday cup 483 is used for a thick beam of approximately 30 μmφ, for example. The Faraday cup 482 for thin beam measures a beam profile by moving the turntable 455 in steps, while the Faraday cup 483 for thick beam measures the total current amount of beam. The Faraday cups 482, 483 are disposed such that their top surfaces are at the same level as the top surface of the wafer W placed on the placement face 481. In this way, primary electron beams emitted from the electron gun is monitored at all times. This is because the electron gun cannot always emit a consistent electron beam but varies the amount of electron beam emitted therefrom as it is used. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing the general configuration of an electro-optical system in the inspecting apparatus together with a positional relationship between a sample and a detection system. The electro-optical system is disposed in a vacuum chamber, and comprises a primary electro-optical system (hereinafter simply called the “primary optical system”) PR for emitting a primary electron beam which is guided to a sample SL for irradiation to the sample SL; and a secondary electro-optical system (hereinafter simply called the “secondary optical system”) SE for guiding secondary electron beams emitted from the sample SL to a detection system DT. The primary optical system PR, which is an optical system for irradiating an electron beam onto the surface of the sample SL under inspection, comprises an electron gun 1 for emitting an electron beam; a lens system 2 comprised of an electrostatic lens for converging the primary electron beam emitted from the electron gun 1; a Wien filter or ExB separator 3; and an objective lens system 4, where the optical axis of the primary electron beam emitted from the electron gun 1 is inclined with respect to an irradiation optical axis of the electron beam (perpendicular to the surface of the sample) which is irradiated to the sample SL. An electrode 5 is disposed between the objective lens system 4 and sample SL. This electrode 5 is in a shape axially symmetric to the irradiation optical axis of the primary electron beam, and has its voltage controlled by a power supply 6. The secondary optical system SE comprises a lens system 7 comprised of electrostatic lenses for passing therethrough secondary electrons separated from the primary optical system by the ExB separator 3. This lens system 7 functions as an enlarging lens for enlarging a secondary electron image. The detection system DT comprises a detection unit 8 disposed on a focusing plane of the lens system 7, and an image processing unit 9. The present invention relates to improvements on a detection unit in the inspecting apparatus as described above, and will be described below in greater detail in connection with embodiments of the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention with reference to the drawings. Throughout all drawings, the same reference numerals refer to the same or similar components. FIG. 3 is a diagram schematically showing a first embodiment of the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, which comprises a detector having an electron sensor and a detector having an optical sensor both contained in a single chamber. In FIG. 3, a CCD detector 11 and a TDI detector 12 are disposed within a vacuum chamber MC such that an EB-CCD (electron bombardment charge coupled device) sensor 13 of the CCD detector 11 is positioned closer to a sample. In FIG. 3, the CCD detector 11 and TDI detector 12 have their electron incident plane perpendicular to the drawing. The EB-CCD sensor 13 is supported such that it can be translated in the left-to-right direction in the figure by a moving mechanism M disposed outside of the vacuum chamber MC. In this way, the EB-CCD sensor 13 can be selectively moved to a position at which it receives an electron beam e, and to a position at which it directly applies the electron beam e into the TDI detector 12, thus making it possible to selectively use the CCD detector 11 and TDI detector 12. Here, the moving mechanism M moves the EB-CCD sensor to a position at which the optical axis to the EB-CCD sensor, the optical axis to lens conditions (lens intensity, beam deflection condition), and the lens conditions (lens intensity, beam deflection condition) match, when the EB-CCD sensor is moved to the position at which it receives an electron beam. This positioning condition can be mechanically modified by capturing images generated by the EB-CCD and EB-TDI for a sample having a known pattern. Though not shown, the CCD detector 11 comprises a camera connected to the EB-CCD sensor 13, a controller, a frame grabber board, a PC and the like, to capture the output of the EB-CCD sensor 13, display images, and control the CCD detector 11. The EB-CCD sensor 13, which comprises a plurality of pixels which are two-dimensionally arranged, receives the electron beam e emitted from a sample and outputs a signal representative of a two-dimensional image of the sample. The EB-CCD sensor 13, when the electron beam is directly incident thereon, provides a gain corresponding to the energy of the incident electron beam, i.e., electrons are amplified to accomplish the accumulation of charges, and the charges are read at intervals of defined time (for example 33 Hz) and output as an electric signal of a two-dimensional image of one frame. For example, the EB=CCD sensor 13 used herein has pixels of 650 (horizontal direction)×485 (vertical direction), a pixel size of 14 μm×14 μm, a frame acquisition frequency of 33 Hz, and a gain of 100-1000. In this event, the gain of the EB-CCD sensor 13 is dominated by the energy of incident electrons, and can provide the gain of 300, for example, when the incident energy is 4 keV. The gain can be adjusted by the structure of the EB-CCD sensor 13. The TDI detector 12, in turn, comprises an MCP 14 for amplifying an electron beam e emitted from a sample; a fluorescent plate 15 for receiving the amplified electron beam for conversion into light; an FOP 16 for transmitting the light generated from the fluorescent plate 15; and a TDI sensor 17 for receiving an optical signal from the FOP 16. The output of the TDI sensor 17 is transmitted to the camera 19 through the pin 18, as swoon in FIG. 28(B). It should be noted that the MCP 14 is disposed when electrons must be amplified, and may be omitted in some cases. The MCP 14, fluorescent plate 15, FOP 16, and TDI sensor 17 are formed into a single package, where output pins of the TDI sensor 17 is connected to pins 18 of the field through unit FT by wire bonding or another connection means. With the TDI sensor 17 operating at high speeds to provide a large number of pixels, a large number of pins 18 are required, for example, 100 to 1000 pines as the case may be. The camera 19 inputs and outputs image signals in accordance with control signals for image capturing. Though not shown, other than the camera 19, the inspecting apparatus is provided with a power supply and a controller for the camera 19, and an image processing system for capturing and processing an image signal from the camera 19. An image evaluation value can be calculated by processing image data generated by the image processing system, and, for example, when used in a defect inspection, sites of defects, type of defects, size of defects and the like can be extracted and displayed on a screen. A moving mechanism M is provided outside of the vacuum chamber M for selectively implementing a case where the CCD detector 11 is used and a case where the TDI detector 12 is used, and mechanically coupled to the EB-CCD sensor 13. When the CCD detector 11 is used to align the optical axes of the EB-CCD sensor and EB-TDI sensor, and adjust the lens condition, the moving mechanism M is operated to move the EB-CCD sensor 13 such that its center comes to the position of the optical axis of the electron beam e. In this state, the electron beam e can be sent into the EB-CCD sensor 13 to generate an image signal representative of a two-dimensional image of the sample. When the TDI detector 12 is used after the completion of adjustments to the optical axes and the like, the EB-CCD sensor 13 is moved by the moving mechanism M to a place away from the optical axis of the electro-optical system, for example, to a place spaced by a distance (for example, approximately 5 to 300 mm) at which the EB-CCD sensor 13 does not affect an electron image and an electron trajectory. In this way, the electron beam e is incident on the MCP 14 of the TDI detector 12 without being impeded by the EB-CCD sensor 13. In this regard, a shield is preferably provided for preventing charge-up at a junction at which the moving mechanism M is coupled to the EB-CCD sensor 13 (described later). The provision of such a mechanism eliminates the need for the TDI in the adjustments of the optical axes and the like, so that the MCP is prevented from being locally damaged. In addition, since the EB-CCD sensor and EB-TDI sensor are disposed within the same vacuum chamber, it is not necessary to break the vacuum atmosphere to change the EB-CCD sensor with the EB-TDI sensor. Also, since the EB-CCD sensor is operated when adjustments are made to the optical axes and the like, the EB-CCD sensor and EB-TDI sensor may be operated for the first one of wafers accommodated in a cassette, and the EB-TDI sensor alone may be operated for the remaining wafers. Alternatively, the EB-CCD sensor may be operated every predetermined number of wafers to readjust the optical axes and the like. FIG. 4 is a diagram schematically showing a second embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention. The moving mechanism M shown in FIG. 3 can simply translate in one axial direction (for example, in the X-direction). Instead, in the second embodiment shown in FIG. 4, the moving mechanism M is configured to be movable in three axial directions (X-, Y-, and Z-directions), to finely adjust the center of the EB-CCD sensor 13 with respect to the center of the optical axis of the electro-optical system. In this regard, an electron deflection mechanism may be provided in front of the EB-sensor 13 (closer to a sample) to adjust the position of the electron beam in order to adjust the optical axis of the electro-optical system. FIGS. 5(A)-5(C) schematically shown a third embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where (A) is a view taken from the front, and (B) and (C) are views taken from one side. As shown, the moving mechanism M in this embodiment utilizes rotational movements rather than movements in one axial or three axial directions. It should be noted that the TDI detector 12 does not comprise the MCP because the electron amplification is not needed in this embodiment. In FIG. 5(A), one end of a rotary shaft 21 is coupled to one end of a flat EB-CCD sensor 13 which contains required circuits, substrates and the like, while the other end of the rotary shaft 21 is coupled to the moving mechanism M. FIGS. 5(B) and 5(C) are views of the configuration shown in FIG. 5(A), taken from the side closer to the moving mechanism M. When the CCD detector 11 is used, the EB-CCD sensor 13 is moved such that the sensor plane thereof is perpendicular to the electron beam e, thus causing the electron beam e to be incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13. When the TDI detector 12 is used, the rotary shaft 21 is rotated by the moving mechanism M, as shown in (C) to move the EB-CCD sensor 13 such that it is in parallel with the optical axis of the electro-optical system. As such, the electron beam e is incident on the fluorescent plate 15 which converts the electron beam e into an optical signal which is then incident on the TDI sensor 17 through the FOP 16. The moving mechanism shown in FIG. 5, which utilizes the rotation, can be advantageously reduced in size and weight, for example, by a factor of two to ten, as compared with the moving mechanism described in connection with FIGS. 3 and 4, which utilizes movements in one or three axial direction. FIG. 6 is a diagram schematically showing a fourth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where two EB-TDI sensors are provided instead of the single EB-CCD sensor in the first and third embodiments, such that one can be selected from these EB-CCD sensors and the TDI detector 12. Specifically, a moving mechanism M is coupled to two EB-CCD sensors 131, 132 which differ in performance. For example, the EB-CCD sensor 131 has pixels the size of which is 14×14 μm, while the EB-CCD sensor 132 has pixels, the size of which is 7×7 μm, and these EB-CCD sensors have different electron image resolutions in accordance with their larger and smaller pixel sizes. In other words, an image generated by the EB-CCD sensor having the smaller pixel size (7 μm) achieves a resolution twice or more higher than that generated by the EB-CCD sensor having the larger pixel size (14 μm) in providing an electron image. In this regard, the number of EB-CCD sensors is not limited to two, but three or more EB-CCD sensors may be provided as required. The inspecting apparatus which comprise the three components, i.e., the EB-CCD sensor 131, EB-CCD sensor 132, and TDI detector 12 placed in the same vacuum chamber M may be used, by way of example, in the following manner. Assuming that the EB-CCD sensor 131 has the pixel size of 14 μm, and the EB-CCD sensor 132 has the pixel size of 7 μm, the EB-CCD sensor 131 is used to adjust the optical axis of the electron beam, adjust the image, and extract electron image acquisition conditions. Next, the EB-CCD sensor 131 is moved by the moving mechanism M to a position away from the optical axis, so that the electron beam is incident on the fluorescent plate 15. An optical signal converted from electrons by the fluorescent plate 15 is incident on the TDI sensor 17 through the FOP 16. In this way, the camera 19 captures electron images in succession using the output of the TDI sensor 17. Thus, it is possible to perform, for example, an inspection of an LSI wafer for defects, an inspection of an exposure mask, and the like. Using or referring to setting conditions for the electro-optical system extracted by the EB-CCD sensor 131, the image capturing in the TDI detector 12 is performed in the camera 19. Such image capturing can be performed simultaneously with an inspection for defects (i.e., on-line) or after the image capturing (i.e., off-line). In an inspection for defects, information such as the location, type, size and the like of defects can be provided. After the image capturing and inspection for defects in the TDI detector 12, the moving mechanism M is actuated to move the EB-CCD sensor 132 to the position of the optical axis, allowing the EB-CCD sensor 132 to capture images. In this event, since the location of defects has been known from the previously acquired result of the inspection for defect through the image capturing in the TDI detector 12, the EB-CCD sensor 132 performs image capturing for evaluating the defects in greater detail. In this event, in addition to a high-resolution image capturing resulting from the smaller pixel size of the EBG-CCD sensor 132, electron images can be captured with an increased number of electrons taken for an image, or with a longer image capturing duration. When the image capturing time is prolonged to increase the number of electrons acquired per pixel (the number of electrons per pixel), an electron image of miniature defects can be more clearly captured with high contract (high MTF condition) to acquire data. This is because a larger number of electrons per pixel results in a reduction in noise component due to fluctuations in luminance and the like to improve the S/N ratio and MTF. In this way, the EB-CCD sensor 132 having a smaller pixel size can be used to evaluate defects in detail, for example, the type, size and the like of the defects in detail. The ability to evaluate the type of defect in detail can lead to improvements on the process by feeding back information on where and how many defects of the same type have occurred, and the like, to the process. Fluctuations in luminance are caused by fluctuations in the number of incident electrons, fluctuations in the amount of electrons to light conversion, fluctuations in noise level of the sensor, statistic noise, and the like. Also, when there is an electronic amplifier such as MCP, the fluctuations in the number of electrons by electron amplification constitute a factor as well. Such fluctuation noise can be reduced by increasing the number of electrons, and can be reduced to approximately a root value of an output luminance value at the highest noise fluctuation level (for example, the noise fluctuation level is 700^0.5 with 700 halftone values). Showing an example of the number of electrons per pixel in each detector, the EB-CCD sensor 131 presents 20-1000 per pixel; the EB-CCD sensor 132 200-200000 per pixel; and the TDI detector 12 10-1000 per pixel. When a plurality of detectors are implemented such that they are switched for use in particular functions as shown in FIG. 6, one and the same inspecting apparatus can perform both inspection and detailed evaluation on defects. Conventionally, a wafer is moved to a dedicated analyzer (review SEM or the like) after an inspection for evaluating the type and size of defects in detail. When the detailed evaluation can be performed in the same apparatus, it is possible to make shorter and more efficient the detail evaluation of the inspection for defects and improvements in process. Even when a single EB-CCD sensor 13 is provided, as has been described in connection with FIGS. 3 to 5, defects can be evaluated after inspecting the defects through image capturing using the TDI detector 12, in which case the number of acquired electrons per pixel is increased to reduce noise fluctuation components before the defects are evaluated. In this way, the type and size of the defects can be evaluated without using a dedicated defect analyzer, and even if it is used, the defect analyzer can be reduced, and improvements in process and process management can be more efficiently accomplished. In the embodiment so far described, the mechanism for switching the CCD detector 11 and TDI detector 12 utilizes mechanical movements. In contrast, FIG. 7 is a diagram schematically showing a fifth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where an electronic deflector is utilized for a switching mechanism. While this embodiment also uses a single CCD detector 11 and a single TDI detector 12 by selectively switching them, the CCD detector 11 is placed out of the optical axis (trajectory of an electron beam e) at a predetermined angle to the optical axis, as shown. Also, a deflector 41 is disposed on the optical axis for switching the trajectory of the electron beam e between the CCD detector 11 and the TDI detector 12. The deflection angle of the deflector 41 is preferably in the range of 3 to 30°. This is because excessive deflection of secondary beam would result in distortions in a two-dimensional image and larger aberration. In this embodiment, the EB-CCD sensor 13 is electrically connected to a camera 44 through a wire 42 and a feed through flange 43. Thus, when the CCD detector 11 is used, the trajectory of the electron beam e is deflected by the deflector 41, such that the electron beam e is perpendicularly incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13. The incident electron beam e is converted into an electric signal by the EB-CCD sensor 13, and the electric signal is transmitted to the camera 44 through the wire 42. On the other hand, when the TDI detector 12 is used, the deflector 41 is not operated. Consequently, the electron beam e is incident on the fluorescent plate 15 directly or through the MCP 14. The electron beam incident on the fluorescent plate 15 is converted into an optical signal which is transmitted to a TDI sensor 17 through an FOP 16, and is converted into an electric signal by the TDI sensor 17 for transmission to a camera 19. FIG. 8 is a diagram schematically showing a sixth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where a CCD detector 11 and a TDI detector 12 each comprise an electron sensor for receiving an electron beam. Specifically, the CCD detector 11 employs an EB-CCD sensor 13, whereas the TDI detector 12 employs an EB-TDI (electron bombardment time delay integration) sensor t1 as an electron sensor, causing an electron beam e to be directly incident on the EB-TDI sensor 51. In this configuration, the CCD detector 11 is used to adjust the optical axis of the electron beam, as well as adjust and optimize image capturing conditions. On the other hand, when the EB-TDI sensor 51 of the TDI detector 12 is used, the EB-CCD sensor 13 is moved by the moving mechanism M to a position away from the optical axis, as previously described, before an image capturing is performed by the TDI detector 12 using or referring to conditions which have been found when the CCD detector 11 is used, to perform evaluation or measurement. As described above, in this embodiment, a semiconductor wafer can be inspected for defects by the EB-TDI sensor 51 using or referring to electro-optical conditions which have been found when the CCD detector 11 is used. Also, an evaluation on defects can be performed for the type, size and the like of the defects using the CCD detector 11 after the inspection for the defects by the TDI detector 12. The EB-TDI sensor 51 is, for example, in a rectangular shape, with its pixels arranged in a two-dimensional array such that the electron beam e can be directly received thereby for use in forming an electron image, where the image size is in the range of 5-20 μm, the number of pixels is in the range of 1000-8000 in the horizontal direction and 1-8000 in the scanning direction, and he gain is in the range of 10-5000. The EB-TDI sensor 51 can be used at a line rate of 1 kHz to 1 MHz. The gain is dictated by the energy of incident electrons. For example, when an incident electron beam has energy of 4 kev, the gain can be set in the range of 200 to 900, and the gain can be adjusted by the sensor structure with the same energy. In this way, when the EB-TDI sensor is used in an apparatus for capturing an electron image, the apparatus can advantageously capture images in succession, as well as achieve higher MTF (or contrast) and a higher resolution, as compared with a TDI sensor for sensing light. Actually, in this embodiment, the TDI detector 12 is also formed into the shape of package, so that the package itself serves as a feed through, with pins 18 of the package connected to the camera 19 on the atmosphere side. When configured as shown in FIG. 8, it is possible to eliminate disadvantages such as a loss in optical conversion due to FOP, optical glass for hermetic sealing, optical lenses and the like, aberration and distortion during optical transmissions and degradation in image resolution caused thereby, failed detection, high cost, increase in size, and the like, as compared with the first to fifth embodiments so far described. FIG. 9 is a plan view showing pixels P11-Pij on a sensor plane 51′ of an EB-TDI sensor 51. In FIG. 9, an arrow T1 indicates an integration direction of the sensor plane 51′, which is a direction perpendicular to a T2 integration direction T1, i.e., a direction in which a stage S is moved in succession. The pixels P11-Pij of the sensor t1 are arranged in 500 steps in the integration direction T1 (number of integration steps i=500), and 4000 (j=4000) in the successive movement direction T2 of the stage S. FIG. 10 is a diagram schematically showing the positional relationship between the EB-TDI sensor 51 and a secondary electron beam. In FIG. 10, when a secondary electron beams EB emitted from a wafer W is emitted from the same positions of the wafer W for a certain time, the secondary electron beam EB is sequentially incident on a series of positions a, b, c, d, e, . . . on a projection optical system MO in the order of a to in association with successive movements of the stage S. The secondary electron beam EB incident on the projection optical system MO is sequentially emitted from a series of positions a′, b′, c′, d′, e′, . . . , i′ on the projection optical system MO. In this event, when a charge integration movement in the integration direction T1 of the EB-TDI sensor 51 is synchronized with the successive movements of the stage S, the secondary electron beams EB emitted from the positions a′, b′, c′, d′, e′, . . . , i′ on the projection optical system MO are sequentially incident on the same positions on the sensor plane 51′, so that the charge can be integrated by the number of integration steps i. In this way, each pixel P11-Pij on the sensor plane 51′ can acquire more signals of radiated electrons, thereby accomplishing a higher S/N ratio, and capturing a two-dimensional image at high speeds. The projection optical system MO has a magnification of 300 times, by way of example. FIG. 11 is a diagram schematically showing a seventh embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention. As can be seen from the figure, a TDI detector 12 comprising an electron sensor for detecting an electron beam is used instead of the TDI detector 12 comprising an optical sensor in the fifth embodiment shown in FIG. 7. Likewise, in this embodiment, an EB-CCD sensor 13 of a CCD detector 11 is electrically connected to a camera 44 through a wire 42 and a feed through flange 43. When the CCD detector 11 is used, the trajectory of the electron beam is deflected by a deflector 41, such that the electron beam e is incident perpendicularly to the EB-CCD sensor 13. The incident electron beam is converted into an electric signal by the EB-CCD sensor 13 for transmission to the camera 44 through the wire 42. On the other hand, when the TDI detector 12 is used, the deflector is not operated, so that the electron beam e is directly incident on the EB-TDI sensor 51 for conversion into an electric signal which is then transmitted to a camera 19. FIG. 12 is a diagram schematically showing an eighth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where a CCD detector 11 and a TDI detector 12 each comprises an optical sensor for detecting light, and are configured to be switched by making use of deflection of electron beam. Specifically, the CCD detector 11 comprises a CCD sensor for detecting light instead of the EB-CCD sensor 13. The CCD detector 11 comprises an MCP 61 for amplifying an electron beam; a fluorescent plate 62 for converting an amplified electron beam into light; an optical lens 63 for converging light exiting the fluorescent plate 62 and transmitting a light transmission area of a feed through flange 43; a CCD sensor 64 for converting light converged by the optical lens into an electric signal; and a camera 44 for capturing an image using the electric signal. In this embodiment, the two detectors, i.e., the TDI detector 12 and CCD detector 11 are disposed in a single vacuum chamber, but three or more detectors may be provided as long as the size of the vacuum chamber permits. Also, as described above, the MCPs 14, 61 may be omitted if the amplification of electrons is not required. A deflector 41 is provided in this embodiment for switching the trajectory of the electron beam to the TDI detector 12 or to the CCD detector 11. Thus, when the CCD detector 11 is used, the electron beam e is deflected by 5 to 30 degrees by the deflector 41 such that electrons are incident on the fluorescent plate 62 through the MCP 61 or without the intervention of the MCP 61. After an electro-optical conversion has been made herein, optical image information is converged by the optical lens 63 mounted in the feed through flange 43 and directed into the CCD sensor 64. The optical lens 63 and CCD sensor 64 are placed in the atmosphere. The optical lens 63 is provided with a lens (not shown) for adjusting aberration and focus. On the other hand, when the TDI detector 12 is used, the deflector 41 is not operated, permitting the electron beam e to travel directly to be incident on the MCP 14, or on the fluorescent plate 15 when the MCP 14 is not used. An electro-optical conversion is performed by the fluorescent plate 15, and the optical information is transmitted to the TDI sensor 17 through the FOP 16. In the eighth embodiment shown in FIG. 12, the CCD sensor 64 is placed on the atmosphere side, while the TDI sensor 17 is placed in a vacuum. On the other hand, in a ninth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, schematically shown in FIG. 13, a TDI sensor 17 and a CCD sensor 64 are placed on the atmosphere side. In this embodiment, since the configuration of the CCD detector 11 is the same as that shown in FIG. 12, a description thereon is omitted herein. The TDI detector 12 comprises an MCP 14, a fluorescent plate 15, an optical lens 17, a TDI sensor 17, and a camera 19. An electron beam e, which travels straight without being deflected by the deflector 41, is amplified by the MCP 14, or is directly incident on the fluorescent plate 15, when the MCP 14 is not used, to undergo an electro-optical conversion thereby, and the optical information is converged by an optical lens 71 mounted in a hermetic flange 72, and is incident on the TDI sensor 17. In this way, the trajectory of the electron beam e is switched by the deflector 41 such that the CCD detector 11′ and TDI detector 12 can be selectively used. FIG. 14 is a diagram schematically showing a tenth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where a CCD detector 11 and a TDI detector 12 each comprise an optical sensor for detecting light. These optical sensors are disposed within a single chamber, and the detectors are switched through translation or rotation. Specifically, the CCD sensor 64 of the CCD detector 11 and the TDI sensor 17 of the TDI detector 12 are disposed within a single vacuum chamber MC. In this embodiment, since the TDI detector 12 is the same as that shown in FIG. 12, a repeated description is omitted herein. The CCD detector 11 comprises an MCP 61, a fluorescent plate 62, an FOP 81, and a CCD sensor 64. When the TDI detector 12 is used, the CCD detector 11 is moved by a moving mechanism M to go away from the optical axis of the electron beam e (to the right in the figure). In either of the detectors, during use, the electron beam e is amplified by MCP 14, 61, or is directly incident on the fluorescent plate 15, 62 without using the MCP 14, 61 to undergo an electro-optical conversion, and the resulting optical information is transmitted to the sensor 17, 64 through the FOP 16, 81 for conversion into an electric signal which is then captured by the camera. FIG. 15 is a diagram schematically showing an eleventh embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention, where a moving mechanism is used in combination with a deflector 41 as a switching mechanism such that one can be selected from five detectors. In FIG. 15, an EB-CCD sensor 92 of a first detector, an EB-CCD sensor 93 of a second detector, and an EB-CCD sensor 94 of a third detector are mounted in a cylindrical shield block 91 which translates in a direction indicated by an arrow by the moving mechanism M. A shield hole 95 is formed through the shield block 91 at a proper site for passing an electron beam e therethrough, and an EB-TDI sensor 51 of a fourth detector is provided on a trajectory along which the electron beam e travels straight after it has passed through the shield hole 95. Further, a TDI detector 12, which is a fifth detector, is provided at a position at which it receives the electron beam which has been deflected by the deflector 41 in the trajectory direction and passed through the shield hole 95. The shield block 91 used herein may be a cylindrical structure of 1-100 mm diameter, by way of example, which is preferably made of such a material as a metal such as titanium, phosphor bronze, aluminum or the like, or a non-magnetic material, or aluminum plated with gold or titanium plated with gold may also be used. Thus, when an image is captured by any of the EB-CCD sensors 92-94 of the first to third detectors, the shield block 91 is moved by the moving mechanism M without actuating the deflector 41, such that the center of any EB-TDI sensor may be moved to the position of the trajectory of the electron beam e. When the electron beam is incident on the EB-TDI sensor of the fourth detector, the shield block 91 is moved by the moving mechanism M without actuating the deflector 41 to a position at which the electron beam can pass through the shield hole 95. Also, when an image is captured by the TDI detector 12 which is the fifth detector, the deflector 41 is actuated, and the shield block 91 is moved by the moving mechanism M to a position at which the electron beam can pass through the shield hole 95. The EB-CCD sensors 92-94, TDI sensor 17, and EB-TDI sensor 51 used in this embodiment differ from one another in performance such as the element size, driving frequency, sensor size and the like, depending on their respective uses and purposes. One example is listed below. First EB-CCD Sensor 92: Pixel Size: 14 μm, Frame rate: 100 Hz, Sensor Size: 3500×3500 μm; Second EB-CCD Sensor 93: Pixel Size: 7 μm, Frame rate: 33 Hz, Sensor Size: 3500×3500 μm; Third EB-CCD Sensor 94: Pixel Size: 3 μm, Frame rate: 10 Hz, Sensor Size: 3000×3000 μm; EB-TDI Sensor 51: Pixel Size: 14 μm, Scan Rate: 100-1000 kHz supported, Sensor Size: 56×28 mm; and TDI sensor 17: Pixel Size: 14 μm, Scan Rate: 1-100 kHz supported, Sensor Size: 56×28 mm. Describing an exemplary usage of a plurality of sensors as mentioned above, the EB-CCD sensor 92 is used to adjust the electro-optical system of the optical beam, i.e., for optimization of lens conditions, aligner conditions, magnification, and stig conditions. While a lens voltage, an aligner voltage, a stig voltage and the like are controlled by image processing, such control and image processing are fully automated suing a personal computer which incorporates an automatic control function. Images are captured at high speeds using the EB-CCD sensor 92 which provides a high frame rate to adjust automatic conditions. The EB-CCD sensor 93 operates at a frequently used frame rate of 33 Hz, a speed which can be sufficiently determined by the human's eyes. Therefore, a work for confirming adjustment, and observation of a sample, for example, observation, evaluation and the like of an image of defects after an inspection for defects are performed while viewing the image. When miniature defects are found during observation so that observation, evaluation, and classification of defects at higher resolution are desired, the EB-CCD sensor 94 is used. The EB-CCD sensor 94 has smaller pixels and accordingly a higher resolution, but requires a longer time for image capturing due to its lower frame rate. It is therefore necessary to select a site to be observed for image capturing. The TDI detector 12 and EB-TDI sensor are properly used in accordance with their different scan rates (line rates). Generally, frequencies corresponding to the scan rate of a TDI sensor are limited in a frequency range supported by a circuit. Also, it is difficult to design a driving circuit which satisfies both low frequencies and high frequencies. As such, the E-TDI sensor 51 is used to inspect at high speeds and at high frequencies, while the TDI detector 12 is used to perform an inspection for defects at lower frequencies of 1-100 kHz. However, any of the TDI detector 12 and the EB-TDI sensor 51 may be used for high frequencies and low frequencies without any hitch. Nevertheless, since the electron beam directly enters the sensor, the EB-TDI sensor 51 presents a higher sensor temperature. Also, since the EB-TDI sensor 51 suffers from relatively much thermal noise, it is suited to high frequencies at which a short time is taken for capturing images. In the eleventh embodiment shown in FIG. 15, an arbitrary number of detectors can be disposed within a single vacuum chamber as required. For example, one or more EB-CCD sensors can be mounted in the shield block 91 in accordance with its length and necessity, and any of the detector having the EB-TDI sensor 51 and the TDI detector 12 may be omitted. FIG. 16 is a diagram schematically showing a twelfth embodiment of an inspecting apparatus according to the present invention. In the embodiments so far described, a plurality of detectors or sensors are disposed within a single vacuum chamber MC in all the embodiments except for the eighth and ninth embodiments. In this twelfth embodiment, two vacuum spaces are defined in a single vacuum chamber MC, such that a detector is disposed in each of the vacuum spaces. Specifically, an EB-TDI sensor 51 of a TDI detector 12 is disposed in one space of the vacuum chamber MC, while an EB-CCD sensor of a CCD detector 11 is disposed in the other vacuum space coupled to the vacuum chamber MC. For implementing this, a port 101 is provided so as to extend from the vacuum chamber MC at a proper position in FIG. 16, and one end thereof is connected to one end of a vacuum chamber MC′, which provides the other vacuum space, through a gate valve 102. The other end of the vacuum chamber MC′ is sealed by a feed through flange FF′. An EB-CCD sensor 13 is disposed within the vacuum chamber MC′ which provides the other vacuum space, and the EB-CCD sensor 13 is connected to a camera 44 on the atmosphere side through a wire 42 which passes through the feed through flange FF′. In FIG. 16, when the electron beam is incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13 disposed in the vacuum chamber MC′, the traveling direction of the electron beam e is switched by the deflector 41, and the gate valve 102 is opened. An output signal from the EB-CCD sensor 13 is transmitted to the camera 44 through the wire 42. Advantageously, with the EB-CCD sensor 13 which is disposed in a different vacuum space from the vacuum space in which the EB-TDI sensor 51 is disposed, the one vacuum space is not open to the atmosphere only if the gate valve 102 is closed, when the EB-CCD sensor 13 is changed. However, due to different conditions for focusing on the sensor plane (distance, magnification and the like), it is necessary to establish appropriate focusing conditions for the electron beam by controlling a voltage applied to a lens (not shown) placed in front of the deflector 41. As described above, in the first to twelfth embodiments, the EB-CCD sensor, TDI sensor, EB-TDI sensor, and CCD sensor are disposed within a vacuum chamber, so that images can be captured with high contrast and high resolution, and a higher throughput and a lower cost can be accomplished because of the elimination of optical transmission loss, as compared with conventional approaches. In regard to the number of pixels, arbitrary numbers of pixels may be selected for the TDI sensor, CCD sensor, EB-TDI sensor, and EB-CCD sensor used in the first to twelfth embodiments. The numbers of pixels used in general are shown below: CCD Sensor: 640 (horizontal)×480 (vertical), 1000 (horizontal)×1000 (vertical), 2000 (horizontal)×2000 (vertical); EB-CCD Sensor: 640 (horizontal)×480 (vertical), 1000 (horizontal)×1000 (vertical), 2000 (horizontal)×2000 (vertical); TDI Sensor: 1000 (horizontal)×100 (vertical), 2000 (horizontal)×500 (vertical), 4000 (horizontal)×1000 (vertical), 4000 (horizontal)×2000 (vertical); and EB-TDI Sensor: 1000 (horizontal)×100 (vertical), 2000 (horizontal)×500 (vertical), 4000 (horizontal)×1000 (vertical), 4000 (horizontal)×2000 (vertical). The numbers of pixels listed above are merely exemplary, and intermediate values between the foregoing numbers of pixels, or larger numbers of pixels can be used as well. While the TDI sensor and EB-TDI sensor typically integrate (scan) in the vertical direction, they may have one pixel in the vertical direction (for example, 2000×1) if there are sufficient input signals. On the other hand, while the TDI sensor and EB-TDI sensor operate at line rates of 1 kHz to 1 MHz (moving speed in the integration direction), they are often used at 10 to 500 kHz. While the CCD sensor and EB-CCD sensor operate at frame rate of 1 to 1000 Hz, they are typically used at 1 to 100 Hz. These frequencies are selected to appropriate values depending on applications such as adjustments of the electro-optical system, observation of review, and the like. When a sensor having a large pixel size is disposed in the vacuum chamber MC, a larger number of pins are required such as pins for transmitting sensor driving signals, control signals and output signals, common pins, and the like. For example, the number of pins can amount to approximately 100-500 in some cases. With the number of pins thus increased, difficulties are experienced in the connection with the feed through flange using a normal contact socket. Also, the normal contact socket suffers from a high insertion pressure which will exceeds 100 g/pin. If the insertion pressure exceeds 1 kg/cm2 when a sensor package is fixed, the package can be damaged. For example, with a securing member for fixation of approximately 4 cm2, a securing pressure must be limited to 4 kg/4 cm2 or less. Assuming that there are 100 pins with a required insertion pressure of 100 g/pin, the securing pressure amounts to 10 kg, resulting in damages of the package. It is therefore important to use a connection socket which has a resilient member such as a spring for connection of the package with pins of the feed through flange. Such a connection socket incorporating a resilient member can be used with an insertion pressure of 5-30 g/pin, so that the package can be fixed without damages, and driving signals and output signals can be transmitted therethrough without problem. Also, when a sensor is used in vacuum, the emission of gas is problematic. Accordingly, a connection socket used therefor may be formed with a vent hole, the interior and periphery of which is plated with gold. Generally, a sensor is placed in a ceramic package, where required wires are connected to wire pads of the ceramic packages by wire bonding or the like. The ceramic package has wires incorporated therein, and is provided with connection pins on the back surface thereof (opposite to the surface on which the sensor is mounted). The connection pins are connected to pins of a feed through flange by connection parts. Pins outside of the feed through flange (on the atmosphere side) are connected to a camera. Now, a description will be made on the moving mechanism M which is used in the embodiment so far described. FIG. 17 schematically shows the moving mechanism for translating the EB-CCD sensor 13. The moving mechanism M comprises a shield block 112 which is a cylindrical or hollow prism member extending through an opening 111 formed through a vacuum chamber MC at an appropriate position, and the EB-CCD sensor 13 and a circuit board 113 are provided in the shield block 112. The shield block 112 is formed with a shield hole 114 having a size similar to that of the EB-CCD sensor 13 or a size of approximately 0.5 to 1 mm, through which an electron beam is incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13. The shield hole 114 serves as a noise cut aperture for removing unwanted electrons. The shield block 112 is provided for preventing electron beams from impinging on insulated portions to cause charge-up to impede normal operations. In this regard, a preferable material for the shield block 112 is a metal such as titanium, phosphor bronze, aluminum or the like, or a non-magnetic material, in order to reduce the influence of a metal oxide film and sticking of contamination. Alternatively, aluminum plated with gold or titanium plated with gold may also be used for the shield block 112. On end of the shield block 112 is coupled to a feed through flange 116 fixed to a bellows arranged to surround the periphery of the opening 111. Therefore, wires extending from the circuit board 113 are connected to a camera 118 through the feed through portion 117 of the feed through flange 116. The wires 42 are routed to pass through a hollow portion of the shield block 112, which is considered to prevent electron beams from impinging on the wires 42. This is because electron beams impinging on the wires 42 cause charge-up on the wires 42, resulting in adverse affects such as a change in the trajectory of the electron beams. On end of the feed through flange 116 is coupled to a ball screw mechanism 119, and a rotary motor 120 or a rotary handle is connected to an end of the ball screw mechanism 119. Further, both ends of the feed through flange 116 are coupled to a guide rail 121 which extends from the vacuum chamber MC. As such, as the rotary motor 120 is actuated or the handle is turned, the ball screw mechanism 119 translates in a direction perpendicular to the wall surface of the vacuum chamber MC, and the feed through flange 116, in association therewith, moves along the guide rail 121, causing translations of the shield block 112 as well as the EB-CCD sensor 13 and circuit board 113 contained therein. As a result, it is possible to selectively create a scenario in which the electron beam is incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13, and a scenario in which the EB-CCD sensor 13 is moved such that the electron beam is incident on the TDI detector 12. Next, FIG. 18 schematically shows the configuration of a moving mechanism M for causing translations using an air actuator mechanism instead of the rotary motor. As described in connection with FIG. 17, the EB-CCD sensor 13 and circuit board 113 are disposed within the shield block 112 which passes through the opening 111 formed through the vacuum chamber MC at an appropriate position. The shield block 112 is formed with the shield hole 114 for causing the electron beam to be incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13. Also, one end of the shield block 112 is coupled to the feed through flange 116 fixed to the bellows 115 arranged to surround the periphery of the opening 111. The wires 42 extending from the circuit board 113 are connected to the camera 118 through the feed through portion 117 of the feed through flange 116. Further, a shield hole 114′ is formed through the shield block 112 at an appropriate position for causing the electron beam to be incident on the TDI detector 12 when the EB-CCD sensor 13 is moved. On the other hand, an opening 131 is also formed through a wall surface opposite to the opening 111, a hollow cylindrical member 132 is provided to surround the opening 131, and a flange 134 mounted with an air actuator mechanism 133 is fixed to one end of the cylindrical member 132. The air actuator mechanism 133 comprises a piston 135 coupled to an end of the shield block 112. The piston 135, which is vacuum shielded by an O-ring or omni-seal 136, is made movable relative to the flange 134. Also, the air actuator mechanism 133 comprises a hole 138 for introducing or exhausting compressed air into or from an air tight chamber 137 for moving the piston 135 to the left or right in the figure. Thus, the air actuator mechanism 133 is actuated to introduce or exhaust compressed air into or from the air tight chamber through the hole 138 to move the piston 135 to the right, and simultaneously, the shield block 112 is moved in the same direction along the guide rail 121, causing the shield hole 114′ to move to a position at which the electron beam is incident on the TDI detector 12. Conversely, for causing the electron beam to be incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13, the piston 135 may be moved to the left to place the shield hole 114 of the shield block 112 at a position on the optical axis of the electron beam. The air actuator mechanism 133 can be operated with air pressure of 0.1 to 0.5 MPa. For example, a pressure difference is generated on the piston 1335 by switching the introduction and exhaustion direction of the compressed air, for example, by an electromagnetic valve, to operate the air actuator mechanism 133. In this way, it is possible to selectively create a scenario in which the electron beam is incident on the EB-CCD sensor 13, and a scenario in which the EB-CCD sensor 13 is moved such that the electron beam is incident on the TDI detector 12. Further, FIG. 19 shows a moving mechanism which utilizes the rotation. An opening 111 is formed through the wall of a vacuum chamber MC at an appropriate position, and a cylindrical member 114 is protrusively arranged to surround the opening 111. A cylindrical shaft 142 is supported by a bearing 143 so as to be rotatable relative to the cylindrical member 141, and the cylindrical shaft 142 vacuum seals the cylinder member 141 with a sealing member 144. An omni-seal is a sealing member made of Teflon, and is effective for the sealing member 144 which involves movements such as rotation, translation and the like, because of its small coefficient of dynamic friction. Also, the use of the bearing 143 can stabilize the rotation of the cylindrical shaft 142, and keep fluctuations of the axis of rotation small. An EB-CCD sensor 13, a circuit board 113, and wires 42 are disposed in the cylindrical shaft 142. The cylindrical shaft 142 has a flange-shaped end, and a gear 145 is fitted on the periphery of the cylindrical shaft 142. A feed through flange 116 is attached to the flange through an O-ring or ICF vacuum sealing structure 146, and a camera 118 is connected to the feed through flange 116. In the ICF vacuum seal structure, a sealing member for ICF is used for vacuum sealing. The wires 42 within the cylindrical shaft 142 are connected to the camera 118 by way of a plurality of pins of the feed through flange 116 for connection. A gear 147 is provided in correspondence to the gear 145 fitted on the flange at the end of the cylindrical shaft 142. The gear 147 is driven by a rotary actuator 148. Thus, as a rotating shaft of the rotary actuator 148 rotates, the gear 147 rotates, causing the gear 145 to rotate. A rotating angle of the gear 145 can be adjusted by the rotary actuator 148, so that the actuator can be used with a desired defined angle such as 90 degrees, 180 degrees and the like. For example, assuming that the gear ratio is at 1:1, the rotating angle of the rotary actuator 148 may be 90°. In this way, by rotating the rotary actuator 148 by 90°, the electron beam can be selectively incident on any of the EB-CCD sensor 13 and TDI detector 12. A description has been so far made, centered on the detectors, on its configuration and mechanisms for selective usage thereof. In the following, the general configuration of an inspecting apparatus comprising such a detector will be described, including an electro-optical system, with reference to FIGS. 20 to 23. In these figures, a detection unit DU is provided with any of the first to twelfth embodiments, and an electro-optical system is provided at the preceding stage to the detection unit DU. The detection unit DU preferably has the ability to form a two-dimensional image. For this purpose, it is necessary to employ a detector which receives an electron beam representative of a two-dimensional electron image to form a two-dimensional image. As previously described, there are a detector which employs an EB-CCD sensor and/or an EB-TDI sensor on which electrons are directly incident, and a detector which detects light converted from incident electrons using a CCD sensor and/or a TDI sensor. First, an inspecting apparatus shown in FIG. 20 is an example which is combined with a detection unit which includes an electron source, a projection optical system, and a plurality of detectors. A primary electron beam emitted from an electron gun 151 passes through a lens 152, an apertures 153, 154, and a lens 155 in this order, and is incident on an ExB filter 156. The primary electron beam, which travels in a direction deflected by the ExB filter 156, passes through a lens 157, an aperture 158, and lenses 159, 160, and is irradiated to the surface of a wafer W carried on an XYZθ stage S. The wafer W is, for example, an Si wafer of 300 mm diameter, which is formed thereon with a pattern structure in the middle of a semiconductor circuit manufacturing process. The stage S can move in three orthogonal directions, X-, Y-, Z-directions, and rotate in a θ-direction, and the wafer W is fixed on the stage S by an electrostatic chuck. Electron beams emitted from the surface of the wafer W represents a two-dimensional electron image which reflects the shape of patterns formed in the surface of the wafer. The electron beams emitted from the wafer W pass through the lenses 160, 159, aperture 158, and lens 157, and travels straight, without being bent by the ExB filter 156, pass through a lens 161, an aperture 162, a lens 163, and an aligner 164, and is introduced into the detection unit DU. The electron beams thus introduced into the detection unit DU are incident on a detector selected from a plurality of detectors which have been described in the first to twelfth embodiments. The apertures 158, 162 perform noise cut operations. It should be noted that voltages applied to the respective lenses are set to meet conditions for focusing the emitted electrons at a predefined magnification. Also, focus adjustment, distortion adjustment, aligner adjustment, aperture position adjustment, and ExB condition adjustment are performed as optical axis adjustments. The lenses 157, 159 are tablet lenses which are dual telecentric and accomplish low aberration and low distortions. This lens system can provide magnification of 5-1000 times. Distortions are corrected by a stig (not shown), and conditions for adjustment have been periodically calculated using a reference wafer. For adjusting the positions of the aligner and aperture, previously found values are used for a predefined magnification to be used, and ExB is adjusted using a voltage of the electron source 151, i.e., a value previously found for the energy of the primary electron beam. When a wafer has a pattern of oxide films and/or nitride films, an optical correction for distortions alone is not sufficient, so that evaluation points are sampled from a captured image to evaluate shifts in position for correcting distortions. For example, the wafer may be compared with CAD data or review SEM image for evaluation with respect to the horizontal degree, vertical degree, coordinate position, and the like. Subsequently, an inspection can be made for defects on a die-to-die or a cell-to-cell basis or the like. IN the die-to-die inspection for defect, an inspection area is set within a die, and captured images of the same inspection areas from other dies are compared to determine the presence/absence and type of defects. It should be noted that electron beams emitted from the wafer W may be any of secondary electrons, reflected electrons, back scattered electrons, and Auger electrons. Since these electrons differ in energy from one another, an electron image can be captured by selecting focusing conditions with the energy of desired electrons. Voltage conditions for focusing can be previously calculated through simulations or the like. The detection of the image of the wafer W in the detection unit DU involves first moving the stage S such that a predetermined position of the wafer W can be detected, and next detecting a viewing field corresponding to a magnification at that position, for example, an image of an area of 200×200 μm at a magnification of 300 times. By repeating this operation at high speeds, a plurality of positions are detected on the wafer W. Likewise, a comparison of images involves repetitions of operations for moving the stage S to allow the detection unit DU to detect a desired area on the wafer W and capturing an image, and comparing captured data with one another. Through such an inspection process, it is possible to determine the presence/absence of defects such as debris, defective conduction, defective pattern, missing pattern and the like, determine the states of the defects, and classify the defects. An example of specific operation conditions for the inspecting apparatus shown in FIG. 20 is listed below. Pressure within Vacuum Chamber MC during Operation: 1×10-1×10-4 Pa; Stage Moving Speed: 0.1-100 mm/s; Wafer Irradiated Current Density: 1×10-5-1×10-1 A/cm2; Size of Irradiated Electron Beam: Ellipse of 500×300-10×5 μm; Magnification: 10-2000; Amount of Electrons Incident on Detection Unit: 10 pA-1 mA; and Energy Incident on Detection Unit: 1-8 keV. The irradiated current density is controlled by feeding back the output of the detection unit DU. When the outputs of the CCD detector and TDI detector are controlled to fall within 50-80% of their saturation values, they can be used within a range in which the input/output relationship of these detectors can maintain the linearity (i.e., a range in which a shift in linearity is 3% or less), so that images can be highly accurately evaluated. Particularly, with the performance of shading processing for subtracting background noise, or the like, the processing effect is low, and pseudo effects can occur to the contrary in a region with low linearity. Alternatively, the irradiated current density can be controlled using an image evaluation value by an image processing system or the like, instead of the output of the detection unit DU. The control of the irradiated current density using the contrast, maximum luminance, minimum luminance, average luminance, and the like of an image is effective in capturing stable images. It is also possible to perform stable image comparisons by standardizing the luminance and contrast of images to be compared, i.e., under the same conditions. FIG. 21 shows an example which is configured to use one of UV light, UV laser light, and X-ray instead of an electron beam in the inspecting apparatus described in FIG. 20. Specifically, an UV light source 171 is provided, for irradiating a wafer W with UV light, by way of example, instead of the electron gun 151, lenses 152, 155, and apertures 153, 154. In this way, the UV light is incident on the surface of the wafer W as a primary beam, and optical electrons emitted from the wafer W are enlarged by a lens, an aperture or the like of an illustrated electro-optical system, and directed into a detection unit DU which detects an image of patterns on the wafer W. The UV light from the UV light source 171 is actually transmitted to the wafer W through a hollow fiber, and is irradiated to a viewing field region near the center of the wafer W, for example, in a region of 300 μm diameter. In this regard, the X-ray or UV laser light may be used as a primary beam in a similar manner, where optical electrons emitted from a wafer W irradiated therewith can be utilized to capture an electron image of patterns on the wafer W. FIG. 22 in turn shows an example which employs in combination a primary electron beam from an electron gun 151, and UV laser light from a UV laser source 181 for irradiating the surface of a wafer W with the two types of beams. In this example, as will be understood from the descriptions made in connection with FIGS. 20 and 21, the primary electron beam emitted from the electron gun 151 is deflected by an ExB filter 156 to travel along the optical axis of an electro-optical system, and is irradiated to the wafer W. Electron beams emitted from the wafer W travels straight through the electro-optical system. The UV laser used in combination with the primary electron beam is also incident on the surface of the wafer W as a primary beam, and optical electrons emitted therefrom are enlarged by a lens, an aperture and the like of the illustrated electro-optical system, and are directed into a detection unit DU which detects an image of patterns on the wafer W. The UV laser light used herein may be a four-time wave of YAG or exima laser light which is introduced to the surface of the wafer W through a hollow fiber. In the inspecting apparatus so far described in connection with FIGS. 20 to 22, the lens 160 operates as a control electrode. When the wafer W includes a number of oxide films and/or nitride films, the wafer W irradiated with an electron beam readily results in charge-up on the oxide film or the like on the surface. This will cause the trajectory of electron beams emitted from the surface of the wafer W to curve, or a discharge to occur between the wafer W and an electrode, for example, the lens 159 or the like. This influence is particularly grave in the projection optical system shown in FIGS. 20 to 22. This is because electron beam impinges on a wider region at one time, as compared with a SEM scheme, due to a rectangular or oval shape of the irradiated electron beam. In the SEM scheme, since converged electron beams are scanned, the charge-up is mitigated, resulting in a relatively small amount of charge-up. However, for the reason set forth above, the projection optical system is more susceptible to charge-up and largely affected thereby. A discharge occurs between the wafer W and the lens 159 because a potential on the lens 160 is relatively low and can be freely changed, whereas the lens 159 is applied with a high voltage in the range of 15 to 30 kV which cannot be varied. In this event, a lens electric field distribution on the surface of the wafer W is determined by the voltage applied to the lens 159, and a voltage applied to the wafer W (for example, −3 kV), for example, 1-3 kV/mm. Therefore, the lens 160 is used to adjust the electric field distribution on the surface of the wafer W by adjusting the voltage applied to the lens. By adjusting the voltage of the lens 160, the electric field distribution on the surface of the wafer W can be adjusted in the range of 0.1 to 1 kV/mm, thus restraining the discharge. This is because, by debilitating the positive electric field distribution, an initial acceleration of electrons emitted from the surface of the wafer W can be reduced, i.e., an emitted electric field strength can be debilitated, to reduce the emission of electrons which contribute to the discharge. Actually, it is thought that electrons are more likely to be emitted at corners and in regions with high electric field strength. For example, assuming that an insulating film is positively charged up, and a miniature plug structure electrically conducted to a lower layer exists below the insulating film, the plug is at a substrate potential (for example, −3 kV), with the surrounding insulator positively charged up. When the surface of the plug has a diameter of 100 nm, and the charge-up is +10 V, the average electric field strength of the plug is calculated to be 100 kV/mm. Further, if the electric field strength increases in fine gaps and asperities in a boundary region between the plug and the insulator beyond 108-109 V/mm, by way of example, electrons will be emitted, causing a discharge to readily occur. Next, FIG. 23 shows an example off a transmission-type inspecting apparatus. While the inspecting apparatus shown in FIGS. 20 to 22 irradiates a wafer with an electron beam, UV light, or UV laser light to use electrons emitted from the wafer, the inspecting apparatus shown in FIG. 23 inspects a sample utilizing electrons which are generated by an electron beam that has transmitted a sample. Specifically, an electron beam emitted from an electron gun 151 passes through a lens 191 and an aperture 192 to control the angle of electrons and the amount of electrons incident on zoom lenses 193, 194. An incident angle to the aperture 195 is controlled by these lenses. The electron beam, which has been adjusted for the amount of electrons by the aperture 195, is made parallel with the optical axis by a lens 196, and irradiated to a sample SL. By adjusting voltages applied to the zoom lenses 193, 194, the zooming magnification is change, for example, from one to 200 times, and the size of the electron beam irradiated to the sample SL is controlled to have the diameter, for example, in the range of 5 to 1000 μm. The electron beam which has passed through or transmitted the sample SL is enlarged by a secondary optical system which comprises lenses 197, 198, 200, 201, 203, and apertures 199, 202, and is introduced into a detection unit DU. The lens 197 comprises an electrode for adjusting the electric field strength with the sample SL. The lenses 198, 200 are doublet lenses and satisfy dual centric conditions, and therefore provide electron images with low aberration. The lenses 201, 203 are lenses for enlarging an electron image. The lens 203 is adjusted such that the electron beam is focused on the sensor of the detection unit DU, the fluorescent plate, or the surface of the MCP. The apertures 199, 202 control aberration and the amount of electrons introduced into the detection unit DU. The sample SL can be any arbitrary item such as an exposure mask, a stencil mask, a micro-machine having a miniature structure, MEMS parts and the like, in addition to a semiconductor wafer and a semiconductor device. It is necessary to adjust the energy of the electron beam irradiated to the sample in accordance with the characteristics of each sample, such as the material, pattern shape, and the like of the sample SL. For permitting the electron beam to transmit the sample SL, high energy is required, and can be 50-100 keV in some cases. With a sample SL having openings such as holes, slits and the like, and/or interstices, for capturing electron beams which have passed through such openings and interstices, the electron gun 151 is required to generate electrons of 10-10000 eV. For example, assume that a sample SL is irradiated with an electron beam having energy of 5 keV, generated from the electron gun 151. In this event, assuming that the potential of the sample is −4 kV, the electron beam is incident on the sample SL at 1 kev. The electron beam which has passed through the sample SL reflects patterns on the sample SL, and is introduced into the detection unit DU. In the inspecting apparatus which has been described above with reference to a variety of embodiments, the CCD sensor or EB-CCD sensor is used to capture a still image, and adjustment of beam axis, observation of sample, inspection for defects, capturing of review image, review observation, measurement, and evaluation can be performed utilizing a step-and-repeat function. In the following, the step-and-repeat function will be described with reference to FIG. 24. FIG. 24(A) schematically shows the positional relationship between a wafer W and a plurality of dies 211. As shown, a notch 212 is formed in a right-hand region. The dies 211 include a plurality of patterns, classified into a cell pattern area and a random pattern area, and therefore, a plurality of types of cells and random pattern areas exist. The size of the dies is generally on the order of 1×1 mm to 30×30 mm, though it depends on a wafer of a process. As shown in FIGS. 23(B) and 23(C), a care pattern 213 refers to a pattern portion for which an inspection, a measurement, or an evaluation is desired, within such a pattern, and a particular site 214 refers to a portion which should be particularly noted. The particular sites include, for example, a site which is highly likely to become defective during a process period due to difficulties in processing because of a small pattern size, a defective site after an inspection for defects, a site which is evaluated for a shift in position with an underlying lager in a lamination process, a turn site for evaluating distortion and aberration of the electro-optical system, and the like. For the particular sites as listed above, the step-and-repeat is performed using a CCD sensor or an EB-CCD sensor to compare required images, evaluate shifts, to observe details, and so on. For inspecting a care area in a cell portion for defects, patterns are compared with one other in repeated pattern areas in the cell portion. For example, a viewing field of 5×5 to 500×500 μm on a sample surface can be observed in a capturing time of 10 to 100 minutes with a magnification of approximately 50 to 1000. As one still image (CCD image or EB-CCD image) has been captured, the observation area is moved by a predefined distance to capture the same pattern in a similar manner. With repeated patterns, the next one of successive patterns is captured. In this way, a plurality, generally, three or more, of the same patterns are captured, and the captured images are compared with one another. As the result of the comparison, if there is only one different pattern or contrast, or the like, this part is regarded as defective. Such an inspection is made simultaneously with the image capturing (on-line), or after capturing inspected images (off-line), to classify the coordinates and types of defective sites. For inspecting random patterns for defects, random patterns in care areas of each die are compared with one another. In this event, a care area of a random pattern is captured on one die. This may be performed using any of an approach for capturing a plurality of still images at one time and an approach for capturing one by one. Next, the inspecting apparatus is moved to a random pattern in a care area of another die for capturing. By thus capturing three or more still images, comparing corresponding patterns with one another, and finding an failure which exists only on one image, defective patterns, debris, defective contrast, and the like are sensed. With this inspection, the coordinates of defects and the type of defects can be classified on-line or off-line. This is referred to as a die-to-die inspection based on step-and-repeat. Otherwise, the inspecting apparatus may be used to evaluate a positional shift with an underlying layer in a process. In this event, alignment marks are placed on an underlying layer and an overlying layer laminated thereon. A positional shift is evaluated by measuring a degree to which these alignment marks overlap, for example, a shift of the position of center of gravity, a shift of the centers of representative lengths from one another, and the like. This evaluation is made after CMP in a wiring structure for the underlying layer, and after the formation of resist, or after resist covering and exposure for the overlying layer. Examples of alignment marks are shown in FIG. 25. (A) shows a cross-shaped alignment mark, arranged on an overlying layer and an underlying layer, which comprises two rectangle of 15 μm long placed one on the other to appear as a cross shape. Based on how these alignment marks overlap, the amount of shift is found for a representative position such as a pattern center position or the like, calculated from the positions of the centers of gravity of the underlying layer and overlying layer, and the vertical and horizontal lengths to compare the overlying and underlying layers. (B) shows a square alignment mark 222 having a side of 20 μm attached to an underlying layer, and a square alignment mark 223 having a side of 7 μm attached to an overlying layer, which overlap one on the other. Likewise, in this event, a positional shift is evaluated by calculating the center position of the mark from a sift of the positions of the centers of gravity, and a die row length. In this regard, the size of the alignment marks is not limited to the values shown in FIG. 25, but an alignment mark of a smaller size may be used, for example, a total size of 1×1 μm. 10-50 of such alignment marks are attached to one wafer. A shift amount is calculated for each alignment mark, and if there is a relative directivity in the shift amount (for example, when a larger shift is found generally in the left-hand direction), the exposure position is adjusted to make a correction therefor. In this way, with the use of the step-and-repeat function, the CCD sensor or EB-CCD sensor provides a higher resolution and MTF, as compared with the TDI detector. When images can be captured in a situation in which a large number of electrons can be captured per pixel, inspection for defects, review inspection, position shift inspection can be performed with high accuracy, taking advantage of the characteristics of the CCD sensor and EB-CCD sensor. As described above, the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention can use the CCD detector 11 and TDI detector 12 by switching one to the other, and therefore provides advantages as described below. First, the CCD detector 11 using the CCD sensor or EB-CCD sensor can be used to capture a still image, while the TDI detector 12 using the TDI sensor or EB-TDI sensor can be used to capture sequential images by capturing images while moving the stage device. For switching these detectors to selectively capturing a still image and sequential images, the axes of the sensors used in the respective detectors must be in alignment. It is also necessary that the lens conditions (intensities of the lenses, beam deflection conditions, and the like) are the same when the CCD detector 11 is used and when the TDI detector 12 is used. Further, the primary optical system and secondary optical system must operate under the same conditions. In this regard, the sensors of the respective detectors can be corrected for a relative positional shift of their axes by comparing images captured by the sensor of the CCD detector 11 and the sensor of the TDI detector 12. Describing the operation in the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention in a specific manner, first at step 91, the CCD detector 11 is placed in front of the TDI detector 12 to capture a still image to align the primary optical system to the secondary optical system. Next, after the secondary optical system is adjusted (for example, the size, magnification, and contrast of secondary beams, centering of lenses), the size and current density distribution of the primary beam are adjusted. Subsequently, at step S2, the CCD detector 11 is moved to direct secondary electron beams into the TDI detector 12, thereby capturing sequential images to ensure sample inspection images. Further subsequently, at step S3, the CCD detector 11 is removed and placed in front of the TDI detector 12 to capture a review image which is then compared with the inspection images captured by the TDI detector 12 to determine whether a defective site confirmed in an inspection image captured by the TDI detector 12 is a false defect or a true defect. It should be noted that in general, the aforementioned step S1 is performed only for the first one of a plurality of wafers accommodated in a cassette, while steps S2 and S3 are performed for the second wafer onward. However, for confirming the stability of the inspection, step S1 may be performed on a periodic basis. As described above, since still images can be captured by the CCD detector 11, the optical system can be adjusted by attaching a standard chip at an arbitrary end of the stage device, without the need for transferring a wafer. In other words, a still image of the standard chip can be captured while a wafer is being loaded, to confirm the reproductivity of the primary beam, secondary beam, and electron beam (free of variations). When a difference is found by confirming a difference between the image of the standard chip and the image of the wafer, no inspection is performed on the assumption that chucking conditions of the electrostatic chuck have varied. It is also possible to check variations in the current density of the primary beam and the beam size. The size, position, and profile of the primary beam are adjusted with reference to the image captured by the CCD detector 11 at the aforementioned step 91. Also, when variations in these parameters exceed a certain basis, the electron gun or FA (aperture plate) is replaced. In a process of aligning the primary beam to the secondary beam, an image of low magnification, for example, 30 times, 80 times or the like is used. However, since the secondary beam locally impinges on MCP when a low-magnification image is captured, the MCP is locally damaged, resulting in a failure in detecting defects. Accordingly, the MCP must be replaced when an observation time at low magnifications has exceeded a certain time (for example, 1000 hours). On the other hand, the EB-CCD sensor can be used for a long term because it is not particularly damaged by the irradiation of the electron beam. Also, the secondary beam is aligned with reference to the image captured by the CCD detector 11. For example, the centering of the lenses, optimization for operating conditions of the beam deflector (for example, the ExB separator 3 in FIG. 2) (for example, adjustments to conditions for projecting an image onto the center of the sensor) can be performed. In this way, highly accurate adjustments can be accomplished. For example, the MTF can be adjusted in the range of 30 to 50%. Also, by using the image captured by the CCD detector 11, it is possible to check fluctuations in the secondary beam, changes in stig condition, a shift of the center of lens, fluctuations in beam deflection conditions, and the like. In regard to the image processing system (for example, the image processing unit 9 in FIG. 2), a step-and-repeat based inspection can be performed because a still image can be captured by the CCD detector 11. Also, since the detectors can be rapidly switched, an inspection can be performed after switching from the TDI detector 12 to the CCD detector 11 when the inspection involves a small number of points under inspection, such as an overlay inspection. Preferably, the TDI detector 12 is used for an inspection when the inspection speed is 10 MPPS (mega-pixel/sec) or higher, and the CCD detector 11 is used for an inspection when the inspection speed is 10 MPPS or lower. Also, since the sensor of the CCD detector 11 has been brought into alignment to the sensor of the TDI detector 12, the sensor of the CCD detector 11 need not be again aligned when a review image is captured at the aforementioned step S3. By incorporating the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention into a factory network, operation situations such as axis adjustment, inspection, review and the like can be communicated to a manager through the factory network, thus permitting the manager to immediately know failures in apparatuses and defective adjustments and take appropriate actions therefor. Now, an example of a semiconductor manufacturing method performed using the inspecting apparatus described above will be described with reference to flow diagrams of FIGS. 26 and 27. As shown in FIG. 26, the semiconductor device manufacturing method includes, as main processes, a wafer manufacturing process 231 for manufacturing wafers or a wafer preparing process for preparing wafers, a mask manufacturing process f236 or manufacturing masks and reticles for use in exposure or a mask preparing process for preparing masks, a wafer processing process 232 for performing processing required to the wafer, a chip assembling process 233 for cutting, one by one, chips formed on the wafer and making them operable, a chip inspecting process for inspecting chips manufactured in the chip assembling process, and a process for producing products (semiconductor devices) from chips which have passed the inspection. In this regard, since the wafer manufacturing process 231, wafer processing process 232, and lithography process 2323 are known, a description thereon is omitted here. These main processes are further comprised of several sub-processes, respectively. A main process which exerts critical affections to the performance of resulting semiconductor devices is the wafer processing process. This process involves sequentially laminating designed circuit patterns on the wafer to form a large number of chips which operate as memories or MPUs. The wafer fabricating process includes sub-processes as shown in an area surrounded by dotted lines in the figure. Specifically, the wafer processing process 232 includes a thin film forming sub-process 2321 for forming dielectric thin films serving as insulating layers, metal thin films for forming wires or electrodes, and so on using CVD, sputtering and so on; an oxidation sub-process 2322 for oxidizing metal thin film layers and wafer substrate; a lithography sub-process 2323 for forming a resist pattern using masks or reticles for selectively fabricating the thin film layers and the wafer substrate; an etching sub-process 2324 for fabricating the thin film layers and the substrate in conformity to the resist pattern using, for example, dry etching techniques; an ion/impurity implantation/diffusion sub-process 2325; a resist striping sub-process; and an inspection sub-process 2326 for inspecting the fabricated wafer. As appreciated, the wafer processing process 232 is repeated a number of times equal to the number of required layers to manufacture semiconductor devices which operate as designed. By applying the inspecting apparatus according to the present invention to the inspection sub-process 2326, it is possible to inspect even a semiconductor device which has miniature patterns. Since a total inspection can be accomplished, it is possible to manufacture semiconductor devices which operate as designed to improve the yield rate of products and prevent defective products from being shipped. FIG. 27 shows steps performed in the lithography sub-process 2323 in FIG. 26. The lithography sub-process 2323 includes a resist coating step 241 for coating a resist on the wafer on which circuit patterns have been formed in the previous process; a resist exposing step 242 for exposing the resist; a developing step 243 for developing the exposed resist to produce a resist pattern; and an annealing step 244 for stabilizing the developed resist pattern. While the inspecting apparatuses according to the present invention have been described in connection with a variety of embodiments thereof with reference to the drawings, the present invention is not limited to such embodiments. For example, in the embodiments so far described, the sensors and electro-optical systems are disposed within the vacuum chamber, but the vacuum chamber is not necessarily used in an environment in which sensors such as the CCD sensor, TDI sensor and the like can operate. Also, while the embodiments shown in FIGS. 3 to 7, FIG. 12, FIG. 14, FIG. 15, and FIGS. 17 to 19 uses the FOP at one stage, the FOP is not limited to one stage, but the FOPs can also be used at a plurality of stages. For example, it is possible to use two FOPs which comprise an FOP coated with a fluorescent agent for use in combination with MCP, and an FOP adhered to a TDI sensor and in close contact with the former FOP. In doing so, the assembly is improved in accuracy and efficiency. Specifically, if a FOP coated with a fluorescent agent is adhered to a TDI sensor, contamination and adhesive, if sticking to the fluorescent agent of the FOP, would be difficult to wash away. Also, when a fluorescent agent is coated after adhesion, a special process and technique will be required such that the fluorescent agent is not coated on the TDI sensor itself. Further, a high level of stringency is required for an assembling accuracy for the parallelism of the FOP coated with the fluorescent agent with an MCP and the like, so as not to affect the resolution and anti-discharge performance. Such intricacy is eliminated by the use of the aforementioned FOPs at two stages. This is true when a plurality of FOPs are used. As will be understood from the foregoing description, the present invention relies on a moving mechanism or a deflecting means to select a detector which provides appropriate performance without requiring a work for changing one detector to another as before, thus making it possible to reduce a long time taken for the restoration of a vacuum state after the exposure to the atmosphere due to the change of the detector, and to efficiently perform works such as adjustments to certain electro-optical systems, sequential inspections, defect evaluation, and the like. Also, the present invention has a great significance in a technological and industrial sense such as the accomplishment of remarkable improvements on work efficiency, reduction in cost, higher performance of surface inspection, higher throughput, and the like.
	description	This invention relates generally to x-ray generation and use, and, more particularly, relates to a system and method for generating a convergent or divergent x-ray emission pattern from a continuous source. High-energy electromagnetic radiation in the form of x-rays has found use in a vast spectrum of fields and endeavors. The use of x-rays in medical imaging is probably the most familiar scenario to most people, but other uses abound as well. For example, x-rays may be used in a medical setting for purposes of activation, such as of a medication or substance, rather than for imaging. Moreover, many uses of x-ray radiation in ground and geological exploration are known, such as in connection with oil exploration or subsurface imaging. One effective use of x-ray radiation is in the treatment of substances to reduce biological and other contamination. For example, food can be irradiated to kill microorganisms, making the food safer to consume. Waste water or runoff may be irradiated in the same manner to reduce contamination. However, as useful as x-rays are in some of these capacities, the efficiency with which that radiation is produced and directed is suboptimal at present. Typical x-ray sources comprise a point source electron producer, an accelerator, and a metal target. In operation, the electrons generated by the point source are accelerated through the accelerator, and impact the metal target. Upon impact of the high-energy electrons with the target, x-ray radiation is emitted. Typically the emitted radiation spreads in a conical pattern beyond the region of impact depending upon the composition and configuration of the target, the energy and dispersal of the impinging electrons, etc. Given this divergent radiation pattern, it can be seen that the radiation dose at a given distance r from the region of impact falls off in approximately an inverse squared (1/r2) manner. To effectively employ this radiation pattern at proper doses, a strong radiation field, accounting for the fall off with distance, must be generated, and the object of interest must be positioned properly in the radiation cone. Although some radiation sources use multiple point sources, or one or more mobile point sources, to make up for the suboptimal emission pattern, such systems have their own inherent drawbacks and complexities. In particular, complications involving source timing, positioning, etc. are commonplace. Embodiments of the invention provide a novel technique for x-ray generation and use. The technique described herein utilizes one or more emitting surfaces, rather than point sources. The geometry of the emitting surface and a target surface are such that, in embodiments of the invention, the impact of electrons from the emitting surface upon the target surface produces a convergent radiation field. In a further embodiment of the invention, the target surface is located at the outer surface of a tubular member, such that the convergent radiation field occurs within the tubular member. This is particularly useful for the radiation treatment of flowable materials such as liquids, gases, etc. More generally however, the invention involves, in embodiments, the use of two members having similar concavity (not necessarily in degree but in direction) placed and configured such that electrons generated at one of the members accelerate between the members in a convergent or divergent manner and strike a metal target film at or on the second member. X-rays generated in response to these collisions radiate through and beyond the second member, or reflect from the second member, in a convergent pattern. In an embodiment of the invention, multiple separate x-ray generation apparatus are used in series and/or in parallel to irradiate flowable materials including but not limited to liquids. In further embodiments of the invention, the space between the first and second members is evacuated to minimize electron loss and electron energy loss, thus allowing the electrons to efficiently gain energy while traveling between their surface of origin and an x-ray generation surface or element. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be made apparent from the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures. The invention pertains to x-ray generation and use, and encompasses, in embodiments of the invention, a novel system and technique for generating a convergent radiation field, particularly suitable for irradiation of flow through media, but amenable to other uses as well. In general overview, an architecture according to an example embodiment of the invention comprises an inner tube and an outer tube. Electrons are extracted from an emitter layer on the inner surface of the outer tube and accelerated towards the inner tube. Upon impact with a target layer on the outer surface of the inner tube, x-ray radiation is emitted. Since the points of impact will lie substantially uniformly about the surface of the inner tube, the resulting radiation field is essentially axially symmetric and convergent toward the center axis of the inner tube. Embodiments of the invention will now be described in greater detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. Referring to FIG. 1, a cross-sectional side view of an x-ray generation apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention is shown. The x-ray generation apparatus 100 comprises a hollow tubular outer member 101 in a substantially coaxial relationship with a hollow tubular inner member 103. The inner 103 and outer 101 tubular members are held in their respective positions and maintained electrically isolated from one another by a first annular insulating end cap 105 and a second annular insulating end cap 107. The end caps 105, 107 may be in direct contact with the inner 103 and outer 101 tubular members, such as via a screwing or sliding contact. Alternatively, annular seals or gaskets 109, 111 may be interposed between the end caps 105, 107 and the inner 103 and outer 101 tubular members as shown, etc. Suitable seals and gaskets include rubber seals, such as Viton, or copper gaskets, etc. as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art. An annular electron emitter source 113 such as a gated field emitter source is located along the inside wall of the outer tubular member 101. Similarly, an annular metal target layer 115 is situated on the outer surface of the inner tubular member 103, and may or may not be insulated from the inner tubular member 103 by an insulating layer, not shown. The metal target layer 115 and the gate of the gated field emitter source 113 are electrically accessible from outside the end cap 107. In an embodiment of the invention, respective leads 121 and 119 are connected to the components through the end cap 107, such as via high voltage feed throughs, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art. In addition, the emitter film of the gated field emitter source 113 is electrically accessible via lead 117 through the end cap 107, such as via a high voltage feed through or similar mechanism. Finally, the outer tubular member 101 has a portal 123 from outside of the outer tubular member 101 to the inner space 125 defined by the outer tubular member 101, the inner tubular member 103, and the end caps 105, 107. This portal is used primarily for evacuating the inner space 125 to vacuum (such as less than 10−6 Torr) during operation of the device 100, to minimize collisions of accelerated electrons with foreign molecules or particles after leaving the emitter film and before striking the metal target layer 115. In addition, the portal 123 may be used to backfill the inner space 125, such as with Nitrogen or other inert gas, when the device 100 is not in use. Various materials can be used in the construction of the inner 103 and outer 101 tubular members. However, it is essential that both the inner 103 and outer 101 tubular members are able to sustain and withstand the vacuum level that is maintained in the inner space 125. In addition, it is desirable that the thickness and material of the inner tubular member 103 be such that the inner tubular member 103 is substantially transparent to x-ray radiation, such that any inwardly directed x-rays generated by collisions of accelerated electrons with the metal target layer 115 pass substantially through the wall of the inner tubular member 103 into the inner space 127 thereof. Exemplary materials of sufficient x-ray transmissivity include glass, plastic, thin metal, beryllium, quartz, graphite, boron nitride, etc. In addition, with respect to the outer tubular member 101, it is desirable that this member be either substantially opaque to the x-rays generated by the instrument, or be coated with a material that is substantially opaque to such x-rays. This is because a portion of the x-rays generated within the device may be directed or be scattered outwardly. The shielding property of the outer tubular member 103 is thus important when it is desired to protect nearby personnel and/or materials from radiation damage. Preferably, the outer tubular member 103 is constructed of a reasonable thickness, such as 0.12″, tubular stainless steel or aluminum, but any other material or materials can be used within the principles set forth above. With respect to the metal target layer 115, this layer is preferably such that electron energies generated by the particular voltages and spacings used is sufficient to cause x-ray emission from the material. Suitable materials include, for example, Cu, W, Mo, etc. This layer may be deposited by vapor deposition, sputtering, etc., or may be placed, such as in the form of a foil. As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, the acceleration voltages usable in such a system are rather high, such that dielectric breakdown is a concern. Typical voltages are on the order of 10-500 kV. Moreover, electrical fields tend to concentrate at prominences or irregularities, such as the ends of the tubular members described above. In order to forestall dielectric breakdown, it is therefore generally desirable to minimize outcroppings and irregularities between the electron emission surface and the target x-ray generation surface or element. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of an x-ray generation device having electron emission and x-ray emission surfaces that are concave, with the concavity in substantially the same direction. While FIG. 2 can be seen to represent a cross sectional side view taken of a device of the configuration shown in FIG. 3A, it also applies to devices having cylindrical rather than spherical or hemispherical concavity. The wall 203 of an outer tubular member can be seen in cross-section, as can the wall 201 of an inner tubular member. The emitter film and gate are indicated by respective elements 205 and 207. A metal target layer is similarly represented by element 209. The applied voltages are illustrated schematically as well, although it will be appreciated that in the assembled system, any high voltages, such as those supplied by lead 209, would typically be applied via high voltage feed throughs, and not simple leads. It can be seen that the emitter film 205 is maintained at ground or reference voltage, VREF. The emitter extraction grid (gate) 207 is maintained at an extraction voltage VE, such that the potential VE−VREF is sufficient to extract electrons from the emitter film 205. The metal target layer 209 is maintained at an acceleration voltage VA. In operation, the electrons that are extracted from the emitter film 205 begin to accelerate once in the region between the gate 207 and the target layer 209. Their acceleration is essentially proportional to the electrostatic acceleration force applied, which is itself proportional to the voltage difference VA−VE, and inversely proportional to the radial distance between the gate 207 and the target layer 209. Although higher acceleration voltages yield higher electron energies, the maximum such voltage may be limited by the insulating limits of the end caps, feed throughs, etc., as well as by the onset of arcing or dielectric breakdown. Although some of the systems described above utilize concentric tubular members, it will be appreciated that a number of other geometries can employ the same principles to yield a cylindrically or spherically convergent x-ray field. An exemplary selection of such arrangements are shown in FIGS. 3A-B. In particular, in FIG. 3A, a hemispherical x-ray generation apparatus 301 is shown. An inner 305 and outer 303 shell perform the same functions as the inner and outer tubular members of the aforementioned embodiment. In particular, the space between the shells 303, 305 is an electron acceleration region, with a target layer (not shown) being disposed on the outside of the inner shell 305, and an electron emitter, gated or otherwise (not shown), being disposed on the inside of the outer shell 303. In order to evacuate the electron acceleration region, the edges of the shells 303, 305 may be sealed together, such as by an insulating end ring, or the apparatus may simply be used within a separate evacuated chamber. It will be appreciated that since the inner shell 305 is concave, the generated radiation field will be substantially convergent in a region near the center of the concentric spherical shells 303, 305. It will be appreciated that additional non-convergent radiation fields may also be generated, but such are not of interest here. As illustrated, in an embodiment of the invention, the foci of the concentric spherical shells 303, 305 lie within or upon a partially enclosed target volume defined by the inner shell 305. The concavity of the inner 305 and outer 303 shells can be controlled to define the convergent pattern of emission produced by the device. For example, more focused concavities will tend to tighten or narrow the emission pattern while less focused concavities will tend to broaden the pattern. In this way, the cross section of the convergent pattern of emission may be confined largely to any desired extent, such as 10 degrees, 45 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees, etc. or any intermediate value without limitation. With respect to spherical or partial spherical geometries, the convergent pattern of emission may be confined in the same way, i.e. it lay be largely confined to π steradians, 2π steradians, and so on, or any intermediate value. An alternative arrangement is shown in FIG. 3B. In particular, an x-ray generation apparatus comprises inner 311, and outer 309 curved sheets. Analogously to the embodiment of the invention discussed above, the inner 311 and outer 309 sheets perform the same functions as the inner and outer tubular members. The space between the sheets 309, 311 is an electron acceleration region, with a target layer, not shown, being disposed on the outside of the inner sheet 311, and a gated or ungated emitter, not shown, being disposed on the inside of the outer sheet 309. Again, in order to evacuate the electron acceleration region, the edges of the sheets 309, 311 may be sealed together, such as by an insulating edge fitting, or the apparatus may simply be used within an evacuated chamber. Moreover, since the inner sheet 311 is concave, the generated radiation field will be substantially radially convergent within or near the volume defined inside the inner sheet 311. For the reader's convenience, a brief description of the electron extraction and acceleration processes as well as the x-ray emission process are given with reference to FIG. 4. FIG. 4 illustrates a simplified schematic drawing of a portion of the x-ray generation apparatus, with concavity omitted for ease of understanding. A section 401 of an outer wall has thereon a section 403 of emitter film and an extraction gate 405. A section 409 of an inner wall has thereon a section 407 of a target metal film or foil. In operation, viewing the path of a single electron, that electron 411 is extracted from the emitter film 403 by the extraction voltage VE, and accelerated toward the inner wall 407 by the acceleration voltage VA. After traversing the interwall space 413, and accelerating therein, the electron impacts the metal target film 407 at a point 415. The impact generates one or more photons 417 having energy in the x-ray range. Although the illustrated x-rays 417 are shown to be directed toward the center of the device, some x-rays 418 may also scatter backward toward the outer wall (or in a tubular assembly, pass out the far side of the inner tubular member and continue toward the opposite point on the outer tubular member). Thus, as noted above, the outer wall should have shielding properties or include a shielding layer. Having described a number of x-ray generation apparatus according to example embodiments of the invention, some exemplary uses of such systems according to further embodiments of the invention will now be discussed. FIG. 5 shows a multi-pass flow-through treatment system 500 and component x-ray generation apparatus, as described above, in high level schematic form. The system 500 comprises a pipe or conduit 501 having an inlet 503 and an outlet 505, and passing through first 507 and second 509 x-ray generation apparatus such as described above with respect to FIG. 1. A shared pump 513 and electrical supply 511 are shown connected to each x-ray generation apparatus 507, 509. After liquid matter is passed into inlet 503, it passes first through the first x-ray generation apparatus 507, and the flow then returns through the second x-ray generation apparatus 509, before the material is expelled from the outlet 505. During each pass through an x-ray generation apparatus, the liquid is irradiated with x-ray radiation, generated and directed in the manner described above. In this way, any biological or chemical components susceptible to this type of radiation will be killed, destroyed, or modified to a desired form. It should be noted that the intensity and energy spectrum of radiation needed should be calculated based on the material that one desires to irradiate, including its x-ray absorption characteristics, desired end-product(s), as well as the concentration of microbes, target material, etc. to be affected. For example, it may desired to cause the breakdown of PCBs. If the chlorine atom of the molecule is removed via severance of its bond with x-ray radiation, harmless end-products such as HCl, water, and CO2 result. As the above example points out, one can target specific reactions by tuning the x-ray radiation. Another example of this is in facilitating flow-through, rather than batch, polymerization. Appropriate monomers and/or oligomers can be passed through any of the systems described above. The x-rays generated by the system can then cause ionization to induce free radical polymerization. In addition to the many benefits provided by such continuous processing, this system also provides an improvement over traditional UV polymerization, in that x-rays have lower extinction. An e-beam device as described elsewhere herein may also be used in this manner, although allowances would be necessary to account for the fact that high-energy electrons typically experience increased extinction. In another embodiment of the invention, wherein it is necessary to treat a larger quantity of material, or to very rapidly treat a given amount of material, the subject material may be treated in a parallel fashion as shown in FIG. 6 with high throughput. In particular, the single-pass parallel treatment system 600 of FIG. 6 comprises dual x-ray generation apparatus 607, 609 such as those described above with reference to FIG. 5, as well as a shared pump 613 and electrical source 611. However, unlike the apparatus shown in FIG. 5, the treatment system 600 treats waste in a single pass but provides multiple paths to improve throughput. Thus, liquid material entering into inlet 601 may pass through either but not both of x-ray generation apparatus 607, 609. After treatment in the x-ray generation apparatus 607, 609, the liquid is combined and exits at outlet 603. It is desirable in an embodiment of the invention that the treatment systems according to FIGS. 5 and 6 be able to be disassembled for maintenance, storage, or shipping. Thus, the inlets, outlets and connecting pipes, conduits, etc. are preferably removable and reinstallable, such as via standard vacuum, plumbing, and electrical hardware. It should be noted that the treatment systems described above are merely examples, and any combination and configuration of elements is possible within the invention. For example, a parallel system that includes multiple x-ray generation apparatus in each path are possible, as well as a series treatment system comprising a series of parallel subsystems. Moreover, although shared components are shown, there is no limitation to the invention in that regard, and the x-ray generation apparatus may use dedicated or shared support equipment as desired. The configuration and operation of a prototype device according to one embodiment of the invention is described in more detail below. The device is preferably configured and operated such that the generated x-rays irradiate the material to be treated with a dose at the center of the tube of approximately 1000 gray. This dose level is generally adequate to kill bacteria in foodstuffs and is also generally of sufficient energy to dissociate elemental bonds within, for example, waste water compounds. The prototype device 701 is shown in FIG. 7. The device is approximately 36″ long and 60″ high, although neither measurement is critical and either or both may be instead much greater or much less without departing from the scope of the invention. The visible outer container 703 of the device corresponds to the outer tube of the device, such as tube 101 of FIG. 1. The device is similar to that shown schematically in FIG. 1, although the emitter layer of the prototype is not gated, i.e. the prototype x-ray source is operated in the diode mode. The device 701 consisted of a 2″ long section of a graphite cylinder with a diameter of 3.315 inches, concentrically positioned surrounding a 3″ diameter quartz tube, onto which a 12.5 μm thick copper foil was wrapped and soldered. Thus, the graphite tube corresponds to the emitter layer 113 (omitting the gate) of FIG. 1, while the copper foil corresponds to the annular metal target layer 115. The 3″ diameter inner quartz tube corresponds to the hollow tubular inner member 103 of FIG. 1. As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, high and ultrahigh vacuum levels are typically attainable only by multi-stage pumping. For example, high vacuum (on the order of 10−6 torr) may be achieved by pumping of the chamber by a turbo molecular pump backed by a mechanical or “roughing” pump. Ultrahigh vacuum may be achieved (in an appropriate chamber) by first pumping to high vacuum such as by the system described above, and then switching to a UHV-capable pump such as an ion pump. For most embodiments of the invention, high vacuum levels are sufficient, and ultrahigh vacuum is unnecessary. Thus, the prototype utilized a turbo molecular pump 705 backed by a mechanical roughing pump, not shown. A typical x-ray spectrum taken within space 127 at 40 kV electron energy is shown in FIG. 11. The ordinate of the plot shown in the figure represents photon counts while the abscissa represents photon energy. The base pressure of the device 701 was stabilized at about 5.1×10−7 torr. In an embodiment of the invention, a deposited copper film rather than copper foil is used as a metal target layer. In another embodiment of the invention, a molybdenum target layer is used. Although tungsten may also be used, molybdenum is preferred for ease of coating. Note that although the prototype is a transmission mode device, it would also work configured similarly but in a reflective mode, as discussed in greater detail below. In an embodiment of the invention, the field emitter is replaced by a thermonic emitter. The thermonic device can also be operated in either the reflective or transmissive mode. The embodiments of the invention described to this point use as an example electron emission near the outer tube 101 resulting in x-ray emission near the inner tube 103. However, in this mode, referred to as transmission mode (since the x-rays must pass at least partially through the metal target layer depending upon where in its depth they are generated), the x-ray intensity may be decreased somewhat due to re-absorption in the target layer (e.g. layer 115). To mitigate this problem, a reflective mode is also usable. Example devices operable in the reflective mode will be described with reference to FIGS. 8 and 9. FIG. 8 shows a cross-sectional side view of a cylindrical x-ray generation apparatus similar to that shown in FIG. 1. However, the apparatus of FIG. 8 differs from that of FIG. 1 in two primary aspects. First, the apparatus of FIG. 8 is in a reverse configuration in that the electron-generating element 813 is at the outer surface of the inner tube 803, while the electron target (x-ray generating) element 815 is at the inner surface of the outer tube 801. Secondly, the device shown in FIG. 8 is a diode device (due to the non-gated electron emitter 813) rather than triode device as in FIG. 1. The latter distinction is not as significant, and it should be noted that both transmissive and reflective devices may be configured and operated in either diode or triode mode depending upon builder preferences. For example, it will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that a device such as the device of FIG. 1 may use a thermonic emitter layer in place of field emitter layer 113. Moreover, although the reflective device of FIG. 8 is described as configured as a thermonic diode mode device, it will be appreciated that a gated emitter layer may be used instead of element 813. The electron emission element 813 as shown in FIG. 8 is a wire wrapped around an insulating inner tube 803. The spacing of the wire wraps as illustrated is about 50%, although much greater or lesser spacing may be used. The electron generation characteristics and x-ray absorption characteristics of the wire 813 can be used to determine an optimal spacing if such is desired. Note that a thermonic emission element may become very hot in operation, and thus it may be desirable depending upon the material of the inner and/or outer tube, to maintain the thermonic emission element at a distance from one or both tubes by using insulating spacer rods or the like. An exemplary arrangement is discussed later below with reference to FIG. 10. The target layer 815 may be a copper film or foil as in the transmissive mode, but may be much thicker since x-ray transmission through the layer is not desired or needed. Other materials such as molybdenum, tungsten, etc. may be used instead for this layer 815. The desired quality of the target layer 815 is that it emits x-rays when impacted by electrons of sufficiently high energy. The target layer 815 is connected to a voltage source via lead 821, while the electron generation element 813 is connected to a voltage source via leads 817a and 817b. In this case, the relative voltages at the ends of the wire 813 establish the current through the wire, while the voltage differences between the target layer 815 and points on the wire 813 will establish the impact energy of emitted electrons. When operated in the thermonic diode mode as shown, a voltage is applied across the electron generating element 813, and a voltage is applied to the target layer 815. The resultant field strength is sufficient to accelerate the emitted electrons toward the target layer 815 such that they attain impact energies sufficient to cause x-ray generation in the target layer 815. As the target layer is not very transmissive to x-rays, a majority of the generated x-rays are reflected or directed toward the interior of the device. Much of this radiation will either strike the generating element 813 or instead pass between the coils of the element 813 and thus enter the inner space 827 to irradiate its contents. The voltages may be set to achieve the desired level of radiation given the geometry, configuration, and materials of the device. FIG. 9 illustrates the electron and x-ray emission processes in greater detail. FIG. 9 shows a cross-sectional top view of a thin slice taken along line B, and at about line A, of FIG. 8. The device 901 comprises, in inward concentric order, an outer tube 903 (801), an electron target and x-ray emission layer 905 (815), an electron/x-ray traversal space 907 (825), an electron emission element 909 (813), an inner tube 911 (803), and a target volume 913 (827) for irradiation of flow through materials. In operation a voltage is applied across the electron emission element 909, and an average voltage of V1 is also established at points on the element 909, and a voltage V2 is applied to the electron target and x-ray emission layer 905. The voltage difference V2−V1 is typically on the order of 10-500 kV as discussed above, although greater or smaller voltages may be used. As a result of the applied voltage differential, electrons are emitted from the electron emission element 909 and accelerated toward the electron target and x-ray emission layer 905. Although only three electrons are shown for the sake of clarity, it will be appreciated that an immense number of electrons will typically be generated at operational voltages. The electrons so accelerated impact the electron target and x-ray emission layer 905 at impact zones 915, resulting in the generation of x-ray radiation from many such zones 915. Although each illustrated zone 915 displays x-ray emission, it will be appreciated that x-ray emission does not invariably occur at each impact zone. Moreover, although the x-ray radiation is illustrated as being inwardly directed, it will be appreciated that some generated x-ray radiation may be differently directed. As illustrated, a portion of the generated x-ray radiation is directed toward the target volume 913. Keeping in mind that in the illustrated embodiment of the invention the electron emission element 909 is a spirally wound wire, a portion of the radiation directed toward the target volume 913 is stopped by the electron emission element 909, while another portion passes between the coils of the element 909 and the inner tube 911 and enters the target volume 913 to irradiate its current contents. It will be appreciated that the illustrated reflective mode device is subject to a great deal of variance within the scope of the invention. For example, the electron emission element 909 may be a sheet, ribbon, film or foil instead of a wire. Moreover, for thermonic emission, the material of the element 909 may be any suitable material including without limitation graphite, metal, or metal alloys, or nonmetal alloys, or combinations of these. For example, Thoriated Tungsten or Lanthanum Hexaboride are suitable materials. Moreover, the mechanism of electron emission may be any suitable mechanism, including without limitation thermonic emission, field emission, etc. Moreover, the electron target and x-ray emission layer 905 may be any suitable material and configuration. For example, copper, tungsten, molybdenum, or any other suitable material may be used, and the configuration of the layer 905 may be partial or continuous, and may act as an x-ray shield or may not. Moreover, although the geometry of the reflective device shown in FIGS. 8 and 9 is cylindrical, it will be appreciated that any other suitable geometry such as those described above or otherwise may be used within the scope of the invention. FIG. 10 illustrates, in cross-sectional side view, a thermonic diode mode transmissive x-ray generation device similar in some regards to the device of FIG. 8. A thermonic electron emitting wire or filament 1013 is wound about a cylindrical arrangement of quartz support rods 1021. Electrical leads 1017a and 1017b allow current to be passed through element 1013. An outer tube 1001 encloses the electron emitting filament 1013 and the quartz support rods 1021, as well as an inner tube 1003, upon which is situated a metallic target material 1015 responsive to electron bombardment to generate x-rays. End caps 1029 are also provided and situated such that the space 1025 between the inner 1003 and outer 1001 tubes can be evacuated. In operation, the electron emitting filament 1013 is resistively heated by the flow of electrical current there through, resulting in the emission of electrons. An acceleration field is established between the filament 1013 and the target material 1015 by applying appropriate voltages to these elements such that the emitted electrons accelerate toward and strike the target material 1015. The x-rays generated from such impacts are directed in many directions, but a substantial number are directed toward a target volume 1027 within the inner tube 1003. A portion of this x-ray radiation passes through the target material 1015 and the inner tube 1003 and enters the target volume 1027. In this manner, the contents of the target volume can be effectively irradiated. A number of other modes of operation are available within the invention, given the principles taught above. In general, an x-ray generation device in accordance with the invention may operate in either a field emission or thermonic emission mode with respect to electron emission. Within these modes, the device may operate in a diode or triode mode, and further may operate in a reflective or a transmissive mode. In the diode mode, the electron emitter is not gated, whereas in the triode mode the emitter is gated. Moreover, in the reflective mode, the target volume for the x-rays lies on the same side of the x-ray emitter surface or element as the electron impingement; in the transmissive mode the target volume for the x-rays lies on the opposite side of the x-ray emitter surface or element from the electron impingement. Thus, in general, several exemplary modes of operation are (1) Field Emission (diode/transmissive); (2) Field Emission (diode/reflective); (3) Field Emission (triode/transmissive); (4) Field Emission (triode/reflective); (5) Thermonic Emission (diode/transmissive); (6) Thermonic Emission (diode/reflective); (7) Thermonic Emission (triode/transmissive); and (8) Thermonic Emission (triode/reflective). FIGS. 1, 2, and 4, discussed above, show examples of Field Emission (triode/transmissive) devices, while FIGS. 8 and 9 illustrate examples of a Thermonic Emission (diode/reflective) device. FIG. 10 illustrates an example of a Thermonic Emission (diode/transmissive) device. The elements of these figures can be rearranged according to the principles set forth above to construct any of the other types of devices as well, since they illustrate transmissive and reflective operation, diode and triode operation, and thermonic and field emission operation. While the embodiments of the invention described above have been discussed in the context of industrial application, such as large scale water purification and waste treatment, it will be appreciated that the described embodiments of the invention are also suitable for noncommercial settings. For example, in an embodiment of the invention, a small device according to the above described principles is associated with a home kitchen appliance to provide a purifying function. For example, such a device may be placed in line with a drinking water source such as at a faucet, refrigerator, coffee maker, etc. In addition, in an embodiment of the invention, a flow through treatment device as described above is used at a home to treat waste water, such as prior to passage to a septic tank or municipal sewer system. In the above-described embodiments of the invention it was desirable to shield the device such that x-ray radiation did not extend outside of the device. However, in an alternative embodiment of the invention, it is desirable to irradiate materials outside rather than inside the device. For example, x-ray radiation can be used from inside a constricted space, such as a pipe or conduit, to check for cracks or other problematic situations. Conduit integrity is especially important in industrial and home plumbing as well as in specialized applications such as nuclear power plant cooling systems. A device for generating x-rays and directing them outwardly is shown in FIG. 12. The device is similar to that of FIG. 8, but may be much smaller and does not have an axial flow-through opening. In greater detail, the device 1200 comprises a cylindrical outer shell 1201 having on the inner surface thereof a target material 1203. The target material may be any of the target materials discussed above, and is thin enough or diffuse enough so as not to shield generated x-rays. Similarly, the outer shell is composed of a material and configuration allowing significant x-ray transmission, such as a polymer material, graphite, beryllium, or thin metallic material. Within the outer shell 1201, quartz support rods 1205a and 1205b are placed, and may be held in place by end caps 1207a and 1207b. End caps 1207a and 1207b also serve to seal the inner space 1209 defined by the outer shell 1201. A thermonic electron emission element 1211 is wrapped about the quartz support rods 1205a and 1205b. Although two such support rods are shown for simplicity, it will appreciated that a greater number of evenly spaced support rods, such as four or more rods, will allow a more uniform pattern of electron, and thus x-ray, generation. Leads 1213a and 1213b supply power to the electron emission element 1211, while lead 1215 applies a voltage to the target material 1203. An orifice 1217 may be used to evacuate the space 1209 for operation of the device. In operation, pumping may continue, or the orifice 1217 may be sealed. Operation of the device is generally as discussed above. In particular, a voltage difference is applied between the thermonic electron emission element 1211 and the target material 1203. Electrons emitted by the thermonic electron emission element 1211 accelerate toward the target material 1203 under the influence of the applied field and strike the target material 1203. Responsive to this electron bombardment, the target material 1203 emits x-ray radiation. Since both the target material 1203 and the shell 1201 do not substantially shield such radiation, a portion of the generated radiation passes to the outside of the device, irradiating the device's current environment. A manner of using this device is described hereinafter with respect to FIG. 13. In particular, the device 1301 is illustrated being lowered inside a pipe 1303 to be analyzed. The device is preferably attached to a line 1305 for support. Leads 1307 used to operate the device are also attached to the device 1301. When powered, the device emits x-rays 1309 that impinge upon the wall of the pipe 1303. In order to analyze the pipe's 1303 integrity, the variance in transmission of x-rays through the pipe 1303 is detected by an x-ray detector 1311 placed outside the pipe 1303. Alternatively, an x-ray sensitive film may be wrapped around the outside of the device 1301, and used to detect flaws in the pipe via changes in the image intensity. Note that although the device is illustrated being used in a particular environment, there is no limitation to that environment. For example, the illustrated device, if sized appropriately, can also be used for medical proposes. For example, such a device can be used for analyzing internal body structures such as veins and cavities, or for providing radiation to such structures. For example, such a device can be used to irradiate a specific site. Although in the above example, both the target material 1203 and the shell 1201 were substantially transmissive to x-ray radiation, such is not a requirement. In particular, one or both of the target material 1203 and the shell 1201 may be opaque to x-ray radiation in selected locations to produce a desired output pattern. For example, a ring of transmissivity will produce a donut radiation pattern, while a stripe of transmissivity will produce a plane or sheet pattern. Note that an electron bombardment device can be constructed using the same principles, namely, an electron emitter, a tubular member surrounding the electron emitter, and a voltage source for creating a field to accelerate emitted electrons from the electron emitter toward the tubular member. Electrons that pass through the tubular member and exit the device can then be used to irradiate external materials. Although the foregoing discussion has focused on devices that operate in one of either a reflective or a transmissive mode, devices are possible which utilize both modes of operation simultaneously. FIG. 14 illustrates, in cross-sectional side view, one such device according to an embodiment of the invention. The device 1400 is similar to that of FIG. 12, but it is shown separately to more clearly describe its distinct mode of operation. The device 1400 comprises a cylindrical outer shell 1401 having on its inner surface a target material 1403. Again, the target material is thin or diffuse enough so as not to substantially shield generated x-rays. Similarly, the outer shell 1401 is composed of a material and configuration allowing significant x-ray transmission as discussed above. End caps 1407a and 1407b serve to seal the inner space 1409 defined by the outer shell 1401. A thermonic electron emission element 1411 is situated within, and is approximately concentric with, the outer shell 1401. The thermonic electron emission element 1411 may be structurally self-supporting or may supported by arms, rods, etc., not shown. Leads 1413a and 1413b supply power to the electron emission element 1411, and lead 1415 applies a voltage to the target material 1403. As with the device of FIG. 12 discussed above, orifice 1417 may be used to evacuate the space 1409 for operation of the device 1400, and may be sealed if pumping is discontinued for use of the device 1400. In operation, a voltage difference is applied between the thermonic electron emission element 1411 and the target material 1403. Electrons emitted by the thermonic electron emission element 1411 accelerate toward the target material 1403 under the influence of the applied field and strike the target material 1403. As a result, the target material 1403 emits x-ray radiation. As noted above, both the target material 1403 and the shell 1401 do not substantially shield such radiation. Thus, a portion of the generated radiation passes to the outside of the device 1400. In addition, another portion of the generated radiation is reflected inwardly towards the opposite wall of the outer shell 1401. Upon traversing the cavity within the outer shell 1401, a portion of the reflected radiation passes through the opposite wall of the outer shell 1401 and exits the device 1400. It can be seen that this modified mode of operation increases efficiency given that initially reflected x-rays may still exit the device 1400, albeit on the opposite side. In an alternative embodiment of the invention related to that shown in FIG. 14, the device further comprises an inner tubular member also coated with x-ray emitting target material. The acceleration field is further maintained between the electron emitter and both tubular members, such that electrons accelerate both inwardly and outwardly from the electron emitter and strike both target surfaces. The outer surface performs as described above. The inner surface may be thicker and operates in the reflective mode relative to the inner tube. That is, the x-rays generated at the x-ray emitting target material on the inner tube are directed towards the outer tube and substantially pass through the outer tube. It will be appreciated that new and useful x-ray generation techniques and devices have been described herein. In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of this invention may be applied, it should be recognized that the embodiments described herein with respect to the drawing figures are meant to be illustrative only and should not be taken as limiting the scope of invention. For example, those of skill in the art will recognize that the precise configurations and shapes shown are exemplary and that the illustrated embodiments can thus be modified in arrangement and detail without departing from the spirit of the invention. For example, it will be appreciated that any of the illustrated shapes or otherwise may also be modified to include non-concave portions or elements such as a flare or flange at one or more edges, and that such does not negate the substantial concavity of the affected member. Although certain numerical examples have been given herein, it will be appreciated that the invention applies equally to devices and systems on a much larger or much smaller scale without limitation. Likewise, although generally smooth members have been illustrated herein, it will be appreciated that a generally concave member may itself be made up of many individual flat components such as strips or polygons. For example, tubes having polygonal cross sections could be used in the apparatus of FIG. 1 in place of the members having circular cross sections. Finally, it is contemplated that not only fluids (including liquids and gasses) but also solids may be passed through and treated by a system such as described herein. Instead of being flowed through the system, solids are preferably conveyed, such as by belt or shaker. Moreover, although the described embodiments of the invention have focused upon x-ray generation, it will be appreciated that the principles of the invention may also be used to provide electron radiation of materials without x-ray generation. For example, in the device of FIG. 1, if the target layer 115 is made substantially transparent to electrons and the inner tube 103 is relatively transparent to electrons, then the device may be used to provide electron irradiation of the contents of volume 127. Therefore, the invention as described herein contemplates all such embodiments as may come within the scope of the following claims and equivalents thereof.
047145846	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to head adapter extensions for use in the reactor vessel of a nuclear pressurized water reactor. Pressurized water reactors which are currently in use include a reactor vessel containing the reactor core and control rods which are movable relative to the core inorder to control its reactivity. Each control rod is suspended from a drive rod that extends through the reactor vessel head to a drive mechanism located above the head. In order to seal the vessel head at the location of such drive rod, there is provided a cylindrical housing which extends downwardly from the drive mechanism and through a bore in the head to a location within the upper portion of the reactor vessel. The portion of the housing which extends through the vessel head includes a head adaptaer secured in the associated bore, by welding, in order to form a seal between the housing and the vessel head. The housing further includes a head adapter, or housing, extension which opens, at its lower extremity, to the interior of the vessel and which is generally terminated, at its lower end, by a guide funnel that opens downwardly toward the interior of the vessel and that serves to guide a drive rod into the housing when the vessel head is installed on the vessel body. When such a reactor vessel is assembled, an annular passage which communicates with the interior of the reactor vessel will be created between the drive rod and the associated housing which passes through the vessel head. In a proposed new pressurized water reactor model, there will also be employed displacer rods which will be movable relative to the reactor core and which will be supported by a drive rod passing upwardly through the vessel head to a drive mechanism. Here again, each drive rod is to be surrounded by a housing having the form described above. The portion of each housing which passes through the vessel head is made of inconel in order to suitably fasten the vessel head, which is currently made of carbon steel clad with standard stainless steel, to the housing of the drive mechanism itself, which is made of standard stainless steel. BEcause of the expenses involved in the manufacture of inconel parts, this is achieved by forming the part of the housing which is connected to the vessel head as a short head penetration adapter made of Inconel and by then welding a stainless steel pipe to the upper end of the adapter, the upper end of the stainless steel pipe then extending, and being connected to, a further housing enclosing latch components of the drive mechanism. The head adapter and pipe are joined together by a full penetration weld and it is necessary to take account of the possibility of failure of that weld, which would result in the leakage of liquid out of the reactor vessel via the annular passage between the housing and its associated drive rod. As protection against the adverse consequences of such a weld failure, or of a leak due to other causes in the housing surrounding the drive rod, it is desirable to limit th cross-sectional area of the flow passage between the interior of the vessel and the source of such a leak to a value of no greater than approximately 5 cm.sup.2. To achieve this, it has previously been proposed to insert a cylindrical tube, known as a thermal sleeve, in the housing to surround the drive rod and to provide orifices between the thermal sleeve and the head adapter such that the cross-sectional area of the remaining flow passage from the interior of the reactor vessel to the region of the drive mechanism was restricted to the above-cited value. In this structure, an extension rod must be provided above the vessel head. The use of a such a thermal sleeve, however, is accompanied by a number of disadvantages, among which are tht it incrases the total number of components required and the total manufacturing cost. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to avoid the above-mentioned difficulties. Another object of the invention is to simplify the structure of the housings associated with the drive rods of a nuclear reactor vessel. A further object of the invention is to eliminate the need for additional machining of the head adapter of such a housing. Another object of the invention it to provide a structurally simple solution to the problem of providing a restricted flow passage in the event of a leak in the drive rod housing. Yet another object of the invention is to reduce the total weight of such housing. Still another object of the inention is to provide a flow limiting struture which can be connected directly to the head adapter forming part of a drive rod housing. Still another object of the invention is to permit the use of larger diameter drive rods. A still further object of the invention is to make possible the provision of an ejection resisting component which will prevent a drive rod, and particularly the head adapter thereof, from being ejected from the pressure vessel in the event of a failure in the weld between the adapter and the vessel head. Yet another object of the invention is to minimize the number of components rquired to assure the desired flow limitation. The above and other objects are achieved, according to the present invention by a device for use in a nucler reactor which includes a pressure vessel having a vessel head, a core in the vessel, elements for controlling the reactivity of the core, drive rods which pass through the vessel head for displacing the elements, and a plurality of head adapters which pass through the vessel head, each head adapter forming part of a drive rod housing enclosing a respective drive rod, each housing enclosing a region which communicates with the interior of the vessel and which is closed at the top, the device being associated with a respective housing and constituting a housing extension including means for connecting the device to the head adapter forming part of the respective housing, and means for forming, around the associated drive rod and within the associated housing, a fluid passage having a cross-sectional area not exceeding a selected value at least upon the occurrence of a leak in the respective housing.
	claims	1. A system for removing spent nuclear fuel from a fuel pool having a penetration comprising:a handling mechanism located at a fixed position below the penetration of the fuel pool;a transporter configured to move a cask below the handling mechanism;wherein the handling mechanism is configured to raise the cask from the transporter to the penetration and to support the cask as the cask is secured to the penetration; andwherein the transporter and the handling mechanism is configured to move the transporter away from the handling mechanism after the cask is raised off of the transporter by the handling mechanism. 2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the handling mechanism includes pivoting paddles for engaging upper trunnions of the cask to raise the cask from the transporter. 3. The system according to claim 2, wherein the pivoting paddles have key-holes receiving the upper trunnions. 4. The system according to claim 1, wherein the handling mechanism comprises:a fixed position frame configured to permit the transporter to move thereunder while supporting the cask;a cask engagement tool movable in the vertical direction relative to the frame and configured to selectively move the spent nuclear fuel cask in the vertical direction relative to the frame when the cask is secured to the cask engagement tool to selectively raise and lower the cask onto and off of the transporter;a plurality of hydraulic cylinders extending between the frame and the cask engagement tool and configured to move together for raising and lowering the cask engagement tool relative to the frame; anda pair of paddles carried by the cask engagement tool and pivotably attached to the cask engagement tool for selectively engaging upper trunnions of the cask; andan actuator for selectively pivoting the pair of paddles into and out of engagement with the upper trunnions of the cask. 5. The system according to claim 4, wherein the paddles have keyholes for receiving the upper trunnions. 6. The system according to claim 4, wherein the fixed position frame is secured below the penetration of a fuel pool. 7. The system according to claim 4, wherein the cask engagement tool linearly moves in the vertical direction relative to the frame. 8. The system according to claim 4, wherein the linear actuators linearly raise and lower the cask engagement tool relative to the frame. 9. The system according to claim 4, wherein the handling mechanism is configured to engage only upper trunnions of the cask. 10. The system according to claim 4, wherein the handling mechanism is secured below the penetration of the fuel pool. 11. The system according to claim 1, wherein the transporter is self-powered vehicle. 12. The system according to claim 11, wherein the transporter is guided by rails near the penetration. 13. The system according to claim 11, wherein the self-powered vehicle comprisesa body;an upender secured to the body for holding the cask and moving the cask between vertical and horizontal orientations;a plurality of independently driven and independently steered duel wheel sets on each lateral side of the body;a plurality of drive motors for driving the plurality of duel wheel sets;a plurality of rotary actuators for steering the plurality of duel wheel sets; anda diesel-engine driven electric generator carried by the body for producing electric power to selectively move the upender structure, to selectively drive each of the duel wheel sets, and to selectively steer each of the duel wheel sets. 14. The system according to claim 13, wherein each of the duel wheel sets includes a pair of coaxial wheels, one of the plurality of drive motors is located between the pair of wheels and coaxial with the pair of wheels, one of the plurality of rotary actuators is located above the drive motor and having a vertical axis of rotation for selectively rotating the pair of wheels, and the drive motor located between the pair of wheels. 15. The system according to claim 13, wherein the plurality of drive motors is a plurality of hydraulic motors. 16. The system according to claim 13, wherein the plurality of rotary actuators is a plurality of rack and pinion actuators. 17. The system according to claim 13, wherein the plurality of duel wheel sets includes four duel wheel sets on each lateral side of the body. 18. The system according to claim 1, further comprising a seismic restraint having a keyed structure configured to engage lower trunnions of the cask after the cask is raised off of the transporter by the handling mechanism to prevent swinging motion of the cask in a seismic event.
	summary
	description	This application is a national stage application filed under 35 U.S.C. 371 of International Application No. PCT/FR2007/001146, filed Jul. 5, 2007, which claims priority from French Application No. 06 06211, filed Jul. 7, 2006. The invention relates to a device and a method for characterizing surfaces. It serves in particular to determine the crystallographic structure of crystal surfaces and to perform real-time monitoring crystal growth by molecular beam epitaxy. The techniques most commonly used for determining the crystallographic structure of surfaces are slow electron diffraction also known as low energy electron diffraction (LEED), and diffraction by reflecting fast electrons also known as reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED). In particular, the RHEED technique presents the major advantage of being compatible with growing crystals by molecular beam epitaxy; as a general rule, molecular beam epitaxy apparatuses include an incorporated RHEED device. The device is constituted essentially by an electron gun arranged to produce a substantially monokinetic beam of electrons having energy of the order of 5 kiloelectron volts (keV) to 50 keV directed towards the surface under study at an angle of incidence of about 1° to 4° relative to the plane of the surface, a phosphorus screen for viewing electrons that are diffracted forwards by the surface, and a camera for acquiring images of said phosphorus screen. The RHEED technique makes it possible to characterize the crystallographic structure of a surface completely, providing corresponding acquisitions are performed at least two distinct orientations of said surface. Nevertheless, characterization is very often limited to qualitative characterization of the state of a surface in comparison with a reference diffraction pattern. Another important application of the RHEED technique is real-time monitoring of the layer by layer growth of a crystal by molecular beam epitaxy. Once a layer has been completed, the diffraction peaks are clearly visible and present high contrast; as additional atoms become deposited on said layer, contrast worsens and begins to increase again when these atoms become sufficiently numerous to form a new layer. Oscillations are thus observed in the diffraction signal, thereby making it possible to track in real time the formation of the various layers of atoms of the crystal. Although its advantageous properties have made the RHEED technique an industrial standard, it nevertheless presents certain drawbacks. Firstly, even at grazing incidence, electrons present penetration power of several angstroms (Å), which means that they are sensitive not only to the first layer of atoms that strictly speaking constitute the surface, but they are also sensitive to the initial underlying layers. Furthermore, the penetration of electrons under the surface often gives rise to a diffraction pattern that is complex and that is difficult to interpret. In addition, electron diffraction techniques (not only RHEED, but also LEED) are poorly adapted to characterizing insulating materials, since they induce a surface charge that can influence the primary beam itself and thus interfere with the diffraction pattern. Worse still, the inelastic interactions between the electrons and the surface generally damage the surface and can radically disturb the growth of insulating films. That is why those techniques do not enable the growth of insulating layers to be monitored on line, but are used rather as destructive testing techniques when devising fabrication protocols. Given the importance of insulating layers, and in particular of oxides, in microelectronics, that is a major limitation of the technique. In order to characterize surfaces crystallographically, it is also known to use lightweight atoms, generally of He, presenting energy of the order of a few tens or a few hundreds millielectron volts (meV) and directed perpendicularly or obliquely to the surface under study, generally at an angle of incidence lying in the range 40° to 60° relative to the plane of the surface. That technique, known as helium atom scattering (HAS) or as thermal energy atom scattering (TEAS) presents the advantage of being sensitive solely to the first layer of atoms on the sample under study, the penetrating power of low-energy atoms being negligible, and therefore not inducing and charging of insulating surfaces. Nevertheless, it is used only very rarely in industry since it presents major drawbacks. Firstly, it is not compatible with growth by molecular beam epitaxy, which requires a large amount of space above the surface to remain empty in order to allow molecular beams to pass. Unfortunately, in order to implement the HAS/TEAS technique, it is specifically necessary to provide a source of thermal atoms not far from the normal to the surface; that technique therefore generally allows ex-situ analysis only. The LEED technique also shares this drawback, which explains why the LEED technique is less popular than the RHEED technique, even though it is superior in terms of the quality of the diffraction patterns that are obtained. Secondly, generating beams of low-energy atoms requires the use of equipment that is heavy and bulky (supersonic jets, differential pumping stages, etc.). Thirdly, low-energy neutral atoms are extremely difficult to detect. Detection is generally performed point by point using a mass spectrometer that is moved in two dimensions. Building up a diffraction pattern therefore requires a considerable length of time, which is not compatible with in-line monitoring. In practice, that technique is used almost exclusively in the laboratory. It is also known to study the structure of surfaces with the help of atoms or ions that are weakly charged and that present relatively high energy (several kiloelectron volts) at grazing incidence. Under such conditions, the projectiles behave essentially like conventional particles and they are reflected by the surface potential at a great distance from the first layer of atoms. The diffusion profile gives access indirectly to the shape of the interaction potential between the projectile and the first layer of the surface. For more details about that method of characterizing a surface, reference can be made to the article by A. Schüller et al. “Dynamic dependence of interaction potentials for keV atoms at metal surfaces”, Phys. Rev. A, 69, 050901 (R), 2004. The drawback of that technique is that the diffusion profiles are difficult to interpret and they are always less rich in information than the profiles obtained by diffraction techniques that make use of the wave nature of the projectiles. An object of the present invention is to remedy at least some of the drawbacks of the prior art. More specifically, an object of the invention is to provide a technique of characterizing a surface that presents increased sensitivity to the first layer of atoms compared with the RHEED and LEED techniques. Another object of the invention is to provide a characterization technique that is better adapted to insulating surfaces than are the techniques known in the prior art. Yet another object of the invention is to provide a technique for characterizing surfaces that is compatible with growth by electron beam epitaxy and that enables said growth to be monitored in real time. Yet another object of the invention is to provide a technique of characterizing surfaces that is simple to implement, not only in the laboratory, but also in an industrial environment. At least one of the above objects is achieved by a device for characterizing surfaces that comprises: means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules, the means being arranged to direct said beam towards a surface for characterizing; and detector means that are sensitive to position for detecting the neutral atoms or molecules of said beam that have been diffused forwards by said surface for characterizing; the device being characterized in that: said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules are adapted to produce a beam having energy lying in the range 50 electron volts (eV) to 5 keV with divergence no greater than 0.05°; and said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules are adapted to direct said beam towards said surface for characterizing at an angle of incidence no greater than 10° relative to the plane of said surface; in such a manner that a diffraction pattern of said neutral atoms or molecules diffused forwards by said surface for characterizing is detectable by said position-sensitive detector means. In particular embodiments of the device of the invention: Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules may be adapted to produce a beam having energy lying in the range 100 eV to 1 keV, preferably in the range 100 eV to 700 eV. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules may be adapted to produce a beam having energy lying in the range 100 eV to 2 keV, preferably in the range 100 eV to 1 keV. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules may be adapted to produce a beam having energy dispersion no greater than 5%. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules may be adapted to direct said beam towards said surface for characterizing with an angle of incidence lying in the range 0.5° to 3°, relative to the plane of the surface. The angle of incidence and the energy of said beam of atoms or molecules may be selected in such a manner that the energy associated with movement in a direction perpendicular to the surface is less than or equal to 1 eV. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules are adapted to generate a beam constituted by particles having atomic mass lying in the range 1 atomic unit (au) to 20 au, and more particularly constituted by a chemical species selected from H, H2, and 3He, or isotopes thereof. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules may comprise: means for generating a beam of atomic or molecular ions; means for neutralizing said beam of atomic or molecular ions; and means for collimating the beam of neutral atoms or molecules obtained by neutralizing said beam of atomic or molecular ions. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules also may comprise means for filtering said atomic or molecular ions by mass. Said means for generating a beam of neutral atoms or molecules may comprise chopper means for generating a pulsed beam. Said position-sensitive detector means may also present time sensitivity, with resolution of not more than 50 nanoseconds (ns), and preferably not more than 10 ns, so as to determine the energy loss of the neutral atoms or molecules of said beam as a result of being diffused by said surface, by measuring flight time. The device may also comprise secondary detector means for detecting neutral or ionized atoms or molecules, said secondary detector means having time resolution no greater than 1 microseconds (μs), preferably no greater than 100 ns, and even more preferably no greater than 10 ns, and being arranged in such a manner as to detect neutral or ionized atoms or molecules that leave the surface for characterizing on a trajectory that forms relative to said surface an angle that is greater than the specular reflection angle of said beam of neutral atoms or molecules. The invention also provides a molecular jet epitaxy machine including a surface characterization device as defined above, arranged to characterize the surface of a crystal that is being grown. The invention also provides a method of characterizing surfaces, the method comprising the steps of: directing a beam of neutral atoms or molecules on the surface to be characterized; and detecting in position-sensitive manner the neutral atoms or molecules of said beam that have been diffused forwards by said surface for characterizing; the method being characterized in that: said beam of neutral atoms or molecules has energy lying in the range 50 eV to 5 keV, and divergence no greater than 0.05°; and the angle of incidence of said beam on said surface for characterizing is no greater than 10° relative to the plane of said surface; in such a manner that at least some of said forwardly-diffused neutral atoms or molecules are diffracted by said surface for characterizing. In particular implementations of the method of the invention: Said beam of neutral atoms or molecules may present energy lying in the range 100 eV to 1 keV, and preferably in the range 100 eV to 700 eV. Said beam of neutral atoms or molecules may present energy lying in the range 100 eV to 2 keV, and preferably in the range 100 eV to 1 keV. Said beam of neutral atoms or molecules may present energy dispersion no greater than 5%. The angle of incidence of said beam on said surface for characterizing may lie in the range 0.5° to 3°, relative to the plane of the surface. The angle of incidence and the energy of said beam of atoms or molecules may be selected in such a manner that the energy associated with movement in a direction perpendicular to the surface is less than or equal to 1 eV. Said beam may be constituted by particles presenting atomic mass lying in the range 1 au to 20 au, and in particular a chemical species selected from H, H2, or 3He, and isotopes thereof. The method may also include a step for determining at least one crystallographic parameter of said surface for characterizing from a detected diffraction pattern of said neutral atoms or molecules diffused forwards by said surface for characterizing. The method may be implemented during fabrication of a crystal by molecular beam epitaxy, the method also including: a step of observing oscillatory behavior over time of said diffraction pattern; and a step of extracting information relating to the epitaxial growth of successive layers of atoms forming said crystal on the basis of said observation of oscillatory behavior over time of said diffraction pattern. As shown in FIG. 1A a device of the invention essentially comprises means 1 for generating a beam 2 of neutral atoms or molecules, and position-sensitive detector means 3 for detecting said beam of neutral atoms or molecules. The beam 2 is directed towards a surface 3 for characterizing at an angle of incidence θinc that is optionally variable, and not greater than about 10° (grazing incidence); here and below, angles are measured relative to the plane of the target surface 3. As in the RHEED technique, the space immediately above the surface 3 remains unencumbered, thereby making it possible in particular to perform electron beam epitaxial growth simultaneously with taking a measurement. The neutral atoms or molecules of the beam 2 are reflected by the surface 3 at a reflection angle θref≈θinc; simultaneously they are subjected to diffraction in an azimuth direction, i.e. parallel to the surface 3. In FIG. 1, the incident atom or molecule beam is given reference 2-i, the specular beam is given reference 2-0 (since it constitutes “zero” order diffraction), and the first non-specular beam is referenced 2-1 (first order diffraction). As in RHEED, the angle θ formed by projecting the first order diffracted beam 2-1 and the zero order diffracted beam 2-0 onto a plane parallel to the plane of the surface 3 is associated with the lattice parameter a of the crystal surfaces 3 in the direction that extends transversely relative to the movement of the incident atoms or molecules. This association is given by the Bragg equation, represented graphically in FIG. 1B:α sin θ=nλwhere n is an integer, from which it can be deduced: ϕ = arc ⁢ ⁢ sin ⁡ ( λ α ) for the first diffraction order, where λ is the de Broglie wavelength of the incident particles. Under grazing incidence conditions, it is possible to consider that the movement of the particles in a direction normal to the surface 3 is decoupled from their longitudinal movement parallel to said surface 3, and that what is observed is the result of the normal component of the wave of material being diffracted by the surface potential transverse to the movement. Thus, even when the total energy E0 of the particle is of keV order, its normal energyEn=E0 sin2 θinc may be less than 1 eV, which corresponds to a normal wavelength λ n = h 2 ⁢ mE n (where h is Planck's constant and m is the mass of said particles), which is of the same order of magnitude as the lattice parameters a to be measured. For example, with hydrogen atoms H having an energy of 500 eV and an angle of incidence of 1.4°, it is found that En=0.3 eV, which corresponds to a normal wavelength λ=0.53 angstroms (Å), which should be compared with the lattice parameter of a surface such as that of NaCl, where a=5.64 Å. The diffracted beams 2-0 to 2-1 are detected at a distance from the surface 3 by the position-sensitive means 4, thereby forming an image of the diffraction pattern, thus enabling the angle φ to be measured, and consequently enabling the lattice parameter a to be determined. Unlike what happens with thermal atoms in the HAS/TEAS technique, the high-energy particles used in the method of the invention can be detected simply, e.g. by means of microchannel plates (MCP) coupled to a phosphorus screen which is in turn imaged by a CCD camera. Naturally, FIG. 1A constitutes a simplification, since in general several diffraction orders are observed simultaneously, together with an incoherent background due to defects in the structure of the surface (steps, adsorbed atoms, etc.), and also to thermal vibration. FIG. 2 shows a real example of a diffraction pattern obtained by directing H2 molecules with energy of 400 eV onto a ZnSe (001) surface in the [1-1 0] crystallographic direction with an angle of incidence of 1.1°. Several diffraction orders can be seen; references D0, D−1, and D1 reveal the central spot corresponding to the zero order and to the two first orders located symmetrically on either side thereof. The spacing between the diffraction spots provides information about the periodicity of the crystal lattice of the surface (lattice parameter a), as is true in all diffraction techniques, see for example the work by D. P. Woodruff and T. A. Delchar “Modern techniques of surface science”, Cambridge University Press, 1986, while the intensity of the spots provides information about the form of the interactive potential between the projectile and the surface. It can be seen that the diffraction spots are disposed along a curve CD of shape that depends on the form of said interaction potential, on the normal energy En of the projectile, and on temperature. For a non-reactive projectile, the curve CD is a circular arc of center lying on the projected plane of the surface. It is possible to study the structure of the potential of the surface finely by observing variation in the relative intensity of the diffraction peaks and the shape of the curve CD with angle of incidence θinc (“rocking curves”). The inversion techniques that enable the surface potential to be reconstructed from these observations are essentially the same as those used when studying the diffraction of thermal neutral atoms, see for example the article by R. I. Masel et al., “Quantum scattering from a sinusoidal hard wall: atomic diffraction from solid surfaces”, Phys. Rev. B, 12, 5545, 1975. In the bottom portion of FIG. 2, there can be seen a spot S produced by the particles of the beam 2 that have flown over the surface 3 without interacting. Observation of the spot S does not provide any information that is directly associated with the properties of said surface, but it can be used to determine the angles of incidence and of diffusion, and to calibrate the loss of energy in flight-time measurements when using a pulsed beam. In general, it is possible to observe a diffraction pattern that is usable for crystallographic purposes only if working conditions are selected appropriately, and in particular the nature and the energy of the particles constituting the beam 2, the angle of incidence θinc of said beam on the surface 3, and the divergence and the width of the beam. Preferably, these working conditions are selected in such a manner that the Bragg peaks are clearly resolved. Nevertheless, even if the normal energy of the projectiles is increased a little beyond the point where Bragg peaks are no longer resolved, an interference pattern remains in the form of low frequency spatial modulation of the diffusion profile; this incompletely resolved diffraction pattern still provides information that is characteristic of the form of the surface potential. Concerning the nature of the projectile, it is possible to use atoms or small particles of mass lying in the range 1 atomic unit (H) to 20 atomic units (20Ne). Lightweight projectiles are generally preferred, since for given energy they have a longer wavelength. In particular, H, H2, and 3He and their isotopes are found to constitute particularly advantageous choices. H is the projectile of lowest mass and using it enables the interaction potential of the surface with hydrogen to be studied, which is of great interest in numerous applications. 3He is preferred when it is desired to have a projectile that is chemically inert, while H2, of mass and reactivity that are intermediate between the masses and reactivities of H and of 3He, can constitute a compromise solution. In general, He (3He or 4He) constitutes the preferred projectile. The energy E0 of the beam may lie in the range about 50 eV about to 5 keV, preferably in the range 100 eV to 2 keV, and even more preferably in the range 100 eV to 1 keV. It is preferable for the energy dispersion of the beam to be less than or equal to 5%, preferably less than or equal to 2%. The angle of incidence relative to the plane of the surface, θinc, should be less than or equal to 10°, and should preferably lie in the range 0.5° to 3°. The energy and the angle are parameters that are not strictly independent: it is preferable for the normal energyEn=E0 sin2 θinc to be less than or equal to 1 eV. The divergence of the beam should be minimized since it tends to make the diffraction peaks fuzzy: typically, in order to obtain images of good quality, it is necessary to obtain divergence that is not greater than 0.05°. It is also advantageous for the size of the beam to be less than or equal to 1 millimeter (mm), preferably to lie in the range about 10 micrometers (μm) to 300 μm. The size of the beam in a direction parallel to the surface has a direct influence on the diffraction spots on the detector 3; if the beam is too wide, the spots tend to superpose making the diffraction pattern fuzzy. The width of the beam in a direction normal to the surface is less critical, but it should be understood that because of the grazing incidence, the projection on the surface of this dimension of the beam is stretched by a factor of 1/sin θinc, which can therefore easily exceed the size of the sample. It is therefore preferable likewise to limit this width to a value less than or equal to 1 mm. As a general rule, it is preferable to use beams having a section that is at least approximately circular. The flux need not necessarily be very great: with a flux of no more than a few hundreds of atoms per second, an exposure of a few minutes suffices for obtaining images that are directly usable. The temperature of the sample is another parameter that needs to be taken into consideration, since the thermal agitation of the surface atoms has a negative influence on the effectiveness of diffraction. It is therefore advantageous for the sample to be maintained at ambient temperature (around 300 K) during measurement. It is generally not necessary to cool the samples to cryogenic temperatures, even though that can improve the quality of the resulting diffraction pattern. If a temperature is imposed, e.g. by the epitaxial growth process, then it is possible to limit the effect of thermal agitation by selecting a smaller angle of incidence: the closer the incidence is to grazing, the more diffusion takes place at a distance from the surface, and thus the smaller the sensitivity of the projectile to defects of periodicity induced by the thermal agitation. Means for generating a beam of ions or molecules suitable for implementing the invention are shown in FIG. 3A. The device is constituted essentially by a beam generator 2′ for generating a beam of atomic or molecular ions 11, a neutralizer 14, and a collimator 15. Several types of ion source 11 suitable for implementing the invention are commercially available, and they deliver ion beams of energy lying in the range a few eV to a few keV. As an example, mention can be made of electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) sources, and of discharge sources. The ion source 11 comprises a set of electrodes for accelerating ions to the desired energy by applying an electrostatic field, together with an electrostatic focusing system. If the ion beam generated by the source 11 is not sufficiently pure from a chemical and isotopic point of view, or if it contains ions having different states of charge, it can be directed towards a mass filter 12 that uses a magnetic field generated by a magnet 121 and a slit 122 to select particles having a determined ratio of mass over charge. Although not visible in FIG. 3A, a magnetic mass filter of this type is not in a straight line and necessarily deflects the ion beam 2′. In a variant, it is possible to use a Wien filter or any other appropriate mass filter. If it is desired to obtain a pulsed beam, it is possible to provide a stopper 13 either upstream or downstream of the mass filter, if any. In an embodiment of the invention, the device has an inlet slit 131 for shaping the beam, two plate electrodes 132 and 132′ facing each other, and an outlet orifice 133. By applying a varying electric field to the electrodes 132 and 132′, the ion beam is caused to sweep over the outlet orifice; if the field applied to the electrodes is periodic, then a pulsed outlet beam is obtained. The electric charge of the ions enables them to be accelerated, selected, and pulsed much more easily than neutral particles. The ion beams 2′ can then be neutralized by exchanging charge in a cell 14 filled with gas. Ideally, the gas used in the cell 14 is constituted by the same chemical species as the beam 2 so as to optimize charge exchange by resonant capture; the pressure P14 inside the cell depends on its length L14, and in general the following is imposed:P14×L14≦10−3 millibar centimeters (mbar·cm)At the outlet from the cell 14, an electrostatic field applied by the electrodes 141 and 141′ serves to deflect the remaining ions so that only a beam 2 of neutral atoms or molecules leaves the cell 14. The beam of atoms or molecules leaving the neutralizer 14 presents divergence that is too great for it to be possible to observe diffraction by the target surface 3, so the beam needs to be collimated. A collimator 15 may be constituted merely by first and second diaphragms D1 and D2 that are preferably circular, having diameters ØD1 and ØD2, of the same order of magnitude, being in alignment on the axis of the beam and spaced apart by a distance L. Simple geometrical considerations show that the divergence of the outlet beam, defined as being equal to the half-angle at the apex, is given by:Div=(ØD1+ØD2)/2L By way of example, ØD1 and ØD2 can be taken to be about 100 μm to 200 μm, and L can lie in the range 20 centimeters (cm) to 30 cm. FIG. 3B shows a simplified variant that is much more compact of means 1 for generating a beam of atoms or molecules. This simplified device does not have a mass filter 12 nor does it have a chopper 13. In the means 1 for generating a beam of atoms or molecules as shown in FIG. 3B, the neutralization cell 14 is constituted by a section of a tubular element 16 that extends between two diaphragms D0 and D1, with the diameter of the diaphragm D0 being much greater than that of the diaphragm D1. The cell 14 has a gas inlet 145 and is surrounded by an enclosure 146 that is connected to a vacuum pump system (not shown); the electrodes 141 and 141′ for deflecting non-recombined ions are located inside said tubular element 16, downstream from the diaphragm D1. In addition to defining the neutralization 14, the diaphragm D1 forms part of the collimator 15, as does the diaphragm D2 situated at the outlet from the tubular element 16. Since it does not include a chopper 13 located upstream from the neutralization cell 14, the device of FIG. 3B cannot produce a pulsed beam 2 of neutral atoms or molecules. Nevertheless, it can produce a pulsed beam of ions 2′: to do this, it suffices to evacuate the neutralization cell 14 and to apply a pulsed voltage to the electrodes 141 and 141′ so as to use them as a chopper. FIG. 4 shows a molecular beam epitaxy machine 1000 fitted with a device of the invention for characterizing surfaces. The machine 1000 is essentially constituted by an enclosure 1100 connected to a pumping system (not shown) that produces an ultra vacuum. Diffusion cells 1200 open out into the enclosure 1100 and serve to produce beams of molecules. Facing these cells 1200 there is situated a support 1300 for a substrate 3′ on which the surface 3 is to be deposited epitaxially. At an inlet 1400 of the enclosure 1100, there are connected means 1 for generating a high energy beam 2 of atoms or molecules of the type shown in FIG. 3A, but in which the chopper 13 has been replaced by an electrostatic deflector coupled at its inlet likewise to an RHEED electron gun 20. In this way, the user can decide to characterize the surface with the help of the beam 2 of atoms or molecules in accordance with the invention, or by using the traditional RHEED technique, without it being necessary to provide an additional inlet into the enclosure 1100. More precisely, when it is desired to perform RHEED characterization, only the electron gun 20 is activated, while the ion source 11 and the deflector 30 remain inactive, and the neutralization cell 14 is evacuated. Conversely, when it is desired to perform characterization by diffraction of neutral atoms or molecules, the electron gun 20 remains inactive while the ion source 11 and the deflector 30 are active, and the neutralization cell is filled with gas. By periodically activating and deactivating the deflector 30, it is possible to obtain a pulsed beam of atoms or molecules; under such circumstances, the deflector 30 can be used as a chopper. Detector means 4 that are sensitive to position, constituted by a microchannel plate coupled to a fluorescent screen, are also arranged on the wall of the enclosure 1100, in a position opposite from the generator means 1 relative to the surface 3. The means 4 are also adapted to detecting electrons, and are therefore compatible with the RHEED technique. In a variant, the characterizing device of the invention can completely replace an RHEED device. It is most advantageous for the angle of incidence θinc of the beam 2 on the surface 3 to be capable of being varied, e.g. over the range 0.5° to 10°, so as to enable said surface to be characterized more completely (the “rocking curve” technique). By way of example, this can be achieved by mounting the generator means 1 on a motor-driven pivot mechanism. In a variant, if all that is required is qualitative inspection of the quality of the surface 3, then the angle θinc may be constant. As explained above, the device of the invention enables the growth of conductive dielectric surfaces to be monitored in real time, whereas the RHEED technique is poorly adapted to dielectric surfaces. Furthermore, the diffraction of fast atoms at grazing incidence makes it possible to obtain diffraction patterns that are easier to interpret than RHEED patterns, because of the low ability of atoms or molecules to penetrate beneath the surface being studied. However, the device and the method of the invention are not limited to providing information of a crystallographic nature: they can be used for much more complete characterization of surfaces. By pulsing the incident beam of atoms with the help of the electrostatic chopper 13 shown in FIG. 3A, it is also possible to study the inelastic diffusion processes between neutral particles and the surface 3. To do this, it is necessary for the detector 4 to present sufficient time resolution to enable the energy of particles diffused by flight time to be measured, e.g. resolution of the order of 50 ns or less, and preferably of the order of 10 ns or less. By way of example, FIG. 5 shows an energy loss spectrum for particles diffused during the interaction of hydrogen atoms having energy of 500 eV with an NaCl (0 0 1) surface, the incidence being in the [1 0 0] crystallographic direction at an angle θinc=1.4°. The abscissa axis in FIG. 5 relates to atom flight time, expressed in arbitrary units; the instrument can be calibrated to associate each flight time with a value for the energy of the atoms after being diffused by the surface. Advantageously, it is possible to associate this measurement with detection of electrons that are emitted by the surface during the inelastic interaction. By way of example, this makes it possible to study the affinity of a surface with atomic hydrogen H used as a projectile. This is important from a technological point of view since H is very easily adsorbed by surfaces and constitutes an obstacle to molecular beam epitaxial growth. A similar technique can be used to determine the concentration of lightweight particles absorbed by the surface 3. These particles, principally atoms of hydrogen, can be ejected from the surface 3 as a result of a binary collision with the projectiles of the beam 2. Measuring the flight times of these ejected particles serves to determine their masses, and thus to identify them. The heavy particles present on the surface cannot be ejected by the projectiles on the beam 2, since they are much lighter in weight; in contrast, they give rise to diffusion at a large angle with a loss of energy for said projectiles. Under such circumstances, it is measuring the flight time of the deflected projectiles that serves to determine the mass of the absorbed particles, and thus to identify them. In FIG. 4, a secondary detector serves to measure the flight times of particles ejected from the surface 3 as a result of a collision with a projectile of the beam 2, and also of projectiles of said beam that are diffused at a large angle, as represented diagrammatically by reference 1600. The detector 1600 needs to have time resolution of no more than 1 μs, and preferably of no more than 100 ns, and preferably no greater than 10 ns. In addition, it is arranged to detect neutral or ionized atoms or molecules that leave the surface for characterizing on a trajectory that forms relative to said surface 3 an angle that is greater than the specular reflection angle of the beam of neutral atoms or molecules, e.g. an angle of about 30°. Adsorbed particles can also be identified by using ions as projectiles. Even in this application, it is possible to use the beam generator means of FIG. 3B that are incapable of producing a pulsed neutral beam. The above-described techniques for identifying adsorbed particles are themselves known, see for example the following articles: W. Hayami et al. “Structural analysis of the HfB2(0001) surface by impact-collision ion scattering spectroscopy”, Surface Science 415 (1998) 433-437; M. Shi et al. “Time-of-flight scattering and recoiling spectrometry. III. The structure of hydrogen on the W(211) surface”, Phys. Rev. B, 40, 10163 (1989); and Y. Wang et al. “Structure of the Si{100} surface in the clean (2×1), (2×1)-H monohydride, (1×1)-H dihydride and c(4×4)-H phases”, Phys. Rev. B, 48, 1678 (1993). Nevertheless, those techniques are generally not used in an industrial environment since they require additional equipment over and above the RHEED analysis device that is always present. By means of the invention, the same means 1 for generating a beam of atoms or molecules can be used equally well for performing surface diffraction measurements and for identifying adsorbed particles. With a negligible increase in the complexity of the instrument (adding the secondary detector 1600), it thus becomes possible to characterize the surface 3 much more completely than is possible by using the RHEED technique alone. Identifying adsorbed particles is advantageously combined with observing diffraction patterns when performing real-time monitoring of crystal growth by epitaxy. In a particular implementation of the method of the invention, the study of the oscillations of the diffraction peaks makes it possible to follow the progress of the deposition of successive layers of atoms, as is commonly done using the RHEED technique, while detecting particles leaving the surface 3 as a result of a collision with an atom or a molecule of the beam 2 (or an ion of the beam 2′), and projectiles diffused to large angles as a result of a collision with a heavy adsorbed particle, makes it possible to discover the degree of contamination of the same surface. Since chopping the beam 2 or 2′ considerably reduces its flux, and therefore makes diffraction patterns difficult to see, the two types of measurement are generally performed in alternation over time.
	description	This application is: a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/152,479 filed May 11, 2016, which: is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/216,788 filed Mar. 17, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/087,096 filed Apr. 14, 2011, which claims benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/324,776 filed Apr. 16, 2010; and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/788,890 filed Mar. 7, 2013; is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/952,817 filed Nov. 25, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/293,861 filed Jun. 2, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/985,039 filed Jan. 5, 2011, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/324,776, filed Apr. 16, 2010; is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/860,577 filed Sep. 21, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/223,289 filed Mar. 24, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/216,788 filed Mar. 17, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/985,039 filed Jan. 5, 2011, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/324,776, filed Apr. 16, 2010; and is a continuation-in-part U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/073,471 filed Mar. 17, 2016, which claims benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/304,839 filed Mar. 7, 2016, is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/860,577 filed Sep. 21, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/223,289 filed Mar. 24, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/216,788 filed Mar. 17, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/572,542 filed Aug. 10, 2012, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/425,683 filed Apr. 17, 2009, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/055,395 filed May 22, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,939,809 B2; all of which are incorporated herein in their entirety by this reference thereto. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to treatment of solid cancers. More particularly, the invention relates to proton, or heavier cation, induced light emitting sheets for determining charged particle direction, intensity, density, energy, distribution, and/or distribution shape. Discussion of the Prior Art Cancer Treatment Proton therapy works by aiming energetic ionizing particles, such as protons accelerated with a particle accelerator, onto a target tumor. These particles damage the DNA of cells, ultimately causing their death. Cancerous cells, because of their high rate of division and their reduced ability to repair damaged DNA, are particularly vulnerable to attack on their DNA. Patents related to the current invention are summarized here. Proton Beam Therapy System F. Cole, et. al. of Loma Linda University Medical Center “Multi-Station Proton Beam Therapy System”, U.S. Pat. No. 4,870,287 (Sep. 26, 1989) describe a proton beam therapy system for selectively generating and transporting proton beams from a single proton source and accelerator to a selected treatment room of a plurality of patient treatment rooms. Imaging P. Adamee, et. al. “Charged Particle Beam Apparatus and Method for Operating the Same”, U.S. Pat. No. 7,274,018 (Sep. 25, 2007) and P. Adamee, et. al. “Charged Particle Beam Apparatus and Method for Operating the Same”, U.S. Pat. No. 7,045,781 (May 16, 2006) describe a charged particle beam apparatus configured for serial and/or parallel imaging of an object. K. Hiramoto, et. al. “Ion Beam Therapy System and its Couch Positioning System”, U.S. Pat. No. 7,193,227 (Mar. 20, 2007) describe an ion beam therapy system having an X-ray imaging system moving in conjunction with a rotating gantry. C. Maurer, et. al. “Apparatus and Method for Registration of Images to Physical Space Using a Weighted Combination of Points and Surfaces”, U.S. Pat. No. 6,560,354 (May 6, 2003) described a process of X-ray computed tomography registered to physical measurements taken on the patient's body, where different body parts are given different weights. Weights are used in an iterative registration process to determine a rigid body transformation process, where the transformation function is used to assist surgical or stereotactic procedures. M. Blair, et. al. “Proton Beam Digital Imaging System”, U.S. Pat. No. 5,825,845 (Oct. 20, 1998) describe a proton beam digital imaging system having an X-ray source that is movable into a treatment beam line that can produce an X-ray beam through a region of the body. By comparison of the relative positions of the center of the beam in the patient orientation image and the isocentre in the master prescription image with respect to selected monuments, the amount and direction of movement of the patient to make the best beam center correspond to the target isocentre is determined. S. Nishihara, et. al. “Therapeutic Apparatus”, U.S. Pat. No. 5,039,867 (Aug. 13, 1991) describe a method and apparatus for positioning a therapeutic beam in which a first distance is determined on the basis of a first image, a second distance is determined on the basis of a second image, and the patient is moved to a therapy beam irradiation position on the basis of the first and second distances. Problem There exists in the art of charged particle irradiation therapy a need to control energy, cross-sectional beam shape, and/or focal point, of the charged particle beam, where the controls are individualized to individual patients and/or individual tumor shapes. The invention comprises a view sheet assisted charged particle beam delivery/control system. Elements and steps in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been rendered according to any particular sequence. For example, steps that are performed concurrently or in different order are illustrated in the figures to help improve understanding of embodiments of the present invention. The invention relates generally to a charged particle state determination system using one or more coated layers designed to emit photons upon interaction with a charged particle beam, such as in a charged particle cancer treatment system and method of operation thereof. For example, one or more detectors imaging photons emitted from the coated layers, also referred to as imaging sheets or layers, are used to determine one or more point positions of the charged particle beam. Combining the point positions yields localized vectors pinpointing the charged particle beam position, such as entering a patient and/or exiting the patient. In another embodiment, the charged particle state determination system using one or more coated layers is used in conjunction with a scintillation detector or a tomographic imaging system at time of tumor and surrounding tissue sample mapping and/or at time of tumor treatment. In still another embodiment, common synchrotron, beam transport, and/or nozzle elements are used for both tomographic imaging and cancer treatment. In another embodiment, the charged particle tomography apparatus is used in combination with a charged particle cancer therapy system. For example, tomographic imaging of a cancerous tumor is performed using charged particles generated with an injector, accelerator, and guided with a delivery system. The cancer therapy system uses the same injector, accelerator, and guided delivery system in delivering charged particles to the cancerous tumor. For example, the tomography apparatus and cancer therapy system use a common raster beam method and apparatus for treatment of solid cancers. More particularly, the invention comprises a multi-axis and/or multi-field raster beam charged particle accelerator used in: (1) tomography and (2) cancer therapy. Optionally, the system independently controls patient translation position, patient rotation position, two-dimensional beam trajectory, delivered radiation beam energy, delivered radiation beam intensity, beam velocity, timing of charged particle delivery, and/or distribution of radiation striking healthy tissue. The system operates in conjunction with a negative ion beam source, synchrotron, patient positioning, imaging, and/or targeting method and apparatus to deliver an effective and uniform dose of radiation to a tumor while distributing radiation striking healthy tissue. In another embodiment, a treatment delivery control system (TDCS) or main controller is used to control multiple aspects of the cancer therapy system, including one or more of: an imaging system, such as a CT or PET; a positioner, such as a couch or patient interface module; an injector or injection system; a radio-frequency quadrupole system; a ring accelerator or synchrotron; an extraction system; an irradiation plan; and a display system. The TDCS is preferably a control system for automated cancer therapy once the patient is positioned. The TDCS integrates output of one or more of the below described cancer therapy system elements with inputs of one or more of the below described cancer therapy system elements. More generally, the TDCS controls or manages input and/or output of imaging, an irradiation plan, and charged particle delivery. In yet another embodiment, one or more trays are inserted into the positively charged particle beam path, such as at or near the exit port of a gantry nozzle in close proximity to the patient. Each tray holds an insert, such as a patient specific insert for controlling the energy, focus depth, and/or shape of the charged particle beam. Examples of inserts include a range shifter, a compensator, an aperture, a ridge filter, and a blank. Optionally and preferably, each tray communicates a held and positioned insert to a main controller of the charged particle cancer therapy system. The trays optionally hold one or more of the imaging sheets configured to emit light upon transmission of the charged particle beam through a corresponding localized position of the one or more imaging sheets. Charged Particle Beam Therapy Throughout this document, a charged particle beam therapy system, such as a proton beam, hydrogen ion beam, or carbon ion beam, is described. Herein, the charged particle beam therapy system is described using a proton beam. However, the aspects taught and described in terms of a proton beam are not intended to be limiting to that of a proton beam and are illustrative of a charged particle beam system, a positively charged beam system, and/or a multiply charged particle beam system, such as C4+ or C6+. Any of the techniques described herein are equally applicable to any charged particle beam system. Referring now to FIG. 1A, a charged particle beam system 100 is illustrated. The charged particle beam preferably comprises a number of subsystems including any of: a main controller 110; an injection system 120; a synchrotron 130 that typically includes: (1) an accelerator system 132 and (2) an internal or connected extraction system 134; a beam transport system 135; a scanning/targeting/delivery system 140; a patient interface module 150; a display system 160; and/or an imaging system 170. An exemplary method of use of the charged particle beam system 100 is provided. The main controller 110 controls one or more of the subsystems to accurately and precisely deliver protons to a tumor of a patient. For example, the main controller 110 obtains an image, such as a portion of a body and/or of a tumor, from the imaging system 170. The main controller 110 also obtains position and/or timing information from the patient interface module 150. The main controller 110 optionally controls the injection system 120 to inject a proton into a synchrotron 130. The synchrotron typically contains at least an accelerator system 132 and an extraction system 134. The main controller 110 preferably controls the proton beam within the accelerator system, such as by controlling speed, trajectory, and timing of the proton beam. The main controller then controls extraction of a proton beam from the accelerator through the extraction system 134. For example, the controller controls timing, energy, and/or intensity of the extracted beam. The controller 110 also preferably controls targeting of the proton beam through the scanning/targeting/delivery system 140 to the patient interface module 150. One or more components of the patient interface module 150, such as translational and rotational position of the patient, are preferably controlled by the main controller 110. Further, display elements of the display system 160 are preferably controlled via the main controller 110. Displays, such as display screens, are typically provided to one or more operators and/or to one or more patients. In one embodiment, the main controller 110 times the delivery of the proton beam from all systems, such that protons are delivered in an optimal therapeutic manner to the tumor of the patient. Herein, the main controller 110 refers to a single system controlling the charged particle beam system 100, to a single controller controlling a plurality of subsystems controlling the charged particle beam system 100, or to a plurality of individual controllers controlling one or more sub-systems of the charged particle beam system 100. Referring now to FIG. 7, a first example of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 is illustrated using two cation induced signal generation surfaces, referred to herein as the first sheet 760 and a third sheet 780. Each sheet is described below. Still referring to FIG. 7, in the first example, the optional first sheet 760, located in the charged particle beam path prior to the patient 730, is coated with a first fluorophore coating 762, wherein a cation, such as in the charged particle beam, transmitting through the first sheet 760 excites localized fluorophores of the first fluorophore coating 762 with resultant emission of one or more photons. In this example, a first detector 812 images the first fluorophore coating 762 and the main controller 110 determines a current position of the charged particle beam using the image of the fluorophore coating 762 and the detected photon(s). The intensity of the detected photons emitted from the first fluorophore coating 762 is optionally used to determine the intensity of the charged particle beam used in treatment of the tumor 720 or detected by the tomography system 700 in generation of a tomogram and/or tomographic image of the tumor 720 of the patient 730. Thus, a first position and/or a first intensity of the charged particle beam is determined using the position and/or intensity of the emitted photons, respectively. Still referring to FIG. 7, in the first example, the optional third sheet 780, positioned posterior to the patient 730, is optionally a cation induced photon emitting sheet as described in the previous paragraph. However, as illustrated, the third sheet 780 is a solid state beam detection surface, such as a detector array. For instance, the detector array is optionally a charge coupled device, a charge induced device, CMOS, or camera detector where elements of the detector array are read directly, as does a commercial camera, without the secondary emission of photons. Similar to the detection described for the first sheet, the third sheet 780 is used to determine a position of the charged particle beam and/or an intensity of the charged particle beam using signal position and/or signal intensity from the detector array, respectively. Still referring to FIG. 7, in the first example, signals from the first sheet 760 and third sheet 780 yield a position before and after the patient 730 allowing a more accurate determination of the charged particle beam through the patient 730 therebetween. Optionally, knowledge of the charged particle beam path in the targeting/delivery system 740, such as determined via a first magnetic field strength across the first axis control 142 or a second magnetic field strength across the second axis control 144 is combined with signal derived from the first sheet 760 to yield a first vector of the charged particles prior to entering the patient 730 and/or an input point of the charged particle beam into the patient 730, which also aids in: (1) controlling, monitoring, and/or recording tumor treatment and/or (2) tomography development/interpretation. Optionally, signal derived from use of the third sheet 780, posterior to the patient 730, is combined with signal derived from tomography system 700, such as the scintillation plate 710, to yield a second vector of the charged particles posterior to the patient 730 and/or an output point of the charged particle beam from the patient 730, which also aids in: (1) controlling, monitoring, deciphering, and/or (2) interpreting a tomogram or a tomographic image. For clarity of presentation and without loss of generality, detection of photons emitted from sheets is used to further describe the charged particle beam state determination system 750. However, any of the cation induced photon emission sheets described herein are alternatively detector arrays. Further, any number of cation induced photon emission sheets are used prior to the patient 730 and/or posterior to the patient 730, such a 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, or more. Still further, any of the cation induced photon emission sheets are place anywhere in the charged particle beam, such as in the synchrotron 130, in the beam transport system 135, in the targeting/delivery system 140, the nozzle 146, in the gantry room, and/or in the tomography system 700. Any of the cation induced photon emission sheets are used in generation of a beam state signal as a function of time, which is optionally recorded, such as for an accurate history of treatment of the tumor 720 of the patient 730 and/or for aiding generation of a tomographic image. Referring now to FIG. 1B, an example of a charged particle cancer therapy system 100 is provided. A main controller receives input from one, two, three, or four of a respiration monitoring and/or controlling controller 180, a beam controller 185, a rotation controller 147, and/or a timing to a time period in a respiration cycle controller 148. The beam controller 185 preferably includes one or more or a beam energy controller 182, the beam intensity controller 340, a beam velocity controller 186, and/or a horizontal/vertical beam positioning controller 188. The main controller 110 controls any element of the injection system 120; the synchrotron 130; the scanning/targeting/delivery system 140; the patient interface module 150; the display system 160; and/or the imaging system 170. For example, the respiration monitoring/controlling controller 180 controls any element or method associated with the respiration of the patient; the beam controller 185 controls any of the elements controlling acceleration and/or extraction of the charged particle beam; the rotation controller 147 controls any element associated with rotation of the patient 830 or gantry; and the timing to a period in respiration cycle controller 148 controls any aspects affecting delivery time of the charged particle beam to the patient. As a further example, the beam controller 185 optionally controls any magnetic and/or electric field about any magnet in the charged particle cancer therapy system 100. One or more beam state sensors 190 sense position, direction, intensity, and/or energy of the charged particles at one or more positions in the charged particle beam path. A tomography system 700, described infra, is optionally used to monitor intensity and/or position of the charged particle beam. Referring now to FIG. 2, an illustrative exemplary embodiment of one version of the charged particle beam system 100 is provided. The number, position, and described type of components is illustrative and non-limiting in nature. In the illustrated embodiment, the injection system 120 or ion source or charged particle beam source generates protons. The injection system 120 optionally includes one or more of: a negative ion beam source, an ion beam focusing lens, and a tandem accelerator. The protons are delivered into a vacuum tube that runs into, through, and out of the synchrotron. The generated protons are delivered along an initial path 262. Focusing magnets 230, such as quadrupole magnets or injection quadrupole magnets, are used to focus the proton beam path. A quadrupole magnet is a focusing magnet. An injector bending magnet 232 bends the proton beam toward a plane of the synchrotron 130. The focused protons having an initial energy are introduced into an injector magnet 240, which is preferably an injection Lamberson magnet. Typically, the initial beam path 262 is along an axis off of, such as above, a circulating plane of the synchrotron 130. The injector bending magnet 232 and injector magnet 240 combine to move the protons into the synchrotron 130. Main bending magnets, dipole magnets, turning magnets, or circulating magnets 250 are used to turn the protons along a circulating beam path 264. A dipole magnet is a bending magnet. The main bending magnets 250 bend the initial beam path 262 into a circulating beam path 264. In this example, the main bending magnets 250 or circulating magnets are represented as four sets of four magnets to maintain the circulating beam path 264 into a stable circulating beam path. However, any number of magnets or sets of magnets are optionally used to move the protons around a single orbit in the circulation process. The protons pass through an accelerator 270. The accelerator accelerates the protons in the circulating beam path 264. As the protons are accelerated, the fields applied by the magnets are increased. Particularly, the speed of the protons achieved by the accelerator 270 are synchronized with magnetic fields of the main bending magnets 250 or circulating magnets to maintain stable circulation of the protons about a central point or region 280 of the synchrotron. At separate points in time the accelerator 270/main bending magnet 250 combination is used to accelerate and/or decelerate the circulating protons while maintaining the protons in the circulating path or orbit. An extraction element of an inflector/deflector system is used in combination with a Lamberson extraction magnet 292 to remove protons from their circulating beam path 264 within the synchrotron 130. One example of a deflector component is a Lamberson magnet. Typically the deflector moves the protons from the circulating plane to an axis off of the circulating plane, such as above the circulating plane. Extracted protons are preferably directed and/or focused using an extraction bending magnet 237 and extraction focusing magnets 235, such as quadrupole magnets along a positively charged particle beam transport path 268 in a beam transport system 135, such as a beam path or proton beam path, into the scanning/targeting/delivery system 140. Two components of a scanning system 140 or targeting system typically include a first axis control 142, such as a vertical control, and a second axis control 144, such as a horizontal control. In one embodiment, the first axis control 142 allows for about 100 mm of vertical or y-axis scanning of the proton beam 268 and the second axis control 144 allows for about 700 mm of horizontal or x-axis scanning of the proton beam 268. A nozzle system 146 is used for imaging the proton beam, for defining shape of the proton beam, and/or as a vacuum barrier between the low pressure beam path of the synchrotron and the atmosphere. Protons are delivered with control to the patient interface module 150 and to a tumor of a patient. All of the above listed elements are optional and may be used in various permutations and combinations. Proton Beam Extraction Referring now to FIG. 3, both: (1) an exemplary proton beam extraction system 300 from the synchrotron 130 and (2) a charged particle beam intensity control system 305 are illustrated. For clarity, FIG. 3 removes elements represented in FIG. 2, such as the turning magnets, which allows for greater clarity of presentation of the proton beam path as a function of time. Generally, protons are extracted from the synchrotron 130 by slowing the protons. As described, supra, the protons were initially accelerated in a circulating path, which is maintained with a plurality of main bending magnets 250. The circulating path is referred to herein as an original central beamline 264. The protons repeatedly cycle around a central point in the synchrotron 280. The proton path traverses through a radio frequency (RF) cavity system 310. To initiate extraction, an RF field is applied across a first blade 312 and a second blade 314, in the RF cavity system 310. The first blade 312 and second blade 314 are referred to herein as a first pair of blades. In the proton extraction process, an RF voltage is applied across the first pair of blades, where the first blade 312 of the first pair of blades is on one side of the circulating proton beam path 264 and the second blade 314 of the first pair of blades is on an opposite side of the circulating proton beam path 264. The applied RF field applies energy to the circulating charged-particle beam. The applied RF field alters the orbiting or circulating beam path slightly of the protons from the original central beamline 264 to an altered circulating beam path 265. Upon a second pass of the protons through the RF cavity system, the RF field further moves the protons off of the original proton beamline 264. For example, if the original beamline is considered as a circular path, then the altered beamline is slightly elliptical. The frequency of the applied RF field is timed to apply outward or inward movement to a given band of protons circulating in the synchrotron accelerator. Orbits of the protons are slightly more off axis compared to the original circulating beam path 264. Successive passes of the protons through the RF cavity system are forced further and further from the original central beamline 264 by altering the direction and/or intensity of the RF field with each successive pass of the proton beam through the RF field. Timing of application of the RF field and/or frequency of the RF field is related to the circulating charged particles circulation pathlength in the synchrotron 130 and the velocity of the charged particles so that the applied RF field has a period, with a peak-to-peak time period, equal to a period of time of beam circulation in the synchrotron 130 about the center 280 or an integer multiple of the time period of beam circulation about the center 280 of the synchrotron 130. Alternatively, the time period of beam circulation about the center 280 of the synchrotron 130 is an integer multiple of the RF period time. The RF period is optionally used to calculated the velocity of the charged particles, which relates directly to the energy of the circulating charged particles. The RF voltage is frequency modulated at a frequency about equal to the period of one proton cycling around the synchrotron for one revolution or at a frequency than is an integral multiplier of the period of one proton cycling about the synchrotron. The applied RF frequency modulated voltage excites a betatron oscillation. For example, the oscillation is a sine wave motion of the protons. The process of timing the RF field to a given proton beam within the RF cavity system is repeated thousands of times with each successive pass of the protons being moved approximately one micrometer further off of the original central beamline 264. For clarity, the approximately 1000 changing beam paths with each successive path of a given band of protons through the RF field are illustrated as the altered beam path 265. The RF time period is process is known, thus energy of the charged particles at time of hitting the extaction material 330, described infra, is known. With a sufficient sine wave betatron amplitude, the altered circulating beam path 265 touches and/or traverses a material 330, such as a foil or a sheet of foil. The foil is preferably a lightweight material, such as beryllium, a lithium hydride, a carbon sheet, or a material having low nuclear charge components. Herein, a material of low nuclear charge is a material composed of atoms consisting essentially of atoms having six or fewer protons. The foil is preferably about 10 to 150 microns thick, is more preferably about 30 to 100 microns thick, and is still more preferably about 40 to 60 microns thick. In one example, the foil is beryllium with a thickness of about 50 microns. When the protons traverse through the foil, energy of the protons is lost and the speed of the protons is reduced. Typically, a current is also generated, described infra. Protons moving at the slower speed travel in the synchrotron with a reduced radius of curvature 266 compared to either the original central beamline 264 or the altered circulating path 265. The reduced radius of curvature 266 path is also referred to herein as a path having a smaller diameter of trajectory or a path having protons with reduced energy. The reduced radius of curvature 266 is typically about two millimeters less than a radius of curvature of the last pass of the protons along the altered proton beam path 265. The thickness of the material 330 is optionally adjusted to create a change in the radius of curvature, such as about ½, 1, 2, 3, or 4 mm less than the last pass of the protons 265 or original radius of curvature 264. The reduction in velocity of the charged particles transmitting through the material 330 is calculable, such as by using the pathlength of the betatron oscillating charged particle beam through the material 330 and/or using the density of the material 330. Protons moving with the smaller radius of curvature travel between a second pair of blades. In one case, the second pair of blades is physically distinct and/or is separated from the first pair of blades. In a second case, one of the first pair of blades is also a member of the second pair of blades. For example, the second pair of blades is the second blade 314 and a third blade 316 in the RF cavity system 310. A high voltage DC signal, such as about 1 to 5 kV, is then applied across the second pair of blades, which directs the protons out of the synchrotron through an extraction magnet 292, such as a Lamberson extraction magnet, into a transport path 268. Control of acceleration of the charged particle beam path in the synchrotron with the accelerator and/or applied fields of the turning magnets in combination with the above described extraction system allows for control of the intensity of the extracted proton beam, where intensity is a proton flux per unit time or the number of protons extracted as a function of time. For example, when a current is measured beyond a threshold, the RF field modulation in the RF cavity system is terminated or reinitiated to establish a subsequent cycle of proton beam extraction. This process is repeated to yield many cycles of proton beam extraction from the synchrotron accelerator. In another embodiment, instead of moving the charged particles to the material 330, the material 330 is mechanically moved to the circulating charged particles. Particularly, the material 330 is mechanically or electromechanically translated into the path of the circulating charged particles to induce the extraction process, described supra. In this case, the velocity or energy of the circulating charged particle beam is calculable using the pathlength of the beam path about the center 280 of the synchrotron 130 and from the force applied by the bending magnets 250. In either case, because the extraction system does not depend on any change in magnetic field properties, it allows the synchrotron to continue to operate in acceleration or deceleration mode during the extraction process. Stated differently, the extraction process does not interfere with synchrotron acceleration. In stark contrast, traditional extraction systems introduce a new magnetic field, such as via a hexapole, during the extraction process. More particularly, traditional synchrotrons have a magnet, such as a hexapole magnet, that is off during an acceleration stage. During the extraction phase, the hexapole magnetic field is introduced to the circulating path of the synchrotron. The introduction of the magnetic field necessitates two distinct modes, an acceleration mode and an extraction mode, which are mutually exclusive in time. The herein described system allows for acceleration and/or deceleration of the proton during the extraction step and tumor treatment without the use of a newly introduced magnetic field, such as by a hexapole magnet. Charged Particle Beam Intensity Control Control of applied field, such as a radio-frequency (RF) field, frequency and magnitude in the RF cavity system 310 allows for intensity control of the extracted proton beam, where intensity is extracted proton flux per unit time or the number of protons extracted as a function of time. Still referring FIG. 3, the intensity control system 305 is further described. In this example, an intensity control feedback loop is added to the extraction system, described supra. When protons in the proton beam hit the material 330 electrons are given off from the material 330 resulting in a current. The resulting current is converted to a voltage and is used as part of an ion beam intensity monitoring system or as part of an ion beam feedback loop for controlling beam intensity. The voltage is optionally measured and sent to the main controller 110 or to an intensity controller subsystem 340, which is preferably in communication or under the direction of the main controller 110. More particularly, when protons in the charged particle beam path pass through the material 330, some of the protons lose a small fraction of their energy, such as about one-tenth of a percent, which results in a secondary electron. That is, protons in the charged particle beam push some electrons when passing through material 330 giving the electrons enough energy to cause secondary emission. The resulting electron flow results in a current or signal that is proportional to the number of protons going through the target or extraction material 330. The resulting current is preferably converted to voltage and amplified. The resulting signal is referred to as a measured intensity signal. The amplified signal or measured intensity signal resulting from the protons passing through the material 330 is optionally used in monitoring the intensity of the extracted protons and is preferably used in controlling the intensity of the extracted protons. For example, the measured intensity signal is compared to a goal signal, which is predetermined in an irradiation of the tumor plan. The difference between the measured intensity signal and the planned for goal signal is calculated. The difference is used as a control to the RF generator. Hence, the measured flow of current resulting from the protons passing through the material 330 is used as a control in the RF generator to increase or decrease the number of protons undergoing betatron oscillation and striking the material 330. Hence, the voltage determined off of the material 330 is used as a measure of the orbital path and is used as a feedback control to control the RF cavity system. In one example, the intensity controller subsystem 340 preferably additionally receives input from: (1) a detector 350, which provides a reading of the actual intensity of the proton beam and/or (2) an irradiation plan 360. The irradiation plan provides the desired intensity of the proton beam for each x, y, energy, and/or rotational position of the patient/tumor as a function of time. Thus, the intensity controller 340 receives the desired intensity from the irradiation plan 350, the actual intensity from the detector 350 and/or a measure of intensity from the material 330, and adjusts the amplitude and/or the duration of application of the applied radio-frequency field in the RF cavity system 310 to yield an intensity of the proton beam that matches the desired intensity from the irradiation plan 360. As described, supra, the protons striking the material 330 is a step in the extraction of the protons from the synchrotron 130. Hence, the measured intensity signal is used to change the number of protons per unit time being extracted, which is referred to as intensity of the proton beam. The intensity of the proton beam is thus under algorithm control. Further, the intensity of the proton beam is controlled separately from the velocity of the protons in the synchrotron 130. Hence, intensity of the protons extracted and the energy of the protons extracted are independently variable. Still further, the intensity of the extracted protons is controllably variable while scanning the charged particles beam in the tumor from one voxel to an adjacent voxel as a separate hexapole and separated time period from acceleration and/or treatment is not required, as described supra. For example, protons initially move at an equilibrium trajectory in the synchrotron 130. An RF field is used to excite or move the protons into a betatron oscillation. In one case, the frequency of the protons orbit is about 10 MHz. In one example, in about one millisecond or after about 10,000 orbits, the first protons hit an outer edge of the target material 130. The specific frequency is dependent upon the period of the orbit. Upon hitting the material 130, the protons push electrons through the foil to produce a current. The current is converted to voltage and amplified to yield a measured intensity signal. The measured intensity signal is used as a feedback input to control the applied RF magnitude or RF field. An energy beam sensor, described infra, is optionally used as a feedback control to the RF field frequency or RF field of the RF field extraction system 310 to dynamically control, modify, and/or alter the delivered charge particle beam energy, such as in a continuous pencil beam scanning system operating to treat tumor voxels without alternating between an extraction phase and a treatment phase. Preferably, the measured intensity signal is compared to a target signal and a measure of the difference between the measured intensity signal and target signal is used to adjust the applied RF field in the RF cavity system 310 in the extraction system to control the intensity of the protons in the extraction step. Stated again, the signal resulting from the protons striking and/or passing through the material 130 is used as an input in RF field modulation. An increase in the magnitude of the RF modulation results in protons hitting the foil or material 130 sooner. By increasing the RF, more protons are pushed into the foil, which results in an increased intensity, or more protons per unit time, of protons extracted from the synchrotron 130. In another example, a detector 350 external to the synchrotron 130 is used to determine the flux of protons extracted from the synchrotron and a signal from the external detector is used to alter the RF field, RF intensity, RF amplitude, and/or RF modulation in the RF cavity system 310. Here the external detector generates an external signal, which is used in a manner similar to the measured intensity signal, described in the preceding paragraphs. Preferably, an algorithm or irradiation plan 360 is used as an input to the intensity controller 340, which controls the RF field modulation by directing the RF signal in the betatron oscillation generation in the RF cavity system 310. The irradiation plan 360 preferably includes the desired intensity of the charged particle beam as a function of time and/or energy of the charged particle beam as a function of time, for each patient rotation position, and/or for each x-, y-position of the charged particle beam. In yet another example, when a current from material 330 resulting from protons passing through or hitting material is measured beyond a threshold, the RF field modulation in the RF cavity system is terminated or reinitiated to establish a subsequent cycle of proton beam extraction. This process is repeated to yield many cycles of proton beam extraction from the synchrotron accelerator. In still yet another embodiment, intensity modulation of the extracted proton beam is controlled by the main controller 110. The main controller 110 optionally and/or additionally controls timing of extraction of the charged particle beam and energy of the extracted proton beam. The benefits of the system include a multi-dimensional scanning system. Particularly, the system allows independence in: (1) energy of the protons extracted and (2) intensity of the protons extracted. That is, energy of the protons extracted is controlled by an energy control system and an intensity control system controls the intensity of the extracted protons. The energy control system and intensity control system are optionally independently controlled. Preferably, the main controller 110 controls the energy control system and the main controller 110 simultaneously controls the intensity control system to yield an extracted proton beam with controlled energy and controlled intensity where the controlled energy and controlled intensity are independently variable and/or continually available as a separate extraction phase and acceleration phase are not required, as described supra. Thus the irradiation spot hitting the tumor is under independent control of: time; energy; intensity; x-axis position, where the x-axis represents horizontal movement of the proton beam relative to the patient, and y-axis position, where the y-axis represents vertical movement of the proton beam relative to the patient. In addition, the patient is optionally independently translated and/or rotated relative to a translational axis of the proton beam at the same time. Nozzle After extraction from the synchrotron 130 and transport of the charged particle beam along the proton beam path 268 in the beam transport system 135, the charged particle beam exits through the nozzle system 146. In one example, the nozzle system includes a nozzle foil covering an end of the nozzle system 146 or a cross-sectional area within the nozzle system forming a vacuum seal. The nozzle system includes a nozzle that expands in x/y-cross-sectional area along the z-axis of the proton beam path 268 to allow the proton beam 268 to be scanned along the x-axis and y-axis by the vertical control element and horizontal control element, respectively. The nozzle foil is preferably mechanically supported by the outer edges of an exit port of the nozzle 146. An example of a nozzle foil is a sheet of about 0.1 inch thick aluminum foil. Generally, the nozzle foil separates atmosphere pressures on the patient side of the nozzle foil from the low pressure region, such as about 10−5 to 10−7 torr region, on the synchrotron 130 side of the nozzle foil. The low pressure region is maintained to reduce scattering of the circulating charged particle beam in the synchrotron. Herein, the exit foil of the nozzle is optionally the first sheet 760 of the charged particle beam state determination system 750, described infra. Charged Particle Control Referring now to FIG. 4A, FIG. 4B, FIG. 5, FIG. 6A, and FIG. 6B, a charged particle beam control system is described where one or more patient specific beam control assemblies are removably inserted into the charged particle beam path proximate the nozzle of the charged particle cancer therapy system 100, where the patient specific beam control assemblies adjust the beam energy, diameter, cross-sectional shape, focal point, and/or beam state of the charged particle beam to properly couple energy of the charged particle beam to the individual's specific tumor. Beam Control Tray Referring now to FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B, a beam control tray assembly 400 is illustrated in a top view and side view, respectively. The beam control tray assembly 400 optionally comprises any of a tray frame 410, a tray aperture 412, a tray handle 420, a tray connector/communicator 430, and means for holding a patient specific tray insert 510, described infra. Generally, the beam control tray assembly 400 is used to: (1) hold the patient specific tray insert 510 in a rigid location relative to the beam control tray 400, (2) electronically identify the held patient specific tray insert 510 to the main controller 110, and (3) removably insert the patient specific tray insert 510 into an accurate and precise fixed location relative to the charged particle beam, such as the proton beam path 268 at the nozzle of the charged particle cancer therapy system 100. For clarity of presentation and without loss of generality, the means for holding the patient specific tray insert 510 in the tray frame 410 of the beam control tray assembly 400 is illustrated as a set of recessed set screws 415. However, the means for holding the patient specific tray insert 510 relative to the rest of the beam control tray assembly 400 is optionally any mechanical and/or electromechanical positioning element, such as a latch, clamp, fastener, clip, slide, strap, or the like. Generally, the means for holding the patient specific tray insert 510 in the beam control tray 400 fixes the tray insert and tray frame relative to one another even when rotated along and/or around multiple axes, such as when attached to a charged particle cancer therapy system 100 dynamic gantry nozzle 610 or gantry nozzle, which is an optional element of the nozzle system 146, that moves in three-dimensional space relative to a fixed point in the beamline, proton beam path 268, and/or a given patient position. As illustrated in FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B, the recessed set screws 415 fix the patient specific tray insert 510 into the aperture 412 of the tray frame 410. The tray frame 410 is illustrated as circumferentially surrounding the patient specific tray insert 510, which aids in structural stability of the beam control tray assembly 400. However, generally the tray frame 410 is of any geometry that forms a stable beam control tray assembly 400. Still referring to FIG. 4A and now referring to FIG. 5 and FIG. 6A, the optional tray handle 420 is used to manually insert/retract the beam control tray assembly 400 into a receiving element of the gantry nozzle or dynamic gantry nozzle 610. While the beam control tray assembly 400 is optionally inserted into the charged particle beam path 268 at any point after extraction from the synchrotron 130, the beam control tray assembly 400 is preferably inserted into the positively charged particle beam proximate the dynamic gantry nozzle 610 as control of the beam shape is preferably done with little space for the beam shape to defocus before striking the tumor. Optionally, insertion and/or retraction of the beam control tray assembly 400 is semi-automated, such as in a manner of a digital-video disk player receiving a digital-video disk, with a selected auto load and/or a selected auto unload feature. Patient Specific Tray Insert Referring again to FIG. 5, a system of assembling trays 500 is described. The beam control tray assembly 400 optionally and preferably has interchangeable patient specific tray inserts 510, such as a range shifter insert 511, a patient specific ridge filter insert 512, an aperture insert 513, a compensator insert 514, or a blank insert 515. As described, supra, any of the range shifter insert 511, the patient specific ridge filter insert 512, the aperture insert 513, the compensator insert 514, or the blank insert 515 after insertion into the tray frame 410 are inserted as the beam control tray assembly 400 into the positively charged particle beam path 268, such as proximate the dynamic gantry nozzle 610. Still referring to FIG. 5, the patient specific tray inserts 510 are further described. The patient specific tray inserts comprise a combination of any of: (1) a standardized beam control insert and (2) a patient specific beam control insert. For example, the range shifter insert or 511 or compensator insert 514 used to control the depth of penetration of the charged particle beam into the patient is optionally: (a) a standard thickness of a beam slowing material, such as a first thickness of Lucite, (b) one member of a set of members of varying thicknesses and/or densities where each member of the set of members slows the charged particles in the beam path by a known amount, or (c) is a material with a density and thickness designed to slow the charged particles by a customized amount for the individual patient being treated, based on the depth of the individual's tumor in the tissue, the thickness of intervening tissue, and/or the density of intervening bone/tissue. Similarly, the ridge filter insert 512 used to change the focal point or shape of the beam as a function of depth is optionally: (1) selected from a set of ridge filters where different members of the set of ridge filters yield different focal depths or (2) customized for treatment of the individual's tumor based on position of the tumor in the tissue of the individual. Similarly, the aperture insert is: (1) optionally selected from a set of aperture shapes or (2) is a customized individual aperture insert 513 designed for the specific shape of the individual's tumor. The blank insert 515 is an open slot, but serves the purpose of identifying slot occupancy, as described infra. Slot Occupancy/Identification Referring again to FIG. 4A, FIG. 4B, and FIG. 5, occupancy and identification of the particular patient specific tray insert 510 into the beam control tray assembly 400 is described. Generally, the beam control tray assembly 400 optionally contains means for identifying, to the main controller 110 and/or a treatment delivery control system described infra, the specific patient tray insert 510 and its location in the charged particle beam path 268. First, the particular tray insert is optionally labeled and/or communicated to the beam control tray assembly 400 or directly to the main controller 110. Second, the beam control tray assembly 400 optionally communicates the tray type and/or tray insert to the main controller 110. In various embodiments, communication of the particular tray insert to the main controller 110 is performed: (1) directly from the tray insert, (2) from the tray insert 510 to the tray assembly 400 and subsequently to the main controller 110, and/or (3) directly from the tray assembly 400. Generally, communication is performed wirelessly and/or via an established electromechanical link. Identification is optionally performed using a radio-frequency identification label, use of a barcode, or the like, and/or via operator input. Examples are provided to further clarify identification of the patient specific tray insert 510 in a given beam control tray assembly 400 to the main controller. In a first example, one or more of the patient specific tray inserts 510, such as the range shifter insert 511, the patient specific ridge filter insert 512, the aperture insert 513, the compensator insert 514, or the blank insert 515 include an identifier 520 and/or and a first electromechanical identifier plug 530. The identifier 520 is optionally a label, a radio-frequency identification tag, a barcode, a 2-dimensional bar-code, a matrix-code, or the like. The first electromechanical identifier plug 530 optionally includes memory programmed with the particular patient specific tray insert information and a connector used to communicate the information to the beam control tray assembly 400 and/or to the main controller 110. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the first electromechanical identifier plug 530 affixed to the patient specific tray insert 510 plugs into a second electromechanical identifier plug, such as the tray connector/communicator 430, of the beam control tray assembly 400, which is described infra. In a second example, the beam control tray assembly 400 uses the second electromechanical identifier plug to send occupancy, position, and/or identification information related to the type of tray insert or the patient specific tray insert 510 associated with the beam control tray assembly to the main controller 110. For example, a first tray assembly is configured with a first tray insert and a second tray assembly is configured with a second tray insert. The first tray assembly sends information to the main controller 110 that the first tray assembly holds the first tray insert, such as a range shifter, and the second tray assembly sends information to the main controller 110 that the second tray assembly holds the second tray insert, such as an aperture. The second electromechanical identifier plug optionally contains programmable memory for the operator to input the specific tray insert type, a selection switch for the operator to select the tray insert type, and/or an electromechanical connection to the main controller. The second electromechanical identifier plug associated with the beam control tray assembly 400 is optionally used without use of the first electromechanical identifier plug 530 associated with the tray insert 510. In a third example, one type of tray connector/communicator 430 is used for each type of patient specific tray insert 510. For example, a first connector/communicator type is used for holding a range shifter insert 511, while a second, third, fourth, and fifth connector/communicator type is used for trays respectively holding a patient specific ridge filter insert 512, an aperture insert 513, a compensator insert 514, or a blank insert 515. In one case, the tray communicates tray type with the main controller. In a second case, the tray communicates patient specific tray insert information with the main controller, such as an aperture identifier custom built for the individual patient being treated. Tray Insertion/Coupling Referring now to FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B a beam control insertion process 600 is described. The beam control insertion process 600 comprises: (1) insertion of the beam control tray assembly 400 and the associated patient specific tray insert 510 into the charged particle beam path 268 and/or dynamic gantry nozzle 610, such as into a tray assembly receiver 620 and (2) an optional partial or total retraction of beam of the tray assembly receiver 620 into the dynamic gantry nozzle 610. Referring now to FIG. 6A, insertion of one or more of the beam control tray assemblies 400 and the associated patient specific tray inserts 510 into the dynamic gantry nozzle 610 is further described. In FIG. 6A, three beam control tray assemblies, of a possible n tray assemblies, are illustrated, a first tray assembly 402, a second tray assembly 404, and a third tray assembly 406, where n is a positive integer of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more. As illustrated, the first tray assembly 402 slides into a first receiving slot 403, the second tray assembly 404 slides into a second receiving slot 405, and the third tray assembly 406 slides into a third receiving slot 407. Generally, any tray optionally inserts into any slot or tray types are limited to particular slots through use of a mechanical, physical, positional, and/or steric constraints, such as a first tray type configured for a first insert type having a first size and a second tray type configured for a second insert type having a second distinct size at least ten percent different from the first size. Still referring to FIG. 6A, identification of individual tray inserts inserted into individual receiving slots is further described. As illustrated, sliding the first tray assembly 402 into the first receiving slot 403 connects the associated electromechanical connector/communicator 430 of the first tray assembly 402 to a first receptor 626. The electromechanical connector/communicator 430 of the first tray assembly communicates tray insert information of the first beam control tray assembly to the main controller 110 via the first receptor 626. Similarly, sliding the second tray assembly 404 into the second receiving slot 405 connects the associated electromechanical connector/communicator 430 of the second tray assembly 404 into a second receptor 627, which links communication of the associated electromechanical connector/communicator 430 with the main controller 110 via the second receptor 627, while a third receptor 628 connects to the electromechanical connected placed into the third slot 407. The non-wireless/direct connection is preferred due to the high radiation levels within the treatment room and the high shielding of the treatment room, which both hinder wireless communication. The connection of the communicator and the receptor is optionally of any configuration and/or orientation. Tray Receiver Assembly Retraction Referring again to FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B, retraction of the tray receiver assembly 620 relative to a nozzle end 612 of the dynamic gantry nozzle 610 is described. The tray receiver assembly 620 comprises a framework to hold one or more of the beam control tray assemblies 400 in one or more slots, such as through use of a first tray receiver assembly side 622 through which the beam control tray assemblies 400 are inserted and/or through use of a second tray receiver assembly side 624 used as a backstop, as illustrated holding the plugin receptors configured to receive associated tray connector/communicators 430, such as the first, second, and third receptors 626, 627, 628. Optionally, the tray receiver assembly 620 retracts partially or completely into the dynamic gantry nozzle 610 using a retraction mechanism 660 configured to alternatingly retract and extend the tray receiver assembly 620 relative to a nozzle end 612 of the gantry nozzle 610, such as along a first retraction track 662 and a second retraction track 664 using one or more motors and computer control. Optionally the tray receiver assembly 620 is partially or fully retracted when moving the gantry, nozzle, and/or gantry nozzle 610 to avoid physical constraints of movement, such as potential collision with another object in the patient treatment room. For clarity of presentation and without loss of generality, several examples of loading patient specific tray inserts into tray assemblies with subsequent insertion into an positively charged particle beam path proximate a gantry nozzle 610 are provided. In a first example, a single beam control tray assembly 400 is used to control the charged particle beam 268 in the charged particle cancer therapy system 100. In this example, a patient specific range shifter insert 511, which is custom fabricated for a patient, is loaded into a patient specific tray insert 510 to form a first tray assembly 402, where the first tray assembly 402 is loaded into the third receptor 628, which is fully retracted into the gantry nozzle 610. In a second example, two beam control assemblies 400 are used to control the charged particle beam 268 in the charged particle cancer therapy system 100. In this example, a patient specific ridge filter 512 is loaded into a first tray assembly 402, which is loaded into the second receptor 627 and a patient specific aperture 513 is loaded into a second tray assembly 404, which is loaded into the first receptor 626 and the two associated tray connector/communicators 430 using the first receptor 626 and second receptor 627 communicate to the main controller 110 the patient specific tray inserts 510. The tray receiver assembly 620 is subsequently retracted one slot so that the patient specific ridge filter 512 and the patient specific aperture reside outside of and at the nozzle end 612 of the gantry nozzle 610. In a third example, three beam control tray assemblies 400 are used, such as a range shifter 511 in a first tray inserted into the first receiving slot 403, a compensator in a second tray inserted into the second receiving slot 405, and an aperture in a third tray inserted into the third receiving slot 407. Generally, any patient specific tray insert 510 is inserted into a tray frame 410 to form a beam control tray assembly 400 inserted into any slot of the tray receiver assembly 620 and the tray assembly is not retracted or retracted any distance into the gantry nozzle 610. Tomography/Beam State In one embodiment, the charged particle tomography apparatus is used to image a tumor in a patient. As current beam position determination/verification is used in both tomography and cancer therapy treatment, for clarity of presentation and without limitation beam state determination is also addressed in this section. However, beam state determination is optionally used separately and without tomography. In another example, the charged particle tomography apparatus is used in combination with a charged particle cancer therapy system using common elements. For example, tomographic imaging of a cancerous tumor is performed using charged particles generated with an injector, accelerator, and guided with a delivery system that are part of the cancer therapy system, described supra. In various examples, the tomography imaging system is optionally simultaneously operational with a charged particle cancer therapy system using common elements, allows tomographic imaging with rotation of the patient, is operational on a patient in an upright, semi-upright, and/or horizontal position, is simultaneously operational with X-ray imaging, and/or allows use of adaptive charged particle cancer therapy. Further, the common tomography and cancer therapy apparatus elements are optionally operational in a multi-axis and/or multi-field raster beam mode. In conventional medical X-ray tomography, a sectional image through a body is made by moving one or both of an X-ray source and the X-ray film in opposite directions during the exposure. By modifying the direction and extent of the movement, operators can select different focal planes, which contain the structures of interest. More modern variations of tomography involve gathering projection data from multiple directions by moving the X-ray source and feeding the data into a tomographic reconstruction software algorithm processed by a computer. Herein, in stark contrast to known methods, the radiation source is a charged particle, such as a proton ion beam or a carbon ion beam. A proton beam is used herein to describe the tomography system, but the description applies to a heavier ion beam, such as a carbon ion beam. Further, in stark contrast to known techniques, herein the radiation source is preferably stationary while the patient is rotated. Referring now to FIG. 7, an example of a tomography apparatus is described and an example of a beam state determination is described. In this example, the tomography system 700 uses elements in common with the charged particle beam system 100, including elements of one or more of the injection system 120, accelerator 130, targeting/delivery system 140, patient interface module 150, display system 160, and/or imaging system 170, such as the X-ray imaging system. One or more scintillation plates, such as a scintillating plastic, are used to measure energy, intensity, and/or position of the charged particle beam. For instance, a scintillation plate 710 is positioned behind the patient 730 relative to the targeting/delivery system 140 elements, which is optionally used to measure intensity and/or position of the charged particle beam after transmitting through the patient. Optionally, a second scintillation plate or a charged particle induced photon emitting sheet, described infra, is positioned prior to the patient 730 relative to the targeting/delivery system 140 elements, which is optionally used to measure incident intensity and/or position of the charged particle beam prior to transmitting through the patient. The charged particle beam system 100 as described has proven operation at up to and including 330 MeV, which is sufficient to send protons through the body and into contact with the scintillation material. Particularly, 250 MeV to 330 MeV are used to pass the beam through a standard sized patient with a standard sized pathlength, such as through the chest. The intensity or count of protons hitting the plate as a function of position is used to create an image. The velocity or energy of the proton hitting the scintillation plate is also used in creation of an image of the tumor 720 and/or an image of the patient 730. The patient 730 is rotated about the y-axis and a new image is collected. Preferably, a new image is collected with about every one degree of rotation of the patient resulting in about 360 images that are combined into a tomogram using tomographic reconstruction software. The tomographic reconstruction software uses overlapping rotationally varied images in the reconstruction. Optionally, a new image is collected at about every 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 30, or 45 degrees of rotation of the patient. In one embodiment, a tomogram or an individual tomogram section image is collected at about the same time as cancer therapy occurs using the charged particle beam system 100. For example, a tomogram is collected and cancer therapy is subsequently performed: without the patient moving from the positioning systems, such as in a semi-vertical partial immobilization system, a sitting partial immobilization system, or the a laying position. In a second example, an individual tomogram slice is collected using a first cycle of the accelerator 130 and using a following cycle of the accelerator 130, the tumor 720 is irradiated, such as within about 1, 2, 5, 10, 15 or 30 seconds. In a third case, about 2, 3, 4, or 5 tomogram slices are collected using 1, 2, 3, 4, or more rotation positions of the patient 730 within about 5, 10, 15, 30, or 60 seconds of subsequent tumor irradiation therapy. In another embodiment, the independent control of the tomographic imaging process and X-ray collection process allows simultaneous single and/or multi-field collection of X-ray images and tomographic images easing interpretation of multiple images. Indeed, the X-ray and tomographic images are optionally overlaid to from a hybrid X-ray/proton beam tomographic image as the patient 730 is optionally in the same position for each image. In still another embodiment, the tomogram is collected with the patient 730 in the about the same position as when the patient's tumor is treated using subsequent irradiation therapy. For some tumors, the patient being positioned in the same upright or semi-upright position allows the tumor 720 to be separated from surrounding organs or tissue of the patient 730 better than in a laying position. Positioning of the scintillation plate 710 behind the patient 730 allows the tomographic imaging to occur while the patient is in the same upright or semi-upright position. The use of common elements in the tomographic imaging and in the charged particle cancer therapy allows benefits of the cancer therapy, described supra, to optionally be used with the tomographic imaging, such as proton beam x-axis control, proton beam y-axis control, control of proton beam energy, control of proton beam intensity, timing control of beam delivery to the patient, rotation control of the patient, and control of patient translation all in a raster beam mode of proton energy delivery. The use of a single proton or cation beamline for both imaging and treatment facilitates eases patient setup, reduces alignment uncertainties, reduces beam sate uncertainties, and eases quality assurance. In yet still another embodiment, initially a three-dimensional tomographic proton based reference image is collected, such as with hundreds of individual rotation images of the tumor 720 and patient 730. Subsequently, just prior to proton treatment of the cancer, just a few 2-dimensional control tomographic images of the patient are collected, such as with a stationary patient or at just a few rotation positions, such as an image straight on to the patient, with the patient rotated about 45 degrees each way, and/or the patient rotated about 90 degrees each way about the y-axis. The individual control images are compared with the 3-dimensional reference image. An adaptive proton therapy is subsequently performed where: (1) the proton cancer therapy is not used for a given position based on the differences between the 3-dimensional reference image and one or more of the 2-dimensional control images and/or (2) the proton cancer therapy is modified in real time based on the differences between the 3-dimensional reference image and one or more of the 2-dimensional control images. Charged Particle State Determination/Verification/Photonic Monitoring Still referring to FIG. 7, the tomography system 700 is optionally used with a charged particle beam state determination system 750, optionally used as a charged particle verification system. The charged particle state determination system 750 optionally measures, determines, and/or verifies one of more of: (1) position of the charged particle beam, (2) direction of the charged particle beam, (3) intensity of the charged particle beam, (4) energy of the charged particle beam, and (5) a history of the charged particle beam. For clarity of presentation and without loss of generality, a description of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 is described and illustrated separately in FIG. 8 and FIG. 9; however, as described herein elements of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 are optionally and preferably integrated into the nozzle system 146 and/or the tomography system 700 of the charged particle treatment system 100. More particularly, any element of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 is integrated into the nozzle system 146, the dynamic gantry nozzle 610, and/or tomography system 700, such as a surface of the scintillation plate 710 or a surface of a scintillation detector, plate, or system. The nozzle system 146 or the dynamic gantry nozzle 610 provides an outlet of the charged particle beam from the vacuum tube initiating at the injection system 120 and passing through the synchrotron 130 and beam transport system 135. Any plate, sheet, fluorophore, or detector of the charged particle beam state determination system is optionally integrated into the nozzle system 146. For example, an exit foil of the nozzle 610 is optionally a first sheet 760 of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 and a first coating 762 is optionally coated onto the exit foil, as illustrated in FIG. 7. Similarly, optionally a surface of the scintillation plate 710 is a support surface for a fourth coating 792, as illustrated in FIG. 7. The charged particle beam state determination system 750 is further described, infra. Referring now to FIG. 7, FIG. 8, and FIG. 9, four sheets, a first sheet 760, a second sheet 770, a third sheet 780, and a fourth sheet 790 are used to illustrated detection sheets and/or photon emitting sheets upon transmittance of a charged particle beam. Each sheet is optionally coated with a photon emitter, such as a fluorophore, such as the first sheet 760 is optionally coated with a first coating 762. Without loss of generality and for clarity of presentation, the four sheets are each illustrated as units, where the light emitting layer is not illustrated. Thus, for example, the second sheet 770 optionally refers to a support sheet, a light emitting sheet, and/or a support sheet coated by a light emitting element. The four sheets are representative of n sheets, where n is a positive integer. Referring now to FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, the charged particle beam state verification system 750 is a system that allows for monitoring of the actual charged particle beam position in real-time without destruction of the charged particle beam. The charged particle beam state verification system 750 preferably includes a first position element or first beam verification layer, which is also referred to herein as a coating, luminescent, fluorescent, phosphorescent, radiance, or viewing layer. The first position element optionally and preferably includes a coating or thin layer substantially in contact with a sheet, such as an inside surface of the nozzle foil, where the inside surface is on the synchrotron side of the nozzle foil. Less preferably, the verification layer or coating layer is substantially in contact with an outer surface of the nozzle foil, where the outer surface is on the patient treatment side of the nozzle foil. Preferably, the nozzle foil provides a substrate surface for coating by the coating layer. Optionally, a binding layer is located between the coating layer and the nozzle foil, substrate, or support sheet. Optionally, the position element is placed anywhere in the charged particle beam path. Optionally, more than one position element on more than one sheet, respectively, is used in the charged particle beam path and is used to determine a state property of the charged particle beam, as described infra. Still referring to FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, the coating, referred to as a fluorophore, yields a measurable spectroscopic response, spatially viewable by a detector or camera, as a result of transmission by the proton beam. The coating is preferably a phosphor, but is optionally any material that is viewable or imaged by a detector where the material changes spectroscopically as a result of the charged particle beam hitting or transmitting through the coating or coating layer. A detector or camera views secondary photons emitted from the coating layer and determines a current position of the charged particle beam 269 or final treatment vector of the charged particle beam by the spectroscopic differences resulting from protons and/or charged particle beam passing through the coating layer. For example, the camera views a surface of the coating surface as the proton beam or positively charged cation beam is being scanned by the first axis control 142, vertical control, and the second axis control 144, horizontal control, beam position control elements during treatment of the tumor 720. The camera views the current position of the charged particle beam 269 as measured by spectroscopic response. The coating layer is preferably a phosphor or luminescent material that glows and/or emits photons for a short period of time, such as less than 5 seconds for a 50% intensity, as a result of excitation by the charged particle beam. The detector observes the temperature change and/or observe photons emitted from the charged particle beam traversed spot. Optionally, a plurality of cameras or detectors are used, where each detector views all or a portion of the coating layer. For example, two detectors are used where a first detector views a first half of the coating layer and the second detector views a second half of the coating layer. Preferably, at least a portion of the detector is mounted into the nozzle system to view the proton beam position after passing through the first axis and second axis controllers 142, 144. Preferably, the coating layer is positioned in the proton beam path 268 in a position prior to the protons striking the patient 730. Referring now to FIG. 1 and FIG. 7, the main controller 110, connected to the camera or detector output, optionally and preferably compares the final proton beam position 269 with the planned proton beam position and/or a calibration reference to determine if the actual proton beam position 269 is within tolerance. The charged particle beam state determination system 750 preferably is used in one or more phases, such as a calibration phase, a mapping phase, a beam position verification phase, a treatment phase, and a treatment plan modification phase. The calibration phase is used to correlate, as a function of x-, y-position of the glowing response the actual x-, y-position of the proton beam at the patient interface. During the treatment phase, the charged particle beam position is monitored and compared to the calibration and/or treatment plan to verify accurate proton delivery to the tumor 720 and/or as a charged particle beam shutoff safety indicator. Referring now to FIG. 10, the position verification system 172 and/or the treatment delivery control system 112, upon determination of a tumor shift, an unpredicted tumor distortion upon treatment, and/or a treatment anomaly optionally generates and or provides a recommended treatment change 1070. The treatment change 1070 is optionally sent out while the patient 730 is still in the treatment position, such as to a proximate physician or over the internet to a remote physician, for physician approval 1072, receipt of which allows continuation of the now modified and approved treatment plan. Referring now to FIG. 8, a second example of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 is illustrated using three cation induced signal generation surfaces, referred to herein as the second sheet 770, the third sheet 780, and the fourth sheet 790. Any of the second sheet 770, the third sheet 780, and the fourth sheet 790 contain any of the features of the sheets described supra. Still referring to FIG. 8, in the second example, the second sheet 770, positioned prior to the patient 730, is optionally integrated into the nozzle 146, but is illustrated as a separate sheet. Signal derived from the second sheet 770, such as at point A, is optionally combined with signal from the first sheet 760 and/or state of the targeting/delivery system 140 to yield a first vector, v1a, from point A to point B of the charged particle beam prior to the sample or patient 730 at a first time, t1, and a second vector, v2a, from point F to point G of the charged particle beam prior to the sample at a second time, t2. Still referring to FIG. 8, in the second example, the third sheet 780 and the fourth sheet 790, positioned posterior to the patient 730, are optionally integrated into the tomography system 700, but are illustrated as a separate sheets. Signal derived from the third sheet 780, such as at point D, is optionally combined with signal from the fourth sheet 790 and/or signal from the tomography system 700 to yield a first vector, v1b, from point C2 to point D and/or from point D to point E of the charged particle beam posterior to the patient 730 at the first time, t1, and a second vector, v2a, such as from point H to point I of the charged particle beam posterior to the sample at a second time, t2. Signal derived from the third sheet 780 and/or from the fourth sheet 790 and the corresponding first vector at the second time, t2, is used to determine an output point, C2, which may and often does differ from an extension of the first vector, v1a, from point A to point B through the patient to a non-scattered beam path of point C1. The difference between point C1 and point C2 and/or an angle, α, between the first vector at the first time, v1a, and the first vector at the second time, v1b, is used to determine/map/identify, such as via tomographic analysis, internal structure of the patient 730, sample, and/or the tumor 720, especially when combined with scanning the charged particle beam in the x/y-plane as a function of time, such as illustrated by the second vector at the first time, v2a, and the second vector at the second time, v2b, forming angle β and/or with rotation of the patient 730, such as about the y-axis, as a function of time. Still referring to FIG. 8, multiple detectors/detector arrays are illustrated for detection of signals from multiple sheets, respectively. However, a single detector/detector array is optionally used to detect signals from multiple sheets, as further described infra. As illustrated, a set of detectors 810 is illustrated, including a second detector 814 imaging the second sheet 770, a third detector 816 imaging the third sheet 780, and a fourth detector 818 imaging the fourth sheet 790. Any of the detectors described herein are optionally detector arrays, are optionally coupled with any optical filter, and/or optionally use one or more intervening optics to image any of the four sheets 760, 770, 780, 790. Further, two or more detectors optionally image a single sheet, such as a region of the sheet, to aid optical coupling, such as F-number optical coupling. Still referring to FIG. 8, a vector of the charged particle beam is determined. Particularly, in the illustrated example, the third detector 816, determines, via detection of secondary emitted photons, that the charged particle beam transmitted through point D and the fourth detector 818 determines that the charged particle beam transmitted through point E, where points D and E are used to determine the first vector at the second time, v1b, as described supra. To increase accuracy and precision of a determined vector of the charged particle beam, a first determined beam position and a second determined beam position are optionally and preferably separated by a distance, d1, such as greater than 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, or more centimeters. A support element 752 is illustrated that optionally connects any two or more elements of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 to each other and/or to any element of the charged particle beam system 100, such as a rotating platform 756 used to co-rotate the patient 730 and any element of the tomography system 700. Still referring to FIG. 9, a third example of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 is illustrated in an integrated tomography-cancer therapy system 900. Referring to FIG. 9, multiple sheets and multiple detectors are illustrated determining a charged particle beam state prior to the patient 730. As illustrated, a first camera 812 spatially images photons emitted from the first sheet 760 at point A, resultant from energy transfer from the passing charged particle beam, to yield a first signal and a second camera 814 spatially images photons emitted from the second sheet 770 at point B, resultant from energy transfer from the passing charged particle beam, to yield a second signal. The first and second signals allow calculation of the first vector, v1a, with a subsequent determination of an entry point 732 of the charged particle beam into the patient 730. Determination of the first vector, v1a, is optionally supplemented with information derived from states of the magnetic fields about the first axis control 142, the vertical control, and the second axis control 144, the horizontal axis control, as described supra. Still referring to FIG. 9, the charged particle beam state determination system is illustrated with multiple resolvable wavelengths of light emitted as a result of the charged particle beam transmitting through more than one molecule type, light emission center, and/or fluorophore type. For clarity of presentation and without loss of generality a first fluorophore in the third sheet 780 is illustrated as emitting blue light, b, and a second fluorophore in the fourth sheet 790 is illustrated as emitting red light, r, that are both detected by the third detector 816. The third detector is optionally coupled with any wavelength separation device, such as an optical filter, grating, or Fourier transform device. For clarity of presentation, the system is described with the red light passing through a red transmission filter blocking blue light and the blue light passing through a blue transmission filter blocking red light. Wavelength separation, using any means, allows one detector to detect a position of the charged particle beam resultant in a first secondary emission at a first wavelength, such as at point C, and a second secondary emission at a second wavelength, such as at point D. By extension, with appropriate optics, one camera is optionally used to image multiple sheets and/or sheets both prior to and posterior to the sample. Spatial determination of origin of the red light and the blue light allow calculation of the first vector at the second time, v1b, and an actual exit point 736 from the patient 730 as compared to a non-scattered exit point 734 from the patient 730 as determined from the first vector at the first time, v1a. Still referring to FIG. 9, the integrated tomography-cancer therapy system 900 is illustrated with an optional configuration of elements of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 being co-rotatable with the nozzle 146 of the cancer therapy system 100. More particularly, in one case sheets of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 positioned prior to, posterior to, or on both sides of the patient 730 co-rotate with the scintillation plate 710 about any axis, such as illustrated with rotation about the y-axis. In various cases, co-rotation is achieved by co-rotation of the gantry of the charged particle beam system and a support of the patient, such as the rotatable platform 756, which is also referred to herein as a movable or dynamically positionable patient platform, patient chair, or patient couch. Mechanical elements, such as the support element 752 affix the various elements of the charged particle beam state determination system 750 relative to each other, relative to the nozzle 146, and/or relative to the patient 730. For example, the support elements 752 maintain a second distance, d2, between a position of the tumor 720 and the third screen 780 and/or maintain a third distance, d3, between a position of the third screen 780 and the scintillation plate 710. More generally, support elements 752 optionally dynamically position any element about the patient 730 relative to one another or in x,y,z-space in a patient diagnostic/treatment room, such as via computer control. System Integration Any of the systems and/or elements described herein are optionally integrated together and/or are optionally integrated with known systems. Treatment Delivery Control System Referring now to FIG. 10, a centralized charged particle treatment system 1000 is illustrated. Generally, once a charged particle therapy plan is devised, a central control system or treatment delivery control system 112 is used to control sub-systems while reducing and/or eliminating direct communication between major subsystems. Generally, the treatment delivery control system 112 is used to directly control multiple subsystems of the cancer therapy system without direct communication between selected subsystems, which enhances safety, simplifies quality assurance and quality control, and facilitates programming. For example, the treatment delivery control system 112 directly controls one or more of: an imaging system, a positioning system, an injection system, a radio-frequency quadrupole system, a linear accelerator, a ring accelerator or synchrotron, an extraction system, a beam line, an irradiation nozzle, a gantry, a display system, a targeting system, and a verification system. Generally, the control system integrates subsystems and/or integrates output of one or more of the above described cancer therapy system elements with inputs of one or more of the above described cancer therapy system elements. Still referring to FIG. 10, an example of the centralized charged particle treatment system 1000 is provided. Initially, a doctor, such as an oncologist, prescribes 1010 or recommends tumor therapy using charged particles. Subsequently, treatment planning 1020 is initiated and output of the treatment planning step 1020 is sent to an oncology information system 1030 and/or is directly sent to the treatment delivery system 112, which is an example of the main controller 110. Still referring to FIG. 10, the treatment planning step 1020 is further described. Generally, radiation treatment planning is a process where a team of oncologist, radiation therapists, medical physicists, and/or medical dosimetrists plan appropriate charged particle treatment of a cancer in a patient. Typically, one or more imaging systems 170 are used to image the tumor and/or the patient, described infra. Planning is optionally: (1) forward planning and/or (2) inverse planning. Cancer therapy plans are optionally assessed with the aid of a dose-volume histogram, which allows the clinician to evaluate the uniformity of the dose to the tumor and surrounding healthy structures. Typically, treatment planning is almost entirely computer based using patient computed tomography data sets using multimodality image matching, image coregistration, or fusion. Forward Planning In forward planning, a treatment oncologist places beams into a radiotherapy treatment planning system including: how many radiation beams to use and which angles to deliver each of the beams from. This type of planning is used for relatively simple cases where the tumor has a simple shape and is not near any critical organs. Inverse Planning In inverse planning, a radiation oncologist defines a patient's critical organs and tumor and gives target doses and importance factors for each. Subsequently, an optimization program is run to find the treatment plan which best matches all of the input criteria. Oncology Information System Still referring to FIG. 10, the oncology information system 1030 is further described. Generally, the oncology information system 1030 is one or more of: (1) an oncology-specific electronic medical record, which manages clinical, financial, and administrative processes in medical, radiation, and surgical oncology departments; (2) a comprehensive information and image management system; and (3) a complete patient information management system that centralizes patient data; and (4) a treatment plan provided to the charged particle beam system 100, main controller 110, and/or the treatment delivery control system 112. Generally, the oncology information system 1030 interfaces with commercial charged particle treatment systems. Safety System/Treatment Delivery Control System Still referring to FIG. 10, the treatment delivery control system 112 is further described. Generally, the treatment delivery control system 112 receives treatment input, such as a charged particle cancer treatment plan from the treatment planning step 1020 and/or from the oncology information system 1030 and uses the treatment input and/or treatment plan to control one or more subsystems of the charged particle beam system 100. The treatment delivery control system 112 is an example of the main controller 110, where the treatment delivery control system receives subsystem input from a first subsystem of the charged particle beam system 100 and provides to a second subsystem of the charged particle beam system 100: (1) the received subsystem input directly, (2) a processed version of the received subsystem input, and/or (3) a command, such as used to fulfill requisites of the treatment planning step 1020 or direction of the oncology information system 1030. Generally, most or all of the communication between subsystems of the charged particle beam system 100 go to and from the treatment delivery control system 112 and not directly to another subsystem of the charged particle beam system 100. Use of a logically centralized treatment delivery control system has many benefits, including: (1) a single centralized code to maintain, debug, secure, update, and to perform checks on, such as quality assurance and quality control checks; (2) a controlled logical flow of information between subsystems; (3) an ability to replace a subsystem with only one interfacing code revision; (4) room security; (5) software access control; (6) a single centralized control for safety monitoring; and (7) that the centralized code results in an integrated safety system 1040 encompassing a majority or all of the subsystems of the charged particle beam system 100. Examples of subsystems of the charged particle cancer therapy system 100 include: a radio frequency quadrupole 1050, a radio frequency quadrupole linear accelerator, the injection system 120, the synchrotron 130, the accelerator system 132, the extraction system 134, any controllable or monitorable element of the beam line 268, the targeting/delivery system 140, the nozzle 146, a gantry 1060 or an element of the gantry 1060, the patient interface module 150, a patient positioner 152, the display system 160, the imaging system 170, a patient position verification system 172, any element described supra, and/or any subsystem element. A treatment change 1070 at time of treatment is optionally computer generated with or without the aid of a technician or physician and approved while the patient is still in the treatment room, in the treatment chair, and/or in a treatment position. Still yet another embodiment includes any combination and/or permutation of any of the elements described herein. Herein, any number, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, is optionally more than the number, less than the number, or within 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, or 50 percent of the number. The particular implementations shown and described are illustrative of the invention and its best mode and are not intended to otherwise limit the scope of the present invention in any way. Indeed, for the sake of brevity, conventional manufacturing, connection, preparation, and other functional aspects of the system may not be described in detail. Furthermore, the connecting lines shown in the various figures are intended to represent exemplary functional relationships and/or physical couplings between the various elements. Many alternative or additional functional relationships or physical connections may be present in a practical system. In the foregoing description, the invention has been described with reference to specific exemplary embodiments; however, it will be appreciated that various modifications and changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth herein. The description and figures are to be regarded in an illustrative manner, rather than a restrictive one and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be determined by the generic embodiments described herein and their legal equivalents rather than by merely the specific examples described above. For example, the steps recited in any method or process embodiment may be executed in any order and are not limited to the explicit order presented in the specific examples. Additionally, the components and/or elements recited in any apparatus embodiment may be assembled or otherwise operationally configured in a variety of permutations to produce substantially the same result as the present invention and are accordingly not limited to the specific configuration recited in the specific examples. Benefits, other advantages and solutions to problems have been described above with regard to particular embodiments; however, any benefit, advantage, solution to problems or any element that may cause any particular benefit, advantage or solution to occur or to become more pronounced are not to be construed as critical, required or essential features or components. As used herein, the terms “comprises”, “comprising”, or any variation thereof, are intended to reference a non-exclusive inclusion, such that a process, method, article, composition or apparatus that comprises a list of elements does not include only those elements recited, but may also include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, composition or apparatus. Other combinations and/or modifications of the above-described structures, arrangements, applications, proportions, elements, materials or components used in the practice of the present invention, in addition to those not specifically recited, may be varied or otherwise particularly adapted to specific environments, manufacturing specifications, design parameters or other operating requirements without departing from the general principles of the same. Although the invention has been described herein with reference to certain preferred embodiments, one skilled in the art will readily appreciate that other applications may be substituted for those set forth herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the invention should only be limited by the claims included below.
	claims	1. An eddy-current flaw detector comprising:a profilometer configured to acquire surface shape data of an object to be inspected;a trace data calculator configured to calculate each coordinate with respect to flaw detection points on which an inspection probe including a contact plane is moved and positioned to perform an eddy-current testing, the flaw detection points being predetermined on a surface of the object based on a condition of the eddy-current flaw detection to be inputted and the surface shape data acquired by the profilometer, and to calculate each of first normal vectors at each of the flaw detection points;a gap evaluation calculator storing the surface shape data and shape data of the inspection probe and configured to acquire, using the surface shape data and the shape data of the inspection probe, an evaluation result by evaluating a gap between the object surface and the inspection probe for each of the flaw detection points, under conditions where (i) the inspection probe is arranged to be in contact with the object surface, and (ii) a second normal vector of the contact plane oriented toward a side of the object surface at the time of scanning matches the first normal vector calculated by the trace data calculator, the second normal vector being perpendicular to the contact plane and passes through a center point of the contact plane;a flaw detection data collector configured to acquire flaw detection data of the object to be inspected for each of the flaw detection points from the inspection probe; anda flaw detection data analyzer configured to evaluate presence/absence of a flaw in the object surface based on the flaw detection data of the object to be inspected and the evaluation result, acquired for each of the flaw detection points. 2. The eddy-current flaw detector according to claim 1,wherein the gap evaluation calculator includes a gap presence/absence determination unit configured to determines whether the gap is absent or not for each of the flaw detection points and to acquire a determination result whether the gap is absent or not for each of the flaw detection points. 3. The eddy-current flaw detector according to claim 1,wherein the gap evaluation calculator includes a distance calculation unit configured to calculate a distance between a first intersection point and a second intersection point for each of the flaw detection points and to acquire the calculated distance as the evaluation result, andwherein the first intersection point is a point where the contact plane of the inspection probe intersects with the first and second normal vectors that accord with each other, and the second intersection point is a point where the object surface intersects with the first and second normal vectors. 4. The eddy-current flaw detector according to claim 1,wherein the gap evaluation calculator includes a sectional area calculation unit configured to calculate a sectional area of a cross-section of the gap for each of the flaw detection points, the cross-section being obtained by virtually cutting the gap by a desired flat plane which includes a straight line in parallel with the first and second normal vectors being matched each other, and to acquire the calculated sectional area as the evaluation result. 5. The eddy-current flaw detector according to claim 1,wherein the gap evaluation calculator includes a volume calculation unit configured to calculate a volume of the gap for each of the flaw detection points and to acquire the calculated volume as the evaluation result. 6. The eddy-current flaw detector according to claim 1,wherein the flaw detection data analyzer includes a flaw signal detection unit configured to detect a flaw signal indicating a flaw in the object surface from the flaw detection data, and a determination unit configured to determine degree of probability that the flaw signal indicates a true flaw in the object surface, based on the detected flaw signal and the evaluation result on the gap for each of the flaw detection points acquired by the gap evaluation calculator, and is configured to evaluate whether the flaw in the object surface is present or absent based on the flaw signal and the determined degree of probability. 7. The eddy-current flaw detector according to claim 1, further comprising:a driver including an attachment unit configured to detachably attach the flaw detection probe and the shape measurement sensor, the driver being configured to change a position and orientation of the attachment unit in a desired state; anda controller configured to control the position and orientation of the attachment unit based on the first normal vector calculated by the trace data calculator, the shape data of the inspection probe, the shape data of the shape measurement sensor, and information to determine whether the flaw detection probe is attached to the attachment unit or the shape measurement sensor is attached to the attachment unit. 8. An eddy-current flaw detection method using an eddy-current flaw detector that includes a trace data calculator, a gap evaluation calculator, a flaw detection data collector, and a flaw detection data analyzer, the eddy-current flaw detection method comprising:a trace data calculation step, by the trace data calculator, of calculating each coordinate with respect to flaw detection points on which an inspection probe including a contact plane is moved and positioned to perform an eddy-current testing, the flaw detection points being predetermined on a surface of an object to be inspected based on a condition of the eddy-current flaw detection to be inputted and surface shape data of the object surface measured by a profilometer, and calculating each of first normal vectors at each of the flaw detection points;a data transmission step, by the trace data calculator, of transmitting the surface shape data of the object and shape data of the inspection probe to the gap evaluation calculator;a gap evaluation step, by the gap evaluation calculator, of acquiring an evaluation result, using the surface shape data and the shape data of the inspection probe transmitted in the data transmission step, by evaluating a gap between the object surface and the inspection probe for each of the flaw detection points, under conditions where (i) the inspection probe is arranged to be in contact with the object surface, and (ii) a second normal vector of the contact plane oriented toward a side of the object surface at the time of scanning matches the first normal vector calculated in the trace data calculation step, the second normal vector being perpendicular to the contact plane and passes through a center point of the contact plane;a flaw detection data collection step, by the flaw detection data collector, of acquiring flaw detection data of the object to be inspected for each of the flaw detection points from the inspection probe; anda flaw detection data analysis step, by the flaw detection data analyzer, of evaluating presence/absence of a flaw in the object surface based on the flaw detection data of the object to be inspected acquired for each of the flaw detection points in the flaw detection data collection step and the evaluation result acquired for each of the flaw detection points in the gap evaluation step. 9. The eddy-current flaw detection method according to claim 8,wherein the gap evaluation step includes at least one ofa gap presence/absence determination step of determining whether the gap is absence or not for each of the flaw detection points,a distance calculation step of calculating a distance between a first intersection point and a second intersection point for each of the flaw detection points, and wherein the first intersection point is a point where the contact plane of the inspection probe intersects with the first and second normal vectors that accord with each other, and the second intersection point is a point where the object surface intersects with the first and second normal vectors,a sectional area calculation step of calculating a sectional area of a cross-section of the gap for each of the flaw detection points, the cross-section being obtained by virtually cutting the gap by a desired flat plane which includes a straight line in parallel with the first and second normal vectors being matched each other,a volume calculation step of calculating a volume of the gap for each of the flaw detection points, anda step of acquiring the evaluation result including an determination whether the gap is absence or not for each of the flaw detection points when the gap evaluation step includes the gap presence/absence determination step, a calculation result of the distance between the first intersection point and the second intersection point for each of the flaw detection points when the gap evaluation step includes the distance calculation step, a calculation result of the sectional area of the cross-section of the gap for each of the flaw detection points when the gap evaluation step includes the sectional area calculation step, and a calculation result of the volume of the gap for each of the flaw detection points when the gap evaluation step includes the volume calculation step. 10. The eddy-current flaw detection method according to claim 8,wherein the flaw detection data analysis step includes a flaw signal detection step of detecting a flaw signal indicating a flaw in the object surface from the flaw detection data, a determination step of determining degree of probability that the flaw signal indicates a true flaw in the object surface, based on the flaw signal detected in the flaw signal detection step and the evaluation result on the gap for each of the flaw detection points evaluated in the gap evaluation step, and a step of evaluating whether the flaw in the object surface is present or absent based on the detected flaw signal and the determined degree of probability.
	summary
046997504	abstract	In a system for inspecting fuel assembly guide thimbles, an apparatus for handling drag gages insertable within the guide thimbles includes a spider rotatably mounted to an upright support structure and supporting drag gages in a series of angularly-displaced storage positions about the support structure, and a drive operable to rotate the spider relative to the support structure and thereby moving the gages about an endless path to dispose a selected one thereof at a retrieval-and-return station. An elongated track mounted to the support structure extends outwardly above the spider, and a trolley is movable along the track between a remote position overlying a work station containing the fuel assembly to be inspected and a position adjacent to the support structure and overlying the drag gage retrieval-and-return station. A gripper mechanism, supported by a hoist which in turn is supported by the trolley, is operable for respectively gripping and releasing the selected one gage at the retrieval-and-return station. The hoist is operable to raise and lower the gripper mechanism and selected gage therewith away from and toward the retrievel-and-return station when the trolley is positioned adjacent the support structure and to raise and lower the gripper mechanism and gage therewith away from and toward the fuel assembly guide thimbles when the trolley is at the remote position. Also, a safety sleeve is normally disposed about the gripper mechanism for restraining it in a gripping relation with the drag gage.
	summary
	description	This application is a divisional application claiming priority under 35 U.S.C. § 121 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/514,465, entitled Apparatus And Method To Remotely Inspect Piping And Piping Attachment Welds, filed Oct. 15, 2014, which issued as U.S. patent Ser. No. 10,593,435 on Mar. 17, 2020, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/933,952, filed Jan. 31, 2014, entitled “Apparatus And Method To Remotely Inspect Piping And Piping Attachment Welds.” This invention pertains generally to nondestructive inspection tools and methods and more particularly to such tools and methods that can be employed for inspecting difficult to access locations such as around the welds on jet pumps of boiling water reactors. A nuclear reactor produces electrical power by heating water in a reactor pressure vessel that contains a nuclear core of fissile material in order to generate steam which is used in turn to drive a steam turbine. A reactor pressure vessel of a boiling water reactor typically has a generally cylindrical shape and is closed at both ends, e.g., by a bottom head and a removable top head. A top guide typically is spaced above a core plate within the reactor pressure vessel. A core shroud, or shroud, typically surrounds the core and is supported by a shroud support structure. Particularly, the shroud has a generally cylindrical shape and surrounds both the core plate and the top guide. There is a space or annulus located between the cylindrical reactor pressure vessel and the cylindrically shaped shroud. In a boiling water reactor, hollow tubular jet pumps, positioned within the shroud annulus, provide the required reactor core water flow. The upper portion of the jet pumps, known as the inlet mixer, is laterally positioned and supported against two opposing rigid contacts within restrainer brackets by a gravity actuated wedge. The restrainer brackets support the inlet mixer by attaching to the adjacent jet pump riser pipe. The lower portion of the jet pump, known as the diffuser, is coupled to the inlet mixer by a slip joint. The slip joint between the jet pump inlet mixer and the jet pump diffuser collar has about 0.015 inch diametrical operating clearance which accommodates the relative axial thermal expansion movement between the upper and lower parts of the jet pump and permits leakage flow from the driving pressure inside the pump. The inlet mixer and the diffuser, due to their large size, are formed by welding a plurality of cylindrical sections together. Specifically, the respective ends of adjacent cylindrical sections are joined with a circumferential weld. During operation of the reactor, the circumferential weld joints may experience intergranular stress corrosion cracking and irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking in the weld heat affected zones which can diminish the structural integrity of the jet pump. Various other components and structures in the nuclear reactor have experienced similar defects because of the harsh environment. Accordingly, it is important to examine periodically these components to assess their structural integrity and determine the need for repair. Ultrasonic inspection is a known technique for detecting cracks in nuclear reactor components. Many of the areas in a nuclear reactor that need to be inspected may have limited access and therefore, are difficult to assess using an inspection tool. For example, the jet pump riser pipe and elbow welds are periodically examined for cracking. The presence of cracking can diminish the structural integrity of a jet pump riser pipe and elbow and in extreme cases adversely impact reactor coolant flow. However, the jet pump riser pipe and elbow are difficult to access. Installation access is limited to the annular space between the outside of the shroud and the inside of the reactor pressure vessel, between adjacent jet pumps. Scanning operation access is additionally restricted within the narrow space between the jet pump riser pipe and vessel, shroud, or other welded attachments such as the riser brace or restrainer brackets. Furthermore, the inspection areas in a nuclear reactor can be highly radioactive and can pose safety risks for personnel working in these areas. Thus, inspection of these areas for the most part can require a robotic device which can be installed remotely and operated within the narrowly restricted space. Inspecting and repairing nuclear reactors, such as boiling water reactors, typically involves manually controlled poles and ropes to manipulate servicing devices and/or positioning of these devices. During reactor shutdown, servicing of some components requires installation of inspection manipulators or devices 30 to 100 feet deep within the reactor coolant. Relatively long durations are required to install or remove manipulators and can impact the plant shutdown duration. In addition, different inspection scopes can require several different manipulators or reconfigurations requiring additional manipulator installations and removals and costs. The long durations cannot only impact plant shutdown durations, but also increase personnel radiation and contamination exposure. Plant utilities have a desire to reduce the number of manipulator installations and removals to reduce radiological exposure as well as costs and plant outage impact. In addition, the plant utilities have a desire to reduce costs and operate as productively as possible. Thus, it is an object of this invention to minimize the number of reconfigurations and the number of tools required to perform inspections. In addition, it is a further object of this invention to provide a means to inspect difficult to access components such as jet pump riser piping areas that have previously been inaccessible with existing tooling. These and other objects are achieved by an automated inspection assembly that includes a number of subassemblies. One of the subassemblies comprises a frame subassembly having a first side and a second side and a length and width with the width substantially larger than a thickness of the frame subassembly between the first side and the second side. The length has a first end and a second end along a longitudinal dimension and the frame assembly is configured to form the main support structure for the automated inspection apparatus. A second subassembly is the positioning arm subassembly which is coupled to the frame subassembly and includes a support arm remotely operable to extend out from and retract toward the first side. A kicker arm is remotely operable to extend out from or retract toward the second side. The support arm and the kicker arm in the extended position are operable to wedge the frame subassembly between a member to be inspected and a surface opposed to the member to be inspected. A scanning subassembly is also supported from the frame subassembly and is configured to scan at least a portion of the member to conduct the desired nondestructive examination. In one embodiment, the automated inspection assembly further includes an orientation pivot subassembly that includes a rotational pivot joint coupling. The orientation pivot subassembly is connected to the first end of the frame subassembly. The orientation pivot subassembly is configured, through the rotational pivot joint coupling to orient the frame subassembly in one of two vertical positions with either the first end up or the second end up. In still another embodiment, the automated inspection assembly includes a lead in/gripper subassembly attached to the second end of the frame subassembly and configured to position the automated inspection assembly at the location to be inspected. Desirably, a scanning subassembly is supported from the second end of the frame subassembly and includes a substantially horseshoe-shaped scan head sized to receive the member to be scanned, a scan head wrist coupling joint, a linear hanger coupling joint and a linear drive box operable to move one or more transducers along the member to be inspected in a vertical, horizontal, radial, and a circumferential direction relative to the member, with the frame assembly in-line with the member. In still another embodiment, the support arm is formed in the general shape of a fork. When the member to be inspected is a pipe or a pipe elbow, preferably the support arm has a generally “U” shaped outer end configured to accept the pipe or pipe elbow within the opening of the “U”. Desirably, the support arm is configured to rotate out from the frame subassembly. Similarly, it is preferable that the kicker arm is configured to rotate out from the frame assembly. In one such embodiment, the support arm is operated to move hydraulically while the kicker arm is operated to move pneumatically. In such an arrangement, the support arm may comprise two support limbs spaced along the longitudinal dimension of the frame assembly with each of the limbs being operable to extend out from or retract towards the first side of the frame subassembly. Desirably, in such an arrangement, the outward ends of the kicker arm is positioned along the second side of the frame subassembly so as to engage the opposed surface at an elevation in between a first and second elevation on the member to be inspected that the two limbs respectively contact. Preferably, the scanning assembly houses at least one inspection device selected from a group of sensors comprising an ultrasonic transducer, eddy current transducer and video image capture device. The automated inspection assembly also preferably includes a mounting cup configured to remotely couple to the frame subassembly to vertically and horizontally position the automated inspection assembly relative to the member to be inspected. This invention also contemplates a method of inspecting a pipe comprising the steps of transporting a scanning assembly to the pipe; remotely wedging the scanning assembly between the pipe and an opposing surface to support the scanning assembly in a desired position; and scanning a surface of the pipe. The method may also include the steps of: positioning the scanning assembly at a desired location along the pipe; and extending opposing arms from opposite sides of the frame subassembly of the scanning assembly to contact both the pipe and the opposing surface. FIG. 1 is a sectional view, with parts cut away, of a boiling water nuclear reactor pressure vessel 10. The reactor pressure vessel 10 has a generally cylindrical shape and is closed at one end by a bottom head 12 and at its other end by a removable top head 14. A sidewall 16 extends from the bottom head 12 to the top head 14. Sidewall 16 includes a flange 18 upon which the top head 14 is sealed. A cylindrical-shaped core shroud 20 within the pressure vessel 10 surrounds a reactor core 22. Shroud 20 is supported at one end by a shroud support 24 and includes a removable shroud head 26 at the other end. An annulus 28 is formed between the shroud 20 and the sidewall 16. A pump deck 30, which has a ring shape, extends between the shroud support 24 and the reactor pressure vessel sidewall 16. The pump deck 30 includes a plurality of circular openings 32, with each opening housing a jet pump assembly 34. Jet pump assemblies 34 are circumferentially distributed around the core shroud 20. Heat is generated within the core 22 from fuel bundles 36 of fissionable material. Water circulated up through the core 22 is at least partially converted to steam. Steam separators 38 separate steam from water, which is recirculated. Residual water is removed from the steam by the steam dryers 40. The steam exits the reactor vessel 10 through a steam output nozzle 42 near the vessel top head 14. The amount of heat generated within the core 22 is regulated by inserting and withdrawing control rods 44 of neutron absorbing material, such as for example, hafnium. To the extent that the control rods 44 are inserted into the fuel bundles 36, they absorb neutrons that would otherwise be available to promote the fission chain reaction which generates the heat in the core 22. Control rod guide tubes 46 direct the vertical motion of the control rods 44 during insertion and withdrawal. Control rod drives 48 effect the insertion and withdrawal of the control rods 44. The control rod drives 48 extend through the bottom head 12. The fuel bundles 36 are aligned by a core plate 50 located at the base of the core 22. A top guide 52 aligns the fuel bundles 36 as they are lowered into the core 22. Core plate 50 and top guide 52 are supported by the core shroud 20. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a portion of the reactor vessel and shroud, with parts cut away to show some of the details of a jet pump assembly 34. An inlet nozzle 54 extends through the sidewall 16 of the reactor pressure vessel 10 and is coupled to a jet pump assembly 34. Jet pump assembly 34 includes a thermal sleeve 56 that extends through the inlet nozzle 54, a lower elbow 55 (only partially visible in FIG. 2), and a riser pipe 58. The riser pipe 58 extends between and substantially parallel to the shroud 20 and reactor pressure vessel sidewall 16. Riser braces 60 stabilize riser pipe 58 within the reactor pressure vessel 10. Riser pipe 58 is coupled to jet pumps 62 by a transition assembly 64. Each jet pump 62 includes a jet pump nozzle 66, a suction inlet 68, and inlet mixer 70, and a diffuser 72. Jet pump nozzle 66 is positioned in the suction inlet 68 which is located at a first end 74 of the inlet mixer 70. Diffuser 72 is coupled to a second end 76 of the inlet mixer 72 by a slip joint 78. Because of their large size, both inlet mixer 70 and diffuser 72 are formed from multiple cylindrical sections. Circumferential weld joints 80 join the cylindrical sections together. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of one embodiment of an automated inspection assembly 82 within the purview of the claims set forth hereafter, that can be employed to access difficult to reach areas around the circumferential welds of the jet pump assembly, especially in areas between the jet pump assembly and the shroud. The embodiments of the automated inspection assembly 82 illustrated in FIG. 3-5 have a number of subassemblies including a frame subassembly 84, a positioning arm subassembly 86 (also referred to as the support arm assembly), a lead in or gripper subassembly 88, a mounting cup subassembly 90 and a scanning subassembly 92. The frame subassembly 84 serves as the main support structure for the apparatus and includes mounting features 94 and guide rails 96 for mounting and securing all the other subassemblies. The positioning arms subassembly 86 includes at least two spaced hydraulically actuated fork arms 98 each having a generally “U” shape with an opening between the tines of the fork large enough to at least partially fit around the pipe or elbow to be scanned. The dual forks 98 are actuated by the hydraulic cylinder 100 and can be detached from the rails 96 and replaced with forks with shorter or longer tines to accommodate different applications. The fork arms 98 (i.e., positioning arms) can rotate from a flat position substantially against the frame assembly 84 to at least an approximately vertical position. This can be seen from the side view in FIG. 4. A kicker arm 102 that extends from the opposite side of the frame subassembly 84 and is operated by a pneumatic cylinder 104 to rotate from a substantially flat position parallel to the frame subassembly 84 to a substantially vertical position as shown in the side view in FIG. 4, and works with the positioning arms 98 to support the inspection assembly 82. The kicker arm 102 may be part of the frame subassembly 84 or it may be part of the positioning arms subassembly and is preferably located in between the fork arms along the elongated dimension of the frame subassembly. The coordinated motions of the positioning arms subassembly 86 utilized for the forks 98 and the kicker arm 102 allows precise positioning of the apparatus frame subassembly 84 relative to the examination pipe, e.g., the riser 58. The pneumatic drive 104 for the kicker arm 102 provides a much softer operating force on the kicker arm that is spring like as compared to the more rigid hydraulic force 100 to the fork arms 98 which maintains the scanning head when fully deployed at a fixed distance from the member to be inspected, while the spring like movement of the kicker arm assures the automated inspection assembly remains wedged in position. The orientation pivot subassembly 106 includes a rotational pivot joint 108 attaching the orientation pivot subassembly to the frame subassembly 84. The swivel adaptor arm 110 with the junction box 112 is constrained with a quick release pin coupling 114 to change configurations (as shown in FIGS. 3 and 5). The arm 110 is symmetric for simple reconfiguration from a clockwise installation to a counter clockwise installation. This pivoting motion provides a means to orient the tool in an upright or upside down orientation to accommodate different examinations. The lead in or gripper subassembly 88 attaches to the frame subassembly 84, extends out under the scanning subassembly and serves the purpose of vertically positioning the apparatus by either resting on a pipe elbow, or gripping a pipe attachment. The lead in/side rails 130 attach to the frame and lead the tool onto the pipe elbow and support the weight of the tool. The lead in/side rails can be replaced with the gripper 128 which can be used to hang the automated inspection assembly 82 from the riser brace. A mounting cup assembly 116 shown in FIG. 8 can be remotely coupled to the frame subassembly 84 and is utilized to vertically position the inspection assembly 82 relative to the pipe end or transition piece of the pipe. The scanning subassembly 92 includes a horseshoe-shaped scan head 118 sized to receive the pipe, a scan head wrist coupling joint 120, a linear hanger coupling joint 122 and a linear drive box 124. The scan head 118 houses movably coupled transducers 126 and provides a means for moving these transducers along the pipe welds to perform inspections. The scanning subassembly 92 coupled to the frame subassembly 84 provides a means to move the transducers along the pipe in a vertical, horizontal, radial, and circumferential direction relative to the pipe or pipe elbow with the longitudinal direction of the frame oriented in-line with the pipe. The scan head wrist coupling joint 120 is hung from the X-axis and the scan head wrist coupling joint, linear hanger coupling joint 122 and linear drive box 124 enables 90 degree rotation and approximately 9.5 inch stroke in the Y direction (the direction of the longitudinal dimension of the frame assembly) and 1.25 inch stroke in the X direction (perpendicular to the flat surface of the frame assembly), which makes the automated inspection assembly very versatile. A more detailed understanding of the drive system of the scanning subassembly can be had by reference to the enlarged views shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. The motor 132 drives the sensors 126 around the track 134 on the inside surface of the generally “U” shaped scanning head 138 and the pneumatic cylinder 136 moves the sensors 126 radially so the sensors can come in close contact with the surface of the member to be inspected, where close contact is required. The motor 140 provides the wrist motion through the gear assembly 142 that enables the 90 degree rotation of the scanning head 138. The motor 144 through the gear assembly 146 and the linear hanger coupling joint 122 provides the 1.25 inch stoke in the X direction. Movement in the Y direction is achieved through the motor 148 and drive gear 150 which rides on a toothed track on the frame subassembly 84. The frame subassembly 84 coupled to the positioning arms subassembly 86, provides a means to position the frame within a variable annular gap between a pipe and a wall, e.g., the shroud, or pressure vessel, so the scanning subassembly drive system can finely position the scanning head 138 around the pipe or elbow and the sensors 126 over the portion of the member to be scanned. This unique design provides a means to perform remotely controlled automated piping inspections in limited access areas on a variety of welds and plant conditions. FIG. 5 shows the automated inspection assembly illustrated in FIG. 4 with the orientation pivot subassembly 106 pivoted in the opposite direction and a gripper assembly 128 in place of the lead in side rails on subassembly 88. The gripper assembly can be employed to attach to various features of the pipe attachment components to further support the inspection assembly 82. A side rail 130 can also be used to protect the scan head 118 and probes 126. FIG. 6 shows the lead in subassembly 88 positioned over an elbow 55 with the fork arms 98 pressured against the riser pipe 58 and the kicker arm 102 pressured against the vessel wall 16 to wedge the frame assembly 84 in a scanning position between the vessel wall and the riser pipe 58. FIG. 7 shows a front view of the cross section of the elbow shown in FIG. 6 showing a better view of the side rail 130 and scanning subassembly 92. FIG. 8 shows the inspection subassembly 82 wedged between the vessel wall 16 (not shown) and the inlet mixer 74 where the inspection subassembly can be lowered to inspect the circumferential welds 80 by rotating the scanning subassembly head down 90 degrees to extend around a portion of the surface of the weld to be scanned while the frame subassembly 84 is in-line with the inlet mixer 74. The invention also contemplates a method of inspecting a pipe employing the foregoing apparatus, comprising the steps of: transporting a scanning assembly to the pipe; remotely wedging the scanning assembly between the pipe and an opposing surface to support the scanning assembly in a desired position; and scanning a surface of the pipe. The method may also include the steps of positioning the scanning assembly at the desired location along the pipe and extending opposing arms from opposite sides of the frame subassembly of the scanning assembly to contact both the pipe and the opposing surface. While specific embodiments of the invention have been described in detail, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. Accordingly, the particular embodiments disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the invention which is to be given the full breadth of the appended claims and any and all equivalents thereof.
	claims	1. A neutron monitoring method comprising the steps of counting negative pulse signals output from a neutron detector that outputs negative pulse signals upon detecting neutron flux, counting positive pulse signals output from the neutron detector, and subtracting pulse count from said negative pulse count per unit time so as to measure the neutrons. 2. A neutron monitoring system comprising a neutron detector that outputs negative pulse signals upon detecting neutron flux, a first pulse count rate measurement means provided with the pulse signals output from said neutron detector for counting the negative pulses per unit time (negative pulse count rate), a second pulse count rate measurement means provided with the output pulse signals from said neutron detector for counting the positive pulses per unit time, and a pulse count correction means for subtracting the pulse count of said second pulse count rate measurement means from the pulse count of said first pulse count rate measurement means. 3. A neutron monitoring system comprising a neutron detector that outputs negative pulse signals upon detecting neutron flux, a first pulse height discrimination means provided with the pulse signals output from said neutron detector for discriminating whether the pulse height in the negative side is equal to or greater than a preset level or not; a second pulse height discrimination means provided with the pulse signals output from said neutron detector for discriminating whether the pulse height in the positive side is equal to or greater than a preset level or not; a first pulse count rate measurement means provided with pulse signals discriminated by said first pulse height discrimination means for counting the negative pulses per unit time; a second pulse count rate measurement means provided with pulse signals discriminated by said second pulse height discrimination means for counting the positive pulses per unit time; and a pulse count correction means for subtracting the pulse count of said second pulse count rate measurement means from the pulse count of said first pulse count rate measurement means. 4. A neutron monitoring system comprising a neutron detector that outputs negative current pulse signals upon detecting neutron flux; a pre-amplifier for converting and amplifying current pulse signals output from said neutron detector into voltage pulse signals; a digital pulse count rate measurement means provided with said voltage pulse signals amplified by said pre-amplifier for counting the negative pulses and the positive pulses per unit time respectively; and a pulse count correction means for subtracting the positive pulse count from the negative pulse count counted by said digital pulse count rate measurement means. 5. A neutron monitoring system comprising a neutron detector that outputs negative current pulse signals upon detecting neutron flux; a pre-amplifier for converting and amplifying current pulse signals output from said neutron detector into voltage pulse signals; a negative pulse height discrimination means provided with said voltage pulse signals amplified by said pre-amplifier for discriminating whether the negative pulse height level is equal to or greater than a preset level or not; a positive pulse height discrimination means provided with said voltage pulse signals amplified by said pre-amplifier for discriminating whether the positive pulse height level is equal to or greater than a preset level or not; a negative pulse count rate measurement means provided with said negative pulse signals discriminated by said negative pulse height discrimination means for counting negative pulses per unit time; a positive pulse count rate measurement means provided with said positive pulse signals discriminated by said positive pulse height discrimination means for counting positive pulses per unit time; and a pulse count correction means for subtracting the positive pulse count of said positive pulse count rate measurement means from the negative pulse count of said negative pulse count rate measurement means. 6. A neutron monitoring system comprising a neutron detector that outputs negative pulse signals upon detecting neutron flux; a first pulse count rate measurement means provided with the pulse signals output from said neutron detector for counting the negative pulses per unit time; a second pulse count rate measurement means provided with the pulse signals output from said neutron detector for counting the positive pulses per unit time; a pulse count correction means for subtracting the pulse count of said second pulse count rate measurement means from the pulse count of said first pulse count rate measurement means; and a display device for displaying the negative pulse count of said first pulse count rate measurement means, the positive pulse count of said second pulse count rate measurement means, and the corrected pulse count corrected by said pulse count correction means.
	summary
	claims	1. A scanning electron microscope alignment method of controlling an alignment deflector for performing an axis alignment, for passing a beam through an axis of a lens, said method comprising the steps of:performing an axis alignment using a standard sample provided on a specimen stage, based on beam scanning with respect to said plurality of measurement locations, and thus acquiring an optimal control value for an alignment deflector for passing said beam through said axis of the lens;performing axis alignments at a plurality of measurement locations that differ in height on an observation sample held on the specimen stage, and thus acquiring information comprising a plurality of optimal control values for the alignment deflector for passing said beam through the axis of the lens at the plurality of measurement locations;storing a correction curve representing relationships between a) changes in the heights of the measurement locations and b) changes in the differences between i) the optimal control value acquired for the alignment deflector by use of the standard sample, and ii) the optimal control values acquired for the alignment deflector by use of the observation sample; andcalculating optimal control values for the measurement locations at which height measurements have been performed, based on the stored correction curve and measured heights of the measurement locations on the specimen. 2. The scanning electron microscope alignment method as recited in claim 1, further comprising the steps of:performing the axis alignment using the standard sample provided on the specimen stage, and thus acquiring the optimal control value for the alignment deflector;measuring the height of a specimen to be observed;acquiring from the previously stored correction curve, a difference value that corresponds to the measured height; andsetting, at the alignment deflector, a value obtained by adding the difference value acquired from correction curve to the optimal control value acquired for the alignment deflector by use of the standard sample. 3. The scanning electron microscope alignment method as recited in claim 1, wherein:the alignment deflector corrects misalignment of the optical axis of an objective lens. 4. The scanning electron microscope alignment method as recited in claim 1, wherein:the alignment deflector corrects misalignment of the optical axis of the astigmatism correction coil. 5. The scanning electron microscope alignment method as recited in claim 1, whereinthe correction curve is acquired for each of various observing conditions. 6. A scanning electron microscope alignment method of controlling an astigmatism correction coil that corrects an astigmatism of an electron beam emitted from an electron source, said method comprising the steps of:performing an astigmatism correction using a standard sample provided on a specimen stage, and thus acquiring an optimal control value for an astigmatism correction coil, for passing said beam through an axis of a lens of said scanning electron microscope;performing astigmatism corrections at a plurality of measurement locations that differ in height on an observation sample held on the specimen stage, based on beam scanning with respect to said plurality of measurement locations, and thus acquiring information comprising a plurality of optimal control values for the astigmatism correction coil for passing said beam through the axis of the lens at the plurality of measurement locations;storing a correction curve representing relationships between a) changes in the heights of the measurement locations and b) changes in the differences between i) the optimal control value acquired for the astigmatism correction coil by use of the standard sample, and ii) the optimal control values acquired for the astigmatism correction coil by use of the observation sample; andcalculating optimal control values for the measurement locations at which height measurements have been performed, based on the stored correction curve and measured heights of the measurement locations on the specimen. 7. The scanning electron microscope alignment method as recited in claim 6, comprising the steps of:performing the axis alignment using the standard sample provided on the specimen stage, and thus acquiring the optimal control value for the astigmatism correction coil;measuring the height of the specimen to be observed;acquiring from the previously stored correction curve, a difference value that corresponds to the measured height; andsetting, at the astigmatism correction coil, a value obtained by adding the difference value acquired from the correction curve to the optimal control value acquired for the astigmatism correction coil by use of the standard sample. 8. The scanning electron microscope alignment method as recited in claim 6, whereinthe correction curve is acquired for each of various observing conditions. 9. A scanning electron microscope comprising:an electron source;a deflector for aligning an axis of an electron beam emitted from the electron source such that it passes through an axis of the optical element;a controller for controlling the deflector; anda height measuring sensor for measuring the height of a measurement location to be irradiated with the electron beam;wherein the controller performs an axis alignment at said measurement location, based on i) the height of the measurement location that has been measured by the height measuring sensor, and ii) a previously stored correction curve that represents a relationship between a) the height of the measurement location and b) deflection condition of the deflector. 10. A scanning electron microscope comprising:an electron source;astigmatism correction coil for correcting an astigmatism of an electron beam emitted from the electron source;a controller for controlling the stigmator; anda height measuring sensor for measuring the height of a measurement location to be irradiated with the electron beam;wherein the controller performs an astigmatism correction at said measurement location based on i) the height of the measurement location that has been measured by the height measuring sensor, and ii) a previously stored correction curve that represents a relationship between a) the height of the measurement location and b) operating settings of the astigmatism correction coil.
	abstract	A device for holding a specimen holder, the device including a body with a slot formed therein. The slot includes an interior for receiving the specimen holder which may be a flat disk with edges and a pair of opposing sides. The disk may be made of a resilient deformable material. The slot may be sized to receive the specimen holder through an open top end and may taper from top bottom, such that the bottom end of the slot is smaller than the specimen holder. The slot further configured to contact the specimen holder along edges of the specimen holder and to allow some sideways deformation of the specimen holder without either side of the specimen holder distant from the edges coming into contact with the interior of the slot.
	summary
044029047	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to nuclear reactor fuel, and more particularly to the inspection for failure of cladded nuclear fuel rods. In modern light-water nuclear power reactors, the reactor core typically consists of over one hundred closely spaced fuel assemblies, each assembly containing an array of over one hundred individual fuel rods. The fuel rods are typically elongated, sealed tubes of Zircaloy containing a column of uranium dioxide pellets. Safe operation of the reactor requires that the integrity of the Zircaloy clad be maintained throughout the burnup history of each fuel rod. Occasionally, however, the clad is perforated during operation. Although each fuel assembly typically burns for a total of about three cycles, or about three years, the assemblies in the reactor core are usually rearranged annually during the refueling process. During refueling, the assemblies may be removed from the core and inspected for failed fuel. This inspection is typically very complicated and time consuming because the inspection must be performed remotely under water and because most of the rods in the assembly are not on the assembly periphery and thus not readily accessible. It would be far too costly to disassemble, inspect, and reconstitute every assembly suspected of containing one or more leaking fuel rods. What is needed is a method for quickly inspecting all fuel rods in an assembly to identify those in which cladding has been breached, permitting coolant water to enter the rod. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is thus an object of the present invention to provide a method for quickly and simply identifying failed fuel rods during routine refueling operations. It is a further object that the method be compatible with existing fuel and fuel assembly designs, and not require significant materials or fabrication cost increases to existing fuel designs. According to the invention, a method for testing the clad integrity of a nuclear fuel rod is provided, comprising the first step of fabricating a sealed fuel rod with a wad of electrically conducting material mounted therein. The material is of a type that undergoes a permanent change in electrical conductivity when exposed to water. The next step is to establish an eddy current signal characteristic of the moisture-free rod. The rod is then loaded into the core as part of a fuel assembly. After producing power, the assembly is removed for inspection, and an eddy current signal is again obtained from the rod. The eddy current signals are compared to determine whether inleakage of moisture has oxidized or otherwise altered the conductivity of the wad enough to significantly change the characteristic signal. In the preferred embodiment a zirconium wool similar to that found in conventional photographic flash bulbs is secured to the upper end caps of each nuclear fuel rod and is exposed to the plenum region above the fuel pellets. Any inleakage of water oxidizes the wool and transforms it into a powder that in effect vanishes from the cap and plenum. The eddy current signal corresponding to this oxidized condition is dramatically different from the characteristic signal for a moisture-free rod containing the zirconium wool. Since the upper ends of the fuel rods in an assembly are typically accessible during refueling, and since the probe signal corresponding to a failed rod is readily identifiable to the probe operator, the inspection of each assembly can be simply and conveniently completed within a short time. It is not necessary to remove or left any rods and they can be inspected simultaneously in large quantity.
	claims	1. A molten metal reactor including:(a) a treatment chamber having a treatment chamber inlet;(b) a molten reactant metal flow inducing arrangement for inducing a flow of molten reactant metal into the treatment chamber through the treatment chamber inlet;(c) a feed chamber having a feed chamber outlet located adjacent to the treatment chamber inlet;(d) an output chamber connected to an outlet of the treatment chamber to receive molten reactant metal and reaction products from the treatment chamber;(e) a supply chamber connected to the output chamber and to the feed chamber; and(f) a feed chute having a feed material inlet into the feed chamber through which a feed material to be treated in the molten reactant metal enters the feed chamber, the feed chute also having a portion extending into the feed chamber so that the feed material inlet into the feed chamber is positioned within the area defined by the feed chamber and spaced apart from the boundaries of the feed chamber. 2. The molten metal reactor of claim 1 wherein the feed chamber outlet and the treatment chamber inlet comprise a common opening. 3. The molten metal reactor of claim 2 further including a vortex inducing arrangement for inducing a swirling flow in the feed chamber outlet. 4. The molten metal reactor of claim 2 wherein the feed chamber comprises a bowl shaped chamber and the feed chamber outlet is located in substantially the center of the bowl shape at a bottom of the feed chamber. 5. The molten metal reactor of claim 2 further including an impeller mounted in the feed chamber and adapted to be rotated about a substantially vertical axis. 6. The molten metal reactor of claim 2 including an off-center molten reactant metal inlet to the feed chamber through which molten reactant metal is introduced into the feed chamber to induce a swirling flow in the feed chamber. 7. The molten metal reactor of claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the treatment chamber is in a heat transfer relationship with the supply chamber. 8. The molten metal reactor of claim 1 further including a gravity trap within the treatment chamber. 9. The molten metal reactor of claim 1 wherein the feed material inlet into the feed chamber is positioned directly above the feed chamber outlet. 10. The molten metal reactor of claim 1 wherein the feed chute is connected to a sealing conduit that extends to a position below a liquid reactant metal level in the feed chamber. 11. A molten metal reactor including:(a) a treatment chamber having a treatment chamber inlet;(b) a feed chamber having a feed chamber outlet located adjacent to the treatment chamber inlet;(c) an output chamber connected to an outlet of the treatment chamber to receive molten reactant metal and reaction products from the treatment chamber;(d) a molten reactant metal source connected to direct molten reactant metal into the feed chamber; and(e) a feed chute having a feed material inlet into the feed chamber through which a feed material to be treated with the molten reactant metal enters the feed chamber, the feed chute also having (i) a portion extending into the feed chamber so that the feed material inlet into the feed chamber is positioned within the area defined by the feed chamber and is spaced apart from the boundaries of the feed chamber, and (ii) a feed material release structure for selectively releasing the feed material through the feed chute toward the feed chamber. 12. The molten metal reactor of claim 11 wherein the molten reactant metal source includes a supply chamber connected between the output chamber and the feed chamber. 13. The molten metal reactor of claim 12 further including at least one molten metal pump for inducing a flow of molten metal from the supply chamber to the feed chamber. 14. The molten metal reactor of claim 11 wherein the feed material inlet into the feed chamber is positioned directly above the feed chamber outlet. 15. The molten metal reactor of claim 14 wherein the feed chute extends substantially vertically. 16. The molten metal reactor of claim 11 wherein the feed chute is connected to a sealing conduit that extends to a position below a liquid reactant metal level in the feed chamber. 17. The molten metal reactor of claim 11 wherein a portion of the feed chute extends transversely through the feed chamber in a direction from one lateral side of the feed chamber toward an opposite lateral side of the feed chamber.
	description	1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to the field of semiconductor device manufacturing and, more particularly, to a method and apparatus for dynamic adjustment of an active sensor list. 2. Description of the Related Art To fabricate a semiconductor device, a wafer is typically processed through numerous processing tools in a predetermined sequence. The processing tools may include photolithography steppers, etch tools, deposition tools, polishing tools, rapid thermal anneal tools, ion implantation tools, and the like. Each processing tool modifies the wafer according to a particular operating recipe. For example, a photolithography stepper may be used to form a patterned layer of photoresist above the wafer. Features in the patterned layer of photoresist correspond to a plurality of features, e.g. gate electrode structures, which will ultimately be formed above the surface of the wafer. The tool sequence, as well as the recipes used by the tools, must be carefully controlled so that the features formed on the wafer meet appropriate design and performance criteria. Thus, advanced process control (APC) systems are often used to coordinate operation of the processing tools. A conventional APC system includes one or more machine interfaces that are communicatively coupled to equipment interfaces associated with each of the processing tools. The machine and equipment interfaces are typically computers or workstations that are coupled to a network. For example, a plurality of processing tools may be coupled to an Intranet via an associated plurality of equipment interfaces. A machine interface that implements the conventional APC system may also be coupled to the Intranet. In operation, the conventional APC system initiates a control script based upon a manufacturing model, which can be a software program that automatically retrieves the data needed to execute a manufacturing process, and transmits one or more control messages, such as the operating recipe, to the processing tools. The processing tools may include one or more sensors to collect data associated with operation of the processing tool. For example, an etching tool may include a sensor to monitor the radio frequency (RF) power delivered by the etching tool. For another example, a rapid thermal anneal tool may include a thermocouple to monitor a temperature within the tool. The data acquired by the various sensors is often referred to as trace data. The collected tool trace data may then be provided to the APC system, which may use the collected tool trace data for various purposes such as fault detection and/or classification. For example, the tool trace data collected from the thermocouple in the rapid thermal anneal tool may indicate that the temperature within the tool has dropped below a desired threshold, indicating a possible fault. The network that is used to transmit control messages, tool trace data, and any other information between the APC system and the processing tools has a finite bandwidth. Consequently, it is not generally possible to continuously collect and transmit tool trace data using all the sensors in all the processing tools coupled to the network. For example, an exemplary APC system may be coupled to several processing tools, each of which may have as many as 50 or 60 associated sensors. If all of the sensors continuously attempted to provide tool trace data over the network, the network would become overloaded and unable to transmit the collected tool trace data. Accordingly, the APC system provides a predetermined data collection plan including an active sensor list that specifies which sensors may collect tool trace data. For example, the active sensor list may include all the sensors in a subset of the processing tools, none of the sensors in a subset of the processing tools, or subset of the sensors in one or more processing tools. The predetermined active sensor list may reduce the bandwidth efficiency of the network. For example, the active sensor list may indicate that tool trace data should be collected from sensors associated with a set of processing tools because these processing tools will be used to process a wafer during a processing run. One or more of the processing tools may become idle during the processing run, e.g. when no wafer is present in the one or more processing tools. However, the sensors associated with the idle processing tools will continue to collect data and provide tool trace data via the network, as instructed by the predetermined active sensor list. Thus, a portion of the bandwidth of the network will be allocated to sensors and/or tools that are not providing useful tool trace data. Moreover, if too many sensors are included in the active sensor list, tool trace data may be dropped. The predetermined active sensor list may also limit the ability of the APC system to detect and/or classify faults or other unexpected events associated with the processing tools. For example, tool trace data from a sensor may deviate from an expected value, which may indicate a fault associated with the tool. Thus, it may be desirable to add additional sensors associated with the tool to the active sensor list to provide additional data that may assist in detecting and/or classifying the suspected fault. Moreover, it may also be desirable to remove one or more sensors from the active sensor list to provide additional network bandwidth for the high sampling rate sensor(s). However, conventional APC systems are not able to modify the predetermined data collection plans to respond to changing conditions and/or bandwidths. The present invention is directed to addressing the effects of one or more of the problems set forth above. In one embodiment of the present invention, a method is provided for dynamic adjustment of an active sensor list. The method includes providing an active sensor list indicative of at least one sensor associated with at least one processing tool, the at least one sensor being communicatively coupled to a network having an associated bandwidth, receiving information indicative of a state of at least one of the processing tools, and modifying the active sensor list based on the information indicative of the state of the at least one of the processing tools and the associated network bandwidth. Embodiments manufacturing systems capable of dynamic adjustment of an active sensor list are also provided. While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the description herein of specific embodiments is not intended to limit the invention to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Illustrative embodiments of the invention are described below. In the interest of clarity, not all features of an actual implementation are described in this specification. It will of course be appreciated that in the development of any such actual embodiment, numerous implementation-specific decisions should be made to achieve the developers' specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related constraints, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. Portions of the present invention and corresponding detailed description are presented in terms of software, or algorithms and symbolic representations of operations on data bits within a computer memory. These descriptions and representations are the ones by which those of ordinary skill in the art effectively convey the substance of their work to others of ordinary skill in the art. An algorithm, as the term is used here, and as it is used generally, is conceived to be a self-consistent sequence of steps leading to a desired result. The steps are those requiring physical manipulations of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily, these quantities take the form of optical, electrical, or magnetic signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, and otherwise manipulated. It has proven convenient at times, principally for reasons of common usage, to refer to these signals as bits, values, elements, symbols, characters, terms, numbers, or the like. It should be borne in mind, however, that all of these and similar terms are to be associated with the appropriate physical quantities and are merely convenient labels applied to these quantities. Unless specifically stated otherwise, or as is apparent from the discussion, terms such as “processing” or “computing” or “calculating” or “determining” or “displaying” or the like, refer to the action and processes of a computer system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and transforms data represented as physical, electronic quantities within the computer system's registers and memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computer system memories or registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices. FIG. 1 shows a simplified block diagram of an illustrative manufacturing system 10. In the illustrated embodiment, the manufacturing system 10 is adapted to fabricate semiconductor devices. Although the invention is described as it may be implemented in a semiconductor fabrication facility, the invention is not so limited and may be applied to other manufacturing environments. The techniques described herein may be applied to a variety of workpieces or manufactured items, including, but not limited to, microprocessors, memory devices, digital signal processors, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), or other similar devices. The techniques may also be applied to workpieces or manufactured items other than semiconductor devices. An exemplary information exchange and process control framework suitable for use in the manufacturing system 10 is an Advanced Process Control (APC) framework, such as may be implemented using the Catalyst system formerly offered by KLA-Tencor, Inc. The Catalyst system uses Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI) Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) Framework compliant system technologies and is based the Advanced Process Control (APC) Framework. CIM (SEMI E81-0699—Provisional Specification for CIM Framework Domain Architecture) and APC (SEMI E93-0999—Provisional Specification for CIM Framework Advanced Process Control Component) specifications are publicly available from SEMI, which is headquartered in Mountain View, Calif. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the present invention is not limited to the Catalyst APC system. In alternative embodiments, any desirable information exchange and process control framework may be used without departing from the scope of the present invention. The manufacturing system 10 includes a plurality of tools 30–80. The tools 30–80 are grouped into sets of like tools, as denoted by lettered suffixes. For example, the set of tools 30A–30C represent tools of a certain type, such as a chemical mechanical planarization tool. A particular wafer or lot of wafers progresses through the tools 30–80 as it is being manufactured, with each tool 30–80 performing a specific function in the process flow. Exemplary processing tools for a semiconductor device fabrication environment include metrology tools, photolithography steppers, etch tools, deposition tools, polishing tools, rapid thermal anneal tools, implantation tools, and the like The tools 30–80 are depicted in a rank and file grouping for illustrative purposes only. In an actual implementation, the tools 30–80 may be arranged in any physical order or grouping. As will be discussed in detail below, each tool 30–80 may also include one or more sensors (not shown in FIG. 1). A manufacturing execution system (MES) server 90 directs high level operation of the manufacturing system 10. The MES server 90 monitors the status of the various entities in the manufacturing system 10 (i.e., lots, tools 30–80) and controls the flow of articles of manufacture (e.g., lots of semiconductor wafers) through the process flow. A database server 100 is provided for storing data related to the status of the various entities and articles of manufacture in the process flow. The database server 100 may store information in one or more data stores 110. The data may include pre-process and post-process metrology data, tool states, lot priorities, and the like. The processing and data storage functions are distributed amongst the different computers or workstations in FIG. 1 to provide general independence and central information storage. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that different numbers of computers and different arrangements may be used without departing from the scope of the instant invention. A network 120 interconnects various components of the manufacturing system 10, such as the tools 30–80 and the servers 90, 100, allowing them to exchange information. In one embodiment, each of the tools 30–80 is coupled to a computer (not shown) for interfacing with the network 120. The connections between the tools 30–80 in a particular grouping are meant to represent connections to the network 120, rather than interconnections between the tools 30–80. In various alternative embodiments, the network 120 may be an Internet, intranet, or any other desirable type of network. Persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the network 120 may include a variety of routers, hubs, switches, connectors, interfaces, ports, cables, wires, and the like that are not shown in FIG. 1. The network 120 has an associated bandwidth for data transmission. For example, the network 120 may be able to transmit several hundred megabits of data per second between the tool 30A and the server 90. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the bandwidth of the network 120 may not be characterized by a single bandwidth and instead may vary depending on various factors such as the data path that connects components of the network 120. For example, the bandwidth for data transmitted between the tool 30A and the server 90 may be different than the bandwidth for data transmitted between the tool 80A and the server 100. Moreover, although the overall bandwidth of the network 120 may remain approximately constant, the bandwidth available for any particular device coupled to the network 120 may vary depending on factors such as how much data is being transmitted over the network 120 by other devices. For example, if the tool 30A is transmitting a large volume of data to the server 90, the bandwidth available for data transmissions between the tool 80A and the server 100 may be reduced. An active sensor list controller 130 is coupled to the network 120. In the illustrated embodiment, the active sensor list controller 130 is implemented in a computer 140, which may be coupled to the network 120 in any desirable manner. The active sensor list controller 130 can form at least a portion of one or more data collection plans and provide the portion of the data collection plans to the tools 30–80. For example, as will be discussed in more detail below, the active sensor list controller 130 can form an active sensor list that indicates which sensors may be used to acquire tool trace data associated with the tools 30–80. The active sensor list may be included in the data collection plan. However, in alternative embodiments, the active sensor list may not be included in the data collection plan. The active sensor list controller 130 determines and/or monitors the bandwidth associated with the network 120. In one embodiment, a predetermined estimate of the bandwidth associated with the network 120 may be provided to the active sensor list controller 130. For example, the bandwidth may be constrained to a level below a predetermined inherent limit of the manufacturing system 10 to avoid communications issues that may stem from unduly taxing the communications lines or other devices in the network 120. Alternatively, the active sensor list controller 130 may estimate the bandwidth associate with the network 120 using data received from the network 120. An allocation of the bandwidth associated with the network 120 may also be determined by the active sensor list controller 130. In one embodiment, the active sensor list controller 130 may receive information indicative of the allocation of the available bandwidth associated with the network 120. For example, the active sensor list controller 130 may receive information indicating that approximately 75% of the available bandwidth is allocated to the tools 30–80 and approximately 25% of the available bandwidth is not allocated. Alternatively, the active sensor list controller 130 may determine the allocation of the bandwidth associated with the network 120, at least in part based upon the active sensor list. For example, the active sensor list controller 130 may determine the allocation of the bandwidth based upon an expected data transmission rate associated with each of the active sensors in the active sensor list. The active sensor list controller 130 is configured to receive information indicative of a state of each of the tools 30–80. For example, the information may indicate that one or more of the tools 30–80 is actively processing a wafer and may also include fabrication work-in-progress (WIP) levels associated with one or more of the active tools 30–80. For another example, the active sensor list controller 130 may receive information indicating that one or more of the tools 30–80 is idle. In one embodiment, the information indicative of a state of each of the tools 30–80 may include the tool trace data provided by the tools 30–80. For example, the active sensor list controller 130 may analyze the tool trace data to detect and/or classify potential faults or other unexpected events associated with the tools 30–80. FIG. 2 conceptually illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a processing tool 200 that is communicatively coupled to the active list controller 130 via the network 120. In the illustrated embodiment, the processing tool 200 includes a wafer 205 disposed upon a platform 210. Persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the processing tool 200 may include other components not shown in FIG. 2. In the interest of clarity, only those components of the processing tool 200 that are relevant to the present invention will be discussed herein. The processing tool 200 includes a plurality of sensors 215(1–n). The present invention is not limited to any particular type of sensor 215(1–n). In various alternative embodiments, the sensors 215(1–n) may be any desirable type of sensor or any desirable combination of types of sensors. For example, the sensors 215(1–n) may include thermocouples, pressure sensors, gas flow sensors, radiation sensors, acoustic sensors, and the like. Moreover, the present invention is not limited to any particular number of sensors 215(1–n). In alternative embodiments, the processing tool 200 may include more or fewer sensors 215(1–n) than are shown in FIG. 2. For example, the processing tool 200 may include about 50 sensors 215(1–n). The sensors 215(1–n) may be integral to the processing tool 200 or they may be add-ons. The sensors 215(1–n) are coupled to an equipment interface 220, such as a computer, by one or more interfaces 225(1–n). Persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that the one or more interfaces 225(1–n) may include components that are not shown in FIG. 2 such as processing units, data communication ports, routers, switches, hubs, cables, wires, connectors, and the like. The equipment interface 220 may be coupled to the network 120 in any desirable manner. As used herein, the bandwidth associated with the network 120 will be understood to include the bandwidth of the network 120, the equipment interface 220, the interfaces 225(1–n), and/or any other component that may affect the bandwidth available to one or more of the sensors 215(1–n) for transmitting or receiving data over the network 120. In operation, the active sensor list controller 130 forms and provides an active sensor list to the equipment interface 220. For example, the active sensor list controller 130 may form an active sensor list indicating that the sensors 215(1–2) are to collect data and provide tool trace data. In one embodiment, the active sensor list may be provided as a portion of a data collection plan formed by the active sensor list controller 130. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should shade that the active sensor list may not necessarily be included in the data collection plan and that the data collection plan may be, at least in part, formed by other components. FIG. 3A conceptually illustrates an exemplary embodiment of an active sensor list 300 that may be formed by the active sensor list controller 130 shown in FIG. 2. In the illustrated embodiment, the active sensor list 300 includes a sensor identification field 305, a priority field 310, and an active field 315. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that more or fewer fields may be included in the active sensor list 300. For example, a preference field (not shown) indicative of a preference associated with each sensor may be included in some embodiments of the active sensor list 300. Furthermore, although the sensors 215(1–n) are all associated with the processing tool 200 shown in FIG. 2, the present invention is not so limited. In alternative embodiments, sensors associated with other processing tools may also be included in the active sensor list 300. The sensor identification field 305 includes information indicative of sensors in the active sensor list 300. In the interest of clarity, the sensor identification field 305 shown in FIG. 3A includes information that identifies the sensors by the reference numbers used in FIG. 2. However, persons of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate that, in alternative embodiments, other identifying information may be used in the sensor identification field 305, either in addition to or in place of the aforementioned reference numbers. For example, a sensor name or sensor type (e.g. thermocouple, pressure sensor, and the like) in the form of a text string may be used. For another example, a serial number or other identifying number associated with the sensors may be used in the sensor identification field 305. The priority field 310 includes information indicative of a priority level associated with each of the sensors 215(1–n). In the illustrated embodiment, the priority field 310 includes a number indicative of a priority level between 1 and 10, with higher numbers indicating higher levels of priority. However, in alternative embodiments, other indicators of the priority level may be used. For example, the priority level may be indicated by strings such as “high,” “low,” and “medium,” or other numerical ranges. Moreover, the priority field 310 is an optional field that may not be included in all embodiments of the active sensor list 300. The active field 315 includes information indicating whether or not the associated sensor 215(1–n) is an active sensor. In FIG. 3A, the information and the active field 315 indicates that the sensors 215(1–2) are currently active sensors and the sensor 215(n) is not an active sensor. However, the active field 315 is an optional field and may not be included in all embodiments of the active sensor list. For example, the active sensor list 300 may be a variable length list that only includes those sensors that are currently active. Referring back to FIG. 2, the equipment interface 220 may provide a signal indicative of the active sensor list to the sensors 215(1–n). For example, the equipment interface 225 may provide signals that may be used to activate and/or initiate data collection by the active sensors, e.g. the sensors 215(1–2). Alternatively, all of the sensors 215(1–n) may collect data substantially continuously or at a predetermined sample rate, but the equipment interface 220 may only receive, store, and/or transmit data from the sensors 215(1–n) indicated in the active sensor list. The collected and/or stored data from the active sensors may be used to form tool trace data which may be provided to the network 120 for eventual analysis and/or transmission to other devices. In operation, the active sensor list controller 130 may modify the active sensor list based on the information indicative of the state of the processing tool 200 and the bandwidth associated with the network 120. In one embodiment, the active sensor list controller 130 may add one or more sensors 215(1–n) to the active sensor list, e.g. to acquire additional data from the processing tool 200. In another embodiment, which may be practiced in addition to the previous embodiment or alternatively to the previous embodiment, the active sensor list controller 130 may remove one or more sensors 215(1–n) from the active sensor list, e.g. to reduce the network bandwidth allocated to the sensors 215(1–n). FIG. 3B conceptually illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a modified active sensor list 320. In the illustrated embodiment, the sensor 215(2) has been removed from the active sensor list 320, as indicated by the string “No” in the active field 325. Alternatively, the entry corresponding to the sensor 215(2) may be removed from a variable length active sensor list 320 to indicate that the sensor 215(2) in no longer active. In one embodiment, the sensor 215(2) may be removed from the active sensor list 320 based in part on information contained in the priority field 330. For example, sensors having a priority less than or equal to “8” may be removed from the active sensor list 320. FIG. 3C conceptually illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a modified active sensor list 340. In the illustrated embodiment, the sensor 215(n) has been added to the active sensor list 340, as indicated by the string “Yes” in the active field 345. Alternatively, the entry corresponding to the sensor 215(n) may be added a variable length active sensor list 340 to indicate that the sensor 215(n) is active. In one embodiment, the sensor 215(n) may be added to the active sensor list 340 based in part on information contained in the priority field 350. For example, sensors having a priority greater than or equal to “2” may be added to the active sensor list 320. In some embodiments, which may be practiced in addition to the aforementioned embodiments or alternatively to these embodiments, the active sensor list controller 130 may modify the active sensor list based in part on the tool trace data. For example, the active sensor list controller 130 may analyze the tool trace data to determine whether or not one or more faults or unexpected events have taken place. For example, the temperature in a deposition tool may be controlled to within a preset tolerance of a nominal temperature in order to control a thickness of a deposited layer. The deposition tool may also include a temperature sensor, such as a thermocouple, and a power sensor to monitor the power provided to a heating element in the deposition tool. An unusual level of noise and/or one or more transients in the tool trace data provided by the thermocouple may indicate a process and/or device fault. Thus, it may be desirable to activate the power sensor to gather additional data to determine whether or not a process or device fault occurred. FIG. 4 conceptually illustrates a method 400 of dynamically adjusting an active sensor list that may be used in the manufacturing system 10 shown in FIG. 1. In the illustrated embodiment, a controller, such as the active sensor list controller 130 shown in FIG. 1, provides (at 410) an active sensor list indicative of one or more active sensors associated with one or more processing tools. For example, the controller may provide (at 410) the active sensor list to an equipment interface associated with one or more processing tools having one or more sensors. The one or more sensors indicated as active in the active sensor list may then collect data and provide tool trace data, which is received (at 420) by the controller. Information indicative of one or more states of one or more of the processing tools is received (at 430) by the controller. For example, information indicating that one or more of the processing tools are actively processing a wafer may be received (at 430) by the controller. The received (at 430) information may also include fabrication work-in-progress (WIP) levels associated with one or more of the active processing tools, information indicating that one or more of the processing tools are idle, information indicating a possible fault or other unexpected events, information indicative of a sensor priority and/or preference, and the like. In various alternative embodiments, the information indicative of one or more states of one or more of the processing tools may be received (at 430) substantially continuously, periodically, or at any other desired interval. The controller may then decide (at 440) whether or not it is desirable to modify the active sensor list. If the controller decides (at 430) that it is not desirable to modify the active sensor list, as discussed above, then additional tool trace data and/or information indicative of the state of one or more of the processing tools may be received (at 420 and 430). On the other hand, if the controller decides (at 440) that it is desirable to modify the active sensor list, then the controller may modify (at 450) the active sensor list. In one embodiment, the controller may determine the allocation of network bandwidth based on the active sensor list and/or the information indicative of the state of the at least one of the processing tools. For example, the controller may determine that one or more of the active sensors are associated with an idle processing tool. The controller may then remove one or more active sensors from the active sensor list, e.g. to increase the available bandwidth for other sensors, such as sensors that may be useful to detect and/or classify a fault or other unexpected event. Alternatively, the controller may add one or more sensors to the active sensor list in response to determining that additional network bandwidth is available. In one embodiment, the active sensor list is modified (at 450) using empirical correlations between the work-in-progress levels, process states, and the available bandwidth. The controller then provides (at 460) the modified data collection plan to one or more of the sensors. In one embodiment, the controller provides (at 460) the modified data collection plan during a process run. In another embodiment, the controller provides (at 460) the modified data collection plan between two process runs. By implementing one or more embodiments of the present invention, the present invention may improve the efficiency with which bandwidth is allocated to the various sensors and/or processing tools in an APC system. For example, sensors associated with idle processing tools may be deactivated so that they do not collect data, or the data collected by these sensors may not be stored and/or transmitted over the network, thereby reducing the allocated network bandwidth. Furthermore, the ability of the APC system to detect and/or classify faults or other unexpected events associated with the processing tools may be enhanced. For example, the APC system may be able to increase the number of active sensors available to collect and provide tool trace data relevant to the suspected fault or unexpected event. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the protection sought herein is as set forth in the claims below.
054815754	claims	1. A method for detecting oscillations in the core of a boiling water nuclear reactor, comprising the steps of: detecting instability of the nuclear reactor on the basis of oscillations in the output signals of a plurality of neutron detectors mounted in said nuclear reactor; generating for each neutron detector of said plurality of neutron detectors an oscillation output signal (SS) if the output signal from said each neutron detector fulfills the criterion that said oscillation output signal (SS) assumes at least one upper extreme value exceeding an upper limit, and at least one lower extreme value lower than a lower limit during an oscillation interval (T2) of a predetermined value; and generating for each neutron detector of said plurality of neutron detectors at least one alarm signal (Ka) for remaining oscillations, if said oscillation signal (SS) remains during a delay interval (T3) of a predetermined duration. means for detecting instability of the nuclear reactor on the basis of oscillations in a plurality of neutron detectors mounted in said nuclear reactor; first means for generating for each neutron detector of said plurality of neutron detectors an oscillation output signal (SS) if the output signal from said each neutron detector fulfills the criterion that said oscillation output signal (SS) assumes at least one upper extreme value exceeding an upper limit, and at least one lower extreme value lower than a lower limit during an oscillation interval (T2) of a predetermined value; and second means for generating for each neutron detector of said plurality of neutron detectors at least one alarm signal (Ka) for remaining oscillations, if said oscillation output signal (SS) remains during a delay interval (T3) of a predetermined duration. 2. A method for detecting oscillations in the core of a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 1, wherein in said step of generating an oscillation output signal (SS), said oscillation output signal (SS) exceeds said upper limit if the difference between the time-average value (TAV) of said oscillation output signal (SS) and the upper extreme value thereof is greater than a first predetermined value ( G1), and said output signal is lower than said lower limit if the difference between the time-average value (TAV) of said oscillation output signal (SS) and the lower extreme value thereof is greater than a second predetermined value (G2). 3. A method for detecting oscillations in the core of a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 1, wherein in said step of generating at least one alarm signal, a second alarm signal (LR) is generated if said oscillation output signal (SS) from a neutron detector fulfills at least one oscillation criterion during each of a predetermined number of consecutive alarm intervals (T1) of a predetermined duration. 4. A method of detecting oscillations in the core of a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 2, wherein in said step of generating at least one alarm signal, a second alarm signal (LR) is generated if said oscillation output signal (SS) completes at least one condition of oscillation during each of a predetermined number of consecutive alarm intervals (T1), each of a predetermined duration. 5. A method of detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 3, wherein said step of generating at least one alarm signal includes the step of generating an alarm signal (Ra) for intermittent oscillations, provided that said second alarm signal (LR) exists and that no alarm signal (Ka) for remaining oscillations exists. 6. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor, comprising: 7. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 6, wherein said first means for generating includes means for determining the difference between the output signal of a neutron detector and the time average value (TAV) thereof and generating a signal (P) if said difference exceeds an upper limit and a signal (N) if said difference is below a lower limit. 8. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 7, further comprising means for filtering said oscillation output signal. 9. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 8, wherein said first means for generating further includes means for extending said signal (P) and said signal (N) by a predetermined duration corresponding to an oscillation interval (T2). 10. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 9, wherein said first means for generating further includes means for generating an oscillation output signal (SS) with the simultaneous presence of said extended signal (P) and said extended signal (N). 11. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 10, wherein said second means for generating includes a first delay member for generating an alarm signal (Ka)for remaining oscillations if said oscillation output signal (SS) remains during a time interval (T3) of a predetermined duration. 12. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 10, wherein said first means for generating further includes means for generating an extended oscillation signal (FSS) by extending said oscillation signal (SS) a predetermined duration corresponding to an alarm interval (T1); and a second delay member for generating a second alarm signal (LR) if said extended oscillation signal (FSS) remains during a delay interval (T4) corresponding to a predetermined number of alarm intervals (T1). 13. A device for detecting oscillations in a boiling water nuclear reactor according to claim 11, wherein said first means for generating further includes means for generating an alarm signal (Ra) for intermittent oscillations when said second alarm signal (LR) is present and said alarm signal (Ka) for remaining oscillations is absent.
	description	1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method for removing radioactive cesium present in liquid and/or a solid matter generated from a nuclear power plant or a reprocessing facility of spent nuclear fuel and to a hydrophilic resin composition suitable for the method, the hydrophilic resin composition exhibiting a function immobilizing radioactive cesium. The present invention also relates to a method capable of applying removing processing to both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium present in liquid and/or a solid matter generated from a nuclear power plant or a reprocessing facility of spent nuclear fuel and to a hydrophilic resin composition suitable for the method, the hydrophilic resin composition exhibiting a function immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium. 2. Description of Related Art In currently widespread nuclear reactor power plants, nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor is accompanied by generation of a considerable amount of radioactive by-products. The main radioactive substances among the radioactive by-products are fission products and active elements including extremely dangerous radioactive isotopes such as radioactive iodine, radioactive cesium, radioactive strontium, and radioactive cerium. Since radioactive iodine among these radioactive substances turns into a gas at 184° C., there is a risk that the radioactive iodine is extremely liable to be discharged at the time of inspection or exchange of fuel and furthermore by an unforeseen event such as an accident during handling fuel or a reactor excursion accident. The major radioactive iodine isotopes to be taken into account at the time of discharge are iodine 129 having a long half-life (half-life: 1.57×107 years) and iodine 131 having a short half-life (half-life: 8.05 days). Here, ordinary iodine that does not have radioactivity is an essential trace element in the human body, is collected in the thyroid gland near the throat, and becomes a component of a growth hormone. Therefore, when a human takes in radioactive iodine through breathing or water/foods, the radioactive iodine is collected in the thyroid gland in the same way as in the case of ordinary iodine and increases internal exposure to radioactivity, and accordingly, a particularly strict measure for reducing the amount of radioactivity to be discharged must be implemented with regard to radioactive iodine. Moreover, radioactive cesium has a melting point of 28.4° C., is one of metals that become liquid at around a normal temperature, and is a metal that is extremely liable to be discharged as well as radioactive iodine. The major radioactive cesium isotopes to be taken into account at the time of discharge are cesium 134 having a relatively short half-life (half-life: 2 years) and cesium 137 having a long half-life (half-life: 30 years). Among the major radioactive cesium isotopes, cesium 137 not only has a long half-life but also emits high-energy radiation, and has a property that water solubility is high because the radioactive cesium is an alkaline metal. Furthermore, radioactive cesium is easily absorbed in the human body through breathing and also through skin and is uniformly dispersed in the whole body, and therefore a health hazard to humans when the radioactive cesium is discharged becomes serious. Thus, when radioactive cesium is accidentally discharged due to an unforeseen event or the like from nuclear reactors in operation all over the world, there are concerns that the radioactive cesium causes not only radioactive contamination to workers at nuclear reactors or neighborhood residents but also radioactive contamination over a wider range to humans and animals through foods or water contaminated by the radioactive cesium carried by air. The danger with regard to the radioactive contamination has already been proven undoubtedly by the accident in Chernobyl nuclear power plant. To such a situation, a cleaning processing system, a physical/chemical processing system by solid adsorbent filling using fibrous activated carbon or the like (see Patent Literatures 1 and 2), processing by an ion exchange material (see Patent Literature 3), and so on have been studied as a method for processing radioactive iodine generated in a nuclear reactor. However, any of the above methods has problems as described below, and the development of a method for removing radioactive iodine in which these problems are solved is desired. First of all, an alkaline cleaning method or the like exists as a cleaning processing system practically used, however there are lots of problems in terms of quantity and safety to apply processing by the cleaning processing system with a liquid adsorbent and store the processed liquid as it is for a long period of time. Moreover, in the physical/chemical processing system by solid adsorbent filling, captured radioactive iodine is always facing the possibility of being replaced with other gases, and moreover the processing system has a problem that an adsorbed matter is liable to be discharged when the temperature increases. Furthermore, in the processing system by an ion exchange material, the heat resistant temperature of the ion exchange material is up to about 100° C. and there is a problem that the ion exchange material cannot exhibit sufficient performance at a temperature higher than the heat resistant temperature. On the other hand, as a method for applying removing processing to radioactive cesium generated by nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor, an adsorption method with an inorganic ion exchanger or a selective ion exchange resin, a coprecipitation method by using a heavy metal and a soluble ferrocyanide or ferrocyanide salt together, a chemical processing method with a cesium precipitation reagent, and so on are known (see, for example, Patent Literature 4). However, in any of the above-described processing methods, large scale facilities such as a circulation pump, a cleaning tank, and furthermore a filling tank containing various adsorbents are necessary, and in addition, a large amount of energy is needed to operate these facilities. Moreover, when supply of the power source is suspended as in the accident occurred at the Fukushima No. 1 nuclear power plant in Japan on Mar. 11, 2011, these facilities cannot be operated and the degree of contamination risk by radioactive cesium in particular increases. Especially in the case where the supply of the power source is suspended, applying a method for removing radioactive cesium diffused into peripheral areas falls into an extremely difficult situation, and it is concerned that a situation in which radioactive contamination expands may occur. Accordingly, there is an urgent need to develop a method for removing radioactive cesium that is applicable even when the situation in which the supply of the power source is suspended occurs, and when such method for removing radioactive cesium is developed, the method is extremely useful. Patent Literature 1: JP-62-44239 Patent Literature 2: JP-A-2008-116280 Patent Literature 3: JP-A-2005-37133 Patent Literature 4: JP-A-4-118596 Accordingly, an object of the first present invention and the second present invention is to solve the problems of conventional arts and to provide a novel method for removing radioactive cesium that is simple and low-cost, furthermore does not require an energy source such as electricity, moreover can take in and stably immobilize the removed radioactive cesium within a solid, and is capable of reducing the volume of radioactive waste as necessary. Moreover, another object of the first present invention and the second present invention is to provide a novel hydrophilic resin composition that has a function useful for the above-described method and capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium, the hydrophilic resin composition capable of realizing applying removing processing to radioactive cesium simply. Furthermore, yet another object of the second present invention is to provide a novel hydrophilic resin composition more excellent in practical use by which hydrophilic resin composition the water resistance and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface are improved in the case where the hydrophilic resin composition is used in a form such as a resin film or sheet in applying processing in addition to having a function particularly useful for the above-described method and capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium. Moreover, an object of the third present invention and the fourth present invention is, in providing an effective processing method capable of applying processing to radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together, to solve the problems of conventional arts and to provide a novel method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium that is simple and low-cost, furthermore does not require an energy source such as electricity, moreover can take in and stably immobilize the removed radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium within a solid, and is capable of reducing the volume of radioactive waste as necessary. Moreover, another object of the third present invention and the fourth present invention is to provide a novel hydrophilic resin composition that has a function useful in carrying out the above-described method and capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium, the hydrophilic resin composition capable of applying removing processing to these radioactive substances together. Furthermore, yet another object of the fourth present invention is to provide a novel hydrophilic resin composition more excellent in practical use by which hydrophilic resin composition the water resistance and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface are improved in the case where the hydrophilic resin composition is used in a form such as a resin film or sheet in applying processing in addition to having a function particularly useful for the above-described method and capable of immobilizing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium. Each of the objects is achieved by the first, the second, the third, or the fourth present invention described below. Namely, as the first present invention, provided is a method for removing radioactive cesium applying removing processing to radioactive cesium in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter using a hydrophilic resin composition comprising a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises at least one hydrophilic resin selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As the second present invention, provided is a method for removing radioactive cesium applying removing processing to radioactive cesium present in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter using a hydrophilic resin composition comprising a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound, wherein the hydrophilic resin comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment and further each having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a polysiloxane segment; and the hydrophilic resin composition comprises the metal ferrocyanide compound dispersed therein in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As another embodiment in the first present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is at least one resin selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment and each obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate with a high-molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component, the resin being insoluble to water and hot water; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As another embodiment in the second present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is a resin having a hydrophilic segment and a polysiloxane segment and obtained by reacting, as a part of a raw material, a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule, the resin being insoluble to water and hot water; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As yet another embodiment in the second present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment, further each having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a polysiloxane segment, and each obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a high molecular weight polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. Preferable embodiments of the first or the second present invention relating to the above-described method for removing radioactive cesium or the above-described hydrophilic resin composition include that the hydrophilic segment is a polyethylene oxide segment; and that the metal ferrocyanide compound is a compound represented by the following general formula (1).AxMy[Fe(CN)6] (1)[In the formula, A is any one selected from K, Na, and NH4, M is any one selected from Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn, x and y satisfy an equation x+ny=4 (x is an integer from 0 to 3), and n represents a valence number of M] As the third present invention, provided is a method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium applying removing processing to both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium present in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter using a hydrophilic resin composition comprising a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound, wherein the hydrophilic resin comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment and further each having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a tertiary amino group; and the hydrophilic resin composition comprises the metal ferrocyanide compound dispersed therein in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. A preferable embodiment of the above described third present invention includes that the hydrophilic resin is a resin formed from, as a part of a raw material, a polyol having at least one tertiary amino group or a polyamine having at least one tertiary amino group. As the fourth present invention, provided is a method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium applying removing processing to both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium present in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter using a hydrophilic resin composition comprising a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound, wherein the hydrophilic resin comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment and further each having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a tertiary amino group and a polysiloxane segment; and the hydrophilic resin composition comprises the metal ferrocyanide compound dispersed therein in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. A preferable embodiment of the above-described fourth present invention includes that the hydrophilic resin is formed from, as a part of a raw material, a polyol having at least one tertiary amino group or a polyamine having at least one tertiary amino group and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule. As another embodiment in the third present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is a resin having a hydrophilic segment, having, in the molecular chain, a tertiary amino group, and formed from, as a part of a raw material, a polyol having at least one tertiary amino group or a polyamine having at least one tertiary amino group, the resin being insoluble to water and hot water; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As yet another embodiment in the third present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment, further each having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a tertiary amino group, and each obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and at least one tertiary amino group in the same molecule; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As another embodiment in the fourth present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is a resin having a hydrophilic segment, having, in the molecular chain, a tertiary amino group and a polysiloxane segment, and formed from, as a part of a raw material, a polyol having at least one tertiary amino group or a polyamine having at least one tertiary amino group and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule, the resin being insoluble to water and hot water; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. As yet another embodiment in the fourth present invention, provided is a hydrophilic resin composition for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium exhibiting a function capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter, wherein the hydrophilic resin composition comprises a hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound; the hydrophilic resin is at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment, each having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a tertiary amino group and a polysiloxane segment, and each obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component, a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and at least one tertiary amino group in the same molecule, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule; and the metal ferrocyanide compound is dispersed in the hydrophilic resin composition in a ratio of at least 1 to 200 mass parts relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin. Preferable embodiments of the third or the fourth present invention relating to the above-described method for removing radioactive cesium or the above-described hydrophilic resin composition include that the hydrophilic segment is a polyethylene oxide segment; and that the metal ferrocyanide compound is a compound represented by the following general formula (1).AxMy[Fe(CN)6] (1)[In the formula, A is any one selected from K, Na, and NH4, M is any one selected from Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn, x and y satisfy an equation x+ny=4 (x is an integer from 0 to 3), and n represents a valence number of M] According to the first present invention or the second present invention, provided is a novel method for removing radioactive cesium that is capable of applying processing to radioactive cesium present in liquid or a solid matter simply and at low cost, furthermore does not require an energy source such as electricity, moreover can take in and stably immobilize the removed radioactive cesium within a solid, and can achieve the volume reduction of radioactive waste as necessary. According to the first present invention, provided is a novel hydrophilic resin composition that has a function capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium, makes it possible to realize applying removing processing to radioactive cesium, and can reduce the volume of radioactive waste as necessary because the main component of the hydrophilic resin composition is a resin composition. The above-described remarkable effects are achieved by an extremely simple method that utilizes the hydrophilic resin composition comprising a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue dispersed in a hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof. The hydrophilic resin is obtained by reacting, for example, an organic polyisocyanate with a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine (hereinafter, each of the polyol and the polyamine is also referred to as a “hydrophilic component”), and more specifically examples of the hydrophilic resin include a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin. Particularly, according to the second present invention, a hydrophilic resin composition with high practicability that has a function capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium and realizes improvement in the water resistance and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface when used in a form such as a film form is provided, and thereby the removing processing of radioactive cesium can be realized in a better state. Furthermore, since the main component of the hydrophilic resin composition is a resin composition, the volume reduction of the radioactive waste becomes possible as necessary. These remarkable effects in the second present invention are achieved by an extremely simple method that utilizes a hydrophilic resin composition comprising a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue dispersed therein together with a hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof and having, in the main chain and/or a side chain, a polysiloxane segment. The hydrophilic resin is obtained by reacting, for example, an organic polyisocyanate, a hydrophilic component, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule, and more specific examples of the hydrophilic resin include a hydrophilic polyurethane, a hydrophilic polyurea, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea each having the above-described structure. According to the third present invention or the fourth present invention, provided is a novel method that is capable of applying removing processing to radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium present in liquid or a solid matter simply and at low cost, furthermore does not require an energy source such as electricity, moreover can take in and further stably immobilize the removed radioactive iodine and the removed radioactive cesium within a solid, can achieve the volume reduction of radioactive waste as necessary, and can apply removing processing of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together. According to the present invention, provide is a novel hydrophilic resin composition that has a function capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium, makes it possible to realize applying removing processing to radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together, and can reduce the volume of radioactive waste as necessary because the main component of the hydrophilic resin composition is a resin composition. The remarkable effects in the third present invention are achieved by an extremely simple method that utilizes a hydrophilic resin composition obtained by dispersing Prussian blue in a hydrophilic resin such as a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a hydrophilic component, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and at least one tertiary amino group in the same molecule. Particularly, according to the fourth present invention, a hydrophilic resin composition with high practicability that has a function of immobilizing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium and realizes improvement in the water resistance and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface when used in a form such as a film form is provided, and thereby the removing processing of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium can be realized in a better state. The remarkable effects in the fourth present invention are achieved by the hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof, and having, in the molecular chain, at least one tertiary amino group and a polysiloxane segment, and in more detail, the remarkable effects in the fourth present invention are achieved by an extremely simple method that utilizes a hydrophilic resin composition obtained by dispersing a metal ferrocyanide compound in a hydrophilic resin such as a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a hydrophilic component, a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and at least one tertiary amino group in the same molecule, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule. Next, each of the first present invention to the fourth present invention will be described in more detail giving preferable embodiments. The first present invention and the second present invention relate to a method for removing radioactive cesium, and the main characteristic is to use a hydrophilic resin composition capable of immobilizing radioactive cesium, the hydrophilic resin composition comprising a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue dispersed in a hydrophilic resin having a particular structure. Moreover, the third present invention and the fourth present invention relate to a method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium, and the main characteristic is to use a hydrophilic resin composition capable of immobilizing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium, the hydrophilic resin composition comprising a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue dispersed in a hydrophilic resin having a particular structure. Here, the “hydrophilic resin” in the present invention means a resin that has a hydrophilic group in the molecule thereof but is insoluble to water, hot water, and so on, and the hydrophilic resin in the present invention is clearly distinguished from a water soluble resin such as polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl pyrrolidones, polyacrylic acids, and cellulose derivatives. Each of the hydrophilic resin compositions that characterize the first present invention to the fourth present invention comprises a hydrophilic resin having a particular structure and a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue, and radioactive cesium can favorably be removed from radioactive waste liquid or a radioactive solid matter in the case where any of the hydrophilic resin compositions is used. The present inventors consider as follows with regard to the reason why it becomes possible to remove radioactive cesium by using these hydrophilic resin compositions. First of all, any of the hydrophilic resins used in the first present invention to the fourth present invention has a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof and therefore exhibits excellent water absorbency due to the presence of the hydrophilic segment. For this reason, it is considered that ionized radioactive cesium that is an object of processing is quickly taken in the resin. And in any of the removing methods of the first present invention to the fourth present invention, the hydrophilic resin composition comprising a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue dispersed in a hydrophilic resin that exhibits such a water-absorbing function is used, and, as described later, it is known that selective adsorption or the like by a cesium ion occurs on the metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue and the metal ferrocyanide compound can be utilized for the removal of the cesium ion. It is considered that since the above-described hydrophilic resin capable of quickly taking in ionized radioactive cesium that is an object of processing and the metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue are present together in any of the hydrophilic resin compositions that characterize the first present invention to the fourth present invention, radioactive cesium is fixed to the dispersed metal ferrocyanide compound more quickly and more effectively and immobilized by the resin, and, as a result thereof, the effective removal of radioactive cesium can be achieved by the first present invention to the fourth present invention. In addition, according to the third present invention and the fourth present invention in which the resins the structures of which are different from the structures of the resins used in the first present invention and the second present invention are used, it becomes possible to apply removing processing to not only radioactive cesium as described above, but also both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium, however the reason for this will be described later. [Metal Ferrocyanide Compound] Here, the metal ferrocyanide compound used in each of the first present invention to the fourth present invention is a compound represented by the following general formula (1). Among the metal ferrocyanide compounds, metal ferrocyanide compounds called Prussian blue that have been widely used as a colorant are included, however any of the metal ferrocyanide compounds can preferably be used in the present invention.AxMy[Fe(CN)6] (1)[In the formula, A is any one selected from K, Na, and NH4, M is any one selected from Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn, x and y satisfy an equation x+ny=4 (x is an integer from 0 to 3), and n represents a valence number of M] More specific examples of the metal ferrocyanide compounds include the compounds represented by the following general formula (A) and (B) and called Prussian blue, these compounds are pigments that has long been produced, and the color names thereof has a lot of trivial names such as Prussian blue, Milori blue, and Berlin blue. MFe[Fe(CN)6] (A) [in the formula, M=NH4, K or Fe] MK2[Fe(CN)6] (B) [in the formula, M=Ni or Co] It has already been publicly known that the above-described Prussian blue can be used for removing radioactive cesium, and in fact Prussian blue has been used at the time of accident in Chernobyl nuclear power plant. The mechanism of removing radioactive cesium by Prussian blue has not been fully elucidated, however two views, “ion exchange” and “adsorption”, have been proposed. The view of “ion exchange” is that when a cesium ion contacts with ammonium Prussian blue that is a kind of Prussian blue, a cation in the Prussian blue replaces the cesium ion by ion exchange, the radioactive cesium is immobilized, and the cesium ion can be removed. On the other hand, the “adsorption” is a view that the cesium ion is selectively adsorbed in pores having an interval of 0.5 nm that the crystal of Prussian blue has and, as a result thereof, the cesium ion can be removed. At the moment, it has not been clear which view is right, however the effect of removing cesium by Prussian blue has been proved in any event. In the first present invention to the fourth present invention, it becomes possible to provide a method capable of applying removing processing to radioactive cesium more efficiently, simply, and economically by using the hydrophilic resin composition comprising the aforementioned hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment and a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is the Prussian blue dispersed therein. Hereinafter, the description will be made with regard to the hydrophilic resin each constituting the first present invention to the fourth present invention. [Hydrophilic Resin] (First Hydrophilic Resin) The hydrophilic resin that characterizes the first present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the first hydrophilic resin) has a characteristic of having a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit. Namely, the first hydrophilic resin may be a hydrophilic resin having, in the structure thereof, a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit. Specifically, the hydrophilic resin comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of hydrophilic resins such as a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment. Each hydrophilic segment in these hydrophilic resins is randomly bonded through a urethane bond, a urea bond, a urethane-urea bond, or the like in the case where a chain extender is not used at the time of synthesizing the hydrophilic resin. Moreover, in the case where the chain extender is used at the time of synthesizing the hydrophilic resin, the structure is made so that a short chain that is a residue of the chain extender is present, together with the above-described bonds, between the above-described bonds. Furthermore, the first hydrophilic resin composition that can be utilized for the method for removing radioactive cesium in the first present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the first hydrophilic resin composition) has a characteristic of comprising the first hydrophilic resin. The hydrophilic resin has a characteristic of having a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit and, as described previously, exhibits insolubility to water and hot water. Specific examples include a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment, and at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin having a hydrophilic segment can be used. The first hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment as described above is obtained by reacting, for example, an organic polyisocyanate with a compound having a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component. Hereinafter, compounds used for synthesizing the first hydrophilic resin will be described. As a hydrophilic component used for synthesizing the first hydrophilic resin, for example, a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or a polyamine having, at a terminal thereof, a hydrophilic group such as a hydroxyl group, an amino group, and a carboxyl group and having a weight average molecular weight (a value in terms of standard polystyrene measured by GPC) in a range of 400 to 8,000 are preferable. More specifically, the hydrophilic component is, for example, a hydrophilic polyol having a hydroxyl group at a terminal thereof, and examples thereof include polyethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol/polytetramethylene glycol copolyols, polyethylene glycol/polypropylene glycol copolyols, polyethylene glycol adipate polyol, polyethylene glycol succinate polyol, polyethylene glycol/poly ε-lactone copolyols, polyethylene glycol/polyvalero lactone copolyols. Moreover, the hydrophilic component used for synthesizing the first hydrophilic resin is a hydrophilic polyamine having an amino group at a terminal thereof, and examples thereof include polyethylene oxide diamine, polyethylene oxide-propylene oxide diamine, polyethylene oxide triamine, and polyethylene oxide-polypropylene oxide triamine. Other hydrophilic components include ethylene oxide adducts having a carboxyl group or a vinyl group. Another Polyol, polyamine, polycarboxylic acid, or the like not having a hydrophilic chain can also be used together with the above-described hydrophilic component for the purpose of imparting water resistance to the first hydrophilic resin. The organic polyisocyanate used in the synthesis of the first hydrophilic resin is not particularly limited, and any of publicly known organic polyisocyanates used in the conventional synthesis of polyurethane resins can be used. As a preferable organic polyisocyanate, for example, 4,4′-diphenylmethanediisocyanate (hereinafter, abbreviated as MDI), dicyclohexylmethane-4,4′-diisocyanate (hereinafter, abbreviated as hydrogenated MDI), isophorone diisocyanate, 1,3-xylylene diisocyanate, 1,4-xylylene diisocyanate, 2,4-tolylene diisocyanate, m-phenylene diisocyanate, p-phenylene diisocyanate, and so on can be used, or a polyurethane prepolymer or the like obtained by reacting the above organic polyisocyanate with a low molecular weight polyol or polyamine so as to form a terminal isocyanate can also be used. Moreover, as a chain extender used in synthesizing the first hydrophilic resin as necessary, any of the publicly known chain extenders such as, for example, a low molecular weight diol and diamine can be used without particular limitation. Specific examples of the chain extender include ethylene glycol, 1,3-propanediol, 1,4-butanediol, 1,5-pentanediol, ethylenediamine, and hexamethylenediamine. It is preferable that the first hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment in the molecular chain, the first hydrophilic resin obtained by allowing the above described raw material components to react, has a weight average molecular weight (a value in terms of standard polystyrene measured by GPC, the same applies hereinafter) in a range of 3,000 to 800,000. More preferable weight average molecular weight is in a range of 5,000 to 500,000. It is preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment in the particularly suitable first hydrophilic resin that can be utilized for the method for removing radioactive cesium of the first present invention is in a range of 20 to 80 mass %, more preferably in a range of 30 to 70 mass %. It is not preferable that a resin having a hydrophilic segment content of less than 20 mass % is used because the hydrophilic resin tends to be inferior in water-absorbing performance and the removing property of radioactive cesium tends to be deteriorated. On the other hand, it is not preferable that the resin having a hydrophilic segment content exceeding 80 mass % is used because the hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water resistance. (Second Hydrophilic Resin) The second hydrophilic resin that characterizes the second present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the second hydrophilic resin) comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin having a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit and further having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a polysiloxane segment. Each of these segments is randomly bonded through a urethane bond, a urea bond, a urethane-urea bond, or the like in the case where a chain extender is not used at the time of synthesizing the second hydrophilic resin. In the case where the chain extender is used at the time of synthesizing the second hydrophilic resin, the structure is made so that a short chain that is a residue of the chain extender is present, together with the above-described bonds, between the above-described bonds. The second hydrophilic resin has a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof in the same way as in the case of the previously described first hydrophilic resin and, in addition to this, is also required to have a polysiloxane segment in the structure thereof. By constituting the second hydrophilic resin as described here, more useful effect can be obtained and it becomes possible to achieve the above-described intended purpose of the second present invention. Here, the polysiloxane segment introduced in the resin molecule is fundamentally hydrophobic (water-repellent), however in the case where the polysiloxane segment is introduced in the resin structure by an amount of a particular range, the resin is known to become a resin having “environmental responsiveness” (KOBUNSHI RONBUNSHU vol. 48, no. 4, p. 227 (1991)). “Environmental responsiveness” in a resin as described in the literature is a phenomenon that the surface of the resin is completely covered by a polysiloxane segment in a dry state, however, in the state in which the resin is immersed in water, the polysiloxane segment is buried in the resin. In the second present invention, the phenomenon of the “environmental responsiveness” exhibited by the resin by introducing a polysiloxane segment in the structure of the resin to be used is utilized for the removing processing of radioactive cesium, and thereby the processing is made more effective. The second hydrophilic resin used in the present invention exhibits excellent water absorbency due to the hydrophilic segment present in the structure thereof in the same way as in the case of the aforementioned first hydrophilic resin, can quickly take in ionized radioactive cesium, and is effective for the removing processing of the ionized radioactive cesium. However, according to the studies of the present inventors, there has been a problem as described below in putting a hydrophilic resin into practical use in the case where the structural characteristic of the resin to be used is only to have a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof. Namely, it becomes necessary in applying the removing processing to radioactive cesium to, for example, make a resin composition to be used in a form such as a sheet form by applying a base material with the resin composition and a film form and to immerse the sheet or the film in the waste liquid containing radioactive cesium, or to make the sheet or the film as a cover for the solid matter containing radioactive cesium. In such cases, durability to the above-described removing processing of radioactive cesium is required for the resin film or the like to be used. However, in the case where the resin having such a structure as the aforementioned first hydrophilic resin has, it is hard to say that the durability is sufficient depending on the use state. The present inventors have made diligent studies against the problem and, as a result thereof, have found that the water resistance and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface can be improved by further introducing a polysiloxane segment in the molecule (in the structure) of the hydrophilic resin to be used. Namely, the resin constitution by which the resin film or the like exhibits a sufficient water resistant function and the like and more effective removing processing of radioactive cesium can be applied is achieved even in the case of the above-described use form by making the structure of resin so as to be a structure such as the second hydrophilic resin. It is considered that, in the second present invention, the second hydrophilic resin composition in which the metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue is dispersed together with the second hydrophilic resin exhibiting the above-described excellent function is used for the removing processing of radioactive cesium and therefore the radioactive cesium has been fixed and immobilized more quickly and effectively by the dispersed Prussian blue or the like from the aforementioned reason. Next, the description will be made with regard to a raw material for forming the second hydrophilic resin that can realize the above-described excellent performance. A preferable second hydrophilic resin is a hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof, having, in the main chain or a side chain in the structure thereof, a polysiloxane segment, and obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule. Specifically, the preferable second hydrophilic resin is a hydrophilic resin comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin. As described here, the second hydrophilic resin is obtained from, as a part of a raw material, the compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule, and examples of a specific polysiloxane compound used in synthesizing the second hydrophilic resin, the specific polysiloxane compound usable for introducing a polysiloxane segment in the second hydrophilic resin molecule include polysiloxane compounds having one or two or more reactive groups such as an amino group, an epoxy group, a hydroxyl group, a mercapto group, and a carboxyl group in the molecule. Preferable examples of the polysiloxane compound having the above-described reactive groups include the following compounds. Amino-Modified Polysiloxane Compounds Epoxy-Modified Polysiloxane Compounds Alcohol-Modified Polysiloxane Compounds Mercapto-Modified Polysiloxane Compounds Carboxyl-Modified Polysiloxane Compounds Among the polysiloxane compounds having an active hydrogen-containing group as described above, polysiloxane polyols and polysiloxane polyamines are particularly useful. In addition, any of the listed compounds is a preferable compound used in the second present invention, however the present invention is not limited to these exemplified compounds. Accordingly, not only above-described exemplified compounds but also any of the compounds currently sold and readily available from the market can be used in the second present invention. As described previously, it is preferable to use a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component for synthesizing the second hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment. A hydrophilic compound having a hydroxyl group, an amino group, a carboxyl group, or the like and having a weight average molecular weight in a range of 400 to 8,000 is preferable as such a hydrophilic component. The preferable specific examples of the hydrophilic component are the same as the preferable specific examples described previously in the first hydrophilic resin, and the description is omitted. Moreover, the organic polyisocyanates and chain extenders described in the description of the first hydrophilic resin can also be used in addition to the hydrophilic component in synthesizing the second hydrophilic resin. Another polyol, polyamine, polycarboxylic acid, and so on not having a hydrophilic chain can be used together with the above-described hydrophilic component in the same way as in the case of the first hydrophilic resin for the purpose of imparting water resistance to the second hydrophilic resin. It is preferable that the second hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment and a polysiloxane segment in the molecular chain, the second hydrophilic resin obtained using the above-described raw material components, has a weight average molecular weight (in terms of standard polystyrene measured by GPC) in a range of 3,000 to 800,000. More preferable weight average molecular weight is in a range of 5,000 to 500,000. It is preferable that the content of the polysiloxane segment in the second hydrophilic resin particularly suitable for using in the second present invention is in a range of 0.1 to 12 mass %, particularly preferably in a range of 0.5 to 10 mass %. It is not preferable that the content of the polysiloxane segment is less than 0.1 mass % because the exhibition of the water resistance and the blocking resistance of the surface that is the intended purpose of the present invention becomes insufficient, and, on the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the polysiloxane segment exceeds 12 mass % because the water repellency due to the polysiloxane segment becomes strong resulting in deterioration of the water-absorbing performance. Moreover, it is preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment in the second hydrophilic resin particularly suitable for using in the second present invention is in a range of 20 to 80 mass %, further more preferably in a range of 30 to 70 mass %. When the content of the hydrophilic segment is less than 20 mass %, the water-absorbing performance is deteriorated. On the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment exceeds 80 mass % because the second hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water resistance. Hereinafter, the description will be made with regard to each hydrophilic resin used in the third or the fourth present invention, however in the third or the fourth present invention, there is a difference when compared with the above-described first or second present invention in that not only radioactive cesium present in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter but also both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium can be removed. (Third Hydrophilic Resin) The hydrophilic resin that characterizes the third present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the third hydrophilic resin) has a characteristic of having: a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit; and at least one tertiary amino group. The third hydrophilic resin may be a hydrophilic resin having: a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit; and at least one tertiary amino group; in the structure thereof. Each of these segments is randomly bonded through a urethane bond, a urea bond, a urethane-urea bond, or the like in the case where a chain extender is not used at the time of synthesizing the third hydrophilic resin. In the case where a chain extender is used at the time of synthesizing the third hydrophilic resin, the structure is made so that a short chain that is a residue of the chain extender is present, together with the above-described bonds, between the above-described bonds. The third hydrophilic resin composition that can be utilized for the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in the third present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the third hydrophilic resin composition) comprises the third hydrophilic resin and a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue, and it becomes possible to apply removing processing to both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together by using the composition. The present inventors consider as follows with regard to the reason why such processing becomes possible. First of all, the third hydrophilic resin exhibits excellent water absorbency due to the hydrophilic segment in the structure thereof, and with regard to exhibiting excellent water absorbency, the third hydrophilic resin is similar to the hydrophilic resins that constitute the first or the second present invention the object of which is to remove radioactive cesium, and thereby the effect on the removal of radioactive cesium similar to the effect of the hydrophilic resins that constitute the first or the second present invention can be obtained. In the third hydrophilic resin, a tertiary amino group is further introduced in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, thereby an ion bond is formed between ionized radioactive iodine and the tertiary amino group, and as a result thereof radioactive iodine is considered to be fixed in the third hydrophilic resin in addition to the effect on the above-described removal of radioactive cesium. However, since the above-described ion bond easily dissociates under the presence of moisture, the radioactive iodine is considered to be discharged again from the resin after a certain period of time is passed, and the present inventors have anticipated that it is difficult to remove radioactive iodine in a state in which the fixing state of radioactive iodine within the resin is immobilized. However, as a result of studies by the present inventors, it has been found that the conically bonded radioactive iodine, in fact, remains to be fixed within the resin after a long period of time is passed. The reason is uncertain, however the present inventors consider as follows. Namely, the present inventors estimate that, in the third hydrophilic resin used in the present invention, a hydrophobic part is also present in the molecule and the hydrophobic part surrounds, after the ion bond is formed between the tertiary amino group in the resin and radioactive iodine, the circumferences of the hydrophilic part (the hydrophilic segment) and the ion bond. It is considered from the reason as described here that radioactive iodine can be immobilized within the resin and the removal of radioactive iodine becomes possible by using the third hydrophilic resin composition comprising the third hydrophilic resin having a particular structure in the present invention. Furthermore, as described in detail previously in the description of the first present invention and the second present invention, the removing processing of radioactive cesium in addition to the above-described removal of radioactive iodine is also made possible by using the third hydrophilic resin composition comprising a hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment and a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue, and thereby applying removing processing to both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together has been achieved. The third hydrophilic resin comprises the third hydrophilic resin, and the hydrophilic resin has a characteristic of having: a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit; and at least one tertiary amino group. Specific examples of the hydrophilic resin include at least one selected from the group consisting of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin, a hydrophilic polyurea resin, and a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin each having a hydrophilic segment and having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure thereof, a tertiary amino group. Such a hydrophilic resin is obtained by reacting an organic polyisocyanate, a high molecular weight hydrophilic polyol and/or polyamine being a hydrophilic component, and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and at least one tertiary amino group in the same molecule. Namely, examples of a compound used for introducing a hydrophilic segment and a tertiary amino group in the structure of the third hydrophilic resin include a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group (reactive group) in the molecule and having, in the molecular chain, a tertiary amino group. Examples of the compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group include a compound having a reactive group such as an amino group, an epoxy group, a hydroxyl group, a mercapto group, an acid halide group, a carboxyester group, and an acid anhydride group. Preferable examples of the above-described tertiary amino group-containing compound having a reactive group include compounds represented by the following formulas (2) to (4). [In the formula (2), R1 represents an alkyl group having 20 or less carbon atoms, an alicyclic group, or an aromatic group (which may be substituted with a halogen or an alkyl group), R2 and R3 respectively represent an lower alkylene group which may be linked through —O—, —CO—, —COO—, —NHCO—, —S—, —SO—, —SO2—, or the like, X and Y represent a reactive group such as —OH, —COOH, —NH2, —NHR1 (the definition of R1 is the same definition as described above), or —SH, and X and Y may be the same or different; moreover, X and Y may be an epoxy group, an alkoxy group, an acid halide group, an acid anhydride group, or a carboxyester group capable of deriving the above reactive group.] [In the formula (3), the definition of R1, R2, R3, X, and Y is the same definition as in the above formula (2), however the two R1 may form a cyclic structure; R4 represents —(CH2)n— (n is an integer of 0 to 20).]X—W—Y (4)[In the formula (4), the definition of X and Y is the same definition as in the above formula (2), W represents a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring, a nitrogen- and oxygen-containing heterocyclic ring, or a nitrogen- and sulfur-containing heterocyclic ring.] Specific examples of the compounds represented by the above general formula (2), (3), and (4) include the following compounds. The compounds include N,N-dihydroxyethyl-methylamine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-ethylamine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-isopropylamine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-n-butylamine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-t-butylamine, methyliminobispropylamine, N,N-dihydroxyethylaniline, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-m-toluidine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-p-toluidine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-m-chloroaniline, N,N-dihydroxyethylbenzylamine, N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-dihydroxyethyl-1,3-diaminopropane, N,N-diethyl-N′,N′-dihydroxyethyl-1,3-diaminopropane, N-hydroxyethyl-piperazine, N,N-dihydroxyethyl-piperazine, N-hydroxyethoxyethyl-piperazine, 1,4-bisaminopropyl-piperazine, N-aminopropyl-piperazine, dipicolinic acid, 2,3-diaminopyridine, 2,5-diaminopyridine, 2,6-diamino-4-methylpyridine, 2,6-dihydroxypyridine, 2,6-pyridine-dimethanol, 2-(4-pyridyl)-4,6-dihydroxypyrimidine, 2,6-diaminotriazine, 2,5-diaminotriazole, and 2,5-diaminooxazole. Moreover, an ethylene oxide adduct or a propylene oxide adduct of the above tertiary amino compounds may also be used in the present invention. Examples of the adduct include compounds represented by the following structural formula. In addition, m in the following formula represents an integer of 1 to 60, and n represents an integer of 1 to 6. As the organic polyisocyanate used for synthesizing the third hydrophilic resin, the organic polyisocyanates described previously in the description of the first hydrophilic resin can be used. Moreover, as the hydrophilic component used together with the above-described organic polyisocyanate for synthesizing the hydrophilic resin that characterizes the present invention, a hydrophilic compound having a hydroxyl group, an amino group, a carboxyl group, or the like and having a weight average molecular weight in a range of 400 to 8,000 is preferable. The preferable specific examples of the hydrophilic component are the same as the preferable specific examples described previously in the description of the first hydrophilic resin, and the description is omitted. Another polyol, polyamine, polycarboxylic acid, or the like not having a hydrophilic component can be used together with the above-described hydrophilic component in the same way as in the case of the first hydrophilic resin for the purpose of imparting water resistance to the third hydrophilic resin. Moreover, as the chain extender used in synthesizing the third hydrophilic resin as necessary, the chain extenders described previously in the description of the first hydrophilic resin can be used. It is preferable that the third hydrophilic resin obtained using the above-described raw material components, the third hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment and having, in the molecular chain, a tertiary amino group, has a weight average molecular weight (in terms of polystyrene measured by GPC) in a range of 3,000 to 800,000. Further more preferable weight average molecular weight is in a range of 5,000 to 500,000. As the particularly suitable third hydrophilic resin used for the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium of the third present invention, it is preferable that the content of the tertiary amino group in the resin is 0.1 to 50 eq (equivalent)/kg, more preferably 0.5 to 20 eq/kg. It is not preferable that the content of the tertiary amino group is less than 0.1 eq/kg, namely less than 1 amino groups per 10,000 molecular weight, because the exhibition of the radioactive iodine removing property that is the intended purpose of the present invention becomes insufficient, and, on the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the tertiary amino group 50 eq/kg or more, namely 500 amino groups or more per 10,000 molecular weight, because the hydrophobicity becomes strong due to reduction of the hydrophilic part in the resin and the third hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water-absorbing performance. Moreover, it is preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment in the particularly suitable third hydrophilic segment in the case where the third hydrophilic resin is used in the third present invention is in a range of 20 to 80 mass %, further more preferably in an range of 30 to 70 mass %. It is not preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment is less than 20 mass % because the third hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water-absorbing performance and the removing property of radioactive iodine becomes deteriorated. On the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment exceeds 80 mass % because the third hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water resistance. Hereinafter, the description will be made with regard to the hydrophilic resin used in the fourth present invention. Also in the fourth present invention, both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium present in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter can be removed together by using a hydrophilic resin having a particular structure together with a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue in the same way as in the above-described third present invention. Furthermore, the hydrophilic resin used in the fourth present invention exhibits a sufficient water resistant function in the same way as in the case of the second hydrophilic resin described previously, and the practicability becomes further improved compared with the practicability of the third present invention by using the hydrophilic resin used in the fourth present invention. (Fourth Hydrophilic Resin) The hydrophilic resin that characterizes the fourth present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the fourth hydrophilic resin) has a characteristic of having a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit and having, in the main chain and/or a side chain in the structure, at least one tertiary amino group and a polysiloxane segment. Namely, the fourth hydrophilic resin may be a hydrophilic resin having: a hydrophilic segment comprising a hydrophilic component as a constituent unit; at least one tertiary amino group; and a polysiloxane segment; in the structure thereof. Each of these segments is randomly bonded through a urethane bond, a urea bond, a urethane-urea bond, or the like in the case where a chain extender is not used at the time of synthesizing the fourth hydrophilic resin. Moreover, in the case where a chain extender is used at the time of synthesizing the fourth hydrophilic resin, the structure is made so that a short chain that is a residue of the chain extender is present, together with the above-described bonds, between the above-described bonds. The fourth hydrophilic resin composition that can be utilized for the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in the fourth present invention (hereinafter, referred to as the fourth hydrophilic resin composition) comprises the fourth hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment and a tertiary amino group in the structure thereof and a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue in the same way as in the case of the third hydrophilic resin. Therefore, it becomes possible to apply removing processing to both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together by using the fourth hydrophilic resin composition in the same way as in the case of using the third hydrophilic resin composition comprising the third hydrophilic composition. The detailed reason is similar to the reason described previously in the case of the third hydrophilic resin composition, and therefore the description is omitted. The fourth hydrophilic resin is required to be a hydrophilic resin having a polysiloxane segment in the structure thereof in addition to the above-described requirement. Here, as described in the description of the second hydrophilic resin, the polysiloxane segment introduced in the resin molecule is fundamentally hydrophobic (water-repellent), however in the case where the polysiloxane segment is introduced in the resin structure by an amount of a particular range, the resin is known to become a resin having “environmental responsiveness” (KOBUNSHI RONBUNSHU vol. 48, no. 4, p. 227 (1991)). The fourth present invention utilizes the phenomenon of the “environmental responsiveness” exhibited by the resin by introducing a polysiloxane segment for the removing processing of radioactive iodine. As described previously, when an ion bond is formed between the tertiary amino group introduced in the hydrophilic resin used in the present invention and radioactive iodine that is an object of processing, the hydrophilicity of the resin is further increased, and thereby conversely there is a risk that a problem as described below occurs. Namely, since the removing processing is applied immobilizing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium as described later in the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium of the fourth present invention, it is preferable that the fourth hydrophilic resin is used as a form of, for example, a film form or the like, however, in the case, when the amount of the radioactive iodine to be processed is too large, there is a risk that the radioactive iodine poses an obstacle for the water resistance required for the resin. Against this risk, the resin constitution by which the resin to be used exhibits a sufficient water resistant function and more effective removing processing of radioactive iodine can be applied is realized even in the above-described case by further introducing a polysiloxane segment in the molecule (in the structure) of the hydrophilic resin to be used in the fourth present invention. Namely, the fourth hydrophilic resin becomes more useful when used in the removing processing of radioactive iodine as a result of realizing the water resistance of the resin and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface by introducing a polysiloxane segment in addition to the water-absorbing performance due to the hydrophilic segment introduced in the structure thereof and the fixing performance to radioactive iodine due to the tertiary amino group. Furthermore, in the fourth present invention, as described in the first present invention to the third present invention, the removing processing of radioactive cesium in addition to the above-described removal of radioactive iodine is also made possible by using the fourth hydrophilic resin composition comprising a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue, and thereby the processing of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium together has been achieved. Next, the description will be made with regard to a raw material for forming the fourth hydrophilic resin that realizes the above-described performance. The fourth hydrophilic resin has a characteristic of having a hydrophilic segment, a tertiary amino group, and a polysiloxane segment in the structure thereof. Therefore, it is preferable to use, as a part of a raw material, a polyol having at least one tertiary amino group or a polyamine having at least one tertiary amino group and a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group and a polysiloxane segment in the same molecule for the purpose of obtaining the hydrophilic resin. It is preferable to use a tertiary amino group-containing compound as listed below as a compound for introducing the tertiary amino group in the fourth hydrophilic resin. Namely, a compound having at least one active hydrogen-containing group (hereinafter, sometimes described as a reactive group) such as, for example, an amino group, an epoxy group, a hydroxyl group, a mercapto group, an acid halide group, a carboxyester group, and an acid anhydride group in the molecule and having, in the molecular chain, a tertiary amino group is used. Specific preferable examples of the tertiary amino group-containing compound having a reactive group as described above are the same as the specific preferable examples described in the description of the third hydrophilic resin, and therefore the description is omitted. Moreover, the fourth hydrophilic resin has a characteristic of having a polysiloxane segment in the structure thereof. Examples of the polysiloxane compound usable for introducing a polysiloxane segment in the fourth hydrophilic resin molecule include a compound having one or two or more of reactive groups such as, for example, an amino group, an epoxy group, a hydroxyl group, a mercapto group, and a carboxyl group in the molecule. Preferable examples of the polysiloxane compound having the reactive groups as described above are the same as the preferable examples described in the description of the second hydrophilic resin, and therefore the description is omitted. It is preferable that the fourth hydrophilic resin obtained using the above-described raw material components, the fourth hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment and having, in the molecular chain, a tertiary amino group and a polysiloxane segment, has a weight average molecular weight (in terms of standard polystyrene measured by GPC) in a range of 3,000 to 800,000. More preferable weight average molecular weight is in a range of 5,000 to 500,000. It is preferable that the content of the tertiary amino group in the particularly suitable fourth hydrophilic resin used for the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium of the fourth present invention is in a range of 0.1 to 50 eq (equivalent)/kg, further more preferably 0.5 to 20 eq/kg. It is not preferable that the content of the tertiary amino group is less than 0.1 eq/kg, namely less than 1 amino groups per 10,000 molecular weight, because the exhibition of the radioactive iodine removing property that is the intended purpose of the fourth present invention, becomes insufficient, and, on the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the tertiary amino group exceeds 50 eq/kg, namely exceeding 500 amino groups per 10,000 molecular weight, because the hydrophobicity becomes strong due to reduction of the hydrophilic part in the resin and the fourth hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water-absorbing performance. Moreover, the content of the polysiloxane segment in the resin as the particularly suitable fourth hydrophilic resin used for the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium of the fourth present invention is in a range of 0.1 to 12 mass %, particularly preferably 0.5 to 10 mass %. It is not preferable that the content of the polysiloxane segment is less than 0.1 mass % because the exhibition of the water resistance and the blocking resistance of the surface that is the intended purpose of the present invention becomes insufficient, and, on the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the polysiloxane segment exceeds 12 mass % because water repellency due to the polysiloxane segment becomes strong, the water-absorbing performance is deteriorated, and the radioactive iodine removing property is inhibited. Moreover, it is preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment in the particularly suitable fourth hydrophilic resin in the case where the fourth hydrophilic resin is used in the fourth present invention is in a range of 20 to 80 mass %, further more preferably in a range of 30 to 70 mass %. When the content of the hydrophilic segment is less than 20 mass %, the water-absorbing performance of the fourth hydrophilic resin is deteriorated and the radioactive iodine removing property becomes insufficient. On the other hand, it is not preferable that the content of the hydrophilic segment exceeds 80 mass % because the fourth hydrophilic resin becomes inferior in water resistance. (Method for Producing Hydrophilic Resin Composition) The hydrophilic resin composition that is suitable for the method for removing radioactive cesium in the first or the second present invention and the method for removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in the third or the fourth present invention is obtained by dispersing a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue (hereinafter, the description will be made taking Prussian blue as an example) in any one of the above-described hydrophilic resins of the first present invention to the fourth present invention. Specifically, the hydrophilic resin composition can be produced by putting Prussian blue and a dispersion solvent into any one of the first to the fourth hydrophilic resins as described above and carrying out dispersion operation by a prescribed disperser. As the disperser used for the dispersion, any disperser usually used for pigment dispersion can be used without any problem. Examples of the disperser include a paint conditioner (manufactured by Red Devil, Inc.), a ball mill, a pearl mill (both manufactured by Eirich GmbH), a sand mill, a visco mill, an atliter mill, a basket mill, a wet jet mill (all manufactured by Genus Corporation), however it is preferable to select the disperser taking dispersion performance and economy into consideration. Moreover, as a dispersion medium, a glass bead, a zirconia bead, an alumina bead, a magnetic bead, a stainless steel bead, or the like can be used. In any of the first invention to the fourth invention, the hydrophilic resin composition in which 1 to 200 mass parts of Prussian blue relative to 100 mass parts of the hydrophilic resin is blended as a dispersion ratio of Prussian blue to the hydrophilic resin each constituting the hydrophilic resin composition is used. It is not preferable that the dispersion ratio of Prussian blue is less than 1 mass parts because there is a risk that the removal of radioactive cesium becomes insufficient, and it is not preferable that the dispersion ratio of Prussian blue exceeds 200 mass parts because mechanical properties of the composition become weak, the composition becomes inferior in water resistance, and there is a risk that the composition cannot maintain the shape thereof in radiation-contaminated water. In carrying out the method for removing radioactive cesium of the first or the second present invention and the method for radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium of the third or the fourth present invention, it is preferable to use any one of the first to the fourth hydrophilic resin compositions comprising the above-described constitution in the following form. Namely, the hydrophilic resin composition formed in a film form obtained by applying release paper, a release film, or the like with a solution of the hydrophilic resin composition so that a thickness after drying becomes 5 to 100 μm, preferably 10 to 50 μm and drying in a drying furnace is given as an example. In this case, the hydrophilic composition is used as a film for removing radioactive cesium released from the release paper/release film at the time of use. Moreover, besides the film form, a resin solution obtained from the raw material described previously may be used by applying various base materials with the resin solution or immersing various base materials in the resin solution. As the base material in this case, a metal, glass, timber, fiber, various plastics, and so on can be used. By immersing the film made of the first or the second hydrophilic resin composition or the sheet obtained by applying various base materials with the first or the second hydrophilic resin composition on various base materials, the film or the sheet obtained as described above, in a radioactive waste liquid, a waste liquid in which a radioactive solid matter is decontaminated with water in advance, or the like, radioactive cesium present in these liquids can be removed. Moreover, against a radiation-contaminated solid matter or the like, the diffusion of radioactive cesium can be prevented by covering the solid matter or the like with the film or the sheet made of the first or the second hydrophilic resin composition. As described previously, particularly in the case where the second hydrophilic resin composition is used, the second hydrophilic resin composition is more useful in removing radioactive iodine because the water resistance of the film or the like and the blocking resistance performance (sticking resistance) of the surface can be realized. Moreover, by immersing the film made of the third or the fourth hydrophilic resin composition or the sheet obtained by applying various base materials with the third or the fourth hydrophilic resin composition, the film or the sheet obtained as described above, in a radioactive waste liquid, a waste liquid in which a radioactive solid matter is decontaminated with water in advance, or the like, both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium can selectively be removed. Moreover, against a radiation-contaminated solid matter or the like, the diffusion of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium can be prevented by covering the solid matter with the film or the sheet made of the third or the fourth hydrophilic resin composition. The film or the sheet made of the first or the second hydrophilic resin composition is insoluble to water and therefore can easily be taken out from the waste liquid after decontamination. Thereby, decontamination can be carried out simply and at low cost without the need for special facilities and electricity in removing radioactive cesium. Furthermore, the effect of volume reduction of radioactive waste can be expected by drying the absorbed moisture and heating the film or the sheet at a temperature of 100 to 170° C. in the case of heating the film made of the first hydrophilic resin composition and 120 to 220° C. in the case of heating the film made of the second hydrophilic resin composition because the resin softens and the contraction of volume occurs. Moreover, the film or the sheet made of the third or the fourth hydrophilic resin composition is insoluble to water and therefore can easily be taken out from the waste liquid after decontamination. Thereby decontamination can be carried out simply and at low cost without the need for special facilities and electricity in removing both of radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium. Furthermore, the effect of volume reduction of radioactive waste can be expected by drying the absorbed moisture and heating the film or the sheet at a temperature of 100 to 170° C. because the resin softens and the contraction of volume occurs. Next, the present invention will be described in more detail giving specific Production Examples, Examples, and Comparative Examples, however the present invention is not limited to these examples. Moreover, “parts” and “%” in the following respective examples are based on mass unless otherwise noted. A reaction vessel equipped with a stirrer, a thermometer, a gas introducing tube, and a reflux cooler was purged with nitrogen, 150 parts of polyethylene glycol (molecular weight 2,040) and 20 parts of 1,4-butanediol were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 150 parts of methyl ethyl ketone (hereinafter, abbreviated as MEK) and 200 parts of dimethylformamide (hereinafter, abbreviated as DMF) in the reaction vessel, and the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. And a solution obtained by dissolving 77 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 50 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the mixture under stirring. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 7 hours, thereafter 60 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a hydrophilic resin solution to be used in Example of the first present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 280 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 32.5 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, a thermal softening temperature of 115° C., and a weight average molecular weight of 78,000. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 1-1, 150 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (product name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000) and 18 parts of 1,4-diaminobutane were dissolved in 250 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 73 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of DMF was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture to react while the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. After the completion of the dropping, the internal temperature was gradually raised, and when the internal temperature reached 50° C., the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction for further 6 hours, thereafter 97 parts of DMF was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a hydrophilic resin solution to be used in Example of the first present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 210 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 18.3 MPa, a breaking elongation of 310%, a thermal softening temperature of 145° C., and a weight average molecular weight of 67,000. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 1-1, 150 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (product name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000) and 15 parts of ethylene glycol were dissolved in 250 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 83 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, thereafter 110 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a hydrophilic resin solution to be used in Example of the first present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 250 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 14.7 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, a thermal softening temperature of 121° C., and a weight average molecular weight of 71,000. A reaction vessel equipped with a stirrer, a thermometer, a gas introducing tube, and a reflux cooler was purged with nitrogen, and in the reaction vessel, 8 parts of a polydimethylsiloxanepolyol having the following structure (molecular weight 3,200), 142 parts of polyethylene glycol (molecular weight 2,040), and 8 parts of ethylene glycol were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 150 parts of MEK and 140 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 52 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 50 parts of MEK, was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, and thereafter 50 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin having a structure specified in the second present invention. The obtained resin solution had a viscosity of 410 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 24.5 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, and a thermal softening temperature of 105° C. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 2-1, 5 parts of a polydimethylsiloxanediamine having the following structure (molecular weight 3,880), 145 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (product name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000), and 8 parts of propylene diamine were dissolved in 180 parts of dimethylformamide. And a solution obtained by dissolving 47 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of DMF was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture to react while the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 10 to 20° C. After the completion of the dropping, the internal temperature was gradually raised, and when the temperature reached 50° C., the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction for further 6 hours, and thereafter 100 parts of DMF was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic polyurea resin having a structure specified in the second present invention. The obtained resin solution had a viscosity of 250 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 27.6 MPa, a breaking elongation of 310%, and a thermal softening temperature of 145° C. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 2-1, 5 parts of a polydimethylsiloxanediamine (molecular weight 3,880) used in Production Example 2-2, 145 parts of polyethylene glycol (molecular weight 2,040), and 8 parts of 1,3-butylene glycol were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 74 parts of toluene and 197 parts of MEK. And a solution obtained by dissolving 42 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin having a structure specified in the second present invention. The obtained resin solution had a viscosity of 200 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 14.7 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, and a thermal softening temperature of 90° C. A reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 1-1 was purged with nitrogen, and in the reaction vessel, 150 parts of polybutyleneadipate having an average molecular weight of about 2,000 and 15 parts of 1,4-butanediol were dissolved in 250 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 62 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, and thereafter 71 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a non-hydrophilic resin solution to be used in Comparative Example of the first present invention and the second present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 320 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a non-hydrophilic resin film formed from the solution had a breaking strength of 45 MPa, a breaking elongation of 480%, a thermal softening temperature of 110° C., and a weight average molecular weight of 82,000. A reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 1-1 was purged with nitrogen, and in the reaction vessel, 150 parts of polybutyleneadipate having an average molecular weight of about 2,000 and 18 parts of hexamethylenediamine were dissolved in 200 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 60 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, and thereafter 123 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a non-hydrophilic resin solution to be used in Comparative Example of the first present invention and the second present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 250 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a non-hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 14.7 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, a thermal softening temperature of 121° C., and a weight average molecular weight of 68,000. In Table 1, the property, the weight average molecular weights, and the content of the polysiloxane segment with regard to the respective resins obtained by respective Production Examples are listed together. TABLE 1Properties of respective resins obtained by respectiveProduction ExamplesWeightPolysiloxaneaveragesegmentHydrophilic/molecularcontentNon-hydrophilicweight(%)Production Example 1-1Hydrophilic78,000Not containedProduction Example 1-2Hydrophilic67,000Not containedProduction Example 1-3Hydrophilic71,000Not containedProduction Example 2-1Hydrophilic86,0003.6Production Example 2-2Hydrophilic71,0002.3Production Example 2-3Hydrophilic65,0002.4Production Example 4aNon-hydrophilic82,000Not containedProduction Example 5aNon-hydrophilic68,000Not contained Dispersion processing was applied for 24 hours by a ball mill with a high density alumina ball (3.5 g/ml) using each of the resin solutions obtained by the above-described Production Examples and Prussian blue (Milori blue (color name); manufactured by Dainichiseika Color & Chemicals Mfg. Co., Ltd.) with the combination (based on mass) shown in Tables 2-1 and 2-2. And the contents after the dispersion were taken out through a 100 mesh sieve made of a polyester resin to obtain each resin composition comprising each resin solution and Prussian blue. The resin compositions of Examples and Comparative Examples with regard to the first present invention are shown in Table 2-1 together, and the resin compositions of Examples and Comparative Examples with regard to the second present invention are shown in Table 2-2 together. TABLE 2-1Preparation of resin compositions of Examples and ComparativeExamples with regard to the first present invention [mass parts]ComparativeComparativeExampleExampleExampleExampleExample1-11-21-31a2aResin solution of100Production Example 1-1Resin solution of100Production Example 1-2Resin solution of100Production Example 1-3Resin solution of100Production Example 4aResin solution of100Production Example 5aPrussian blue1520251525Solvent (MEK/DMF = 7/3)8510011585115 TABLE 2-2Preparation of resin compositions of Examples and ComparativeExamples with regard to the second present invention [mass parts]ComparativeComparativeExampleExampleExampleExampleExample2-12-22-31a2aResin solution of100Production Example 2-1Resin solution of100Production Example 2-2Resin solution of100Production Example 2-3Resin solution of100Production Example 4aResin solution of100Production Example 5aPrussian blue1520251525Solvent (MEK/DMF = 7/3)8510011585115[Evaluation of First Present Invention and Second Present Invention] The following tests were carried out using each resin composition of Examples and Comparative Examples of the second present invention to check the usefulness of each of the obtained resin compositions provided by the second present invention. Release paper was applied with each resin composition having the formulation shown in Table 2-2 and dried at 110° C. for 3 minutes to volatilize the solvent, and each resin film having a thickness of about 20 μm was formed. The following items were evaluated using each resin film thus obtained and formed from each resin composition of Examples 2-1 to 2-3 and Comparative Examples 1a and 2a of the second present invention. <Blocking Resistance (Sticking Resistance) of Resin Film> Film faces of each resin film of Examples 2-1 to 2-3 and Comparative Examples 1a and 2a formed from each resin composition were placed face to face, thereafter the films were left at 40° C. for 1 day while a load of 0.29 MPa was applied thereon. After that, the blocking property of the films with the faces placed face to face was visually observed and evaluated according to the following criteria. And the obtained results are shown in Table 3 together. Good: No blocking property was observed. Fair: The blocking property was slightly observed. Poor: The blocking property was observed. <Water Resistance of Resin Film> Each film formed from each resin composition of Examples 2-1 to 2-3 and Comparative Examples 1a and 2a was cut in a shape having a thickness of 20 μm and a longitudinal length of 5 cm×a transversal length of 1 cm and immersed in water having a temperature of 25° C. for 12 hours, and the water resistance was evaluated by measuring the coefficient of expansion in the longitudinal direction of the immersed film. In addition, the coefficient of expansion (expansion rate) was calculated by the following method, and the water resistance was evaluated by rating a film having a coefficient of expansion of 200% or less as “Good” and a film having a coefficient of expansion of more than 200% as “Poor”. The obtained results are shown in Table 3 together.Coefficient of expansion(%)=(Longitudinal length after test/Original longitudinal length)×100 TABLE 3Evaluation results (blocking resistance and water resistance)BlockingWater resistanceresistance(Coefficient of expansion (%))Example 2-1GoodGood (141)Example 2-2GoodGood (154)Example 2-3GoodGood (163)Comparative Example 1aPoorGood (105)Comparative Example 2aPoorGood (103)<Evaluation of Removal of Cesium> A cesium-removing function of each of the obtained resin compositions provided by the first present invention and the second present invention was checked in the following manner. Using each resin composition of Examples and Comparative Examples of the first present invention and the second present invention, release paper was applied with each resin composition and dried at 110° C. for 3 minutes to volatilize the solvent, and each resin film having a thickness of about 20 μm was formed. The effect on the removal of cesium ion was evaluated by the following method using each resin film of Examples and Comparative Examples of the first present invention and the second present invention thus obtained. (Preparation of Cesium Solution for Evaluation Test> A cesium solution for the evaluation test was prepared by dissolving cesium chloride in ion exchanged pure water so that the solution had a cesium ion concentration of 100 mg/L (100 ppm). In addition, when the cesium ion can be removed, radioactive cesium can be removed naturally. In 100 ml of the cesium solution prepared previously for the evaluation test and having an ion concentration of 100 ppm, 20 g of the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 1-1 was immersed (25° C.), and the cesium ion concentration in the solution was measured by an ion chromatograph (IC2001 manufactured by Tosoh Corporation) every time a predetermined time was elapsed. In Table 4, the removing rate of the cesium ion in the solutions every time a predetermined time was elapsed was listed together with the concentration of the cesium ion. Moreover, the obtained change of the cesium ion concentration with time is shown in FIG. 1. The cesium ion concentrations in the solutions every time a predetermined time was elapsed were measured in the same manner as in Example 1-1 except that 20 g of each resin film prepared by the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 1-2 or Example 1-3 was used for each test. The obtained results are shown in Table 4 and FIG. 1 in the same manner as in Example 1-1 described previously. TABLE 4Evaluation results in the case where the resin composition filmsof Examples 1-1 to 1-3 of the first present invention were usedExample 1-1Example 1-2Example 1-3ImmersionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium iontimeconcentrationremoving rateconcentrationremoving rateconcentrationremoving rate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—100.0—165.234.841.858.235.364.7530.169.917.582.510.889.21521.578.511.688.46.893.22416.883.27.392.75.294.8 In 100 ml of the cesium solution, 20 g of each hydrophilic resin composition film of Examples 2-1 to 2-3 was immersed (25° C.), and the cesium ion concentration in the solution was measured by an ion chromatograph (IC2001 manufactured by Tosoh Corporation) every time a predetermined time was elapsed. And the removing rate of the cesium ion in the solution was calculated. The results are shown in Table 5 and FIG. 2. TABLE 5Evaluation results in the case where the resin films of Examples2-1 to 2-3 of the second present invention were usedExample 2-1Example 2-2Example 2-3ImmersionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium iontimeconcentrationremoving rateconcentrationremoving rateconcentrationremoving rate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—100.0—167.732.343.156.936.563.5531.668.418.781.311.288.81522.177.912.587.57.792.32417.382.78.092.06.593.5 The cesium ion concentrations in the solutions were measured every time a predetermined time was elapsed in the same manner as in Example 1-1 except that 20 g of each resin film prepared by the non-hydrophilic resin composition of Comparative Example 1a or 2a was used for each test. The obtained results are shown in Table 6 and FIG. 3 in the same manner as in the case of Example 1-1 described previously. As clearly understood from these results, the superiority of the removing performance of the cesium ion in Examples of the first present invention and the second present invention was confirmed. TABLE 6Evaluation results in the case where the resin compositionfilms of Comparative Examples of 1a to 2a were usedComparative Example 1aComparative Example 2aImmersionCesium ionCesium ionCesium ionCesium iontimeconcentrationremovingconcentrationremoving(Hr)(ppm)rate (%)(ppm)rate (%)0100.0—100.0—199.50.599.01.0598.31.797.72.31597.12.996.83.22496.83.295.34.7 A reaction vessel equipped with a stirrer, a thermometer, a gas introducing tube, and a reflux condenser was purged with nitrogen, 150 parts of polyethylene glycol (molecular weight 2,040), 20 parts of N-methyldiethanolamine, and 5 parts of diethylene glycol were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 200 parts of MEK and 150 parts of DMF in the reaction vessel, and the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. And a solution obtained by dissolving 74 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 112 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the mixture under stirring. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic resin specified in the third present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 530 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the solution had a breaking strength of 24.5 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, and a thermal softening temperature of 115° C. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 3-1, 150 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (product name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000), 30 parts of methyliminobispropylamine, and 4 parts of 1,4-diamino butane were dissolved in 200 parts of DMF, and the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. And a solution obtained by dissolving 83 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of DMF was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture under stirring to react. After the completion of the dropping, the internal temperature was gradually raised, and when the temperature reached 50° C., the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction for further 6 hours, and thereafter 195 parts of DMF was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic resin specified in the third present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 230 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 27.6 MPa, a breaking elongation of 310%, and a thermal softening temperature of 145° C. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 3-1, 150 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (product name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000), 30 parts of N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-dihydroxyethyl-1,3-diaminopropane, and 6 parts of triethylene glycol were dissolved in 140 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 70 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 200 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, and thereafter 135 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic resin specified in the third present invention. The resin solution had a viscosity of 280 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the solution had a breaking strength of 14.7 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, and a thermal softening temperature of 107° C. A reaction vessel equipped with a stirrer, a thermometer, a gas introducing tube, and a reflux cooler was purged with nitrogen, and in the reaction vessel, 8 parts of a polydimethylsiloxanepolyol having the following structure (molecular weight 3,200), 142 parts of polyethylene glycol (molecular weight 2,040), 20 parts of N-methyldiethanolamine, and 5 parts of diethylene glycol were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 100 parts of MEK and 200 parts of DMF. And a solution obtained by dissolving 73 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, and thereafter 60 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic polyurethane resin having a structure specified in the fourth present invention. The obtained resin solution had a viscosity of 330 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the solution had a breaking strength of 20.5 MPa, a breaking elongation of 400%, and a thermal softening temperature of 103° C. In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 4-1, 5 parts of a polydimethylsiloxanediamine having the following structure (molecular weight 3,880), 145 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (product name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000), 25 parts of methyliminobispropylamine, and 5 parts of 1,4-diaminobutane were dissolved in 250 parts of DMF and the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. And a solution obtained by dissolving 75 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of DMF was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture under stirring to react. After the completion of the dropping, the internal temperature was gradually raised, and when the temperature reached 50° C., the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction for further 6 hours, and thereafter 124 parts of DMF was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic polyurea resin having a structure specified in the fourth present invention. The obtained resin solution had a viscosity of 315 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 31.3 MPa, a breaking elongation of 370%, and a thermal softening temperature of 147° C. Production Example 4-3 In a reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 4-1, 5 parts of an ethylene oxide added type polydimethylsiloxane having the following structure (molecular weight 4,500), 145 parts of polyethylene oxide diamine (“JEFFAMINE ED” (trade name) manufactured by Huntsman Corporation; molecular weight 2,000), 30 parts of N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-dihydroxyethyl-1,3-diaminopropane, and 5 parts of 1,4-diaminobutane were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 150 parts of MEK and 150 parts of DMF, and the resultant mixture was stirred well at an internal temperature of 20 to 30° C. And a solution obtained by dissolving 72 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 100 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture under stirring. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours, and after the completion of the reaction, 75 parts of MEK was added to the reaction mixture to obtain a solution of a hydrophilic polyurethane-polyurea resin having a structure specified in the fourth present invention. The obtained resin solution had a viscosity of 390 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 22.7 MPa, a breaking elongation of 450%, and a thermal softening temperature of 127° C. A reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 3-1 was purged with nitrogen, and 150 parts of polybutyleneadipate having an average molecular weight of about 2,000 and 15 parts of 1,4-butanediol were dissolved in 250 parts of DMF in the reaction vessel. And a solution obtained by dissolving 62 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 171 parts of DMF was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours to obtain a resin solution to be used in Comparative Example. The resin solution had a viscosity of 3.2 MPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. A non-hydrophilic resin film obtained from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 45 MPa, a breaking elongation of 480%, and a thermal softening temperature of 110° C. A reaction vessel similar to the reaction vessel used in Production Example 3-1 was purged with nitrogen, and 150 parts of polybutyleneadipate having an average molecular weight of about 2,000, 20 parts of N-methyldiethanolamine, and 5 parts of ethylene glycol were dissolved in a mixed solvent of 200 parts of MEK and 150 parts of DMF in the reaction vessel. And a solution obtained by dissolving 74 parts of hydrogenated MDI in 112 parts of MEK was slowly dropped into the resultant mixture while the resultant mixture was stirred well at 60° C. After the completion of the dropping, the resultant mixture was subjected to reaction at 80° C. for 6 hours to obtain a resin solution to be used in Comparative Example. The resin solution had a viscosity of 510 dPa·s (25° C.) at a solid content of 35%. Moreover, a non-hydrophilic resin film formed from the resin solution had a breaking strength of 23.5 MPa, a breaking elongation of 470%, and a thermal softening temperature of 110° C. In Table 7-1, the properties with regard to the respective resins to be used in Examples of the third present invention obtained by the above-described Production Examples 3-1 to 3-3 and respective resins to be used in Comparative Examples of the third present invention obtained by Production Examples 4b and 5b are listed together. Specifically as the properties, the evaluation of hydrophilicity, the weight average molecular weight, and the content of the tertiary amino group (equivalent) per 1,000 molecular weight are shown. TABLE 7-1Properties of respective resins obtained by respective ProductionExamples relating to the third present inventionTertiary aminoHydrophilic/Weight averagegroup equivalentNon-hydrophilicmolecular weight(eq/kg)ProductionHydrophilic87,0000.67Example 3-1ProductionHydrophilic63,0000.76Example 3-2ProductionHydrophilic69,0001.23Example 3-3ProductionNon-hydrophilic72,000Not containedExample 4bProductionNon-hydrophilic84,0000.68Example 5b In Table 7-2, the properties with regard to the respective resins to be used in Examples of the fourth present invention obtained by the above-described Production Examples 4-1 to 4-3 and respective resins to be used in Comparative Examples of the fourth present invention obtained by Production Examples 4b and 5b are listed together. Specifically, the evaluation of hydrophilicity, the weight average molecular weight, and the content of the tertiary amino group (equivalent) per 1,000 molecular weight are shown. TABLE 7-2Properties of respective resins of respective ProductionExamples relating to the fourth present inventionWeightTertiaryaverageamino groupPolysiloxaneHydrophilic/molecularequivalentsegmentNon-hydrophilicweight(eq/kg)content (%)ProductionHydrophilic75,0000.663.2Example 4-1ProductionHydrophilic71,0000.752.0Example 4-2ProductionHydrophilic77,0001.221.2Example 4-3ProductionNon-hydrophilic72,000NotNotExample 4bcontainedcontainedProductionNon-hydrophilic84,0000.68NotExample 5bcontained Dispersion processing was applied for 24 hours by a ball mill with a high density alumina ball (3.5 g/ml) using each of the resin solutions obtained by the above-described Production Examples 3-1 to 3-3,4-b, and 5b and Prussian blue (Milori blue (color name); manufactured by Dainichiseika Color & Chemicals Mfg. Co., Ltd.) with the combination (based on mass) shown in Table 8-1. And the contents after the dispersion were taken out through a 100 mesh sieve made of a polyester resin to obtain each resin composition comprising a resin solution and Prussian blue. TABLE 8-1Preparation of resin Compositions of Examplesand Comparative Examples with regard to thethird present invention [mass parts]Compar-Compar-Exam-Exam-Exam-ativeativepleplepleExampleExample3-13-23-31b2bResin solution100of ProductionExample 3-1Resin solution100of ProductionExample 3-2Resin solution100of ProductionExample 3-3Resin solution100of ProductionExample 4bResin solution100of ProductionExample 5bPrussian blue1520251525Solvent8510011585115(MEK/DMF = 7/3) Dispersion processing was applied for 24 hours by a ball mill with a high density alumina ball (3.5 g/ml) using each of the resin solutions obtained by the above-described Production Examples 4-1 to 4-3,4-b, and 5b and Prussian blue (Milori blue (color name); manufactured by Dainichiseika Color & Chemicals Mfg. Co., Ltd.) with the combination (based on mass) shown in Table 8-2. And the contents after the dispersion were taken out through a 100 mesh sieve made of a polyester resin to obtain each resin composition comprising a resin solution and Prussian blue. TABLE 8-2Preparation of resin Compositions of Examplesand Comparative Examples with regard to thefourth present invention [mass parts]Compar-Compar-Exam-Exam-Exam-ativeativepleplepleExampleExample4-14-24-31b2bResin solution100of ProductionExample 4-1Resin solution100of ProductionExample 4-2Resin solution100of ProductionExample 4-3Resin solution100of ProductionExample 4bResin solution100of ProductionExample 5bPrussian blue1520251525Solvent8510011585115(MEK/DMF = 7/3) The following tests were carried out using each resin composition of Examples and Comparative Examples of the fourth present invention to check the usefulness of each of the obtained resin compositions provided by the fourth present invention. Release paper was applied with each resin composition having the formulation shown in Table 8-2 and dried at 110° C. for 3 minutes to volatilize the solvent, and each resin film having a thickness of about 20 μm was formed. The following items were evaluated using each resin film thus obtained and formed from each resin composition of Examples 4-1 to 4-3 and Comparative Examples 1b and 2b of the fourth present invention. <Blocking Resistance (Sticking Resistance)> Film faces of each resin film of Examples 4-1 to 4-3 and Comparative Examples 1b and 2b formed from each resin composition were placed face to face, thereafter the films were left at 40° C. for 1 day while a load of 0.29 MPa was applied thereon. After that, the blocking property of the films with the faces placed face to face was visually observed and evaluated according to the following criteria. And the obtained results are shown in Table 9 together. Good: No blocking property was observed. Fair: The blocking property was slightly observed. Poor: The blocking property was observed. <Water Resistance> Each film formed from each resin composition of Examples 4-1 to 4-3 and Comparative Examples 1b and 2b was cut in a shape having a thickness of 20 μm and a longitudinal length of 5 cm×a transversal length of 1 cm and immersed in water having a temperature of 25° C. for 12 hours, and the coefficient of expansion (%) in the longitudinal direction of the immersed film was measured and calculated using the following equation. And the water resistance was evaluated by rating a film having a coefficient of expansion of 200% or less as “Good” and a film having a coefficient of expansion of more than 200% as “Poor”. The obtained results are shown in Table 9.Coefficient of expansion(%)=(Longitudinal length after test/Original longitudinal length)×100 TABLE 9Evaluation results (blocking resistance and water resistance)BlockingWater resistanceresistance(Coefficient of expansion (%))Example 4-1GoodGood (131)Example 4-2GoodGood (140)Example 4-3GoodGood (153)Comparative Example 1bPoorGood (105)Comparative Example 2bFairGood (103)<Effect on Removal of Iodine Ion and Cesium Ion> An iodine ion and cesium ion-removing function of each of the obtained resin compositions provided by the third present invention and the fourth present invention was checked in the following manner. Using each resin composition of Examples and Comparative Examples of the third present invention and the fourth present invention, release paper was applied with each resin composition and dried at 110° C. for 3 minutes to volatilize the solvent, and each resin film having a thickness of about 20 μm was formed. The effect on the removal of an iodine ion and a cesium ion was evaluated by the following method using each resin film thus obtained and formed from each resin composition of Examples and Comparative Examples of the third present invention and the fourth present invention. (Preparation of Iodine Solution and Cesium Solution for Evaluation Test> An iodine solution for the evaluation test was prepared by dissolving potassium iodide in ion exchanged pure water so that the solution had an iodine ion concentration of 200 mg/L (200 ppm). Moreover, a cesium solution for the evaluation test was prepared by dissolving cesium chloride in ion exchanged pure water so that the solution had a cesium ion concentration of 200 mg/L (200 ppm). In addition, when the iodine ion and the cesium ion can be removed, radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium can be removed naturally. In a mixed solution of 50 ml of the iodine solution prepared for the evaluation test previously and 50 ml of the cesium solution prepared for the evaluation test previously, 20 g of the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 3-1 was immersed (25° C.), and the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were measured by an ion chromatograph (IC2001 manufactured by Tosoh Corporation) every time a predetermined time was elapsed. The measurement results are shown in Table 10. And it was confirmed that, as shown in Table 10, both of the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were decreased every time a predetermined time was elapsed. The removing rates of the iodine ion and the cesium ion in the solution every time a predetermined time is elapsed are listed together with the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration. Moreover, the results are shown in FIG. 4 and FIG. 5. TABLE 10Evaluation results in the case where the resin compositionfilm of Example 3-1 of the third present invention was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—155.344.760.239.8525.174.927.672.41515.384.719.280.82411.188.915.184.9 The iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution every time a predetermined time was elapsed were measured in the same manner as in the case where the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 3-1 was used except that 20 g of the resin film prepared by the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 3-2 was used. The obtained results are shown in Table 11, FIG. 4, and FIG. 5 in the same manner as in the case of Example 3-1 described previously. TABLE 11Evaluation results in the case where the resin compositionfilm of Example 3-2 of the third present invention was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—151.548.551.248.8520.779.320.879.21511.788.313.386.7249.490.610.889.2 The iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution every time a predetermined time was elapsed were measured in the same manner as in the case where the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 3-1 was used except that 20 g of the resin film prepared by the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 3-3 was used. The obtained results are shown in Table 12, FIG. 4, and FIG. 5 in the same manner as in the case of Example 3-1 described previously. TABLE 12Evaluation results in the case where the resin compositionfilm of Example 3-3 of the third present invention was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—148.351.740.259.8517.882.212.387.7159.790.38.191.9246.893.27.892.2 In a mixed solution of 50 ml of the iodine solution prepared for the evaluation test previously and 50 ml of the cesium solution prepared for the evaluation test previously, 20 g of the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-1 was immersed (25° C.), and the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were measured by an ion chromatograph (IC2001 manufactured by Tosoh Corporation) every time a predetermined time was elapsed. The results are shown in Table 13. And it was confirmed that, as shown in Table 13, both of the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were decreased every time a predetermined time was elapsed. The removing rates of the iodine ion and the cesium ion in the solution every time a predetermined time is elapsed are listed together with the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration. Moreover, the results are shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7. TABLE 13Evaluation results in the case where the resin composition filmof Example 4-1 of the fourth present invention was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—168.531.562.737.3538.161.930.169.91523.276.821.878.22419.880.216.883.2 The iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution every time a predetermined time was elapsed were measured in the same manner as in the case where the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-1 was used except that 20 g of the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-2 was used. The obtained results are shown in Table 14, FIG. 6, and FIG. 7 in the same manner as in the case of Example 4-1 described previously. As a result thereof, it was confirmed that both of the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were decreased every time a predetermined time was elapsed also in the case where the hydrophilic resin solution of Example 4-2 was used. TABLE 14Evaluation results in the case where the resin composition filmof Example 4-2 of the fourth present invention was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—160.040.053.146.9530.569.521.978.11516.383.715.284.82414.885.211.888.2 The iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution every time a predetermined time was elapsed were measured in the same manner as in the case where the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-1 was used except that 20 g of the resin film prepared by the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-3 was used. The obtained results are shown in Table 15, FIG. 6, and FIG. 7 in the same manner as in the case of Example 4-1 described previously. As a result thereof, it was confirmed that both of the iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were decreased every time a predetermined time was elapsed also in the case where the hydrophilic resin solution of Example 4-3 was used. TABLE 15Evaluation results in the case where the resin composition filmof Example 4-3 of the fourth present invention was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—152.747.341.958.1522.577.513.186.91512.887.29.091.02410.389.77.292.8 The iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were measured every time a predetermined time was elapsed in the same manner as in the case where the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-1 except that 20 g of the resin film prepared by the non-hydrophilic resin composition of Comparative Example 1b was used. The obtained results are shown in Table 16, FIG. 8, and FIG. 9 in the same manner as in the case of Example 4-1 described previously. As clearly understood from these results, the superiority of the removing performance of the iodine ion and the cesium ion in Examples of the third present invention and the fourth present invention was confirmed. TABLE 16Evaluation results in the case where the resin compositionfilm of Comparative Example 1b was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—198.21.899.10.9598.51.598.71.31597.62.496.51.52497.12.998.41.6 The iodine ion concentration and the cesium ion concentration in the solution were measured every time a predetermined time was elapsed in the same manner as in the case where the resin film prepared using the hydrophilic resin composition of Example 4-1 except that 20 g of a resin film prepared by the non-hydrophilic resin composition of Comparative Example 2b was used. The obtained results are shown in Table 17, FIG. 8, and FIG. 9 in the same manner as in the case of Example 4-1 described previously. As clearly understood from these results, the superiority of the removing performance of the iodine ion and cesium ion in Examples of the third present invention and the fourth present invention was confirmed. TABLE 17Evaluation results in the case where the resin compositionfilm of Comparative Example 2b was usedIodine ionCesium ionImmersionConcentrationRemovingConcentrationRemovingtimein solutionratein solutionrate(Hr)(ppm)(%)(ppm)(%)0100.0—100.0—197.12.998.91.1595.34.798.11.91594.75.397.82.22493.86.297.12.9 As an application example of the first present invention and the second present invention, radioactive cesium in liquid and/or a solid matter can be processed simply and at low cost, furthermore the removing processing of radioactive cesium can be applied without the need for an energy source such as electricity, therefore it becomes possible to remove a radioactive substance present in liquid or a solid matter which radioactive substance has been a problem recently simply and economically by carrying out the novel method for removing radioactive cesium, and thus the utilization can be expected. Particularly, by the technique of the first present invention, the removed radioactive cesium is quickly taken in the first hydrophilic resin composition comprising: a first hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment; and a metal ferrocyanide compound a representative example of which is Prussian blue and can stably be immobilized, furthermore since the main component of the first hydrophilic resin composition is a resin composition, the volume reduction of radioactive waste can be achieved as necessary, therefore the problem that radioactive waste produced after the removing processing of radioactive substances becomes huge can be reduced, the practical value is extremely high, and the utilization can be expected. Moreover, by the second present invention, it becomes possible to realize, in addition to the effect obtained by the above-described first present invention, the water resistance and the blocking resistance (sticking resistance) of the surface brought about by the presence of a polysiloxane segment by introducing the polysiloxane segment in the structure of the second hydrophilic resin having a hydrophilic segment, and therefore the utilization can be expected from the point of realizing the water resistance and the blocking resistance. As an application example of the third present invention and the fourth present invention, radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium in a radioactive waste liquid and/or a radioactive solid matter can be removed simply and at low cost, and furthermore without the need for an energy source such as electricity, therefore it becomes possible to remove radioactive substances present in a mixed state in liquid or a solid matter which radioactive substances have been a problem recently simply and economically by carrying out the novel method for simultaneously removing radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium, and thus the practical value is extremely high. Particularly, by the technique of the third present invention, the removed radioactive iodine and radioactive cesium are taken in the third hydrophilic resin composition comprising: a third hydrophilic resin having a particular structure; and Prussian blue and can stably be immobilized, furthermore since the main component of the third hydrophilic resin composition is a resin composition, the volume reduction of radioactive waste can be achieved as necessary, therefore the problem in large amounts of radioactive waste produced after the removing processing of radioactive substances can be reduced, and the utilization can be expected. Moreover, by the fourth present invention, it becomes possible to realize, in addition to the effect obtained by the above-described third present invention, the water resistance and the blocking resistance (sticking resistance) of the resin surface brought about by the presence of a polysiloxane segment and to improve the practicability in the case where the removing processing is applied using the film or the like by using the fourth hydrophilic resin composition comprising a fourth hydrophilic resin introducing, in addition to a hydrophilic segment and a tertiary amino group forming an ion bond with radioactive iodine, a polysiloxane segment further in the structure thereof, therefore the problem in radioactive waste produced after the removing processing of radioactive substances can be reduced, and the utilization can be expected.
	claims	1. A device for switching/generating X-rays for diagnosis and curing, comprising:an electron beam generation device which accelerates a pulse electron beam to transmit the beam through a predetermined rectilinear orbit;a laser generation device which generates a pulse laser light;a laser light introduction device which introduces the pulse laser light onto the rectilinear orbit so as to collide with the pulse electron beam;a metal target which generates a particular X-ray by collision with the pulse electron beam; anda target moving device which moves the metal target between a collision position on the rectilinear orbit and a retreat position out of the orbit,wherein at the collision position, a collision surface of the metal target is positioned spatially at the same position as a collision point between the pulse electron beam and the pulse laser light,the metal target is positioned at the retreat position, and the pulse electron beam collides head-on with the pulse laser light on the rectilinear orbit to generate a monochromatic hard X-ray for diagnosis,the metal target is positioned at the collision position, and the pulse electron beam collides with the metal target to generate the particular X-ray from the same collision point, andthe X-rays for diagnosis and curing are emitted from the same light source position of the same apparatus. 2. The device for switching/generating the X-rays for diagnosis and curing according to claim 1, wherein the metal target is made of tungsten, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum, silver or an alloy of these metals. 3. The device for switching/generating the X-rays for diagnosis and curing according to claim 1, further comprising:a collimator which is disposed between the collision point and a person being inspected and which controls radiating directions of the monochromatic hard X-ray for diagnosis and the particular X-ray for curing. 4. The device for switching/generating the X-rays for diagnosis and curing according to claim 1, wherein the laser generation device includes a plurality of pulse laser units which generate a plurality of pulse laser beams having different wavelengths;a laser combining optical system which combines the plurality of pulse laser beams on the same optical path; anda laser control unit which controls the plurality of pulse laser units so that the plurality of pulse laser beams have a time difference therebetween. 5. The device for switching/generating the X-rays for diagnosis and curing according to claim 4, further comprising:a profile regulation optical system which regulates a beam profile of the pulse laser light at the collision point on the rectilinear orbit.
	claims	1. A nuclear fuel storage rack comprising a plurality of rack cells configured to house a nuclear fuel assembly,wherein the rack cell comprises a plurality of plate members each of which having a thickness, the plurality of plate members contain a radiation absorption material and form a nuclear fuel housing space configured to house the nuclear fuel assembly, and a fastening mechanism configured to fasten the plurality of plate members,each of the plate members comprises projections protruding outward in a lateral direction from one side end and the other side end, and concave sections formed at the one side end and the other side end by the projections, the one side end and the other side end of the plate members extend in an upward and downward direction,a tip end of the projections and a bottom part of the concave sections are separated with a distance greater than the thickness of the plate members,in a state in which the projections and the concave sections of the plate members which are adjacent to each other are engaged to assemble the plurality of plate members, the projections protruding outward from the outer surfaces of the plate members in the lateral direction, andthe fastening mechanism fastens the projections protruding outward from the outer surfaces of the plate members in the lateral direction with each other,wherein the fastening mechanism comprises a plurality of lash metal jigs and fasteners,wherein each of the lash metal jigs comprises:a first lash plate having a rectangular plate shape, the first lash plate having a first end and a second end;a second lash plate having a rectangular plate shape, the second lash plate having a first end and a second end;a third lash plate having a rectangular plate shape, the third lash plate having a first end and a second end;a fourth lash plate having a rectangular plate shape, the fourth lash plate having a first end and a second end;a first hinge connecting the first end of the first lash plate and the second end of the second lash plate about a first pivot shaft extending in the upward and downward direction;a second hinge connecting the first end of the second lash plate and the second end of the third lash plate about a second pivot shaft extending in the upward and downward direction;a third hinge connecting the first end of the third lash plate and the second end of the fourth lash plate about a third pivot shaft extending in the upward and downward direction,wherein slits are formed in the projections of the plate members,wherein the first lash plate, the second lash plate, the third lash plate, and the fourth lash plate are fitted to the slits of the projections of the plurality of plate members,wherein each of the fasteners connects the second end of the first lash plate and the first end of the fourth lash plate and fastens the projections,wherein the first lash plate and the third lash plate are disposed at a same height position in the upward and downward direction,wherein the second lash plate and the fourth lash plate are disposed at a same height position in the upward and downward direction, andwherein the second lash plate and the fourth lash plate are disposed at a position higher than the first lash plate and the third lash plate. 2. The nuclear fuel storage rack according to claim 1, further comprising a rack body having a plurality of cell insertion holes formed by assembling a plurality of plate members in a lattice shape and longitudinally and laterally arranged in a horizontal direction, andwherein the rack cell is inserted and housed in the cell insertion hole of the rack body. 3. The nuclear fuel storage rack according to claim 1, wherein the rack cells are longitudinally and laterally arranged in the horizontal direction, and the projections of the rack cells which are adjacent to each other are connected.
	abstract	There is provided an electron-beam calibration technology whereby deflection calibration used in the electron-beam system can be performed with a high accuracy. A one-dimensional diffraction grating is located such that direction of the grating becomes parallel to an electron-beam scanning direction. Next, the electron-beam scanning is horizontally performed while displacing the electron-beam scanning in the perpendicular direction so that the electron-beam scanning displacement quantity will coincide with pitch size of the grating. From a secondary-electron signal image acquired, based on the presence or absence of moiré interference fringes, it can be judged whether or not the deflection calibration in the direction perpendicular to the electron-beam scanning has been correctly performed.
	abstract	A method of operating a nuclear power plant includes determining and licensing a maximum power level at which the power plant can be operated subsequent to the beginning of a fuel cycle, and with the power plant being operated at less than its maximum power rating at certain times such as at the beginning of a fuel cycle. The maximum power level is greater than the power level that would be calculated based upon an assumption that the heat flux peaking factor (FQ) and enthalpy rise peaking factor (Fxcex94H) remain at their maximum level throughout an entire fuel cycle. The maximum power rating takes advantage of factors such as known reductions in FQ and Fxcex94H at certain points in the fuel cycle, the marginal additional capacity of the Balance Of Plant, and the occasional optimization of process parameters such as ultimate heat sink temperature and atmospheric conditions. The power plant may be operated at a substantially continuously variable power level based upon various factors of the power plant, but would not exceed the NRC licensed core thermal power level.
	abstract	A fuel assembly includes a bottom nozzle set on a lower core plate of a nuclear reactor, a top nozzle with a hold down spring to urge the bottom nozzle against the lower core plate, guide thimbles which guide control rods, having passed through the top nozzle, toward the lower core plate, a dashpot formed on each of the guide thimbles to reduce the fall velocity of a corresponding one of the control rods, a thimble screw which connects each of the guide thimbles to the bottom nozzle, and a drain hole formed to extend through each of the thimble screw. The dashpot has a large-diameter portion with substantially the same diameter as that of each of the guide thimbles. The diameter d of the drain hole falls within a range of 0.04 D<d<0.08 D where D is an inner diameter of the large-diameter portion.
	summary
	summary
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047626712	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an injection device by which high-pressure fluid is injected into relatively inaccessible portions of various vessel nozzles provided on the side walls of a reactor pressure vessel (hereinbelow abbreviated as an RPV). 2. Discussion of Related Art FIG. 1 shows the construction of a conventional boiling water reactor. In this figure, an RPV 1 accommodates coolant 2 and a core 3. The core 3 is accommodated in a shroud 4, and consists of a plurality of fuel assemblies and control rods (not shown). The top of the shroud 4 is covered by a shroud head 5 above which are arranged steam separators 6 and steam dryer 7. The annular portion inside the RPV 1 and outside the shroud 4 is termed a downcomer 8. The reactor output is controlled by using control rod drive mechanisms 9 to adjust the degree of insertion of the control rods into the reactor core 3. Coolant 2 ascends through the core 3, where it is heated by the nuclear reaction taking place in the core 3. The heated coolant turns into a two-phase fluid consisting of water and steam, and this is fed into the steam separators 6. The steam separated in the steam separators 6 is fed into the steam dryer 7, where it is dried to form dry steam. This dry steam is fed through main steam pipes 10 connected to the RPV 1 to a turbine system (not shown), to generate electricity. After performing work, the steam is fed to a condenser (not shown), where it is condensed to form condensate. This condensate is returned to the RPV 1 from a feed water nozzle 11, through a feed water system (not shown). Furthermore, the water separated by the steam separators 6 etc. flows down through downcomer 8 and is mixed with the feed water before being fed to the bottom of the core 3 by jet pumps 12. A plurality of jet pumps 12 are arranged in the downcomer 8 and are equally spaced in the circumferential direction. A recirculation pump (not shown) is provided outside the RPV 1 and the recirculation system piping (not shown) is arranged between this recirculation pump and the jet pumps 12. The coolant is circulated in the core 3 by means of these jet pumps 12, the recirculation pump, and recirculation system piping (not shown). Reference numeral 13 in the drawings refers to recirculation inlet nozzles provided in the RPV 1. Riser pipes 14 of the jet pumps are connected on the inside of these recirculation inlet nozzles 13 through thermal sleeves 15 (FIG. 2). At the top end of the riser pipes 14 are connected branch pipes 16, from which the jet pump drive flow is supplied to the jet pumps 12. The outer ends of the thermal sleeves 15 are welded to the inside faces of the recirculation inlet nozzles 13. Annular gaps 17 are formed between the outside faces of the thermal sleeves 15 and the inside faces of the recirculation inlet nozzles 13. Over many years of operation of the reactor, radioactive substances collect in these annular gaps 17. There is, therefore, concern that workers will be exposed to this accumulation of radioactive substances when non-destructive inspection is carried out from outside the RPV 1 during periodic inspection of the reactor. It is therefore desirable to flush this radioactive substance from the gaps 17 prior to inspection. However, the recirculation inlet nozzles 13 are positioned at the lower part of the RPV 1. Because of this, when the reactor is shut down, the operation of washing away this accumulation by removing the RPV cap 18 and flushing with high-pressure water using a pipe lowered from the top of the RPV 1 is very difficult. In particular, this operation is made even more difficult by the fact that, as shown in FIG. 2, riser braces 19 for fixing the riser pipes 14 to the RPV 1 and the brackets 20 for mounting samples for examination of the effect produced by neutron irradiation of materials are mounted in the downcomer 8. Realization of a device to ensure a satisfactory flow of high pressure water for removal of this accumulation of radioactive substances is therefore required. Coupling of recirculation inlet nozzles 13 and recirculation pipes 190 (shown by a chain-dotted line in FIG. 2) is performed by means of "safe-ends" 20a. Following prolonged operation, stress corrosion cracking may occur at the welds 21 of these safe-ends 20a and recirculation inlet nozzles 13. If such SCC should occur, in the known construction, replacement of safe-ends 20a is extremely difficult. Induction heating stress improvement (hereinbelow abbreviated as IHSI) is therefore carried out to convert the residual stresses in these welds 21 from tensile to compressive stresses. In such IHSI, a coil is wound round the outside of the welds and heating is performed by flowing high frequency electrical current through the coil while feeding cooling water into the annular gaps 17. This produces a temperature difference which gives rise to heat stress between the internal and external surfaces, the heat stress exceeding the yield point and thereby producing compressive residual heat stress at the internal surfaces in the neighborhood of the welds. Thus the introduction of high-pressure water to the inside of the nozzles 13 is required not only to remove the radioactive substances, as already mentioned, but also as cooling water during such induction heating. The above description has been given with reference to the recirculation inlet nozzles, but the realization of an injection device as described above is also required for jet pump instrumentation nozzles 22 at the lower part of downcomer 8, as shown in FIG. 1. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of this invention is to provide an injection device that is capable of removal, during routine inspection of the reactor, of the accumulation of radioactive substances on the inside of the various vessel nozzles that are provided in the side wall of the reactor pressure vessel, and to create an effective flow of coolant while the operation of induction heating stress improvement is being performed on the vessel nozzles. According to the invention, the injection device for injecting high-pressure fluid into an arcuate gap between a nozzle and a side wall of a reactor pressure vessel and an internal piping arranged within the nozzle, comprises a casing, means for suspending the casing in the reactor vessel from a position above the reactor vessel whereby the casing can be positioned adjacent to the gap, at least one injection nozzle in the casing, means for supplying high-pressure fluid to the at least one injection nozzle, means for sensing when the at least one injection nozzle is positioned such that high-pressure fluid therefrom may be injected into the gap, and means for selectively fixing the casing to the reactor vessel .
050376063	claims	1. A nuclear fuel particle comprising a core of generally spheroidal shape containing fissile or fertile nuclear fuel material and having a diameter not greater than about 1,000 microns, a buffer layer of low density pyrocarbon in surrounding location to said core, fission-product-retentive means surrounding said buffer layer designed to retain fission products therewithin and having an exterior surface formed of a material having a density equal to at least about 80% of theoretical density, and a protective overcoating disposed exterior of said fission-product-retentive means and in surrounding relation thereto and having a density not greater than about sixty percent of its theoretical maximum density, said diameter of the nuclear fuel particle including said protective overcoating being not greater than about 5 millimeters, whereby said protective overcoating mechanically protects said relatively fragile fission-product-retentive means from stress encountered during fabricating solid nuclear fuel compacts from said overcoated particles by the uniting of such overcoated particles into integral masses using a hardenable flowable binder. forming fission-product-retentive nuclear fuel particles by coating spheroidal cores of fissile or fertile nuclear fuel material with a plurality of surrounding layers which constitute fission-product-retention means that will retain substantially all fission products generated therewithin throughout burnup up to about 30 percent of the fissile atoms present in said cores, a region at the outer surface of said fission-product-retention means having a density of at least about 80% of its theoretical maximum density, overcoating said fission-product-retention means with a layer of relatively porous material by depositing onto said dense outer surface at least about 20 microns of a protective material having a density of not greater than about 60% of its maximum theoretical density, combining precise amounts of said overcoated nuclear fuel particles and a flowable, hardenable binder under pressure in a mold of desired shape, said overcoated nuclear fuel particles being loaded into said mold and then subjected to pressure to pre-compact them prior to said binder being injected into the interstices of said pre-compacted overcoated nuclear fuel particles under pressure, and hardening said binder which is a mixture of petroleum pitch and graphite flour by heating said combination of overcoated particles and binder to a temperature of at least about 1000.degree. C. to create a nuclear fuel compact of desired fuel loading wherein substantially all of said fission-product-retention means remain intact and unfractured. 2. A nuclear fuel particle according to claim 1 wherein said protective overcoating is made of isotropic pyrocarbon having a density between about 1.0 and about 1.3 g/cm.sup.3. 3. A nuclear fuel particle in accordance with claim 1 wherein said spheroidal core contains uranium oxide, uranium carbide or a mixture thereof and has a diameter not greater than about 550 microns and wherein the outer diameter of said protective overcoating is not greater than about 1200 microns. 4. A nuclear fuel particle in accordance with claim 2 wherein the thickness of said overcoating is between about 20 microns and about 70 microns. 5. A nuclear fuel particle comprising a core of generally spheroidal shape containing fissile or fertile nuclear fuel material, a buffer layer of low density pyrocarbon in surrounding location to said core, fission-product-retentive means surrounding said buffer layer designed to retain fission products therewithin, and a protective overcoating of relatively porous aluminum oxide disposed exterior of said fission-product-retentive means and in surrounding relation thereto and having a density not greater than about sixty percent of its theoretical maximum density whereby said protective overcoating mechanically protects said relatively fragile fission-product-retentive means from stress encountered during fabricating solid nuclear fuel compacts from said overcoated particles by the uniting of such overcoated particles into integral masses using a hardenable flowable binder. 6. A nuclear fuel particle in accordance with claim 5 wherein said aluminum oxide has a density between about 1.5 and about 2.0 g/cm.sup.3. 7. A nuclear fuel particle in accordance with claim 1 wherein said spheroidal core contains thorium oxide, or thorium carbide, or a mixture of thorium carbide and thorium oxide, or a mixture of thorium oxide and uranium oxide and has a diameter not greater than 650 microns and wherein the outer diameter of said overcoating is not greater than about 1300 microns. 8. A method of making nuclear fuel compacts, which method comprises 9. A method in accordance with claim 8 wherein said heating is carried out at a temperature of about 2100.degree. C. or below. 10. A method in accordance with claim 8 wherein said pre-compacting is carried out at a pressure of between about 100 psig and about 600 psig. 11. A method in accordance with claim 8 wherein said flowable binder is injected under a pressure of at least about 600 psig.
	description	The present invention relates to an electrolytic apparatus for use in an oxide electrowinning method in which apparatus plural types of anodes and at least one common cathode are provided, and the control of the electrodeposit is made to be efficiently carried out by using a pair of one of the anodes with the cathode for main electrolysis and a pair of the one or more remaining anodes with the cathode for auxiliary electrolysis. This technique is useful for the electrolytic system in the oxide electrowinning method, among the nonaqueous reprocessing methods with a molten salt electrolytic technique for spent nuclear fuels. Research has been performed on a system to achieve the improvement of the economical efficiency of a whole recycling system in which uranium and plutonium are recovered by utilizing a molten salt electrolytic technique as a reprocessing technique for recycling of spent nuclear fuels used in nuclear reactors. The molten salt electrolytic technique is expected to be high in economical efficiency. (See, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Specification No. 2001-141879.) The relevant electrolytic techniques include an oxide electrowinning method and a metal electrorefining method. When the chemical forms of uranium and plutonium in the electrodeposit are oxides, the oxide electrowinning method is employed. The oxide electrowinning method is to recover oxides of uranium and plutonium through a simultaneous electrolytic step, a dissolution step by chlorination and a MOX recovery step. In this method, the spent nuclear fuel is first placed in the bottom portion of a crucible doubling as an anode, and then electrolysis is carried out between the anode and a cathode installed in an upper portion of the crucible. By this operation, uranium oxide contained in a large amount in the spent nuclear fuel is dissolved into the molten salt due to anodic oxidation, and simultaneously recovered by depositing uranium oxide on the surface of the cathode due to cathodic reduction (a simultaneous electrolytic step). Thereafter, the electrolytic operation is stopped, and uranium oxide, plutonium oxide and other elements remaining in the spent nuclear fuel are dissolved into the molten salt by blowing chlorine gas into the molten salt to convert them to chlorides thereof (a dissolution step by chlorination). After the whole spent nuclear fuel has been dissolved into the molten salt, electrolysis is carried out between the anode doubling as the crucible and the cathode installed in the upper portion of the crucible, and the oxides of uranium and plutonium are recovered by depositing the oxides in a mixed state on the surface of the cathode (a MOX recovery step). The reactions involved in the respective steps are shown below: a simultaneous electrolytic step:UO2→UO22+ (anodic reaction)UO22+→UO2 (cathodic reaction) a dissolution step by chlorination:UO2+Cl2→UO2Cl2PuO2+C+2Cl2→PuCl4+CO2 a MOX recovery step:UO2Cl2→UO2+Cl2 (cathodic reaction)PuCl4+O2→PuO2+2Cl2 (cathodic reaction) As described above, in the conventional technique, a constitution is adopted such that the crucible containing the substance to be treated doubles as the anode, the cathode is installed in the molten salt, and electrolysis is carried out between the anode (the crucible) and the cathode. Alternatively, there is another constitution such that the anode and cathode are installed in the crucible and electrolysis is carried out therebetween. However, such a conventional technique as described above has suffered from the following problems to be solved. When the crucible doubles as the anode, in the steps other than the simultaneous electrolytic step, the distance between the anode and the cathode is uniformly maintained to be uniform and hence the current density is uniform, so that the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit hardly takes place; on the contrary, in the simultaneous electrolytic step, the spent nuclear fuel placed in the bottom of the crucible functions as the anode, so that the distance between the electrodes is not maintained constant. Consequently, the current density distribution on the surface of the cathode becomes ununiform, resulting in the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit. Further, the distance between the lower end of the cathode and the surface of the spent nuclear fuel becomes shorter, the current density around the lower end of the cathode is thereby increased and accordingly the electrodeposit is concentrated around the lower end of the cathode, so that when stirring is not sufficiently conducted, the ions in the bulk region become insufficient and the processing speed is degraded. Additionally, because the environment involved is highly corrosive owing to the use of chlorine gas, a material prepared by coating (with vapor deposition) graphite blank with pyrographite excellent in corrosion resistance is used as the material for the crucible doubling as the anode. However, because of the operation condition, such as high temperature molten salt and chlorine gas conditions, the operation life time of the crucible is in the order of 1,000 hours. Consequently, the crucible needs to be replaced at frequent intervals, leading to the decreasing of the processing speed. Furthermore, it is conceivable that the electrolytic apparatus can be made larger in size as a measure for improving the processing speed. However, it is difficult to make a crucible made of pyrographite larger in size from the viewpoint of product fabrication. Even when the constitution is such that the anode and cathode are installed in the crucible, the distance between the electrodes are not uniform, and hence the current density distribution on the cathode surface becomes ununiform, and the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit takes place. The bonding force between uranium oxide and plutonium oxide deposited as the forms of oxides and the surface of the electrodes are lower than the bonding force for the metallic state as in plating and the like. Consequently, in the conventional technique, in any case where the electrodeposit is concentrated in a particular portion, the possibility that the electrodeposit falls down from the surface of the cathodes during the electrolytic operation becomes high owing to the stirring effect of the various process gases blown into the molten salt. Additionally, in view of the prevention of the criticality, it can hardly be an appropriate countermeasure to simply make the electrolytic apparatus larger in size. An object of the present invention is to provide an electrolytic apparatus for use in an oxide electrowinning method which apparatus can prevent the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit. Another object of the present invention is to provide an electrolytic apparatus which can achieve the improvement of the processing speed and the improvement of the durability of the crucible, and can carry out the recycling of spent nuclear fuels in a commercial scale on the basis of the nonaqueous reprocessing method. According to the present invention, there is provided an electrolytic apparatus for use in an oxide electrowinning method, the apparatus comprising a plurality of anodes different from each other in shape and arrangement and at least one common cathode installed in an electrolytic vessel, wherein a pair of one of the anodes and the cathode is used for main electrolysis and a pair of the one or more remaining anodes and the cathode is used for auxiliary electrolysis. Additionally, there is provided an electrolytic apparatus for use in an oxide electrowinning method, the apparatus comprising an annular electrolytic vessel made of a metallic material and designed in consideration of criticality control with geometrical control, a high frequency induction coil for heating a substance to be processed in said electrolytic vessel, an annular anode installed at the bottom of an annular space formed in the annular electrolytic vessel, and rod-shaped anodes and rod-shaped cathodes installed along the axial direction in the annular space, wherein a parallel pair of the rod-shaped anodes and the rod-shaped cathodes arranged in parallel or a vertical pair of the annular anode and the rod-shaped cathodes arranged vertically is used for main electrolysis and the other of the pairs is used for auxiliary electrolysis. A typical example of the parallel pair of electrodes is a constitution of alternately arranged electrodes in which the anodes and cathodes are alternately arranged. As for these arrangements, a constitution is preferable wherein the rod-shaped cathodes are supported rotatably and a rotation driving mechanism is additionally installed, and the cathodes are continuously rotated during electrolytic operation. Additionally, the present invention is a spent nuclear fuel reprocessing method with an oxide electrowinning method by using such an electrolytic apparatus as described above, wherein the substance to be processed in the annular electrolytic vessel is a molten salt dissolving the spent nuclear fuel, and wherein in a simultaneous electrolytic step in which uranium oxide contained in the spent nuclear fuel is dissolved into the molten salt by anodic oxidation reaction and simultaneously recovered as uranium oxide electrodeposition on the surface of the cathode by cathodic reduction reaction, the vertical pair of the electrodes is used for main electrolysis in which uranium oxide is dissolved and deposited by electrochemical reaction, and the parallel pair of the electrodes is used for auxiliary electrolysis whose role is to suppress the ununiform uranium oxide electrodeposition; and in a MOX recovery step in which the oxides of uranium and plutonium are deposited and recovered in a mixed state, the parallel pair of the electrodes is used for main electrolysis in which MOX is deposited, and the vertical pair of the electrodes is used for auxiliary electrolysis whose role is to dissolve the electrodeposit fallen down from the cathodes. A conceptual diagram illustrating an electrolytic apparatus for an oxide electrowinning method according to the present invention is shown in FIG. 1. The constitution of the electrolytic apparatus is such that in the interior of an electrolytic vessel 10, a common cathode 12 and two types of anodes different in shape and arrangement (here, a first anode 14 arranged beneath the cathode 12, and a second anode 16 arranged side by side with the cathode 12) are arranged, a first electrolysis controller 18 is connected between the cathode 12 and the first anode 14, and a second electrolysis controller 20 is connected between the cathode 12 and the second anode 16. The cathode, the first anode and the second anode may be composed of one or more members, respectively. The pair of the cathode and one of the anodes is used for the main electrolysis, and the pair of the cathode and the other of the anodes is used for the auxiliary electrolysis, and thus the substance 22 to be processed in the electrolytic vessel is subjected to electrolytic processing. Either the main electrolysis or the auxiliary electrolysis can be properly applied depending on the electrolytic steps. For example, in a simultaneous electrolytic step, the vertically arranged electrodes (the vertical pair of the cathode 12 and the first anode 14) are used for the main electrolysis, and the parallel arranged electrodes (the parallel pair of the cathode 12 and the second anode 16) are used for the auxiliary electrolysis. In a MOX recovery step, on the contrary, the parallel arranged electrodes are used for the main electrolysis and the vertically arranged electrodes are used for the auxiliary electrolysis. FIGS. 2A and 2B are sectional views illustrating an example of the electrolytic apparatus for the oxide electrowinning method according to the present invention, in which FIG. 2A is a transverse sectional view and FIG. 2B is a longitudinal sectional view. FIG. 3 is an explanatory diagram illustrating the electrode arrangement in the apparatus shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B. This is an electrolytic apparatus for use in an oxide electrowinning method for recovering uranium and plutonium on the basis of the nonaqueous reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels utilizing a molten salt electrolytic technique. In this example, an annular electrolytic vessel is adopted in consideration of criticality control with geometrical control. The annular electrolytic vessel 30 comprises an outer crucible 32 and an inner crucible 33 which are concentrically installed, and a substance 34 to be processed (a molten salt dissolving spent nuclear fuels) is placed in an annular space formed by these crucibles. A high frequency induction coil 36 for heating the substance to be processed is installed outside the annular electrolytic vessel 30. The configuration of each of the outer crucible 32 and the inner crucible 33 is such that a coolant channel 38 is provided in the interior thereof, and the coolant is made to circulate through a coolant port opening 39, and thus the outer and inner crucibles are compulsorily cooled. As a result of the criticality calculation, the thickness of the annular space, in which the substance to be processed is placed, estimated from the viewpoint of safety is approximately 16 cm. The depth of the molten salt is needed to be 1 m or more for the purpose of affording the processing ability of the order of 50 tHM/y per apparatus. Accordingly, in the evaluation of the feasibility of the electrolytic apparatus concerned, the investigation of the optimal electrode shapes and arrangement is an important problem. In this electrolytic apparatus, it is necessary to exactly maintain the crucible dimension so as to prevent the criticality, and hence the corrosion resistance equal to or higher than the corrosion resistance of the crucible made of pyrographite is required. Accordingly, the corrosion resistance of the crucible material is improved by adopting such a cold crucible type high frequency induction heating method as described above, and a metallic material excellent in fabricability is adopted for the crucible material for the purpose of improving the processing speed through making the apparatus larger in size. For example, the most suitable metallic material is Hastelloy-C (trade name) which is a nickel based superalloy. In this example, an annular anode 40 is installed at the bottom of the annular space, and rod-shaped anodes 41 and rod-shaped cathodes 42 are alternately inserted from the upper portion and arranged in the annular space. The electrode pairs of the rod-shaped anodes 41 and the rod-shaped cathodes 42 (referred to as “alternately arranged electrodes”) and the electrode pairs of the annular anode 40 and the rod-shaped cathodes 42 (referred to as “vertically arranged electrodes”) are formed, respectively, and one of these electrode pairs is used for the main electrolysis and the other of these electrode pairs is used for the auxiliary electrolysis. For the annular anode 40, rod-shaped anodes 41 and rod-shaped cathodes 42, a material prepared, for example, by coating (with vapor deposition) the surface of graphite with pyrographite is most suitable, from the viewpoint of the corrosion resistance. For the sake of easy understanding of the figure, the annular anode is omitted in FIGS. 2A and 2B, and the coolant channels in the crucible are omitted in FIG. 3. A cylindrical neutron absorber (for example, B4C) 44 is installed inside the inner crucible 33. In the annular space, gas pipes 46 are longitudinally inserted and installed in parallel with the rod-shape electrodes. The substance to be processed is a molten salt dissolving spent nuclear fuels, and as the molten salt, for example, a mixture in a molar ratio of 1:2 of sodium chloride (NaCl) and cesium chloride (CsCl) is used. In the simultaneous electrolytic step, the vertically arranged electrodes are used for the main electrolysis, and the alternately arranged electrodes are used for the auxiliary electrode. In this way, uranium oxide in the fuel is efficiently subjected to anodic dissolution into the molten salt by means of the vertically arranged electrodes, and simultaneously the current density concentration in the ends of the cathodes is suppressed by means of the alternately arranged electrodes to thereby deposit uranium oxide ions dissolved in the molten salt all over the surface of the cathodes. In the MOX recovery step (a step of recovering uranium oxide and a step of recovering oxides of uranium and plutonium), on the contrary, the alternately arranged electrodes are used for the main electrolysis and the vertically arranged electrodes are used for the auxiliary electrolysis. In this way, by means of the alternately arranged electrodes, uranium oxide ions and plutonium oxide ions dissolved in the molten salt can be deposited uniformly on the surface of the cathodes. Additionally, when the electrodeposit falls down from the surface of the cathodes owing to the stirring effect due to the process gas and the like, the fallen-down uranium oxide can be subjected to anodic dissolution by means of the vertically arranged electrodes, and the fallen-down plutonium oxide can be dissolved by chlorination with the aid of the chlorine gas generated by the anodic reaction. In the above described example, the rod-shaped cathodes and the rod-shaped anodes are alternately arranged. However, there may be employed a constitution wherein a unit is formed in such a way that two rod-shaped anodes are arranged on both sides of a rod-shaped cathode, and a plurality of such units are arranged. In the above described example, the rod-shaped cathodes are not being rotated, but a constitution with added rotation driving mechanism is also effective. When the rotating function is added to the cathodes, there can be obtained an effect such that the ununiformity of the current density distribution on the surface of the electrodes is suppressed and accordingly the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit is prevented. Additionally, the rotating function leads to stirring of the molten salt, and thus there can be expected an effect such that the ununiformity of the element concentration distribution in the molten salt which is considered as a possible factor causing the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit, is suppressed. Now, description will be made on the results of an electrolytic test carried out by using two sets of electrode pairs different from each other in shape and arrangement. The outline of the test apparatus is shown in FIG. 4, the test conditions are shown in Table 1, and the test results are shown in FIG. 5. The test apparatus employed has a constitution such that a common cylindrical cathode 52 and two cylindrical anodes 53 situated respectively on both sides of the common cathode are inserted from the upper portion and installed in the interior of a box-shaped electrolytic vessel 50; a rectangular parallelepiped anode 54 is arranged at the bottom of the electrolytic vessel 50; and an electrolysis controller 56 for the main electrolysis is connected between the cylindrical cathode 52 and the rectangular parallelepiped anode 54, and an electrolysis controller 57 for the auxiliary electrolysis is connected between the cylindrical cathode 52 and the two cylindrical anodes 53. This constitution corresponds to a simulation of the annular electrolytic apparatus obtained by simplifying in such a way that parts of the alternately arranged electrodes installed annularly and the vertically arranged electrodes are cut off and the overall shape of the electrodes is extended from a curved shape into a box shape from the operational viewpoint. TABLE 1ElectrolyteCopper sulfate solutionElectrolyte compositionCopper conc.: 50 g/LSulfuric acid conc.: 150 g/LElectrolysis time2 to 4 hrCathode current density300 A/m2Cathode immersion depth65 cmCathode rotationNot appliedDistance between cathode and anode11 cmfor main electrolysisDistance between cathode and anodes 3 cmfor auxiliary electrolysis For the convenience of the test, a copper sulfate solution was employed as the electrolyte. A test was carried out with as a parameter the ratio between the main electrolysis and the auxiliary electrolysis (the ratio of electricity quantity), and as shown in FIG. 5, the effect of preventing the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit due to the auxiliary electrolysis was able to be confirmed. Under the conditions such that no auxiliary electrolysis is applied, the electrodeposit is concentrated around the bottom portion of the cathode, namely, around the portion close to the rectangular parallelepiped anode. However, the auxiliary electrolysis is additionally applied by providing the alternately arranged cylindrical anodes, the thickness of the electrodeposit around the bottom portion of the cathode becomes thinner, and simultaneously the thickness of the electrodeposit in the upper portion of the cathode is increased. This is because the addition of the auxiliary electrolysis alleviates the concentration of the electrodeposit around the bottom portion of the cathode. In a test of the copper electrodeposition in which this test apparatus was used and a copper sulfate solution was utilized, when the electricity quantity ratio of the main electrolysis to the auxiliary electrolysis was set to be 3:2, there was obtained a result such that the ununiformity in the electrodeposit distribution with respect to the distance from the bottom of the cathode was able to be suppressed most satisfactorily. Now, description will be made below on the test results of the effect of preventing the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit due to the rotation of the cathode. The outline of the test apparatus is shown in FIG. 6, the test conditions are shown in Table 2, and the test results are shown in FIG. 7. The test apparatus has a structure such that a cylindrical cathode 64 and a cylindrical anode 66 are inserted and installed in a crucible 62 housed in a protection vessel 60, and the molten salt in the crucible 62 is heated with a resistance heater 68. A rotation driving device 70 is attached to the cylindrical cathode 64, and rotating function is applied to the cathode. An electrolysis controller 72 was connected between the cylindrical cathode 64 and the cylindrical anode 66, and the electrolysis of the molten salt was carried out. TABLE 2ElectrolyteMolten saltElectrolyte compositionBase salts: NaCl-2CsCl, 10 kgDeposition substance: AgCl, 140 g/LElectrolysis time1 hrCathode current density400 A/m2Cathode immersion depth7 cmAnode immersion depth5 cmDistance between cathode and7 cmanodeCathode rotationApplied at 60 rpm or not applied In this test apparatus, the cathode 64 and the anode 66 are arranged side by side, and hence the distance between the cathode and the anode varies depending on the particular portions on the surfaces thereof; thus, the current density on the cathode surface tends to be concentrated on the side of the cathode facing to the anode. Under the condition such that the cathode is not being rotated, the current density on the side of the cathode facing to the anode is increased, and accordingly the electrodeposit is concentrated and deposited thicker on the side of the cathode facing to the anode. On the contrary, when the cathode is being rotated, the instantaneous distances between the respective portions of the cathode surface and the anode are different, but an apparent average distance therebetween is identical for any portion of the cathode surface. Accordingly, the current density on the cathode surface becomes uniform, and the thickness of the electrodeposit is thereby made uniform. As can be seen from FIG. 7, the effect of preventing the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit due to the rotation of the cathode has been confirmed. Incidentally, in the case “with cathode rotation” in FIG. 7, the cathode is rotated at 60 rpm during electrolytic operation. As described above, the present invention is an electrolytic apparatus for an oxide electrowinning method in which apparatus a plurality of anodes different from each other in shape and arrangement and at least one common cathode are installed in an electrolytic vessel, a pair of one of the anodes and the cathode is used for main electrolysis, and a pair of the one or more remaining anodes and the cathode is used for auxiliary electrolysis; thus, the present invention can suppress the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit on the bottom portion of the cathode, which is concerned about in a commercial-scale electrolytic apparatus with large electrodes. Additionally, the adoption of the criticality control method with the geometrical control and the adoption of a cold crucible type high frequency induction heating method make it possible to use a crucible made of metal. Accordingly, it becomes possible to make the electrolytic apparatus larger in scale, the electrolytic processing can be based on either a batch method or a continuous method, and therefore, the processing speed is drastically improved. Additionally, in the criticality control method with the geometrical control, the quantities of the nuclear substances need not be determined at every step, and hence the operation time of the electrolytic apparatus can be reduced. Furthermore, the adoption of the cathode with rotating function uniformizes the apparent distance between the cathodes and the anodes in the constitution of the “parallel arranged electrodes”, and hence it becomes possible to uniformize the thickness of the electrodeposit to an extreme extent. Additionally, in the constitution of the “vertically arranged electrodes”, the substance to be processed is stirred by the rotation of the cathodes, and hence there is expected an effect of suppressing the ununiformity in the distribution of concentration in the substance to be processed, so that the effect of preventing the ununiform distribution of the electrodeposit is actualized in contrast to the nonrotating condition. Additionally, when the electrodeposit falls down from the cathode, it is dissolved by oxidation reaction on the anode arranged in the lower location composing the “vertically arranged electrodes” and by chlorination due to the chlorine gas generated on the anode, whereby the fallen-down electrodeposit can be efficiently dissolved and the sedimentation of the electrodeposit can be prevented.
050193279	description	DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to the drawing, FIG. 1 in particular, a typical liquid metal cooled, pool type nuclear reactor plant 10, comprises a reactor vessel 12 having an open top and side and bottom walls without any penetrations passing therethrough. A fuel core 14 containing heat producing fissionable fuel comprising oxides of uranium, plutonium and/or thorium, is located in the lower portion of vessel 12, supported on a fuel core support structure 16. The fissionable fuel material of the core is enclosed within sealed tubes which are grouped and assembled into units or fuel assemblies 18. A liquid metal coolant 20, such as sodium metal, substantially fills the reactor vessel 12, forming the coolant pool with the fuel core 14 submerged therein. The liquid metal coolant is circulated by means of a pump (not shown) through a circuit including the heat generating fuel core 14 and a heat exchanger (not shown) to transfer the heat from the core to a means for its consumption such as steam turbine generators (not shown). The reactor vessel 12 is provided with a cover member 22 to close the vessel and to contain and isolate its contents including the fissionable fuel material and radioactive fission products along with the liquid metal coolant 20 from the outside atmosphere. The cover member 22 includes both at least one access opening for the introduction or removal of fuel units and maintenance tools, and at least one revolving section 24 to enable greater versatility and maneuverability for implements passing therethrough for operations within the reactor vessel. A gaseous blanket of an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon is provided over the pool of liquid metal coolant forming a gaseous barrier precluding contact of the coolant with the external atmosphere and foreign matter and in turn its contamination or any deleterious reactions. As illustrated in FIG. 2 of the drawing, a conventional type of fuel assembly 18 for liquid metal cooled, pool nuclear reactors, comprises a multiplicity of sealed tubes containing fuel which are grouped into an assembly having an angular cross-section 26 such as hexagonal. The lower end of the fuel assembly 18 is provided with a generally conical portion and projection 28 to facilitate mounting into openings of a support structure. The upper end of the fuel assembly comprises a cylindrical intermediate portion 30 of relatively reduced diameter and an uppermost end portion comprising a transverse annular flange 32 of an angular cross-section such as hexagonal. The upper end structure of the fuel assemble facilitates both securing and aligning the unit in either the fuel core or storage racks. A typical in-vessel transfer device 34 for moving fuel assemblies 18 within the vessel of a liquid metal cooled, pool nuclear reactor comprises a vertical support structure 36 or shaft which penetrates down through the vessel cover member 22 into vessel 12, and is provided with a gripping mechanism 38 at its lower portion within the vessel for securely grasping and holding a fuel assembly 18 for transfer. The vertical support structure 36 normally extends through a rotatable section of cover number 22 whereby an operator from above the reactor vessel 12 can manipulate the gripping mechanism 38 within the vessel 12 over a broad area including the fuel core. In a preferred arrangement the gripping mechanism 38 is mounted on a pantographic type system which is mounted on the vertical support structure 36 whereby it provides greater flexibility in its capacity to reach or extend over the area above the fuel core. In accordance with this invention, a fuel assembly transfer device 40, suspended on a support member 42 passing through a port in the reactor vessel cover 22, comprises a basket unit 44 having an intermediate body section 46 provided by a hollow cylinder or other encircling housing. Cylindrical housing 46 is provided with an elongated side access port 48 of an apt configuration and area for passing therethrough of a fuel assembly 18. The transfer basket 44 comprises a lower end annular base member 50 having a conical shaped central opening 52 for receiving and securely seating the conical portion 28 and projection of a conventional fuel assembly 18. An upper end of the transfer basket 44 also comprises a semicircular cap member 54 having a central opening 56 extending vertically therethrough and with the gap 58 of the semicircular cap member 54 aligned with and corresponding to the side access port 48 of the intermediate body section 46. The central opening 56 extending vertically through upper end semicircular cap member 54 is provided with an upper semi-annular downward sloping surface 60 directed towards the central opening 56, and an adjoining intermediate portion 62 having an angular peripheral edge 64 or vertical wall portion surrounding the central opening 56. Adjoining the lower side of the intermediate portion 62 is a semicircular portion 66 of relatively reduced diameter. In a preferred embodiment of this invention the basket unit 4 of the transfer device 40 is suspended and vertically moved by a support member 42 comprising an extendable tape such as a bi-stem drive tape which extends down through a port in the reactor cover member 24. With this arrangement of the transfer basket 44, a fuel assembly unit 18 can be securely mounted and carried within the side loading basket 44 for transfer. This is effected by means of laterally introducing the conical portion 28 and projection of the fuel assembly into the conical shaped central opening 52 of the annular base member 50, and the upper annular flange 32 of the fuel assembly into the sloping downward central opening 56 and dropping down into and seating into the adjoining intermediate portion 62. New fuel assemblies 18 for refueling the reactor fuel core 14 are introduced into the reactor vessel 12 passing through a port in the vessel cover member 22 while retained and carried within the transfer basket 44. Then the in-vessel transfer device 34 takes the fuel assembly 18 from the transfer basket 44 within the vessel and either places it within the fuel core 14, or positions it in a storage rack 68 such as shown mounted on the fuel core support structure 16 for temporary keeping. The reverse procedure is employed for removing spent fuel assemblies 18 from the fuel core 14, and their disposal from the reactor vessel 12. As is apparent, the transfer of a fuel assembly to the novel side loading transfer basket 44 of this invention significantly reduces the distance of vertical travel for the in-vessel transfer device 34 in handling and manipulating a fuel assembly. This decreases the travel distance of the in-vessel transfer device and reduces the costly path time required for a refueling outage a significant amount. Moreover, the side loading transfer basket reduces the in-vessel transfer device duty cycles which provides a substantial improvement in the device's reliability and service life. Also, the consequences of mishandling and dropping a fuel assembly due to a malfunction of the in-vessel transfer device are minimized with the side loading transfer basket of the invention because of the substantially shorter falling distance of any dropped fuel assemblies. And in the event of an in-vessel transfer device drive failure while transferring a fuel assembly, the side loading transfer basket of this invention can assist in recovering a fuel assembly by being raised or lowered to any elevation corresponding to an immobilized fuel assembly whereby the fuel assembly can be transferred from the in-vessel transfer device to the side loading transfer basket utilizing normal procedures.
	claims	1. A monochromator for charged particle optics or for electron microscopy, the charged particles emanating from a radiation source disposed upstream of the monochromator, the radiation source having an image into which the charged particles virtually enter at a first angle with respect to an optical axis in a first plane and at a second angle with respect to the optical axis in a second plane, the monochromator comprising:a selection aperture having a selection aperture plane;at least one first deflection element disposed upstream of said selection aperture and having first electrodes generating a first electrostatic deflecting field, said first deflecting field producing a dispersion of the charged particles in the selection aperture plane for selecting charge particles of a desired energy interval; andat least one second deflection element disposed downstream of said selection aperture and having second electrodes generating a second electrostatic deflection field which eliminates the dispersion of said at least one first deflecting field, said first and said second deflection elements having a design other than spherically shaped, wherein potentials applied to said first and said second electrodes cause charged particles which virtually enter the image of the radiation source at respective first angles in the first plane to be differently focused than charged particles which virtually enter the image of the radiation source at respective second angles in the second plane, with charged particles of one energy being point focused exclusively in said selection aperture plane, wherein zero-crossings of deflections of the charged particles in the first and the second planes only coincide at a same axial position at said selection aperture plane. 2. The monochromator of claim 1, wherein said first and said second deflecting fields are designed in such a fashion that there are no further focuses in the monochromator except for the zero-crossings of the deflections of the charged particles in the first and the second planes at said selection aperture plane. 3. The monochromator of claim 1, wherein said first and said second deflection elements are designed in such a fashion that said first and said second deflecting fields cause reversal points in deflections of the charged particles in an x direction extending within said first plane with intermediate zero-crossings through the optical axis of the deflection path, said first and said second deflecting fields only causing changes of path curvatures having one single zero-crossing through the optical axis in the area of said selection aperture in a y direction extending perpendicularly to the x direction within said second plane. 4. The monochromator of claim 3, wherein said first and said second electrodes are substantially designed as sections of toroids, whose surfaces extend symmetrically to an xz plane in a coordinate system which is orthogonal and curved along a z axis and in which the z axis corresponds to the optical axis of the monochromator, have same separations from the z axis at any location thereon, and have a shape in an xy plane which differs from straight lines, such that dipoles formed by said first and said second electrodes are superposed by multipoles, wherein surfaces of said first and said second electrodes are designed in such a fashion that aperture aberrations caused by the monochromator can be compensated by said multipoles. 5. The monochromator of claim 4, wherein said multipoles are quadrupoles. 6. The monochromator of claim 4, wherein said multipoles are hexapoles. 7. The monochromator of claim 4, wherein said surfaces of said first and said second electrodes are curved. 8. The monochromator of claim 4, wherein said first and said second electrodes have surfaces in a form of a section of a truncated cone. 9. The monochromator of claim 8, wherein said surfaces form two “V”s having tips pointing in a same direction. 10. The monochromator of claim 8, wherein said surfaces form two “V”s having openings facing towards each other. 11. The monochromator of claim 1, wherein the monochromator is symmetrical with respect to said selection aperture plane. 12. The monochromator of claim 1, wherein the optical axis of the monochromator has substantially a shape of a closed loop. 13. The monochromator of claim 12, wherein a virtual input crossover and a virtual output crossover of the monochromator coincide in said selection aperture plane. 14. The monochromator of claim 1, wherein the optical axis at an exit of the monochromator corresponds to an extension of the optical axis at an entry of the monochromator. 15. The monochromator of claim 14, wherein the optical of the monochromator has substantially a shape of an Ω. 16. The monochromator of claim 15, wherein said Ω shape is formed by two deflection segments of said first deflection element and two deflection segments of said second deflection element, wherein said deflection segments have circular arc shaped deflection paths which each have an arc angle between 120° and 150°. 17. The monochromator of claim 14, wherein said first and said second deflection elements define a beam passage in a direction of input and output axes of the monochromator such that, when the monochromator is switched off, the charged particles also move along the optical axis at the output of the monochromator. 18. The monochromator of claim 1, wherein said first and said second electrodes are externally shielded with plates at extractor potential, said plates being oriented parallel to the optical axis. 19. The monochromator of claim 18, wherein said first and said second electrodes have surfaces which are oriented perpendicularly to the optical axis, said first and said second electrodes comprising shielding plates at extractor potential having passage openings for charged particle current. 20. The monochromator of claim 19, wherein said first and said second electrodes have box-shaped shieldings at extractor potential with passage openings for charged particle current. 21. A radiation source for the monochromator of claim 1, the radiation source having an electrostatic lens and an aperture disposed upstream of the monochromator for regulating and limiting a charged particle current, wherein said lens generates a virtual image of the radiation source which is downstream of an entrance of the monochromator.
	claims	1. Device for checking fuel rods with IFBA (Integral Fuel Burnable Absorber), their zirconium diboride coating, characterised in that it comprises a first variable magnetic field generator and a first magnetic field pickup device, arranged in the vicinity of the rod, as well as a control system for comparing a generated variable magnetic field and a picked-up magnetic field. 2. Device according to claim 1, further comprising a bar supplier. 3. Device according to claim 2, wherein the bar supplier circulates the rod at a speed between 10 and 200 mm/s. 4. Device according to claim 3, wherein the speed is 50 mm/s. 5. Device according to claim 1, wherein the first variable magnetic field generator is one or more coils. 6. Device according to claim 1, wherein the first magnetic field pickup device is one or more coils. 7. Device according to claim 1, wherein the control system is composed of a second variable magnetic field generator and a second magnetic field pickup device, identical to generator and pickup device tz1 respectively and arranged in the same relative position, and isolated from the rod. 8. Method for checking fuel rods with IFBA, with the device of claim 1, comprising the steps of:arranging the rod to be measured between the variable magnetic field generator and the magnetic field pickup device;generation of the variable magnetic field in the generator;picking-up of the magnetic field;comparison between the generated variable magnetic field and the picked-up magnetic field in order to quantify electric conductivity of the rod;if the electric conductivity differs from a reference value, consider the rod for checking or recycling. 9. Method according to claim 8, wherein the steps are performed continuously by a bar supplier. 10. Method according to claim 8, wherein the reference value is in a previous calibration phase. 11. Method according to claim 10, wherein the reference value is checked periodically. 12. Method according to claim 8, wherein the picked-up magnetic field is compared to a magnetic field produced in a control system composed of a second variable magnetic field generator and a second magnetic field pickup device, identical to the first variable magnetic field generator and the first magnetic field pickup device respectively and arranged in the same relative position, and isolated from the rod.
	summary
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	description	This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/500,880, filed Jul. 10, 2010 and claims the benefit of (i) a U.S. Provisional Patent Application bearing Ser. No. 61/080,028, entitled “Detection of Nitro-Bearing Materials”, filed on Jul. 8, 2008; and (ii) a U.S. Provisional Patent Application bearing Ser. No. 61/164,550, entitled “Detection of Nitro-Bearing Materials,” filed on Mar. 30, 2009. Both of these provisional applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. This invention was made with U.S. government support under Air Force Contract Number FA8721-05-C-0002. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present application relates to devices and methods for detecting materials, particularly as directed to detecting nitro-bearing compounds, and other compounds, that may be present in materials such as explosives. In numerous situations, when explosive devices are prepared, transported, or otherwise handled, small amounts (e.g., on the order of micrograms/cm2) of the explosive material, or related residues, can become disposed on surfaces. Such surfaces may include clothing, a container, a vehicle, the ground, window sills, and other substrates. Detection of such chemicals can provide a warning of possible concealed assembly and/or transport of explosive materials and devices. While several methodologies have been developed to detect such materials, each suffers from deficiencies and/or disadvantages. For instance, x-ray transmission, x-ray backscatter, terahertz (THz) imaging and the like are sensitive only to bulk amounts of explosive material or metallic constituents in explosive devices; such techniques typically cannot detect very low surface quantities of explosive materials/residues. Ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS) requires surface sampling, for instance by airflow agitation, followed by collection of dislodged particles. Thus, the detection is relatively slow, and effective only at short distances (e.g., 1-2 meters). Raman spectroscopy has a very weak signature, requiring data collection for extended periods of time. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (TABS) is prone to generating false alarms in many situations since it is largely non-specific, detecting atomic constituents which are found in many compounds (oxygen and nitrogen). Differential reflectometry is effective only from relatively short distances (˜1 meter), and is also prone to generating false alarms since its signature is complex and not well defined, fluorescence quenching (e.g., using the Fido™ detector by ICx Nomadics) has some of the drawbacks of IMS, requiring that target molecules reach the detecting device to interact with the fluorescing polymer. It is therefore limited to stand-off distances of ˜1-2 meters. Accordingly, a need persists for developing detection techniques, methods and associated devices, that can quickly and accurately detect trace amounts of explosives. Furthermore, it would be advantageous to perform such detection in a fast and efficient manner (e.g., by scanning moving vehicles or cargo without the need for surface sampling or manual handling of a sample). Methods and devices for detecting the presence of a substance such as a NO hearing material (e.g., a material having a portion including a nitrogen atom and oxygen atom bonded together) are disclosed based on detection of fluorescence exhibited by portions of such a material in a first vibrationally excited state of a ground electronic state. Excited NO molecules can be formed, for example, when small amounts of substances such as explosives (e.g., DNT, TNT, PETN, RDX, and HMX) or other materials associated with explosives (e.g., urea nitrate) are photodissociated. By inducing fluorescence of NO molecule, a distinct signature of the substance (e.g., explosive) can be detected. In particular, the fluorescence signature can be distinct from fluorescence induced, if any, in molecules derived from benign NO-containing components typically found in the environment (e.g., atmospheric components or fertilizer), allowing for low false alarms. Such a technique can be performed quickly and with a significant standoff distance, which can add to the invention's utility. Some exemplary embodiments are drawn to methods for identifying the presence of a substance such as a parent molecule, which can be associated with an explosive compound (e.g., 2,6-dinitrotoluene, 2,4,6 trinitrotoluene, pentaerythritol tetranitrate, hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine, and cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine). Another substance that can be identified is urea nitrate, which can be found in fertilizer-based high explosives. The substance can be present in an unknown sample (e.g., material disposed on a substrate surface in a solid form), which is to be identified. The sample can be photodissociated into one or more portions that include NO, wherein the NO includes an electron disposed in a first-vibrational excited state of an electronic ground state. Vaporization of the sample and/or fragments can also be performed while performing photodissociation, or by using a separate step. Laser induced fluorescence can be employed to induce fluorescence of the NO. Subsequently, the fluorescence of the NO can be detected (e.g., looking for radiation with a wavelength of about 22.6 nm) to thereby identify the presence of the molecule. The identification can include distinguishing the substance (e.g., parent molecule) from one or more other types of materials having a NO portion (e.g., an atmospheric NO-containing compound, an inorganic NO-containing compound, and fertilizer). In some embodiments, the steps of photo-dissociating and employing laser induced fluorescence can be performed using the same excitation wavelengths, or performed as separate steps (e.g., using different wavelengths of radiation). In some embodiments, the laser-induced fluorescence includes exciting an electron using a wavelength of about 236.2 nm. In particular embodiments, the step of photodissociating can include photodissociating the sample into NO molecules, each having an electron in a first-vibrational excited state and having a distinct rotational state. As well, the step of employing laser-induced fluorescence can include inducing fluorescence of the NO in distinct rotational states (e.g., by fluorescing using a plurality of excitation wavelengths centered around 236.2 nm and having a bandwidth from about 0.2 nm to about 2 nm). In some embodiments, the method can be carried out in a stand-off mode (e.g., using a detector positioned at least about 50 cm, and/or less than about 150 meters, from the sample). Some embodiments perform the method in ambient conditions (e.g., photodissociating and fluorescing in air at typical indoor and/or environmental conditions). In another aspect of the invention, methods and apparatus for generating electromagnetic radiation are disclosed. Such methods and apparatus can be used in conjunction with any detection method disclosed herein or with a system to detect substances. The apparatus includes an electromagnetic source configured to generate radiation with a selected profile. The selected profile can have a center wavelength at about 236.2 nm, and can have a bandwidth between about 0.2 nm and about 2 nm. A spectral filter can be optically coupled to the apparatus, and can be configured to filter at least one wavelength outside the selected profile. In some instances, the electromagnetic source can be configured to produce a pulsed electromagnetic output. One or more of the pulses can be characterized by a repetition rate greater than about 1 kHz, and/or a pulse length less than about 10 nsec or less than about 2 nsec. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic source can include an optical source for producing an electromagnetic output. The electromagnetic output characterized by a wavelength center being an integer multiple of about 236.2 nm. The electromagnetic output can also have a bandwidth consistent with allowing the electromagnetic source to generate a centered 236.2 nm output with a bandwidth between about 0.2 nm and about 2 nm. The electromagnetic source can also include one or more harmonic converters to convert the electromagnetic output into radiation centered at about 236.2 nm. A harmonic converter can include a lithium-based crystal and/or a barium-based crystal. One or more amplifiers can also be included for increasing power of the electromagnetic radiation to provide a selected minimum target energy density. An amplifier can include a Nd-doped mixed garnet configured to increase the power of electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength of about 944.8 nm. In some particular embodiments, the optical source can be an amplified time-gated superluminescent diode or other type of amplified spontaneous emission source. In other embodiments, the optical source can include a pulsed laser. The optical source can also include an optical parametric generator configured to be pumped by the pulsed laser, or one of its harmonics, to produce the electromagnetic output. Non-limiting examples of pulsed lasers can include a Q-switched laser, a cavity-dumped laser, a gain-switched laser, an amplified time-gated continuous wave laser, and a gated long-pulse laser. In one example, the pulsed laser comprises a passively Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. In some instances, the optical parametric generator includes a periodically poled material, and is configured to produce the electromagnetic output with the wavelength center at about 1889 nm. Other embodiments are directed to systems for remotely detecting the presence of a molecule such as used in an explosive. The system can include an electromagnetic source such as any of the versions described herein. A detector can be included to receive electromagnetic radiation from a fluorescing NO molecule. For example, the detector can be configured to detect electromagnetic radiation that includes a wavelength of about 226 nm. Such systems can be configured to provide standoff detection at a selected distance (e.g., at a distance greater than about 10 meters and/or less than about 150 meters). Some embodiments are directed to identifying the presence (e.g., via remote detection) of a substance in a target (e.g., a molecule or fragments of the molecule) by detecting photons emitted therefrom. The terms “target” and “sample” are synonymous and refer to a material to be probed or detected. While numerous substances can be detected or identified by the techniques and devices discussed herein, in some embodiments, the substance comprises, or is transformed to form, a nitrogen monoxide molecule (herein a “NO molecule” or “NO fragment”). Thus, a substance whose presence is to be detected can be a NO-containing material (i.e., containing a portion that has a nitrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom therein such as a nitro-containing material or a nitrate-containing material), and/or can be transformed to form one or more NO molecules that can act as a signature for the presence of the substance. The phrases “remote detection” and “standoff detection” are synonymous and refer to detection of a substance without the need to utilize manual collection methods (e.g., surface collection and sample preparation) and/or manual sample concentration techniques; as well, the detection can be performed at a distance. While standoff detection can be utilized at very close distances, e.g., within about 0.5 meters of a surface having a sample, in some embodiments the distance is much longer (e.g., greater than about 0.5, 1, 5, or 10 meters). In some embodiments, the standoff distance is shorter than about 150 meters or 100 meters. It is understood that the term “remote” and “standoff” can also be used to describe other processes such as irradiation, and can refer to any of the distance measures previously described. Substances to be detected (e.g., explosives or other parent molecules) can be present on a variety of surfaces either as finely distributed molecules or aggregated in small particles. They can reside on larger particles such as dust; be intercalated in near surface structures such as fibers of textile, loose paint, porous wood or concrete; or they may be present on solid surfaces such as metal, wood, plastic, glass, and so on. In all these forms, the substance is available for remote, non-contact detection according to some embodiments of the present invention. In some embodiments, the sample to be probed can include a NO containing (e.g., nitro-bearing) molecule, where the molecule and/or fragments can be disposed to allow generation of a distinguishing signature for the sample. In some instances, these targets include explosive compositions. As utilized herein, the term “explosive” refers to a molecule of the explosive compound or a residue associated with the explosive. Examples of explosives that are potential targets include 2,6-dinitrotoluene (DNT), 2,4,6 trinitrotoluene (TNT), pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (HMX), and cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX). Other explosive molecules, including other explosives capable of brining NO molecules, can also be potentially identified. Another example of a substance for detection is urea nitrate. Urea nitrate is a substance found in high explosives made from fertilizers, and can be formed by the nitration of urea using, for example, nitric acid. Urea nitrate can be transformed to form a NO fragment, like some of the aforementioned explosives, which is susceptible to detection by some of the embodiments described herein. As well, some embodiments of the invention can distinguish the presence of urea nitrate from urea. While urea nitrate is an uncommon compound in the environment, urea is much more prevalent. Accordingly, such embodiments can decrease the false positives related to urea nitrate detection relative to other conventional techniques. It is understood, however, that the signatures discussed herein can be used to identify the presence of particular NO-containing molecules that are not explosive compositions. As well, it is understood that while many embodiments herein discuss the detection of a NO molecule, the fluorescence signature discussed herein can also potentially be used to detect actual molecules. Accordingly, alternative embodiments of the invention can modify embodiments regarding explosives detection and NO-containing molecule detection to detect non-explosive compositions and/or NO-containing molecules. In some embodiments, NO molecules and/or vaporization of a sample can be generated by remote irradiation of a sample on a surface of interest. In instances where the sample to be examined contains molecules that are typically non-fluorescing, the conversion of the molecule (e.g., associated with an explosive) present on a surface to a fluorescing species, and detection of the resulting fluorescence, can take place in a non-contact, remote fashion from the surface. It can also occur substantially instantaneously, e.g., within 100 nsec or less. In some embodiments, detection of a target relies upon detecting fluorescence due to an electron moving from a first vibrational state (ν″=1) of the electronic ground state (X2Π) of the target. Using techniques discussed herein, the electron in the first vibrational state can be excited to the vibrational ground state (ν′=0) of the first electronically excited state (A2Σ+) (e.g., using radiation at about 236.2 nm), resulting in a fluorescence when the electron relaxes to the vibrational ground state (ν″=0) of the electronic ground state. This is shown diagrammatically in FIG. 1. The product radiation of the fluorescence (e.g., at about 226 nm) can be detected remotely, and can serve as a distinct signature of the target (e.g., a NO-containing material). Accordingly, some embodiments of the invention can provide substantial advantages over other systems and methods of detecting substances such as explosives. For example, the detection can be non-contacting, relying on lasers irradiating the surface and on remote detection of photons. Accordingly, systems and methods capable of stand-off distances of 10-100 meters, for example, are possible using appropriate laser energy and efficiencies in the fluorescence detection system. At such distances, very small amounts of explosive materials (e.g., between about 0.1 and about 10 μg) can be detected. As well, detection can be conducted quickly as it occurs within or shortly after the excitation (e.g., within ˜100 nsec). Detection techniques in accord with some embodiments can also exhibit a very low rate of false alarm rate. For instance, very few materials except for NO-bearing targets having electrons in a ν″=1 state are expected to fluoresce at 226 nm following excitation at the longer 2361 nm wavelength. Many materials do fluoresce at wavelengths longer than those at which they are excited, but not many at shorter wavelengths, and very rarely at the same 226 nm as NO. Methods of Interrogating an Unknown Sample for a Substance Some embodiments of the present invention are drawn to methods of interrogating an unknown sample for a substance (e.g., a NO-containing target) by detecting an electron in a first vibrational excited state of an electronic ground state of a molecule. For instance, particular embodiments are drawn to determining whether the a substance is present in an unknown sample, such as an explosives related composition (e.g., DNT, TNT, PETN, HMX, RDX, and/or urea nitrate). Photo-induced dissociation of the sample (e.g., a solid material, which can be disposed on a surface) can be performed so that at least one of the fragments of the sample includes a NO complex in the first vibrational state (ν″=1) of its electronic ground state (X2Π); vaporization of the sample molecules residing at or near the surface can also be performed substantially simultaneously, or through a separate step. Laser induced fluorescence can be employed to induce fluorescence of the NO complex from the first vibrational state. For example, excitation of the vibrationally excited NO can be performed to the vibrational ground state (ν″=0) of the first electronically excited state (A2Σ+), followed by fluorescence from the electronically excited state to the vibrational ground state (ν″=0) of the electronic ground state (X2Π). The fluorescence can then be detected, which can thereby act as an identification of the presence of the molecule. The step of vaporization can be induced remotely by a radiation source causing local heating, such as a laser whose radiation is absorbed by the explosives molecule and/or the surface to which it adheres. The vaporization steps can be accomplished with lasers operating at a variety of wavelengths because the target molecules exhibit broad spectral absorption features. For instance, an infrared laser such as a CO2 laser operating near 10.6 μm wavelength can perform this function. Alternatively, an ultraviolet laser, for instance, conveniently operating near 355 nm, 266 nm, or some other UV wavelength can do the same. For example, TNT molecules are known to absorb ultraviolet radiation over a broad range of wavelengths, extending from. about 400 nm to about 190 nm and below. Therefore, a laser operating in this wavelength range can be absorbed by the molecule, causing it to heat up and turn from solid into vapor. This function can be accomplished with a continuous-wave or pulsed laser, with average power levels from milliwatts (mW) to watts (W) or pulse energy from microJoules (μJ) to Joules (J), depending on the absorptive properties and the thermal properties of the explosive molecules and the substrate the molecule resides on. Photo-induced dissociation can be induced after vaporization. Like vaporization, the photodissociation can be accomplished with lasers operating at a variety of wavelengths, e.g., in the ultraviolet. In some instances, the vapor molecules can be dissociated by the ultraviolet wavelength at which the molecule absorbs such as sub-400 nm for TNT. Furthermore, the steps of vaporization and photo-induced dissociation can be induced by the same (e.g., ultraviolet) laser, in which case the distinction between the two steps is blurred. In some embodiments, photo-induced dissociation can occur first, while the explosive molecule is still in solid phase, with the fragments becoming volatile. In either situation, UV irradiation can result in fragments with a NO molecule being formed in a volatile state. As a result of the photodissociation, a fraction of the NO fragments can be formed in the vibrationally excited state (ν″=1) of the NO electronic ground state. This is a unique feature of the organo-nitrate explosive compounds, and has not been reported for other non-explosive nitro-bearing compounds or nitrates. Indeed, as will be described in the Examples, we have experimentally validated this assertion for several commonly found non-explosive nitrates and nitrites. These other compounds, upon ultraviolet-induced dissociation, form primarily NO in its vibrational ground state (ν″=0). This unique property of explosives (the formation of NO in ν″=1) is one reason for a very small level of false alarms according to some embodiments of the present invention. Accordingly, the identification of the molecule of interest can be distinguished from one or more other types of NO-containing materials such as atmospheric NO-containing compounds, inorganic NO-containing compounds and/or nitrates, and/or fertilizer. In some embodiments, photo-induced excitation to the electronic A state utilizes a selected wavelength or range of wavelengths. For example, a preferred wavelength can be at about 236.2 nm (in air). Effective excitation of the NO photo-fragments can occur when such fragments are irradiated at this wavelength with short pulses (e.g., about 0.1 to about 10 nsec). The energy density per pulse of the radiation at the surface can be in a range between about 0.01 mJ/cm2 and about 100 mJ/cm2. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the functions of vaporization, dissociation, and excitation can be accomplished with one laser and substantially within one laser pulse. Alternatively, the three steps can be accomplished with two or more different lasers, each selected to perform a function corresponding with one or more of the steps. As shown in FIG. 2, and discussed more in depth in the Examples, photodissociated samples can exhibit a range of wavelengths at which they are excited from the first vibrationally excited state of the ground state. The range can be centered around about 236.2 nm, and can have a spread in the range of a few nanometers. Without necessarily being bound by any particular theory, it is believed that such a spread can be due to the rotational energy distribution of the excited electrons in the ν″=1 state. Since the photodissociation of a sample can result in such a distribution of NO fragments, some embodiments can employ laser induced fluorescence over a range of wavelengths (e.g., about 0.2 nm to about 1 nm or 2 nm) to excite fragments in different rotational states. For instance, as shown in FIG. 2, a electromagnetic source can be configured to have a spread of wavelengths 210 around a center point 215 (e.g., 236.2 inn) which can capture a substantial portion of the rotational states 220. Such a spread in excitation wavelength can be advantageous by boosting the population of fragments to be fluoresced (e.g., by a factor of about 10) and enhancing the fluorescence signal to be detected. The resultant fluorescence step of the NO photofragment can occur at a wavelength of approximately 226 nm, and can occur within less than about 100 nsec from the moment of photo-excitation. This fluorescing wavelength has been calculated from known spectroscopic constants of NO, and also has been validated in our experiments. The lag between excitation and emission is calculated from the known radiative lifetime of the NO excited state, and also taking into account that this lifetime is shortened due to collisions with other molecules present in air at normal atmospheric pressures. Embodiments consistent with some of the previously described methods can result in highly sensitive detection with relatively low false alarm rates. As documented in the Examples, the spectral response near 2362 nm has been well characterized, and it is possible that features of this relatively unusual spectrum could be used to aid in sensitivity or in reducing false alarms. Systems and Devices for Detecting NO-Containing Targets Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to systems for remotely detecting the presence of selected molecules, such as explosives and signatures of their presence. Such systems can include an electromagnetic source capable of inducing fluorescence of a NO-containing material having electrons in the first vibrational state of the electronic ground state of the NO group, and a detector configured to detect the fluorescence. The system can be configured to detect the fluorescence at a distance of greater than about 0.5, 1, 5, or 10 meters. In some embodiments, the standoff distance can be shorter than about 150 meters or 100 meters. As well, the system can be configured to detect small amounts of molecules on surfaces (e.g., in the microgram or submicrogram range such as less than about 100, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 1, or 0.1 micrograms). It is understood that systems consistent with embodiments can incorporate any of the features disclosed herein, including features associated with the methods herein, in any appropriate combination without limitation. Some particular embodiments are drawn toward an apparatus that generates electromagnetic radiation, which can be incorporated in a detection system as disclosed herein. The apparatus can include an electromagnetic source configured to generate radiation with a selected profile. The profile, which can be relatively featureless, can have a center wavelength of about 236.2 nm. The profile can also be characterized by a bandwidth capable of exciting at least a portion of the electrons distributed in distinct rotational states of a first-vibrationally excited ground electronic state of a NO-containing material (e.g., explosive material as described herein). For example, the bandwidth can be between about 0.2 nm and about 1 nm or about 2 nm; or can be around 0.5 nm. As utilized herein, the term “bandwidth” can refer to a measure of the wavelength spread in the radiation emitted from a source. Such measures include those known to one skilled in the art, (e.g., the bandwidth can refer to the full width of the spectra at half maximum). Such a spread can be advantageous in exciting a population of NO fragments in different rotational states, which can thereby enhance a potential fluorescing signal. It is understood that other embodiments can alter the profile of such a source. The electromagnetic source can optionally incorporate other features as well. For example, the electromagnetic source can act as a pulsed source. The pulses can be characterized as having a repetition rate greater than about 1 kHz (e.g., being in a range from about 1 kHz to about 5 kHz). The pulses can be also be characterized by a pulse length of less than about 10 nsec, for example, a length less than about 2 nsec, the latter being the lifetime of an intermediate state in the excitation process. It can also be desirable that the pulses exhibit an energy density at the target of at least about 5 mJ/cm2, which can be at the level to photolyze a 1 cm2 monolayer of explosive residue. It should be also understood that pulse duration and optical bandwidth can be traded off against the efficiency of the detection system. Thus, slight increases in the pulse duration and/or decreases in the bandwidth can be utilized. Accordingly, variations in these parameters are within the scope of the present application. Spectral filtering can also be incorporated to limit the bandwidth of the 236.2-nm output to the width selected. It can be preferable, but not necessary, to have the spectral filter before most of the optical amplification to improve the efficiency of the system. Accordingly, some embodiments utilize an electromagnetic source that can include an optical source for producing an electromagnetic output characterized by a wavelength center being an integer multiple of a selected wavelength (e.g., about 236.2 nm). The output of the optical source can provide a selected bandwidth spread such that the electromagnetic source is able to provide the selected profile. One or more harmonic converters can also be included to convert, the electromagnetic output of the optical source into electromagnetic radiation centered at the selected wavelength (e.g., about 236.2 nm). As well, one or more amplifiers can be utilized for increasing the power of the electromagnetic source such that the electromagnetic source can provide a selected minimum target energy density, which can be sufficient for standoff detection. For close range operations, the energy density at the target can be as low as about 0.05 mJ/cm2, while longer standoffs can utilize an energy density greater than about 5 mJ/cm2. For instance, an electromagnetic source can include a Q-switched laser and an optical parametric generator (OPG). The Q-switched laser can produces pulses with a duration of less than about 2 nsec, and sufficient peak power (e.g., possibly with the assistance of an optical amplifier) to pump the OPG. The OPG, pumped by the Q-switched laser or one of its harmonics, can operate at a wavelength that is an integer multiple of 236.2 nm. The OPG can have sufficient bandwidth to generate the desired bandwidth (e.g., ˜0.5 nm) at 236.2 nm after harmonic conversion. One or more stages of harmonic conversion can be included to convert the output of the OPG to light having a wavelength of about 236.2 nm. Amplification can be provided at any point in the optical train to provide adequate pulse energy at 236.2 nm. Because of the inefficiencies inherent in nonlinear optical processes, and the complications introduced by excessively high peak optical power, it can be desirable to have the amplification as late in the optical train as possible. Some particular embodiments of an electromagnetic source are consistent with the optical train 300 depicted in FIG. 3. The electromagnetic source can include a passively Q-switched neodymium doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) microchip laser 310 operating at a wavelength of about 1064 nm, with a Nd:YAG amplifier to bring the pulse energy to about 100 to about 200 μJ. A periodically poled lithium niobate (or alternatively, periodically poled lithium tantalite) OPG 320 operating at a center wavelength of 1889 nm, with a bandwidth of several nanometers, can be pumped by the output of the Nd:YAG microchip laser. A periodically poled lithium niobate (or periodically poled lithium tantalite) frequency doubler 330 can be used to convert the output of the OPG to a wavelength of 944.8 nm. Amplification can be provided by a chain of optical amplifiers, which can utilize a compositionally tuned Nd garnet such as 1% Nd:YAG0.45YSAG0.55 (YSAG-yttrium scandium aluminum garnet) or another appropriate material 340, including the possibilities discussed in “Compositionally tuned 0.94-μm lasers: a comparative laser material study and demonstration of 100-mJ Q-switched lasing at 0.946 and 0.9441 μm,” by B. M Walsh, N. P. Barnes, R. L. Hutcheson, and R. W. Equal, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol. 37, No. 9, September 2001, pg. 1203-1209 as the gain medium to amplify the light at 944.8 nm. The reference is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In these embodiments, spectral filtering can be provided by the bandwidth of the optical amplifier chain. A lithium triborate frequency doubler 350 can be used to convert the output of the amplifier chain to a wavelength of ˜472.4 nm, followed by a beta barium borate frequency doubler 360 to convert the wavelength to ˜236.2 nm. Alternatives to the specific electromagnetic source configurations herein can substitute an amplified time-gated superluminescent diode or other amplified spontaneous emission source for the combination of the Q-switched laser and OPG. In other alternatives, a cavity-dumped laser, a gain-switched laser, or an amplified time-gated continuous wave or long-pulse laser could be used in place of the Q-switched Those skilled in the art will realize that the Q-switched laser, or its substitute, and the optical amplifiers can operate at a variety of wavelengths, using a variety of gain media; and that there are a variety of nonlinear optical materials that can be used for the OPG and the harmonic converters. Returning to the discussion of remote detection systems, consistent with some embodiments of the present invention, any appropriate detector can be utilized to detect the fluorescence signal created by the electromagnetic source, including those known to one skilled in the art. In some embodiments, an ultrasensitive detector can be utilized. Non-limiting examples include a photon-counting photomultiplier or Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode element or array equipped with a wavelength-selective filter. The filter can be configured to transmit the fluorescent photons, but reject scattered laser light at 236.2 nm and/or any other fluorescence at other wavelengths due to photo-induced excitation of other species. Other devices can be included with the remote detection systems disclosed herein. For example, hardware associated with pointing and tracking can be incorporated to scan a beam over a surface in a designated pattern. Other optical devices can be incorporated to further manipulate an excitation beam or collection of fluorescence. Hardware, which can separately induce photodissociation and/or vaporization of a sample, can also be included. As well, processors, including hardware and/or software, can be included to operate the various devices within the parameters necessary to perform the techniques disclosed herein. These variations and others, including those understood by one skilled in the art, can be included within the scope of the present invention. Standoff Distance Calculations Some embodiments of the present invention are directed to standoff detection where the distance between the fluorescing sample and detector can be on the order of tens of meters or larger. Such distances can be possible in light of the data presented in the Examples, and based upon calculations herein. For instance, in a single pulse system, the received fluorescence signal from a sample can be modeled as: Signal = FP L ⁢ exp ⁡ ( - 2 ⁢ α ⁢ ⁢ R ) ⁢ σ ⁢ ⁢ TQ E ⁢ A o π ⁢ ⁢ R 2 where F is a fill factor (F=1 assumes each photon interacts with an explosive molecule), PL is the laser power, α is the atmospheric absorption coefficient (2×10−3/m), R is the range to target, σ is the effective cross section of a molecule to be detected (fluence-dependent), T is the optical transmission, QE is the detector quantum efficiency, and Ao is the collection optics area. Assuming a 1 kHz, 2 nsec laser illuminating a 1 cm2 area (F=1), and T=0.06, QE=0.3, Ao=30 cm, and parameters consistent with TNT as a material to be detected, the performance is as shown in FIG. 4, in which detected photoelectrons/pulse are displayed as a function of R (in meters) for various transmitted laser powers. In particular, graphs 410, 420, 430 correspond to laser powers of 2.5 watts, 5 watts, and 10 watts, respectively. As the background signal is expected to be quite low, detection is assumed to be limited by the Poisson statistics of the signal itself. As such, a signal-to-noise ratio of 10 is predicted for a signal level of 100 photoelectrons. Assuming an operational signal-to-noise ratio of 10 thus yields detection ranges in the range of tens of meters depending on laser power. Other variations in parameters can result in an extension of standoff range. For instance, the 10 W laser eye-safe limit need not be imposed. Accordingly, a higher power laser can extend the standoff detection range. The following examples are provided to illustrate some embodiments of the invention. The examples are not intended to limit the scope of any particular embodiment(s) utilized. Close Range Measurements Measurements were performed in a number of detection geometries. The physics of the detection process did not change substantially in any of these configurations. The close-range configuration, depicted in FIG. 5, utilized a tunable laser focused onto the samples from the side at an incident angle of ˜60° from normal. Samples were placed on ultraviolet (UV) grade fused silica substrates. A solar-blind photomultiplier tube (PMT) with narrowband filters was positioned 6 cm directly above the sample, and used as the detector. The laser was a Continuum 9030 system, which frequency-triples a Nd:YAG source, inputting the 355 nm result into an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) providing frequency selectivity. The output of the OPO was subsequently doubled, providing variable laser output from 215 to 310 nm. All wavelengths used in these examples were in air. The laser output was a ˜1 cm2 beam of 30 Hz pulses with energies of 2-3 mJ per pulse and pulse widths of ˜7 ns. The laser linewidth was 0.03-0.04 nm near the wavelengths of interest. The beam was focused to ˜0.1 cm2 at the sample using a convex UV lens. The output laser wavelengths were confirmed using an Ocean Optics spectrometer, which was calibrated with a Hg lamp. All wavelengths reported are in air. The spot size was estimated by exposing a photoresist to the UV illumination at the sample location and measuring the resultant spot. In situ measurements of the laser power were recorded using a Molectron power meter and pyrometer-based measurement head; laser power fluctuations during a typical measurement were approximately 10%. The PMT was a Perkin Elmer Cs—Te channel photomultiplier with measured dark counts of ˜4 per minute, single-photon sensitivity, and quantum efficiency of 10% near the signals of interest (220-230 nm). The PMT signal was amplified using a 5 kHz preamplifier; the resulting signal was recorded using an A/D converter and computer. Narrowband filters were used to suppress the scattered laser light. The filters were fused silica substrates with a dielectric film stack coating designed by Barr Associates. The total transmission of the three-filter stack used in these measurements was 0.3% (OD 2.5) at the signal wavelength of 226 nm, and OD 11 at the primary laser wavelength of 236 nm, providing a rejection ratio of nearly nine orders of magnitude between the laser and the expected signal. For the close-range detection geometry, the following estimates can be made regarding signal collection efficiency. Assuming the signal fluoresces in a Lambertian manner, and using the 0.3% transmission at the signal wavelength of 226 nm, the 0.25″ detector aperture, the detection range of 6 cm, and quantum efficiency of 10%, we estimate a collection efficiency of 4×10−7 of all emitted signal photons. Noting that there are 1015 photons per mJ at these wavelengths, we would expect to collect 4×108 photons per mJ of signal photons. A variety of explosives in a variety of morphologies were studied. The explosives included 2,6-dinitrotoluene (DNT), TNT, pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), and cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX). DNT, as received from Aldrich, took the form of small granules roughly the size of salt crystals. Studies were performed on mounds of these solid granules, in addition to a liquid form which was obtained by heating the granules to 80° C. With the exception of the liquid DNT measurements, all other measurements were performed at room temperature under ambient atmospheric conditions. Military-grade TNT was studied in a solid pellet form. It was also studied in the form of a trace coating on sand particles (8% TNT by weight). Additionally, it was dropcast from a dilute acetone solution to form a thin film containing a calibrated amount (1 μg) of TNT residue. Military-grade PETN was studied in the form of a white powder. RDX was studied both as a trace coating on sand (8% by weight) and as the dominant component in the putty-like C4 plastic explosive. In all morphologies, the experimentally observed signal remained essentially the same, with only variations in the signal magnitude. Results: Bulk Detection FIG. 6 displays the results of close-range detection measurements of DNT, TNT, C4 (RDX active component), and PETN. All samples were in bulk quantities. For these measurements, the incident laser was scanned from 235 to 238 nm with 0.01 nm steps. Data were taken at the eye and skin safe fluence of 10 mJ/cm2 (1 mJ pulses over 0.1 cm2 area). Data points represent 6 pulse averages, with the exception of the background measurements on the bare silica wafer for which the data points are 60 pulse averages. The measured background scatter (open circles in top graph) from the bare silica substrate followed the steep slope of the interference filter with a signal of less than 0.1 photon per pulse (˜0.03 photons) at 236.2 nm. All explosive samples display the same multi-peak structure with a maximum signal at 236.2 nm and shoulder near 236.3 nm. They also display a secondary peak at 236.9 nm, again with accompanying shoulder. It is of note that the vapor pressures for these compounds differ by almost six orders of magnitude (DNT vapor pressure ˜ppm; RDX vapor pressure ˜ppt) while their signal strengths are within an order of magnitude, indicating that the observed signal is not related to the ambient vapors of the materials, but rather the condensed phase itself. The bottom graph of FIG. 6 displays the predicted fluorescence of NO assuming excitation from the first vibrationally excited state (ν″=1) of its electronic ground state (X2Π) to the vibrational ground state (ν″=0) of its first electronically excited state (A2Σ+); two different rotational temperatures are displayed. These results were obtained using the LIFBASE software package (J. Luque and D. R. Crosley, “LIFBASE: Database and Spectral Simulation Program,” SRI International Report MP 99-009 (1999); J. Luque and D. R. Crosley, S. Chem. Phys., 111, 7405 (1999)) and assumed a linewidth of (103 nm. Comparison of the experimental data to the NO spectrum provides clear evidence that the measured signal is indeed being generated by an excited NO species. The detailed structure evident in the data is due to the rotational fine structure of the excited NO. The data near ν″=1 fit the predicted NO fluorescence well for a rotational temperature of 1000° K. Regardless of the specifics of the rotational temperature, the peak signal is always observed at 236.2 nm with a linewidth of several tenths of a nanometer. Accordingly, a laser tuned to these frequencies can be used to detect these compounds. Since the fluorescence technique involves multiple excitation photons (at least one photon for dissociation and vaporization, and one photon for excitation), a nonlinear dependence of the fluorescence signal on the laser fluence is expected. FIG. 7 displays the fluorescence signal as a function of laser fluence for DNT and TNT at the fixed laser wavelength of 236.2 nm. Data were collected using a spot size of =0.1 cm2. Data points are averages over a number of samples, the amount of which depended upon the signal strength. In order to ensure no systematic drift affected the measurements, the fluence was decreased to its minimum and then subsequently increased. No significant deviations were observed. Several fluence dependencies were observed, dependent on the material, its physical phase (solid or liquid) and the laser wavelength. For laser irradiation at 236.2 nm, both liquid DNT and solid TNT show similar behavior in which there appears to be a cubic dependence at low laser fluences crossing over to a quadratic dependence at higher fluences. At very high fluences (>60 mJ/cm2), DNT displays a systematic shift by roughly a factor of two above its quadratic behavior below 60 mJ/cm2. In contrast, cubic dependence on fluence is Observed in solid DNT or DNT in which the ν″=2 state is being probed (246.9 nm, 242 nm, not shown in FIG. 7). Similar data were generated for C4 and PETN as shown in FIG. 8. Both C4 (active component being RDX) and PETN display quadratic dependencies on laser fluence over the full range of our experimental conditions. Other properties, in addition to the peak fluorescence signal, were observed to vary with laser fluence. Photo-ablation rates at 236.2 nm were measured by counting the number of pulses required to ablate a thin film of known thickness. For DNT, ablation rates of 23 nm/pulse (28 mJ/cm2) and 4 nm/pulse (5 mJ/cm2) were estimated. For TNT, an ablation rate of 28 nm/pulse (25 ml/cm2) was estimated. Results: Trace Detection Detection of explosives in morphologies other than bulk form was also demonstrated. TNT and RDX on sand (8% by mass) were studied with results very similar to those above. Generally, the overall signal level was approximately twice as large as those above, likely due to the greater surface area provided by the sand matrix. Trace level detection was also demonstrated using calibrated quantities of explosives dissolved in acetone. These were dropcast on silicon wafers to yield concentrations of 2 μJ/cm2. Both RDX and TNT were investigated in this manner yielding signals roughly half of those reported for the bulk materials. For laser fluences of 10 mJ/cm2 and a wavelength of 236.2 μm, complete ablation takes about 20 laser pulses using a spot size of about 0.1 cm2. FIG. 9 displays a time series of the TNT signal as a function of laser pulses. Photoablation rates of TNT at 236.2 nm were measured by counting the number of pulses required to ablate a thin film of known thickness. An ablation rate of 28 nm/pulse (at 25 ml/cm2) was estimated. Thus, we estimate that the average TNT thickness is 560 nm. Optical images of the film indicate coverage and thickness that are highly non-uniform. Also displayed in FIG. 9 is the photo-response from the bare silicon wafer, which is significantly weaker than that of the TNT. Remote Measurements Detection at ranges of 3.3 meters were achieved via the use of 2 inch diameter collection optics placed in front of the PMT detector. Bulk TNT was placed on double sticky tape. The surface was scanned in a raster pattern, with the resulting image shown in FIG. 10. The TNT has a clearly stronger signal than the background substrate. The laser beam and detector were aligned facing the sample from the same direction, with the detector at a distance of 3.3 m from the sample and the laser at roughly 10 in from the sample. Clutter Measurements Since excited NO is the indicator used to identify the explosives, non-explosive sources of excited NO have the potential to form significant false alarms. Measurements of inorganic nitrates and materials containing inorganic nitrates were conducted to determine whether they produce excited NO. The measurements were performed in the close-range configuration at a fluence of 10 mJ/cm2 (1 mJ over 0.1 cm2). The materials included potting soil, fertilizer, cow manure, KNO3, AgNO3, and NaNO2. As shown in FIG. 11, none showed any evidence of excited NO. Urea Nitrate Measurements The system described with respect to FIG. 5, to make close range measurements, was utilized to measure the fluorescence signal from a bulk sample of ground solid urea nitrate pellets. The system provided about 20 mJ/cm2 of energy to the sample at the excitation wavelength under examination. FIG. 12A shows the 2.26 nm signal strength detected (photons/pulse) as a function of excitation wavelength from about 235 nm to about 260 nm. Similar to the results discussed for various explosive samples shown in FIG. 6, the photo-induced dissociation and laser-induced fluorescence of the urea nitrate sample showed a signal appearing to correspond to formation of NO fragments in the first vibrationally excited state (ν″=1) of the electronic ground state. This is confirmed by the results shown in FIG. 12B, which reproduce the data from FIG. 12A for the excitation wavelength range of about 235 nm to about 237.5 nm. Overlaid on the experimental results of FIG. 12B is a calculation for the 226 nm fluorescence of a NO fragment at a rotational temperature of 300° K over the same excitation wavelengths. The agreement between the data and the calculation further strengthen the belief that NO fragment excitation and relaxation are being observed from the urea nitrate sample. The signal strength for the urea nitrate sample was comparable to the signal strength measured for a solid DNT sample. While the present invention has been described in terms of specific methods, structures, and devices it is understood that variations and modifications will occur to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the present invention. As well, the features illustrated or described in connection with one embodiment can be combined with the features of other embodiments. Such modifications and variations are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will appreciate, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, further features and advantages of the invention based on the above-described embodiments. Accordingly, the invention is not necessarily to be limited by what has been particularly shown and described. All publications and references are herein expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety. The terms “a” and “an” can be used interchangeably, and are equivalent to the phrase “one or more” as utilized in the present application. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise specifically claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention.
	description	The present subject matter relates to nuclear medicine. In more detail, it relates to systems, methods, and uses for a collimator. Recently manufacturers have found a large market for dedicated cardiac single photo emission computed tomography (SPECT) systems. Small field-of-view (FOV) cardiac SPECT systems have become popular due to their compact design. One company, Spectrum Digirad, developed dedicated cardiac SPECT systems that are small enough to be installed in a physician's office. These dedicated SPECT systems have relatively small gamma cameras, which are barely large enough to cover the heart. One feature of this system is that the detectors remain stationary and the projections are collected as the patient, sitting upright in a chair, is rotated. Multi-pinhole collimation is the state-of-the-art in small animal SPECT, with the main advantage being the pinhole magnification effect, which allows a high-sensitivity, high-resolution image to be obtained. Taking advantage of modern large-area gamma cameras and multi-detector systems, the multi-pinhole technology is able to provide enough data for cardiac imaging without rotating the system gantry. A stationary system can take very fast snapshots, obtaining true dynamic imaging. The stationary system makes patient motion correction easier, and is less expensive to build and maintain. One problem faced in a stationary imaging system is the lack of sufficient view angles. In order to obtain more angular views, the pinholes are, in fact, operating in image reducing (instead of magnifying) mode. For a fixed pinhole aperture size, pinhole collimation provides acceptable detection sensitivity if the object is very small and placed very close to the pinhole; however, the detection sensitivity decreases dramatically if the object is moved away from the pinhole. As the object is moved farther into the image reduction zone, where the pinhole magnification factor is less than one, the pinhole detection sensitivity becomes worse. In the above-referenced image reduction zone, the disclosed multi-divergent-beam collimator may become more sensitive than the pinhole for the same specified spatial resolution. As discussed in more detail below, one aspect of the disclosure relates to a multi-divergent-beam collimator. The collimator includes a plurality of inverted, ordered sections of a cone-beam collimator reassembled in a substantially reversed order relative to the ordering of the cone-beam collimator. In some examples, the each of the sections has substantially similar dimensions. In other examples, the plurality of sections have dimensions different from others of the plurality of sections. Also, in some embodiments, a plurality of outer regions of the ordered regions have dimensions larger than a plurality of central regions. In one example, the plurality of sections are portioned into a 3-by-3-by-3 array of ordered regions. In another example, the plurality of sections are portioned into a 2-by-3-by-2 array of ordered regions. In another aspect, the disclosure is directed to a method of constructing a multi-divergent-beam collimator. The method can include partitioning a cone-beam collimator into a plurality of ordered regions, inverting the plurality of ordered regions, and reassembling in a substantially reversed order the inverted plurality of ordered regions. In some examples, partitioning includes partitioning the cone-beam collimator into regions having substantially equal dimensions or sections having different dimensions. In some case, a plurality of outer regions of the ordered regions can have dimensions larger than a plurality of central regions. In another aspect, the disclosure is directed to a SPECT system. Included in the system is a camera having a detector and a collimator. The collimator includes a plurality of inverted, ordered sections of a cone-beam collimator reassembled in a substantially reversed order relative to the ordering in the cone-beam collimator. The system also includes a computing system that receives measurements from the camera and processes those measurements. In some examples, at least one of the camera, detector, and collimator are stationary. Of course, various combinations or more than one of the system elements can be stationary. For example, each of the elements can be stationary. In some examples, the sections of the collimator have substantially similar dimensions. In other examples, the regions have different dimensions. For example, the a plurality of outer regions of the ordered regions can have dimensions larger than a plurality of central regions. In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth by way of examples in order to provide a thorough understanding of the relevant teachings. However, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present teachings may be practiced without such details. With reference to FIG. 1, a SPECT system 10 is shown and described. The system 10 includes a gamma camera 14 and a data processing computing system 18. In some examples, an optional positioning element 22 is included. The gamma camera 14 is in communication with the computing system 18. In operation, the camera 14 acquires radioisotope gamma ray photons, which are emitted from portion of a body 25. The camera 14 converts the photons into electrical signals which represent that portion of the body emitting the photons. As a result of the conversion, the electric signals are transformed into data indicative of photon energy. In essence, the camera captures one or more projection. The projections are fed into the computing system 18 for the purpose of reconstructing an image of a spatial distribution of a pharmaceutical substance that causes the emissions of the photons within the portion of the body by processing the data. The photon energy information is registered for the assessment of the amount of Compton scattering that is introduced in the acquisition. The reconstruction of an image of the portion of the body may be performed based on any appropriate existing algorithm. For example, the ML-EM algorithm and the OS-EM algorithm can be used. Further details of these algorithms can be found in: Lange A K and Carson R: EM reconstruction algorithms for emission and transmission tomography. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr., vol. 8, pp. 306-316, 1984; Hudson H M, Hutton B F, and Larkin R: Accelerated EM reconstruction using ordered subsets. J. Nucl. Med., vol. 33, p. 960, 1991; and Hudson H M and Larki R S: Accelerated image reconstruction using ordered subsets of projection data. IEEE Trans. Med. Imag., vol. 13, pp. 601-609, 1994, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. With reference to FIG. 2 an example of a gamma camera 14 is shown and described. In some instances, the camera 14 includes a detector 26, a photo-multiplier 30, and collimator 34. The detector 26 can be include at least one photon detector crystal facing the portion of the body 25. The photon detector crystal may be in the form of a semiconductor crystal or crystals. This crystal(s) may be selected from a first group including Cadmium-Telluride (CdTe), Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride (CeZnTe), Lead Iodine (PbI). The photo-multiplier 30 is in communication with the detector 26. The photon detector crystal(s) in this case may be selected from a second group including Sodium Iodine (NaI), Bismuth Germanate (BGO), Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate (YSO), Cerium-doped Lutetium Oxyorthosilicate (LSO) and Cesium-Iodine (CsI) with solid state photo-diode or avalanche photo-diode (APD). The detector crystals listed above have different characteristics that are relevant for SPECT imaging: they differ in their ability to resolve photon energy (also termed “energy resolution”), their internal spatial resolution and their stopping power. These characteristics affect the resolution and sensitivity of the resultant images. Therefore, SPECT cameras utilizing different detector crystals will yield different resolution, using the same reconstruction algorithm. The detector 26, in some examples, may also be in the form of an array of photon detector crystals arranged in at least one row. The photon detector crystal array may be in the form of a plane or a ring surrounding the portion of the body. For example, detector 26 may be of the kind used in a known per se Anger camera. The collimator 34 is in communication with the detector 26. The collimator is a device capable of collimating radiation. In some cases, the collimator includes a plurality of long narrow tube in which strongly absorbing or reflecting walls permit only radiation traveling parallel to the tube axis to traverse the entire length. Said another way, the collimator 34 is a device that filters a stream of gamma rays so that only those traveling parallel to a specified direction are allowed through. In operation, camera 14 acquires radioisotope gamma ray photons, which are emitted from a portion the body 25. The photons pass through the collimator 34. The gamma photons impinge the photon detector crystal 26. If the crystal is a semiconductor crystal selected from the first group specified above, then the crystal converts the photons into electric signals, which are fed into the other components of the SPECT system 10 for processing. Alternatively, if the crystal is selected from the second group specified above, i.e. is of the kind that utilizing photo-multipliers, then the crystal converts photons into scintillation light, which is, thereafter, transformed into electric signals by photo-multiplier 30. These signals are processed by the computing system 18 to reconstruct an image of the portion of the body 26 of interest using know reconstruction algorithms. As mentioned above, a stationary cardiac SPECT system is difficult to design and manufacture. An approach that might aid in achieving a truly stationary SPECT system maybe to design multi-divergent-beam collimator. In some applications, a multi-divergent-beam collimator SPECT system outperforms a multipinhole system in terms of image resolution and detection sensitivity. The performance can be characterized by the contrast-to-noise ratio, because the detection sensitivity is inversely related to the image noise. Using a multi-divergent-beam collimator can produce a sufficient number of angular views that reconstruction of the image is possible without, in some instances, having to rotate the camera 14. Further, in cases where the camera 14 is positioned, the number of positions required to capture photon emissions from the body 26 is reduced. There are numerous approaches to designing a multi-divergent-beam collimator. One approach is to design each divergent zone independently which usually results in a very expensive fabrication cost. A more economical solution is now discussed. With reference to FIG. 3A-FIG. 3D, a method of constructing a multi-divergent-beam collimator is shown and described. In FIG. 3A-FIG. 3D, a one-dimensional example is discussed. In FIG. 3A, a cone-beam collimator is constructed. In FIG. 3B, the cone-beam collimator is inverted (e.g., flipped upside down) and becomes a divergent-beam collimator. In FIG. 3C, the divergent-beam collimator is portioned into sections 38A, 38B, 38C (generally sections 38). The sections 38 are assigned an order. In FIG. 3D, the ordered sections 38 are separated. In FIG. 3E, the ordered section 38 are reassembled (e.g., glued together) in the reverse order. As shown, the resulting multi-divergent-beam collimator produces multiple angular views of the portion of the body 26 of interest. When designing the multi-divergent-beam collimator 42, the original convergent-beam collimator is assumed to have a focal-length f, then such a converted multi-divergent-beam collimator 42 will have a common field-of-view that has a distance f away from the center of the collimator. In other words, one way to design a multi-divergent-beam collimator 42 with the center of the region of interest at a distance B from the collimator, first fabricate a convergent-beam collimator that has a focal-length B, then cut, rearrange, and glue the sections to construct a multi-divergent-beam collimator 42. In more detail and with reference to FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B, sections 38 are fabricated and then reassembled in reversed order. In this example, assume that the collimator has a frame of approximately 53 cm by 38 cm. The cone-beam focal length is approximately 400 mm. The hexagonal hole diameter is 1.9 mm. The septa are 0.23 mm. The core thickness is 35 mm. The collimator has a resolution at 100 mm is approximately 8.1 mm. The sensitivity of the collimator when operating in parallel mode is 334. The septa penetration at 140 keV is 0.6%. Working of these assumption, the cone-beam collimator is constructed as in FIG. 3A. Again, the cone-beam collimator is flipped upside down (e.g., inverted). In FIG. 4A, the inverted collimator is portioned into sections 38. As shown, the collimator is portioned into fifteen sections 38 having substantially similar dimensions. Of course, the sections can have different dimensions as will be described in more detail below. As shown, the sections 38 have a square shape. However, other shapes can be used. For example, the sections 38 can be rectangular, triangular, or some other polygonal shape. Of course, combinations of shapes an also be used. For example, a combination of squares and rectangles can be employed. As shown in FIG. 4A, the sections 38 are assigned an order. As shown, the sections 38 are labeled 38A-38O in a horizontal manner (e.g., from right to left across a row). Of course, other orderings can be used (e.g., vertical assignments). After assigning the order, the sections 38 are cut and then rearranged and reassembled in reverse order as shown in FIG. 4B. That is, section 38O that was previously in the bottom right hand corner is now positioned in the upper left hand corner. With reference to FIG. 4C a 3-by-3-by-3 collimator is shown. Again, the sections 38 can have various shapes and sizes. The section 38 parameters of the collimator 42 depends on the detector size 26 and the trade-off between detection resolution and angular sampling. For a given detector size 26, the use of more view-angles correlates with more partitioned zones, which results in smaller projection images. The system 10 resolution in SPECT is dominated by the collimator and the distance between the portion of the body of interest and the collimator. Due to poor sensitivity of SPECT, the image on the detector 26 cannot be too small. Assume in FIG. 4C that SPECT scanner detectors are 53 cm in the transaxial direction. Considering the dead area around the partitioned collimator zones, it is practical to have three zones in both the transaxial and the axial directions, resulting in a partition similar to that of the 3-by-3-by-3 multi-pinhole partition. In FIG. 4D a 2-by-3-by-2 multi-divergent-beam collimator is shown and described. This configuration provides additional view angles when compared to the 3-by-3-by-3 configuration of FIG. 4C. A method of constructing a multi-divergent-beam collimator 42 having a 2-by-3-by-2 configuration is shown and described with reference to FIG. 5A-5D. When compared to FIG. 3A-FIG. 3E, a substantially similar process is followed. FIG. 5A-5D show a two-dimensional example. In this configuration, the top and bottom rows of the collimator 42 include two sections 38. The middle row includes three sections 38. With reference to FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B, the additional view angles provided by the 2-by-3-by-2 configuration of FIG. 4D is shown and described. The middle row of divergent-beam collimators 42 has three zones that provide view-angles of θ1, 0, and −θ1 relative to the collimator's normal direction as in FIG. 6A, where θ1 is calculated as θ1=a tan−1(D/(3B)). The top row has two zones and provides view angles of θ2 and −θ1, where θ2 is given as θ2=a tan−1(D/(6B)), as shown in FIG. 6B. Similarly, the bottom row provides view angles of θ1 and −θ2. The shown 2-by-3-by-2 configuration of the sections 38 provides view angles: θ1, θ2, 0, −θ2, −θ1, as shown in FIG. 6C. Note that at ±θ1 the data are measure twice, but at different axial view angles. In one example, assume that D=53 cm and B=40 cm. Using this assumption, θ1=24° and θ2=12.5°. Thus θ1 is almost twice as large as θ2. The view angles are substantially uniformly sampled. Assuming that three detectors are used with an angle of 60.5° between them, than an angular range over 181.5° is substantially uniformly covered as shown in FIG. 6D. For a short distance B, the angular coverage is larger. For example, assume that D=53 cm and B=30 cm, then θ1=30.5°, θ2=16.40°, and the angular coverage with three detector positions is substantially 232.2°. If D=53 cm and B=25 cm, then θ1=35.2°, θ2=19.5°, and the angular coverage with three detector positions is substantially 269.7°. If two detector positions are used, the angular coverage is 179.8°. That is, if the distance B can be shortened to 25 cm, it may be possible to use two detector positions for cardiac SPECT imaging with the multi-divergent-beam collimator 42. The most substantial problem faced in a stationary imaging system is the lack of sufficient view angles. In order to obtain more angular views, the pinholes are, in fact, operating in image reducing (instead of magnifying) mode. For a fixed pinhole aperture size, pinhole collimation provides excellent detection sensitivity if the object is very small and placed very close to the pinhole; however, the detection sensitivity decreases dramatically if the object is moved away from the pinhole. As the object is moved farther into the image reduction zone, where the pinhole magnification factor is less than 1, the pinhole detection sensitivity becomes worse. In this zone, the divergent-beam collimator becomes more sensitive than the pinhole for the same specified spatial resolution. For both pinhole and divergent-beam systems, the imaging system's field-of-view (FOV) is determined by the detector size and the object-to-image reduction factor. If the detectors are the same and the image reduction factors are the same, both systems have the same FOV. In a SPECT study, the organ of interest is always assumed to be in the field-of-view (FOV) of the gamma camera; the background and other organs may be truncated, or not in the FOV, thus they are not measured. Dedicated systems are usually small, and data truncation happens frequently. A potential drawback of the stationary SPECT system is the lack of a sufficient number of views. To solve this problem, the pinhole imaging system is used, operating in image reduction mode, so that many angular views of the object can be obtained at a single detector position. In order for all pinholes to see the heart, the patient must be positioned away from the collimator, although this setup reduces the resolution and detection sensitivity. FIG. 7 illustrates a pinhole collimator and a divergent-beam collimator. Here the assumption is made that the pinhole system has a focal-length fph and distance bph from the focal point to the point-of-interest (POI). Similarly, the divergent-beam system has a focal-length fdiv and distance bdiv from the focal point to the point-of-interest (POI). For a fair comparison, these two systems are required to have the same image reduction factorfph/bph=fdiv/bdiv, (1)and that the object is the same distanceBph=Bdiv (that is, bph=bdiv−fdiv−L) (2)away from the collimator. In order to compare these two systems, a small object is placed at the POI and required that the systems give identical spatial resolutions on the detectors. Since the resolution of the two systems is fixed, the superior system provides greater geometric detection efficiency. These two systems are required to give identical detection sensitivities on the detectors. Because the sensitivity of the two systems is fixed, the superior system will provide better resolution. Larger detection sensitivity means that more gamma photons can be detected, and this results in lower Poisson noise in the data. Better resolution means smaller objects (e.g., lesions) can be resolved. The POI is further assumed to be on the central axis of the pinhole. For the pinhole geometry, there are the following two relations: Resolution ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ R ph ≈ d ph ⁢ f ph + b ph f ph ( 3 ) Geometric ⁢ ⁢ Efficiency ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ g ph ≈ d ph 2 16 ⁢ b ph 2 . ( 4 ) For the divergent-beam geometry, there are the following relations: Resolution ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ R div ≈ d div ⁢ b div - f div L ⁢ ( 1 + 1 2 ⁢ L f div ) ( 5 ) Geometric ⁢ ⁢ Efficiency ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ g div ≈ K 2 ⁡ ( d div L ) 2 ⁢ ( f div + L b div ) 2 ( 6 ) where the septal thickness t is ignored for a moment, otherwise there is a ( ⅆ div ⅆ div ⁢ + t ) 2factor in gdiv. The requirement for the two systems having the identical spatial resolution on the detectors impliesRph=Rdiv, (7)and from (3), (5) and (7), we have d ph ⁢ f ph + b ph f ph = d div ⁢ b div - f div L ⁢ ( 1 + L 2 ⁢ f div ) . ( 8 ) In order to satisfy (8) and (1) the hole-length L of the divergent-beam collimator must satisfy L = f div ( β · b div + f div b div - f div - 1 2 ) ⁢ ⁢ [ We ⁢ ⁢ denote ⁢ ⁢ this ⁢ ⁢ L ⁢ ⁢ as ⁢ ⁢ L R ] ⁢ ⁢ where ⁢ ⁢ β = d p ⁢ ⁢ h d div . ( 9 ) After the resolution is specified, equations (4) and (6) can be used to compare their detection sensitivities as g div g ph = K 2 ⁡ ( d div L ) 2 ⁢ ( f div + L b div ) 2 d ph 2 16 ⁢ b ph 2 ( 10 ) where K is a constant that depends on the hole shape (˜0.24 for round holes and ˜0.26 for hexagonal holes). If we assume K=0.25 then g div g ph = ⁢ ( d div L ) 2 ⁢ ( f div + L b div ) 2 d ph 2 b ph 2 = ⁢ [ 1 β · b ph ⁡ ( f div + L ) b div ⁢ L ] 2 . ( 11 ) Pinhole and divergent-beam collimators with the same image reducing factor can have different performances in terms of resolution. When the divergent-beam collimator hole-length L satisfies (9), both collimators give the same spatial resolution on the detectors for an object at the POI. IfL>LR (12)the divergent-beam collimator will provide better resolution than the pinhole. Furthermore, ifL<LR (13)the pinhole collimator will provide better resolution than the divergent-beam collimator. The requirement that the two systems have identical detection sensitivities on the detectors impliesgph=gdiv. (14)From (11) and (2), (14) becomes b ph ⁡ ( f div + L ) β ⁢ ⁢ b div ⁢ L = ⁢ 1 ⁢ ⁢ or ⁢ ⁢ ( b div - f div - L ) ⁢ ( f div + L ) β ⁢ ⁢ b div ⁢ L = ⁢ 1. ( 15 ) Solving for L from Eq. (15), results L = - ( 2 ⁢ f div + β ⁢ ⁢ b div - b div ) + ( 2 ⁢ f div + β ⁢ ⁢ b div - b div ) 2 + 4 ⁢ ⁢ f div ⁡ ( b div - f div ) 2 ⁢ [ We ⁢ ⁢ denote ⁢ ⁢ this ⁢ ⁢ L ⁢ ⁢ as ⁢ ⁢ L S ] . ( 16 ) After the sensitivity is specified, equations (1), (3) and (5) can be used to compare the resolution as R div R ph = ⁢ f ph β · L · b div - f div f ph + b ph · ( 1 + 1 2 ⁢ L f div ) = ⁢ 1 β · b div - f div b div + f div · ( f div L + 1 2 ) . ( 17 ) Pinhole and divergent-beam collimators with the same reduction factor can have different performances in terms of detection sensitivity. When (15) is satisfied, both collimators give the same sensitivity for an object at the POI. IfL<LS (18)the divergent-beam collimator will provide better sensitivity than the pinhole. Additionally, ifL>LS (19)the pinhole collimator will provide better sensitivity than the divergent-beam. Consequently, if L is chosen in the range of LR<L<LS, the divergent-beam system will outperform the pinhole system in both resolution and sensitivity. It can be established that 0<LR<LS is the case in some embodiments described herein, and that some embodiments can always be designed to have a divergent-beam imaging geometry that outperforms the pinhole system in both resolution and sensitivity. The above conclusion is true when the pinhole system is operating in the image reducing mode. If the pinhole system is operating in the image magnifying mode (as widely used in small animal imaging), the counterpart of the divergent-beam system is the cone-beam system. For any positive values of fdiv and bdiv with bdiv>fdiv>0, and for practical values of β>2, we have b div + f div > b div 2 ⁢ β > b div - f div 2 ⁢ β , ⁢ i . e . , β · b div + f div b div - f div - 1 2 > 0. ( 20 ) From (9), L R = f div ( β · b div + f div b div - f div - 1 2 ) > 0. ( 21 ) Here the assumption of β=dph/ddiv>2 is true, because a typical value of dph is approximately 6 mm and the typical ddiv for an LEHR (low energy high resolution) collimator is about 1.1 mm and for an LEHS (low energy high sensitivity) collimator about 2.54 mm. This gives a typical β value of 2.36˜5.45, which is greater than 2. Now we will show LS>LR, that is, - ( 2 ⁢ f div + β ⁢ ⁢ b div - b div ) + ( 2 ⁢ f div + β ⁢ ⁢ b div - b div ) 2 + 4 ⁢ f div ⁡ ( b div - f div ) 2 > f div β · b div + f div b div - f div - 1 2 , ( 22 ) or equivalently ( 2 ⁢ f div β · b div + f div b div - f div - 1 2 ) 2 + 2 ⁢ ( 2 ⁢ f div + β ⁢ ⁢ b div - b div ) ⁢ ( 2 ⁢ f div β · b div + f div b div - f div - 1 2 ) - 4 ⁢ f div ⁡ ( b div - f div ) < 0 ( 23 ) which can be simplified as(−4β2+6β)fdivbdiv+(−4β2+4β−1)fdiv2−(2 β−1)bdiv2<0. (24) Since fdiv<bdiv, if β>1.5 the left-hand-side of (23) is upper bounded by(−4β2+6β)fdiv2+(−4β2+4β−1)fdiv2(2β−1)fdiv2=−4fdivβ(β−2) (25)When β>2, the expression in (24) is negative. In other words, when β>2, LS>LR. A practical value of β is in the range of 2.36˜5.45. Therefore, in some embodiments described herein LS>LR in all cases. The relationship 0<LR<LS assures the existence of divergent-beam collimators that are superior to the image-reducing mode pinhole collimator in terms of both resolution and detection sensitivity. Hereafter we address more realistic collimation situations where we consider collimator penetration and a distributed source, which may not be exactly at the center of the field-of-view. We assume that the radiation source is a three-dimensional cube of size 15 cm×15 cm×15 cm containing the heart, the collimator is made of lead, and there is an angle θ between a general emission ray and the central line of the collimator. Based on these generalizations, equations (3)-(6) are revised as (26)-(29): Pinhole ⁢ ⁢ Collimator ⁢ ⁢ Resolution ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ R ph ≈ d ^ ph ⁢ f ph + b ph f ph ( 26 ) Geometric ⁢ ⁢ Efficiency ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ g ph ≈ d ^ ph 2 ⁢ cos 3 ⁢ θ 16 ⁢ b ph 2 ( 27 ) where {circumflex over (d)}ph=√{square root over (dph[dph+2μ−tan(α/2)])} is Anger's effective pinhole diameter, μ is the linear attenuation coefficient of the collimator material, and α is the pinhole acceptance angle. More accurate effective pinhole diameters can consider photon penetration. For large pinholes (with a diameter larger than 1 mm), Anger's effective pinhole diameter is acceptable, and will be adopted and incorporated herein for its simplicity. Similarly, for the divergent-beam geometry, we have: Divergent ⁢ - ⁢ Beam ⁢ ⁢ Collimator ⁢ ⁢ Resolution ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ R div ≈ d div ⁢ b div - f div L ^ · 1 cos ⁢ ⁢ θ ⁢ ( 1 + 1 2 ⁢ L ^ f div ) ( 28 ) Divergent ⁢ - ⁢ Beam ⁢ ⁢ Collimator ⁢ ⁢ Geometric ⁢ ⁢ Efficiency ⁢ : ⁢ ⁢ g div ≈ K 2 ⁡ ( d div L _ ) 2 ⁢ ( ⅆ div ⅆ div ⁢ + t ) 2 ⁢ ( f div + L b div ) 2 ( 29 ) where t is the septal thickness and {circumflex over (L)}=(L−2μ−1)/cos θ is the effective hole-length, and K=0.26 for a hexagonal collimator hole. For a stationary system, one concern is the lack of sufficient view angles. Both the multi-pinhole and multi-divergent-beam systems can provide additional view angles at a fixed detector position. The additional view angles provided by these two types of systems are different. We will use the 1D version to illustrate the basic principle. The multi-pinhole geometry is shown in FIG. 8A, where the angle θph is the additional view-angle a multi-pinhole system provides. The maximum value of the additional view-angle can be determined by θ ph max = tan - 1 ⁢ D 2 - pf ph B ph f ph + B ph ( 30 ) where D is the detector size and ρ is the radius of the object of interest. The multi-divergent-beam geometry is shown in FIG. 8B, where the angle θdiv is the additional view-angle provided by the multi-divergent-beam system. The maximum value of the additional view-angle can be determined by θ div max = tan - 1 ⁢ D 2 - ρ ⁡ ( b div - B div - L ) b div B div + L . ( 31 ) As a special case, in some embodiments described herein, bdiv=2Bdiv, then (31) becomes θ div max = tan - 1 ⁢ D - ρ + pL B div 2 ⁢ ( B div + L ) . ( 32 ) For given numerical values, the maximum value of the additional view-angle provided by the pinhole is less than the maximum value of the additional view-angle provided by the multi-divergent-beam system, and each detector position using the multidivergent-beam collimator can cover approximately 60° of view angles. Therefore, three detector positions can acquire projections over 180° as shown in FIG. 8C. On the other hand, for the multi-pinhole system, three detector positions are less likely to cover 180°. This analysis shows a distinct advantage of the multi-divergent-beam collimator over the multi-pinhole collimator: The multi-divergent-beam collimator can provide a larger view-angle range than the multi-pinhole collimator. This analysis can be readily extended to practical 2D multi-pinhole and multi-divergent-beam collimators. The view-angle range in the axial direction is also larger for the multi-divergent-beam collimator than for the pinhole collimator. Under the assumption that the image reducing factor fdiv/bdiv in (1) is 0.5, fdiv=40 cm and β=4, the value of LR from (9) isLR=2fdiv/(6β−1)=3.48 cm. At L=LR=3.48 cm the sensitivity gain given by (11) is gdiv/gph=2.03. This implies that when the pinhole and the divergent-beam systems have the same spatial resolution at the center of the object, the divergent-beam system has a 2-fold sensitivity gain over the pinhole system. In some embodiments, under the assumption that the image systems satisfy assumption (2), the value of LS can be directly solved from (16) as LS=4.92 cm. That is, when the collimator hole-length is chosen as LS=4.92 cm, both systems have the same sensitivity at the center of the object, while the divergent-beam system has better resolution than the pinhole system, with a resolution ratio Rdiv/Rph=0.72. In this numerical example, LS=4.92 cm is rather long from a practical point of view. Thus, for a practical hole length L, the divergent-beam collimator will have better sensitivity than the pinhole. We now compare the divergent-beam collimator and the pinhole collimator based on the two assumptions expressed in Eqs. (1) and (2), and that the two collimators have the same reduction factor (0.5) and the same distance (40 cm) from the center of the object to the collimator. These two requirements result in fdiv=40 cm, bdiv=80 cm, fph=20 cm, and bph=40 cm. The pinhole diameter is dph=6 mm, α=90°, the divergent collimator hexagonal hole size is ddiv=1.5 mm, and the septal thickness is 0.23 mm. If we assume the hole size of 1.5 mm, hole length of 3.6 cm, the linear attenuation coefficient of lead at 140 keV of 21.66 per cm, then the penetration percentage is less than 6%. Using (26)-(29), a divergent-beam to pinhole resolution ratio plot and a sensitivity ratio plot is illustrated in FIGS. 11A-11B. From the curves, we have the equal resolution parameter LR=3.3 cm and at this hole-length the divergent to pinhole sensitivity gain is 2. From the sensitivity ratio plot, the equal sensitivity hole-length LS=4.7 cm and at this hole-length the divergent to pinhole resolution FWHM reduction factor is 0.7. For a multi-pinhole system setup: D=53 cm, ρ=10 cm, Bph=40 cm, and fph=20 cm, the maximum value of the additional view-angle (for pinhole) is=19.7° according to (30). For an equivalent multi-divergent-beam system setup: D=53 cm, ρ=10 cm, L=3.48 cm and Bdiv=Bph=40 cm, the maximum value of the additional view-angle (for divergent system) is=26.8° according to (32). Thus at a fixed detector position, the multi-divergent-beam system can provide a larger angular range than the multi-pinhole system. Two comparison studies compare the multi-divergent-beam and multi-pinhole imaging systems via computer simulations. In both systems, the collimators had the same 2-3-2 partitions as shown in FIGS. 9A-9B. Each detector position provided 5 view-angles in the transaxial direction. Each sub-detector zone was a 64×64 matrix with a pixel size of 1.25 mm. Three detector positions were used. Both collimators had the same image reduction factor of 0.5. The adjacent detectors were positioned 60° apart. The cardiac phantom had an outside radius of 6 cm and an inner radius of 5 cm. The heart-to-collimator distance was 40 cm. In projection data generation, we assumed that these two systems had the same spatial resolution at the center of the object, which led to a 2-fold sensitivity gain for the multi-divergent-beam system over the multi-pinhole system. The iterative ML-EM algorithm was used to reconstruct the images with 5 iterations. No resolution compensation was used in image reconstruction. In the first comparison study, computer simulated noiseless projections were used. The data were attenuation-less and scatter-free. The purpose of this study was to compare the angular sampling effects for both imaging geometries. In both geometries, the detector partitions were the same; however, their view-angles for each sub-detection-region were different. It is clearly shown in FIG. 10A that 3 detector positions with a multi-divergent-beam collimator provided satisfactory angular sampling; the short axis reconstructions appear as circular rings. On the other hand, the same 3 detector positions with a multi-pinhole collimator did not provide sufficient angular sampling; the circular rings became a little hexagon-like and the background has artifacts in the shape of a star (see FIG. 10B). In the second comparison study (see FIGS. 10C and 10D), computer simulated noisy projections were used. When the Poisson noise was added to the projections, the sensitivity gain of 2 of the divergent-beam system over the pinhole system was incorporated. The purpose of this second study was to compare the noise effects for both imaging geometries. A uniform spherical phantom of radius 6 cm was used so that it was easier to calculate the noise standard deviation over the center region of the object. It was assumed that both systems had the same scanning time (of approximately 7 minutes with the patient cardiac Tc-99 m dose). The multi-divergent-beam system had a total photon count of 339439, and the multi-pinhole system had a total photon count of 155480. An inscribed cube inside the sphere was used to evaluate the mean and standard deviation of the reconstructed image. The normalized standard deviation (i.e. standard deviation divided by the mean) was 0.12 for the divergent-beam system and was 0.16 for the pinhole system. There are many approaches to designing a multi-divergent-beam collimator. One approach is to design each divergent zone independently which usually results in a very expensive fabrication cost. Some embodiments provide a novel and economical approach based on a cone-beam collimator. In order to illustrate the idea, we first use a one-dimensional (1D) example, where the cone-beam collimator degenerates into a fan-beam collimator as shown in FIG. 6. First, we turn the collimator upside down, and the convergent-beam collimator becomes a divergent-beam collimator. Second, we partition the collimator into multiple sections (or zones), and label them as a, b, and c. Third, we cut the sections. Fourth, we rearrange and attach them in a reversed order: c, b, and a. This procedure is illustrated and discussed previously with respect to FIGS. 3A-3E. If the original convergent-beam collimator has a focal-length f, then such a converted multi-divergent-beam collimator will have a common field-of-view that has a distance f away from the center of the collimator. In other words, if it is sought to design a multi-divergent-beam collimator with the center of the ROI at a distance B from the collimator, first we need to fabricate a convergent-beam collimator that has a focal-length B, then we cut, rearrange, and glue to construct a multi-divergent-beam collimator. The fabrication of a practical two-dimensional (2D) collimator can follow the same procedure as illustrated above. That is, we start with a regular cone-beam collimator of focal-length, B, then we partition and cut the collimator into sections, finally we rearrange the sections in the reversed order and couple them together as illustrated in FIGS. 5A-5B. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the present teachings are amenable to a variety of modifications and/or enhancements. For example, although the above-described collimator is discussed for use in a SPECT system it can be used in other types of nuclear medical imaging applications. While the foregoing has described what are considered to be the best mode and/or other examples, it is understood that various modifications may be made therein and that the subject matter disclosed herein may be implemented in various forms and examples, and that the teachings may be applied in numerous applications, only some of which have been described herein. It is intended by the following claims to claim any and all applications, modifications and variations that fall within the true scope of the present teachings.
047042486	description	Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding components throughout the several views of the drawings. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings, a high performance fuel element of the present invention is generally indicated by reference character 20A in FIGS. 3-5. Before discussing the high performance fuel element in detail it would be illustrative to describe a standard fuel element, shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, over which the high performance fuel element 20A is an improvement. The standard fuel element 20, the subject of commonly assigned, copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 414,437, filed Sept. 2, 1982, includes an elongate block 22 made of refractory material, such as graphite, and having a prismatic configuration. More specifically, it has a generally regular polygonal cross section (hexagonal) and includes substantially parallel, spaced first and second end surfaces 24, 26, respectively, and an outer peripheral side surface 28. The side surface 28 has a number of regularly spaced generally semicylindrical recesses 29 formed longitudinally along each planar portion thereof. When stacks of fuel elements 20 are placed next to one another in the reactor core, coolant channels are formed by the recesses 29 through which the reactor core coolant, e.g. helium, may pass. Thus no matter how closely adjacent planar portions of side surfaces 28 of blocks in adjacent stacks are positioned, coolant can pass between the vertical stacks of the blocks 22. The block has a number of longitudinal cylindrical passages 30 therethrough for flowing a coolant, such as helium, during operation of the associated reactor core. The block also has a number of longitudinal cylindrical holes or blind bores 32 to receive generally cylindrical fuel rods or segments similar to rods or segments 34 shown in FIG. 5. These fuel rods comprise nuclear fuel particles having a core of fissile and/or fertile material surrounded by a ceramic shell. These particles are embedded in a matrix which comprises a mixture of graphite flour and a suitable binding pitch, as is known in the art. The fuel blocks may have central openings 36 serving as a tooling hole or a fuel handling hole. The hole 36 is drilled from the first end surface 24 and includes a funnel entry 62 for guiding entry of the handling tool. The hole has a lip 64 at an enlarged part of the hole, having a surface 66 for engagement by components of the handling tool. A positioning hole 68 is drilled from the second end surface 26 and serves in the positioning of the block 22 while the handling hole 36 is formed. Other holes, not illustrated, may be provided in the block for the purpose of accommodating reactor control rods, reserve shutdown pellets and/or power rods including neutron absorbing material, for controlling operation of the reactor in a conventional manner. A raised peripheral sealing flange, indicated generally at 38, is formed, as by machining, on the first end surface 24 of the fuel element 20. The sealing flange 38 has an upper planar sealing surface 40 and an inner polygonal boundary surface 42 inclined slightly outwardly. The second end surface 26 of the fuel element 20 has a polygonal sealing recess, indicated generally at 44, formed thereon, as by machining, which in the illustrated embodiment takes the form of a generally hexagonal plan shaped planar base surface 46 and a hexagonal longitudinally extending peripheral boundary surface 48. The sealing recess is sized to receive the flange 38 and the recess peripheral boundary surface 48 is bevelled, inclined inwardly from base surface 46, to promote ease of stacking and separation of the blocks 22. When the blocks are vertically stacked, planar sealing surface 40 of the flange and planar base surface 46 of the recess are in full surface contact to effect a seal to limit coolant leakage. While the standard fuel element 20 works satisfactorily for its intended purpose, a price is paid for the provision of the sealing components. The block 22 has a thick rim between the flange and the recess. It is desirable to provide additional fuel and coolant holes in the region underlying the flange 38. However, a continuation of the normal fuel and coolant hole pattern here would interfere with and compromise the integrity of the seal. Referring to FIGS. 3-5, the fuel element 20A of the present invention is shown. Components of the fuel element 20A corresponding to components of fuel element 20 are indicated by the reference numeral applied to the component of the fuel element 20 with the addition of the suffix "A". As with the standard fuel element, the length of the flange 38A is preferably somewhat greater than the depth of the recess 44A so that when two of the blocks 22A are stacked, a plenum 50A is formed. The plenum 50A is continuous and uninterrupted because within the flange and recess, the first end surface 24A of one block 22A and the facing second end surface 26A of the other block 22A are substantially planar and parallel. Thus a blocked coolant passage 30A in one block does not render inoperative all aligned coolant passages in other stacked blocks because the presence of the plenums permits coolant to be shunted around the blockage. Besides having the plurality of first coolant passages 30A and the plurality of first fuel holes 32A positioned inwardly of the flange 38A and the recess 44A, the block 22A has a plurality of spaced elongated second fuel holes 52 disposed adjacent the periphery of the block. These fuel holes 52 extend intermediate the end surfaces 24A, 26A in general alignment with the flange 38A and the recess 44A. To assist in removing the additional heat resulting from the provision of the additional fuel holes, the block 22A also has a plurality of longitudinal second coolant passages 54. The coolant passages 54 are positioned adjacent the periphery of the block 22A. They extend intermediate the end surfaces 24A, 26A and are in general alignment with the flange and the recess. Each coolant passage 54 is preferably located adjacent to and corresponds to one of the coolant passages 30A to form a pair. The block 22A further has two bypasses for each pair of coolant passages. A first bypass 56 intersects the associated passage 54 near to but spaced from the first end surface 24A, while second bypass 58 intersects the associated passage 54 near to but spaced from the second end surface 26A. Each bypass preferably extends at an angle of between 20 degrees and 40 degrees relative to the axis of its associated peripheral coolant passage 54. Alternatively, the bypasses could be arranged to intersect different coolant passages 30A. In another modification, the bypasses 56, 58 could be drilled from respective end surfaces 24A, 26A without intersecting any interior coolant passage 30A. The peripheral fuel holes 52 and coolant passages 54 are preferably formed by drilling from the recess base surface 46A. They terminate short of the flange 38A so not to degrade its mechanical strength. Each passage 54 is blocked by a plug 60 between its intersection with the bypass 58 and the recess surface 46A. The incorporation into the block 22A of the peripheral fuel holes 52 and peripheral coolant passages 54 with their associated bypasses 56 and 58, permits a significant increase in the core power density without an increase in its size. Furthermore, the presence of the additional coolant passages does not degrade the peripheral seal because coolant flowing through the passages 54 enters and leaves the block 22A through the paired interior coolant passages 30A. By way of example, the standard fuel element 20 could contain a total of 2052 fuel rods. A high performance fuel element 20A of the present invention, of the same size, can accommodate a total of 2448 fuel rods, a nineteen percent increase. The peripheral coolant passages 54 are shown having a slight reduction in diameter compared to coolant passages 30A. This arrangement permits high performance fuel element 20A to have the same envelope and the same pitch between inner passages and holes as does the standard fuel element 20. However if maintenance of the same size is not required, larger peripheral coolant passages can be provided. As shown in FIG. 4, coolant passages 30B adjacent the rim 38A could be of reduced diameter to further strengthen the rim. However reduced diameter passages 30B are preferably not paired with the peripheral coolant passages 54. In view of the above, it will be seen that the several objects of the invention are achieved and other advantageous results attained. As various changes could be made without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense.
	summary
051456362	summary	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of neutron irradiation for the production of radionuclides useful for medical therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. More particularly, this invention relates to improved irradiation targets for the production of rhenium-186 and rhenium-188. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Isotopes of rhenium have recently become of interest to the nuclear medicine community for use in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Two isotopes of rhenium, .sup.186 Re and .sup.188 Re, are of particular significance due to their suitability for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Both .sup.186 Re and .sup.188 Re are .beta.-emitting radionuclides (beta energies of 1.07 and 2.12 Mev, respectively) with relatively short half lives (90 hours for .sup.186 Re and 16.98 hours for .sup.188 Re). In addition, both exhibit gamma emissions (9.2%, 137 kev and 15%, 155 kev, respectively) suitable for gamma counter imaging of biodistribution in vivo. .sup.186 Re is conventionally produced from .sup.185 Re (37% natural abundance) by neutron capture in a nuclear reactor. The nuclear properties of this isotopic system are as follows: ##STR1## In the production of .sup.186 Re, rhenium-185 metal is typically irradiated at a high flux rate, such as at 10.sup.14 -10.sup.15 neutrons/cm.sup.2 /s, for periods of 24 hours or more. After irradiation, the resulting .sup.186 Re isotope must be solubilized for clinical applications, such as for conjugation to tumor-specific antibodies, typically by treatment with a strong oxidizing agent, e.g., hydrogen peroxide or concentrated nitric acid, to obtain a soluble perrhenate solution. The perrhenate solution, containing .sup.186 Re, must then be neutralized and purified to remove contaminants prior to antibody conjugation and/or other clinical applications. .sup.188 Re is conventionally derived from either natural rhenium-187 (63% natural abundance) in carrier-added form by neutron bombardment in a nuclear reactor or, preferably, in high specific activity, carrier-free form from a generator made of a target tungsten material, enriched in .sup.186 W, by double neutron capture in a high-flux reactor to produce .sup.188 W and its decay product .sup.188 Re. The nuclear properties of this isotopic system are as follows: ##STR2## Since .sup.188 Re produced from neutron capture by irradiation of .sup.187 Re is accompanied by unconverted .sup.187 Re and other impurities (i.e., is obtained in carrier added form) and since the short half-life of .sup.188 Re limits the efficiency of .sup.188 Re accumulation during relatively longer-term irradiation and subsequent handling procedures, the production of .sup.188 Re by nuclear decomposition in no carrier added form in a tungstate/rhenium generator system is highly preferred. Previous tungsten/rhenium generators for the production of .sup.188 Re have consisted of small, alumina columns with relatively small amounts of tungsten targets adsorbed on the columns and, thus, low rhenium yields in the microcurie (.mu.Ci) range. To increase the amount of rhenium obtainable from such columns (i.e., in the millicurie range, mCi), larger column masses are necessary in order to contain larger amounts of target tungsten. These larger columns, in turn, require increased eluting volumes. In addition, prior .sup.188 W/.sup.188 Re generators using alumina columns have provided poor yields of .sup.188 Re and unacceptable levels of release, or "breakthrough", of .sup.188 Re from the column due primarily to the necessity of adsorbing large (0.5-2.0 grams) amounts of target tungsten (primarily as .sup.186 W) onto the alumina column. U.S. Pat. No. 4,859,931 of Ehrhardt discloses an improved .sup.188 Re generator in which an insoluble zirconyl tungstate matrix containing .sup.188 W decays over time producing .sup.188 Re in the form of perrhenate (.sup.188 ReO.sub.4.sup.-), which is readily elutable from the matrix. The zirconyl tungstate matrix as disclosed in the Ehrhardt patent is produced by dissolving irradiated tungsten trioxide in a heated basic solution, adding the basic tungsten trioxide solution to an acidic zirconium-containing solution to obtain an acidic zirconyl tungstate slurry containing .sup.188 W, drying the slurry to form a permeable matrix, and then packing the matrix in an elutable column. The Ehrhardt generator has been found to be a highly effective generator of .sup.188 Re. Although the direct irradiation of .sup.185 Re has proven effective for the production of .sup.186 Re, and both the direct irradiation of .sup.187 Re and the zirconyl tungstate generator system have proven to be effective for the production of .sup.188 Re, these systems have inherent drawbacks which limit their large-scale use and acceptability. In the case of direct irradiation of .sup.185 Re or .sup.187 Re, the irradiated .sup.186 Re or .sup.188 Re in the form of rhenium metal or rhenium trioxide must be solubilized, typically by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid, to form soluble perrhenate (ReO.sub.4.sup.-). The perrhenate solution must then be neutralized, such as with aqueous ammonia. This procedure not only is time consuming and requires extensive handling and processing of irradiated materials, but also results in unwanted by-products which must be separated from the perrhenate. Prior tungsten/rhenium generator systems for the production of .sup.188 Re also require significant handling and processing of irradiated materials, including dissolution, precipitation, filtration, drying, gel fragmentation and column packing steps, all occurring after irradiation of the tungsten metal or tungsten trioxide starting materials. These processing steps with irradiated materials necessitate the use of cumbersome shielded processing equipment, result in relatively high manufacturing costs and pose significant potential safety risks. U.S. Pat. No. 4,778,672 of Deutsch et al. discloses a procedure for the purification of irradiated perrhenate and tungstate solutions, primarily to eliminate contaminants introduced through harsh conditions required for target dissolution. In the Deutsch et al. procedure, irradiated rhenium metal is dissolved by the addition of concentrated nitric acid and the resulting solution is neutralized with ammonia. The neutralized solution, containing solubilized perrhenate, is then treated with a soluble lipophilic counter ion, such as a solution of tetrabutyl ammonium bromide, and passed through a preferential sorption column, which has been pretreated with the counter ion, to separate the perrhenate from the solution. The retained perrhenate, which has been separated from unwanted byproducts formed in the rhenium dissolution process, is then eluted from the column. The foregoing procedure may also be employed in the purification of pertechnetate eluant obtained from a molybdenum-99/technetium-99 m generator column or perrhenate eluant from a tungsten-188/rhenium-188 generator column. The process of the Deutsch patent has been found to be effective for the removal of impurities from pertechnetate and perrhenate solutions. This process, however, is time consuming and further aggravates the costs and other problems associated with processing of irradiated materials. These problems remain particularly acute in connection with the production of .sup.186 Re which, due to its relatively short half-life and production by direct irradiation, must frequently be processed into suitable form on-site in a clinical or hospital setting. In order to avoid some processing steps with irradiated materials in connection with the generator production of .sup.99m Tc in a related molybdenum/technetium generator system, Narasimhan et al., "A New Method for .sup.99m Tc Generator Preparation," J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., Letters, Vol. 85, No. 6, pp. 345-356, discloses an improved method of preparing a zirconium molybdate .sup.99m Tc generator in which the precipitation, filtration, drying and fragmentation of radioactive materials required in the preparation of a zirconium molybdate .sup.99m Tc generator are avoided by directly irradiating zirconium molybdate instead of molybdenum trioxide as in prior zirconium molybdate generator systems. However, the direct irradiation of zirconium molybdate as reported by Narasimhan et al. resulted in the production of radioactive contaminants unacceptable for clinical therapeutic or diagnostic applications, including .sup.97 Zr, .sup.95 Zr, .sup.175 Hf, .sup.181 Hf, and .sup.24 Na. Thus, a strong need exists for improved irradiation targets for the production of .sup.186 Re and .sup.188 Re which will simplify the dissolution of these radionuclides or their precursors and reduce the handling procedures, costs and safety hazards associated with their production in a form suitable for medical diagnostic or therapeutic use. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has now been discovered that the foregoing problems associated with the conventional production of .sup.186 Re and .sup.188 Re can be significantly reduced by the direct irradiation of specific water soluble irradiation targets, which are selected for both water solubility and absence of elements which would produce contaminating isotopes for medical therapeutic and diagnostic use. In one embodiment of the invention, .sup.186 Re is produced by the direct irradiation of a water soluble irradiation target comprising .sup.185 Re. Presently preferred targets for this purpose include aluminum perrhenate, lithium perrhenate and magnesium perrhenate. In another embodiment of the invention, soluble aluminum perrhenate, lithium perrhenate or magnesium perrhenate comprising .sup.187 Re may be directly irradiated for the production of .sup.188 Re. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a zirconyl tungstate generator comprising .sup.188 W for the production of .sup.188 Re is obtained by irradiating a soluble irradiation target comprising .sup.186 W, dissolving the irradiated target in aqueous solution, reacting the dissolved target with an aqueous solution comprising zirconyl ion to form an insoluble zirconium tungstate precipitate and disposing the precipitate in an elutable container. Presently preferred irradiation targets for this purpose include sodium tungstate and lithium tungstate. In each of the foregoing embodiments, the irradiation target is readily soluble in aqueous solution and may be used directly in solution form after irradiation, such as for ligand conjunction for medical diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, without cumbersome dissolution, neutralization, purification and other processing steps involving irradiated materials inherent in prior .sup.186 Re and .sup.188 Re production methods. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides improved rhenium irradiation targets for use in the production of the radionuclides .sup.186 Re and .sup.188 Re. Suitable irradiation targets for use in the invention are selected both for their water solubility and the absence of elements which would produce contaminating isotopes upon irradiation which would interfere with the use of the desired radionuclides .sup.186 Re or .sup.188 Re for medical therapeutic or diagnostic purposes. As used herein, the term "soluble" means a compound having a relatively high degree of solubility in water. The soluble irradiation targets of the invention will generally have a degree of soluble irradiation targets of the invention will generally have a degree of solubility in water of at least about 1,000 grams per liter, and more preferably at least about 3,000 grams per liter. In addition, the irradiation targets are selected for the absence of elements that, upon irradiation, would produce radioisotopes which would interfere or otherwise contaminate the desired .sup.186 Re or .sup.188 Re radionuclides. Presently preferred soluble irradiation targets for use for direct irradiation in the production of .sup.186 Re or .sup.188 Re include aluminum perrhenate, lithium perrhenate and magnesium perrhenate. The presently most preferred soluble irradiation target for this purpose is aluminum perrhenate. When the desired radionuclide is .sup.186 Re, the irradiation target will preferably be enriched in .sup.185 Re. Similarly, when the desired radionuclide is .sup.188 Re, the target will preferably be enriched in .sup.187 Re. When lithium perrhenate is used as an irradiation target, the target will additionally be enriched in .sup.7 Li to avoid undesirable by-products, e.g., tritium, associated with neutron capture by .sup.6 Li. For purposes of use in a tungsten/rhenium generator comprising .sup.188 W for the production of .sup.188 Re, presently preferred targets include sodium tungstate and lithium tungstate, with sodium tungstate being presently most preferred. Particularly preferred targets for this purpose will be enriched in .sup.186 W, and when comprised of lithium, will additionally be enriched in .sup.7 Li. The soluble irradiation targets of the invention may be obtained by the dissolution of rhenium metal, tungsten metal, or rhenium or tungsten trioxides by processes well known in the art. For example, rhenium metal may be dissolved in concentrated nitric acid or a hydrogen peroxide solution, and tungsten metal may be dissolved in concentrated nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid. The acidic mixture may then be taken to dryness to volatilize undesirable components, such as HF (when present), and reconstituted in water. The resulting solution, containing perrhenate or tungstate, may be mixed with an aqueous solution of the desired counter ion. The solution may then be heated to dryness to recover the soluble irradiation target in dry form. If desired, the irradiation target may be redissolved, such as in water, further purified, such as by filtration, and then heated to dryness, in one or more washing steps to further purify the target. Recovered solid material may then be directly irradiated in a neutron reactor in a conventional manner. In another aspect of the invention, an improved method is provided for the production of the radionuclides .sup.186 Re or .sup.188 Re, comprising irradiating a water soluble irradiation target comprising .sup.185 Re or .sup.187 Re, respectively, and then dissolving the irradiated target in an aqueous solution. By directly irradiating the water soluble irradiation target, as opposed to the irradiation of rhenium metal or trioxide in conventional processes, the cumbersome purification, processing and handling procedures of irradiated materials inherent in prior art rhenium radionuclide production processes are substantially reduced. In another aspect of the invention, an improved process for producing a tungsten/rhenium generator for the production of .sup.188 Re is provided which comprises irradiating a soluble target selected from sodium tungstate or lithium tungstate comprising .sup.186 W to obtain an irradiated soluble tungstate salt, comprising .sup.188 W, reacting the soluble tungstate salt with an aqueous zirconium solution to obtain an insoluble zirconium tungstate gel or matrix, and then disposing the zirconium tungstate gel in an elutable container. Production of the generators of the invention provides significant advantages over prior art processes for the production of zirconyl tungstate gel matrix-type generator systems, since the soluble irradiation target may be directly irradiated, readily solubilized, reacted with zirconium ion to form an insoluble zirconium tungstate gel and then packed into a column, thereby avoiding the cumbersome nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid dissolution, purification and other processing steps with irradiated materials required in the prior art generator system production processes. The soluble irradiation target is preferably dried to solid form providing a convenient form for direct irradiation. After irradiation, .sup.187 W (half-life, 24 hours) and .sup.24 Na (half-life, 15 hours), when present, are preferably allowed to decay from the irradiated materials, and the irradiated target is readily dissolved in water, insolubilized, such as by reaction with zirconyl nitrate, packed in a column and allowed to decay to form highly soluble ions comprising .sup.188 Re, typically in the perrhenate (.sup.188 ReO.sub.4.sup.-). The .sup.188 ReO.sub.4.sup.- may then be readily eluted from the column. In this generator embodiment, the zirconium tungstate matrix may be transferred to an empty container for eluting and harvesting of perrhenate containing .sup.188 Re. Suitable containers may include, for example, a glass column such as those used in standard chromatography encased in a "shell" including appropriate lead shielding, associated plumbing and a reservoir of eluant to form a generator assembly. Alternatively, a separate sterile reservoir may be supplied for each series of elutions. It is desirable, but not essential, to keep the matrix hydrated at all times. Periodically, the daughter radionuclide is conveniently eluted from the column using a suitable eluant solution, such as water or saline. A presently particularly preferred eluant solution is physiological saline. Performance of an improved generator of the present invention may be expressed as elution efficiency. Elution efficiency may be calculated by measuring the amount of radioactivity of the daughter radionuclide present in the eluant divided by the amount of radioactivity of the daughter radionuclide originally present on the generator column, immediately prior to elution. The radioactivity of the radionuclide may be determined using standard instruments for measuring radioactivity including gamma ray spectrophotometers such as germanium detectors and sodium iodide scintillation spectrophotometers, which are capable of measuring low levels of radioactivity, or dose calibrators that can measure high levels of radioactivity. In the present invention, since the generator consists of a small column, the entire column may be placed in a dose calibrator to directly measure the radioactivity of daughter radionuclide on the column before elution, and by subtracting from this value the amount of radioactivity of the daughter radionuclide on the column after elution, the amount of radioactivity of the radionuclide present in the eluant may be determined. This procedure provides a close approximation of the daughter radionuclide present in the eluant because, at the appropriate setting on the dose calibrator, the radioactivity measured on the column may be attributed to daughter radionuclide. Elution efficiencies are typically measured after approximately 3 to 10 daughter radionuclide half-lives. Elution efficiencies as high as 55%-65% may be obtained using the generators of the present invention, with concentrations of .sup.188 Re in the eluant of up to 30 mCi/ml and higher, determined immediately after elution and typically after 3 or 4 half-lives. The radiochemical purity of the daughter radionuclide may be assessed using ion exchange, reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or scintillator chromatography using nonradioactive perrhenate as a standard. During the elution process, a certain amount of the parent radionuclide may be released into the eluant, for example, in the form of small particles of the zirconium tungstate, causing contamination of the daughter radionuclide. A porous glass or plastic structure, such as a fritted glass disc used in chromatography columns, may be used to retain some of these particles to prevent entry of tungsten into the eluate. However, the amount of parent radionuclide released from the column is relatively low using the process of this invention (as low as 0.01%), since a large fraction of the generator matrix would have to dissolve before a substantial fraction of the parent radionuclide contained in it is released. Moreover, the level of parent radionuclide present in the eluate may be reduced by several orders of magnitude using a substrate which is capable of adsorbing the parent radionuclide, such as an alumina column or zirconium hydroxide bed, to purify the solution eluted from the generator. Thus, the generator system of the present invention may include a second elutable container, such as chromatographic column enclosing a second matrix containing such a tungsten-specific matrix, for removing any released .sup.188 W, in addition to the container enclosing the generator matrix. Alternatively, the substrate which is capable of adsorbing tungsten may be incorporated into the generator column, for example, below the zirconium tungstate matrix, so that the eluant passes through the substrate after first flowing through the tungstate matrix. An additional advantage of the use of the tungsten-adsorbing substrate is that the loss of small particles of matrix may be minimized, which in turn decreases the amount of eluted fluid containing such contamination particles which must be disposed of. .sup.188 W/.sup.188 Re generator devices made according to the present invention are quite compact and may be made using small masses of generator matrix. Since the .sup.188 W can be produced at a specific activity of approximately 1 Curie (Ci)/gram or higher by neutron capture, it is apparent that small (Curie size) generator columns containing volumes as low as 5 ml may be constructed using this process. The foregoing may be better understood in connection with the following representative examples which are presented for purposes of illustration, not limitation, of the inventive concepts.
	abstract	Provided is a dual-energy ray scanning system, which includes a ray source for alternately emitting a high energy ray and a low energy ray; a filter includes a low energy filtering element and a low energy transmitting element; a control device for synchronously controlling the ray source and the filter, and the low energy filtering element includes a plurality of filter sheets, the low energy transmitting element comprises a plurality of transmission sheets, the filter sheets and the transmission sheets are arranged alternately and surround the ray source to form a cavity, and the ray source is located on a central axis of the cavity.
063079135	summary	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for providing a shaped radiation source or field in the ultraviolet, extreme ultraviolet, soft x-ray and other emission spectra, and to a method and apparatus for performing lithography using the emitted radiation, such as is useful in integrated circuit manufacturing. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In photolithography, the wavelengths of radiation sources have progressed from the visible spectrum to the deep ultraviolet (approximately 365 nanometers to approximately 100 nanometers). The reduction in wavelength is dictated by the requirement for smaller circuit feature sizes and the particular wavelengths are determined by the availability of high power radiation sources. For advanced photolithography, there is a need for short wavelength radiation sources to produce smaller and higher performance integrated circuits. Wavelengths of 157 or 126 nanometers in the deep ultraviolet spectrum and 13 or 10 nanometers in the soft x-ray spectrum (sometimes characterized as the extreme ultraviolet spectrum) are being considered for advanced photolithography systems. The presently known photolithography apparatus suffers deficiencies in producing high power radiation at such wavelengths at or below 157 nanometers in an efficient, reliable and economical fashion. One example of a proposed soft x-ray or extreme ultraviolet projection lithography apparatus using an arc-shaped illumination field, called a "ring field" is described in Ceglio, Hawryluk and Sommargren, "Front-End Design Issues In Soft-X-Ray Projection Lithography," Applied Optics, vol. 32, pp. 7050-7056 (Dec. 1, 1993). Plasma emitting radiation in a desired wavelength is created by striking a target with an optical laser beam focused to a small spot. In one such system, it is proposed that the optical laser beam be scanned across the target in an arc or ring field pattern (i.e. creating a scanned point-type source). In another such system, an arc or ring field pattern is generated from a point-source of radiation by condenser optics, creating a narrow ring field. Ultimately a mask and wafer (typically coated with a photoresist) is illuminated with the arc or ring field pattern. Because the pattern does not illuminate the entire mask or wafer, the pattern is also scanned to illuminate the entire mask or wafer. One disadvantage is that scanning the laser beam to produce a ring field of extreme ultraviolet radiation increases the exposure time and generates inefficiencies and can result in a non-uniform field, which is not desirable in photolithography. Other disadvantages are that known ring field condenser optics are complex, difficult to properly align and expensive. Known condenser optics that use point-like radiation sources typically do not provide a sufficiently high amount of light and provide an undesirably high level of coherence for optimal mask illumination for photolithography applications. There are also various techniques for shaping laser beams. For example, creating a line focus is known, as described in I. N. Ross et al., "Design and Performance of a New Line Focus Geometry For X-Ray Laser Experiments," Applied Optics, Vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 1584-87 (May 1, 1997). Accordingly, there is a need for a system that provides a shaped illumination field, without resorting to scanning a series of points from a point source in creating arc shapes or relatively complex condenser optics in the creation of the shaped radiation field. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention alleviates to a great extent the disadvantages of the known lithography systems and methods using shaped plasma discharges as sources of x-ray, soft x-ray, extreme ultraviolet and ultraviolet radiation. In one embodiment, a laser source (preferably such as used in a laser-plasma source system) provides an output beam (such as a laser-plasma source illumination) at a desired wavelength (.lambda..sub.1), power level and beam quality in order to generate such a shaped plasma source. This laser source ultimately can impart in whole or part a shape to a plasma discharge from a target that emits radiation (at a wavelength .lambda..sub.2) when illuminated by the illumination field of the laser source. Alternatively, a shaped plasma discharge is created by other apparatus, such as an electric discharge system, as described more fully below. The shaped plasma discharge preferably is directed to illuminate a mask/wafer combination as used in a photolithography system. In the shaped laser source embodiment, the output beam (at a wavelength of .lambda..sub.1) is shaped into a desired profile using shaping optics. Such a shaped laser beam can be formed into any beam profile, such as a line, arc or array of focused spots. In one embodiment, the shaping optics include a lens or a set of lenses that produce the desired shaped laser beam illumination field (which in a preferred embodiment produces a shaped plasma source for a shaped plasma radiation illumination field (at .lambda..sub.2)). Alternatively, the shaping optics includes a compound or holographic lens, which produces the desired shaped illumination field. In another embodiment, the shaping optics includes one or more mirrors and optionally one or more lenses. Any combination of these optical components may be used. All or a portion of the shaping optics may be a part of the laser source, or they may be separate from the laser source. In one embodiment, plural laser pulses are provided substantially at the same time, such as by using plural laser sources or splitting mirrors. The plural pulses are fed to plural shaping optics, which in turn generate plural shaped illumination fields. In this embodiment, for example, each pulse can be shaped into an arc, and the arcs can be combined in any desired fashion. The shaped illumination field hits a plasma generating target downstream of the shaping optics. The ionized plasma emits radiation in the desired wavelength (.lambda..sub.2). Any target may be used which generates the desired radiation emission. In one embodiment a solid material is used. For example, ice or solid xenon may be used to emit in the extreme ultraviolet spectrum (as used here, "UV" is an abbreviation for "ultraviolet" and "EUV" is an abbreviation for "extreme ultraviolet"; "EUV" and "soft x-ray" will be used synonymously). Examples of ice targets include a thin sheet or cylindrical block of ice. In use the target is illuminated by the shaped output laser beam (.lambda..sub.1). The ice preferably is cooled by a heat pump, such as including liquid nitrogen reservoir placed in proximity to or in contact with the ice. In another embodiment, a metallic strip or band is provided as the target material. Alternatively, a liquid target may be provided, such as water or liquid xenon (or liquid forms of other gases) emitted from a nozzle in a stream. The liquid may be treated with additives such as zinc chloride, to adjust the emission spectrum. Likewise the solid component may be increased in this stream to the point where the stream comprises solid micropellets or clusters. For example, micropellets of tin or other suitable substances may be provided via a nozzle in a fluid (gas or liquid) stream. In one embodiment, an electrical discharge is applied along with the shaped laser discharge. The shaped laser discharge is used to shape a channel of ionized material in the target. Then, electrical energy is applied to the target material, converting to plasma the target material within the ionization channel. Thus, the laser discharge determines and stabilizes the position, shape, and volume of the electrical discharge plasma. As a result of this technique, the same power plasma can be produced with a lower intensity laser input, or higher power plasma as achieved with the same laser source. In another embodiment, an electrical energy source creates the plasma discharge that emits a radiation field (i.e. the plasma radiation source). When an electrical current is passed through a material between two electrodes, an arc discharge is formed. Plasma is formed in the target material by an electrical current at sufficient power levels. The plasma is shaped by the path of electrical discharge, and as in other embodiments, the shape of the plasma discharge determines the shape of the radiation source (i.e. field) at a wavelength .lambda..sub.2. As in other embodiments, the use of different target materials will vary the radiation output, such as the wavelength (.lambda..sub.2) of the emitted radiation. In one embodiment, the shaped radiation field emitted from a plasma discharge on the target is efficiently collected in and conveyed through condenser optics and ultimately impinges upon a transmissive or reflective object (such as a photolithography mask) which is imaged (such as using a camera) onto a recording medium (such as a photoresist coated wafer), imprinting the desired pattern on the recording medium. This shaped radiation source provides sufficient light energy and coherence for mask illumination in a photolithography system. As discussed above, in photolithography, typical point-type radiation source has an undesirably high level of coherence, which can result in a reduced image quality at the wafer. One advantage of the present invention is that a lower level of coherence in the radiation source can be achieved by shaping the radiation source, permitting a higher resolution in the imaging of a mask onto a wafer in a photolithography system. These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be appreciated from review of the following detailed description of the invention, along with the accompanying figures in which like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout.
047643390	description	DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Reference will now be made in detail to the present embodiments of the invention, an example of which is illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Referring to FIG. 1, reactor 10 is comprised of a core which consists of two symetric segments 14 and 16. These segments are housed within a pressure vessel 12. Each of the fuel elements 14 and 16 are comprised of concentric circumferential fuel plates 13. The reactor coolant enters the pressure vessel 12 through coolant inlet 18 and follows the flow indicated by arrow 31. Some of the coolant passes through core segment 14 through coolant channels 11, which are formed between the concentric fuel plates 13. A portion of the inlet coolant flow is diverted such that it does not pass through core segment 14. In a preferred embodiment, the coolant bypasses core segment 14 through a channel which is formed between the outermost circumferential fuel plate and the inner wall of pressure vessel 12. The outlet coolant from the first core segment 14 is mixed with the bypass flow in a coolant mixing plenum 28, which is formed between core segments 14 and 16. The coolant flow and mixing in plenum 28 is indicated by arrows 32. The coolant then flows through the coolant channels in core segment 16 and through the coolant outlet 20 as indicated by arrow 33. Preferably, core segments 14 and 16 are supported by core support column 26 which is integrally attached to the ends of pressure vessel 12. In a preferred arrangement, core support column 26 is hollow such that reactor control rods 35 may be inserted and retracted as needed. Fuel core segments 14 and 16 are designed with thin plates 13 and narrow coolant channels 11 to maximize the fuel plate surface area per unit core volume so that core cooling capacity is maximized for high core power densities. The segmented core arrangement of reactor 10 has several advantages when compared to conventional high flux reactors. The coolant passing through the individual core segments is exposed to only a very short heated flow path so that the coolant temperature rise is relatively small. The outlet coolant from the first core segment 14 is mixed in the central mixing plenum 28 with bypass inlet coolant that has passed between upper core segment 14 and the inner wall of pressure vessel 12. This mixes the hot-stripe outlet coolant and results in a low inlet temperature to lower core segment 16. Thus, the critical value of the peak coolant outlet temperature can be kept relatively low in such a split core arrangement. Furthermore, turbulent heat transfer effects at the entrance to lower core segment 16 enhances cooling of the peak power density near the core midplane. The net result is that the split core configuration can operate at substantially lower peak coolant temperatures than its conventional counterparts, even at modest coolant flow rate and pressures. Additionally, the resultant increase in critical heat flux safety margin and the lower fuel plate temperature (and lower oxide build-up rate) allows for operation of the double core configuration at sufficiently high core power densities to attain the required 10.sup.16 n/cm.sup.2 s. Core segments 14 and 16 may be comprised of a plurality of pie-shaped segments 17, to facilitate fabrication and accessability. It will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that other means may be used as a coolant bypass channel. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, central core support column 26 will have aperatures 27 in the coolant mixing plenum region 28 and similar aperatures in coolant inlet region 29, thereby providing a means for bypassing first core segment 14. In other preferred arrangements in the present invention, core segments 14 and 16 are comprised of involute plates or spirula type rolled plates of fuel material as illustrated in FIG. 2. The plates 42 bend circumferentially around the core and are supported by a series of pads or pins 44. Spirula type plates 42 may be supported from pressure vessel 12 via support column 46, in an arrangement similar to the embodiment of FIG. 1. For the goal flux levels of the present invention, a core power density of 10 MW/L is required. It is therefore important to minimize the critical reactor volume in order to minimize the total reactor power. Therefore, preferrably the core fuel material is comprised of a high reactivity worth fuel material like fully enriched uranium or high density fuels like U.sub.3 Si.sub.2 or UAl.sub.x (uranium-aluminum alloys). Neutron beam access channels 22 are positioned outside of pressure vessel 12 in a pool of moderating material, represented by shaded area 24. The principal moderator of choice for the present invention is D.sub.2 O because of its longer neutron diffusion length and lower parasitic neutron absorption cross section. The use of a moderator with this combination of parameters places the region of peak thermal neutron flux several centimeters from the core interface. The peak thermal neutron flux region thus covers a large volume while maintaining reduced fast-neutron and gamma-ray contamination compared with an equivalent H.sub.2 O-moderated reactor. Since beam access channels 22 may be aimed at central mixing plenum region 28, the split core arrangement allows for direct radial beam access to the resulting high flux environment, in addition to tangential access, without exposing the direct field-of-view of the beam channels to significant high-energy-neutron and gamma contamination from the core. The reactor is operated on a hard neutron energy spectrum (fissions occur in the fast energy group with little moderation inside the fuel segments) to enhance the neutron leakage into the radial reflector region 24, where the neutron leakage can be moderated and accessed by the experiments. There is some thermalization and peaking in plenum region 28 but because of the long neutron mean free path in D.sub.2 O, the core segments are neutronically tightly coupled. The major thermal neutron flux peaking occurs in a large (more than 100 liter) torodial ring surrounding the core in the radial reflector pool 24. In the preferred arrangements of the present invention, pressure vessel 12 is placed directly adjacent to the core segments 14 and 16 for several reasons. First, it allows the heated core coolant to be isolated from the reflector pool 24, so that the beam tubes 22 and the hot and cold sources can be operated in a low temperature, low pressure environment. This low temperature, low pressure environment improves both safety and the experimental neutron economy. The experimental instruments can have thin windows and thin walls that are not part of the primary reactor coolant pressure boundary. Research instrument maintenance and modifications are also facilitated by the low temperature and low pressure environment. The reactor pressure vessel 12 itself is configured much like a small diameter pipe with flanges at both ends. This is a simpler, less expensive vessel to design and fabricate (in spite of the fact that the vessel lifetime is shorter because of the higher fast neutron fluence close to the core) than conventional reactor-pool pressure vessels with numerous beam tube penetrations. Second, the neutron energy spectrum directly adjacent to the core is quite hard (high energy), so that the pressure vessel is relatively transparent to the core leakage flux. Third, it places less material between the core and the experimental instruments because the beam tube does not have to be designed to withstand a high external pressure. For the above reasons, it is, therefore, advantageous to place the pressure boundary here rather than around the beam tubes and cold sources where it would result in a large parasitic loss of thermal neutrons and increased gamma background. Typical design characteristics for an ultra-high flux reactor with two core segments are listed in Table II. Although the present invention has been described with reference to a reactor having two core segments, it will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention may also comprise more core segments. TABLE II ______________________________________ DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ULTRAHIGH FLUX DOUBLE SEGMENT REACTOR ______________________________________ Core Dimensions Fuel donut height (cm) 13.7 Fuel donut ID (cm) 20.0 Fuel donut OD cm) 40.0 Fuel donut thickness (cm) 10.0 Core volume (liters) 25.8 Central plenum height (cm) 10.0 D.sub.2 O bypass gap (cm) 2.0 Zr gamma shield thickness (cm) 0.5 Zr pressure vessel thickness (cm) 1.3 Fuel Material U.sub.3 Si.sub.2 /Al Uranium enrichment (w/o U-235) 93 Volume fraction U in fuel seat 0.45 Volume fraction void in fuel meat 0.1 Maximum fuel density (g U/cc meat) 4.8 Fuel plate thickness (cm) 0.102 Coolant channel thickness (cm) 0.076 Fuel meat thickness (cm) 0.051 Cladding material Aluminum-2219 Cladding thickness (cm) 0.025 Number of fuel plates/assembly 56 Side plates material Aluminum-2219 Side plate thickness (cm) 0.5 Fuel burnup limit (fission/cc) 2 .times. 10.sup.21 Physical Characteristics Reactor power (Mw) 300 at BOC, 275 at EOC Cycle length (days) 14.0 Core average power density (MW/L) 11.6 at BOC Power peaking factor (peak/average) 1.6 at BOC Peak power density (MW/l) 18.5 at BOC Peak reflector thermal neutron flux, 1.0 .times. 10.sup.11 E < .683 eV (n/(cm.sup.2 s)) Gamma environment in region of peak 10 neutron flux (W/g in D.sub.2 O) Fast flux (E > 1 MeV) contamination 1.1 .times. 10.sup.14 in region of peak thermal flux (n/(cm.sup.2 s)) Core fissile loading at BOC (kg U-235) 22.2 Number of unique fuel loading zones 7 Core burnable poison loading at BOC 8.2 (g b.sup.14) Fuel burnup (kg U-235) 5.6 Thermal Hydraulic Conditions Coolant inlet pressure (MPa) 4.2 Core outlet pressure (MPa) 3.4 Pressure vessel design pressure (MPa) 5.5 Coolant flow rate (kg/s) in core channels 602 in bypass gap 820 Coolant velocity (m/s) in core channels 16.0 in bypass gap 27.2 Coolant inlet temperature (.degree.C.) 38 Coolant outlet temperature (.degree.C.) 108 hot channel Coolant T (.degree.C.), hot channel 70 Peak surface heat flux (MW/m.sup.2) 17.3 Hot spot fuel plate temperature, 234/387 BOC/EOC (.degree.C.) Margin to CHF (std. dev.) 3.3 Margin to hydraulic instability 6.8 (standard deviation) Oxide thickness at EOC (mm) 0.046 Margin to fuel melting (.degree.C.) 262 ______________________________________ The present invention thus provides a nuclear reactor capable of producing a neutron flux an order of magnitude larger than that produced by present day high flux reactors. Flow instability effects are alleviated in the present invention by the short flow channels and the hot-stripe mixing in the coolant plenum between the core sections. The core, which is comprised of thin circumferential fuel plates, produces a larger fuel plate surface area per unit core volume, shortened flow paths, and efficient hydraulic geometries. The life-limiting aluminum oxide layer formation on the fuel cladding, which insulates the plates and drastically increases fuel temperatures is not considered to be a key constraint of the split core concept. This results from the significantly lower peak operating temperatures acheivable with the short-flow-path and increased plate surface area of this invention. The present invention also enhances accessability to the high flux environment with radial beam tubes which are disposed in a low temperature, low pressure environment. The foregoing description of the preferred embodiments of the invention have been presented for purposes of illustration and description. They are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and obviously many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings. The embodiments were choosen and described in order to better explain the principle of the invention and its practicable applications to thereby enable others skilled in the art to best utilize the invention and various embodiments and with other modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the claims appended hereto.
059303190	claims	1. A nuclear reactor, comprising: a coolant reservoir; a propagation space for core melt, said propagation space having a given cross-section; a spray conduit disposed in said propagation space, fed by said coolant reservoir and having a spraying area covering a substantial area of said given cross-section for forming a crust on the core melt; and a fitting associated with said spray conduit, said fitting having a melting body and opening passively in a temperature-dependent manner when the core melt enters said propagation space. 2. The nuclear reactor according to claim 1, wherein said propagation space has walls, and said spray conduit is disposed on said walls and encloses said given cross-section of said propagation space. 3. The nuclear reactor according to claim 1, wherein said propagation space has a bottom, and said spray conduit extends at a distance from said bottom over said given cross-section of said propagation space. 4. The nuclear reactor according to claim 1, wherein said spray conduit is a ring conduit having a plurality of feed conduits. 5. The nuclear reactor according to claim 1, wherein said propagation space has a bottom, said fitting is disposed below said spray conduit and has a sealing disc, and said melting body is located at said bottom of said propagation space and keeps said sealing disc closed counter to coolant pressure.
	claims	1. An Actinium-225 generator, comprising:a neutron source;a neutron target arranged to receive neutrons emitted from the neutron source, wherein the neutron target comprises nickel, manganese, or iron; anda proton target arranged to receive protons emitted from the neutron target, wherein the proton target comprises radium-226. 2. The Actinium-225 generator of claim 1, wherein the neutron target and the proton target are concentric cylinders surrounding the neutron source. 3. The Actinium-225 generator of claim 1, wherein the neutron source has a source activity of at least 1E15 Bq. 4. The Actinium-225 generator of claim 1, wherein the neutron source has a source activity of at least 14 MeV. 5. The Actinium-225 generator of claim 1, wherein the neutron source is Californium-252. 6. The Actinium-225 generator of claim 1, wherein the neutron target comprises nickel and has a thickness of 0.01-0.06 mm. 7. The Actinium-225 generator of claim 1, wherein the proton target comprises RaCl2 and has a thickness of 4.5-5.5 mm. 8. A method of producing Actinium-225, comprising:bombarding a neutron target with neutrons from a neutron source to produce a proton beam, wherein the neutron target comprises nickel, manganese, or iron; andbombarding a proton target with the proton beam, wherein the proton target comprises radium-226. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the neutron target and the proton target are concentric cylinders surrounding the neutron source. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein a proton energy of the proton beam is 10 MeV or higher. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the neutron source has a source activity of at least 1E15 Bq. 12. The method of claim 8, wherein the neutron source has a source activity of at least 14 MeV. 13. The method of claim 8, wherein the neutron source is Californium-252. 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the neutron target comprises nickel and has a thickness of 0.01-0.06 mm. 15. The method of claim 8, wherein the proton target comprises RaCl2 and has a thickness of 4.5-5.5 mm.
054486122	claims	1. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: a mirror chamber; a mirror disposed in said mirror chamber and having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means having a detector disposed in said mirror chamber for detecting a relative positional relationship between the X-ray beam from a radiation source and said reflection surface with respect to a direction perpendicular to said reflection surface; and adjusting means for adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam from the radiation source and said reflection surface on the basis of the detection. a mirror having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means for detecting a relative positional relationship between the X-ray beam and said reflection surface with respect to a direction perpendicular to said reflection surface; and adjusting means for adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam and reflection surface on the basis of the detection, wherein said detecting means includes first and second X-ray detectors which are disposed in series in the direction perpendicular to said reflection surface of said mirror. a mirror chamber; a mirror disposed in said mirror chamber and having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means having a detector disposed in said mirror chamber for detecting the attitude of said reflection surface relative to the X-ray beam from a radiation source; and adjusting means for adjusting the attitude of said reflection surface relative to the X-ray beam from the radiation source on the basis of the detection. a mirror chamber; a mirror disposed in said mirror chamber and having a reflection surface for reflecting a radiation beam from a synchrotron radiation source toward a predetermined direction; detecting means having a detector disposed in said mirror chamber for detecting relative positional relationship between the radiation beam from the synchrotron radiation source and said reflection surface of said mirror; and adjusting means for adjusting said mirror relative to the radiation beam from the synchrotrom radiation source, on the basis of the detection. detecting, with a detector disposed in a mirror chamber, the relative position of the X-ray beam from a radiation source and the reflection surface of the mirror in a direction perpendicular to the reflection surface; adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam from the radiation source and the reflection surface on the basis of said detection; and projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by the mirror, to a mask so as to transfer a pattern of the mask onto the wafer. detecting, with a detector disposed in a mirror chamber, the attitude of the reflection surface of the mirror relative to the X-ray beam from a radiation source; adjusting the attitude of the reflection surface of the mirror relative to the X-ray beam from the radiation source on the basis of said detection; and projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by the mirror, to a mask so as to transfer a pattern of the mask onto the wafer. detecting, with a detector disposed in a mirror chamber, the relative position of the X-ray beam from a radiation source and the reflection surface of the mirror in a direction perpendicular to the reflection surface; adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam from the radiation source and the reflection surface on the basis of said detection; and projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by the mirror, to a mask so as to transfer a pattern of the mask onto the wafer. detecting, with a detector disposed in a mirror chamber, the attitude of the reflection surface of the mirror relative to the X-ray beam from a radiation source; adjusting the attitude of the reflection surface of the mirror relative to the X-ray beam from the radiation source on the basis of said detection; and projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by the mirror, to a mask so as to transfer a pattern of the mask onto the wafer. a mirror having a reflection surface for expanding and X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means for detecting the attitude of said reflection surface relative to the X-ray beam; and adjusting means for adjusting the attitude of said reflection surface relative to the X-ray beam on the basis of the detection, wherein said detecting means includes an X-ray detector and said X-ray detector is disposed between said mirror and a radiation source which generates the radiation beam. a mirror having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means for detecting a relative positional relationship between the X-ray beam and said reflection surface with respect to a direction perpendicular to said reflection surface; and adjusting means for adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam and said reflection surface on the basis of the detection, and said X-ray detector is disposed between said mirror and a radiation source which generates the radiation beam. a mirror having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means for detecting a relative positional relationship between the X-ray beam and said reflection surface; and adjusting means for adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam and said reflection surface on the basis of the detection, wherein said detecting means includes first and second X-ray detectors which are disposed in series in the direction perpendicular to said reflection surface of said mirror. a mirror having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means for detecting a relative positional relationship between the X-ray beam and said reflection surface; and adjusting means for adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam and said reflection surface on the basis of the detection, wherein said detecting means includes an X-ray detector and said X-ray detector is disposed between said mirror and a radiation source which generates the radiation beam. a mirror having a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction; detecting means for detecting a relative positional relationship between the X-ray beam and said reflection surface; and adjusting means for adjusting the relative position of the X-ray beam and said reflection surface on the basis of the detection, wherein said detecting means includes an X-ray detector and said X-ray detector and said mirror are formed substantially as a unit. 2. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said radiation source comprises an SOR device. 3. An apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising means for projecting the X-ray beam. expanded by said mirror, to an article to be irradiated. 4. An apparatus according to claim 3, further comprising control means for controlling irradiation of the article with the X-ray beam. 5. An apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising means for projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by said mirror, to a mask and for transferring a pattern of the irradiated mask onto a wafer. 6. An apparatus according to claim 5, further comprising control means for controlling the exposure of the wafer with the X-ray beam. 7. An apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising computing means for computing the X-ray strength on the basis of the detection by said detecting means. 8. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said detecting means includes an X-ray detector. 9. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 10. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 11. An apparatus according to claim 10, wherein said radiation source comprises an SOR device. 12. An apparatus according to claim 10, further comprising means for projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by said mirror, to an article to be irradiated. 13. An apparatus according to claim 12, further comprising control means for controlling irradiation of the article with the X-ray beam. 14. An apparatus according to claim 10, further comprising means for projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by said mirror, to a mask and for transferring a pattern of the irradiated mask onto a wafer. 15. An apparatus according to claim 14, further comprising control means for controlling the exposure of the wafer with the X-ray beam. 16. An apparatus according to claim 10, wherein said adjusting means includes first driving means for rotationally moving said mirror around a first axis extending along the path of the X-ray beam, and second driving means for rotationally moving said mirror around a second axis perpendicular to the reflection surface of said mirror. 17. An apparatus according to claim 10, wherein said detecting means includes an X-ray detector. 18. A mirror system, comprising: 19. A device manufacturing method usable with a mask and a wafer as well as a mirror with a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction, said method comprising the steps of: 20. A device manufacturing method usable with a mask and a wafer as well as a mirror with a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction, said method comprising the steps of: 21. A device manufactured by using a mask and a wafer as well as a mirror with a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction and in accordance with a method which comprises the steps of: 22. A device manufactured by using a mask and a wafer as well as a mirror with a reflection surface for expanding an X-ray beam in a predetermined direction and in accordance with a method which comprises the steps of: 23. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 24. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 25. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 26. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 27. An X-ray apparatus, comprising: 28. An apparatus according to claim 25, 26 or 27, further comprising means for projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by said mirror, to an article to be irradiated. 29. An apparatus according to claim 28, further comprising control means for controlling irradiation of the article with the X-ray beam. 30. An apparatus according to claim 25, 26 or 27 further comprising means for projecting the X-ray beam, expanded by said mirror, to a mask and for transferring a pattern of the irradiated mask onto a wafer. 31. An apparatus according to claim 30, further comprising control means for controlling the exposure of the wafer with the X-ray beam. 32. An apparatus according to claim 25, 26 or 27, further comprising computing means for computing the X-ray strength on the basis of the detection by said detecting means.
059404620	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a method for compacting or packaging control elements including elongated components in which spent absorber material is gas-tightly enclosed, and for packaging them for subsequent waste disposal in storage containers, in a light-water-cooled nuclear reactor. The invention furthermore relates to a device for performing the method and to appropriately machined components containing the absorber material. In light-water reactors (boiling-water and pressurized-water reactors), control elements are used for regulating reactor power. Absorber elements are likewise used in primary cores of pressurized-water reactors to compensate for excess capacity. The existing standard absorber elements contain neutron absorber material (such as B.sub.4 C in tablet or powdered form or AgInCd rods) which is contained in gas-tightly sealed tubes attached to a head piece. The components and materials of both cruciformly constructed control elements containing absorber sheets of boiling-water reactors and spider-shaped control elements of pressurized-water reactors, are subjected during their operation to various loadings which may limit the residence time of the control elements to less than the operating time of a reactor. The core components which are removed from operation are highly active and contain (depending on the absorber material being used) radioactive decay products formed by neutron capture, for example tritium (H.sub.3) as well. The above-mentioned coil components must be removed after being taken out of service from a fuel-element pond which is used for intermediate storage. Heretofore such core components were cut up under water and the parts were sorted and transferred to standard shielded containers. The method which was used in that case assumed basically that activity was released from the coil components during the dismemberment. The released activity had to be absorbed. The cut-up parts were sorted under water in a time-consuming manner and transferred to the shielded containers. The degree of filling of the screened containers that were filled in such a way was not optimal in the case of that procedure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is accordingly an object of the invention to provide a method for packaging, compacting or storing spent control and absorber elements of light-water reactors for waste disposal, a device for preparing an elongated component of a spent control element, a light-water-cooled reactor and a coil of an originally elongated component, which overcome the hereinafore-mentioned disadvantages of the heretofore-known methods and devices of this general type and which enable an efficient utilization of storage containers for storing components of the control elements, wherein the utilization shortens the time for storage preparation and at the same time avoids a release of fairly large activities. With the foregoing and other objects in view there is provided, in accordance with the invention, in a method of packaging elongated components of control elements, in which spent absorber material is gas-tightly enclosed, in storage containers in a light-water-cooled nuclear reactor, the improvement which comprises winding up the elongated components into coils and packaging the coils in the storage containers. In accordance with another mode of the invention, there is provided a method which comprises separating or cutting off a group of absorber fingers from head pieces of control elements of pressurized-water reactors, and performing the winding step by entirely winding the absorber fingers as the components. In accordance with a further mode of the invention, there is provided a method which comprises separating a plurality of cruciformly attached absorber sheets of control elements of boiling-water reactors along their longitudinal axis, and performing the winding step by entirely winding the absorber sheets as the components. In accordance with an added mode of the invention, there is provided a method which comprises maintaining the coils in the wound-up state with a retaining belt. In accordance with an additional mode of the invention, there is provided a method which comprises performing the winding step by winding the coils between lateral jaws, and bending the lateral jaws around the wound control elements after winding for keeping the wound control elements in the wound-up state. In accordance with yet another mode of the invention, there is provided a method which comprises performing the winding-up and packaging in a storage pond of the nuclear reactor. In accordance with yet a further mode of the invention, there is provided a method which comprises performing the winding step by winding the components into coils having a hollow core, and packaging other parts of the control elements in the core. With the objects of the invention in view, there is also provided, in a device for preparing an elongated component of a spent control element, containing gas-tightly enclosed absorber material, for storage in a storage container, the improvement comprising a gripping tool disposed at one side of the component and rotatable in a given direction, the gripping tool including a winding spindle for attachment of a free end of the component fed to the winding spindle in longitudinal direction of the component and displaceable in longitudinal direction of the winding spindle, the winding spindle disposed next to the component and approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the component, and the gripping tool including a rotary drive for driving the winding spindle; and a pressing and bending roller rotatable in a direction opposite to the given direction and disposed opposite the gripping tool on the other side of the component; the pressing and bending roller and the winding spindle spaced apart by a variable distance. With the objects of the invention in view, there is additionally provided a light-water-cooled nuclear reactor, comprising a water pond; a storage container; and a device disposed in the water pond for preparing an elongated component of a spent control element, containing gas-tightly enclosed absorber material, for storage in the storage container. With the objects of the invention in view, there is furthermore provided a coil, comprising an originally elongated component containing absorber material of a spent control element of a light-water-cooled nuclear reactor. For this purpose, the components of the control elements containing spent absorber material as a rule are separated from their head pieces or cut off and wound up in their entirety into coils. In the case of cruciformly constructed control elements, which are composed of a plurality of absorber sheets, the absorber sheets are separated from one another along their longitudinal axis, for example through the use of severance cuts. The individual sheets which are thus produced are then wound up into coils. In this procedure, the cladding tubes surrounding the activated absorber material do not need to be destroyed. It is therefore possible to avoid radioactive substances escaping from the gas-tight cladding tubes. For this purpose, individual rods of control or absorber elements of pressurized-water reactors and individual absorber sheets of boiling-water reactors are fed to a winding device which operates under water. The absorber fingers and absorber sheets are advantageously first separated from their head pieces and other structural elements before they are wound up into coils having the densest possible spiral winding by the winding device. In this connection, the winding device is constructed, for example, in such a way that the coils being produced have a hollow core. the coils can then be kept in the wound-up state by a suitable retention device. That can be achieved, for example, by placing a retaining belt around the coils immediately after winding them up. Within the scope of the invention, the retention of the finished coils can be achieved by folding-in a winding coil surrounding the winding material. The retained spiral-shaped, tightly wound coils can then be stacked in a basket having external dimensions which fit the standard shielded containers. The remaining components of the control elements to be disposed of as waste, which generally contain no highly-activated substances, such as spider-shaped head pieces or structural elements, for example, can be compacted by cutting up and pressing and can be introduced into a still existing cavity in the center of the coils stacked in the basket. The stacking of the compacted components of control elements in a basket simplifies the subsequent handling in the shielded containers. All of the steps in the method, such as cutting, winding-up and stacking can be performed, for example, in the fuel-element pond of the nuclear reactor. The advantages of winding-up those elongated components of control elements which contain absorber material in the manner described above is that the winding material and the other compacted components can be densely packaged in standard shielded containers and thus enable an efficient space utilization, and that the compacting and packaging procedure requires less time in total than the heretofore standard cutting-up, sorting, pressing and packaging of all of the components. Other features which are considered as characteristic for the invention are set forth in the appended claims. Although the invention is illustrated and described herein as embodied in a method for packaging control and absorber elements of light-water reactors for waste disposal, a device for preparing an elongated component of a spent control element, a light-water-cooled reactor and a coil of an originally elongated component, it is nevertheless not intended to be limited to the details shown, since various modifications and structural changes may be made therein without departing from the spirit of the invention and within the scope and range of equivalents of the claims. The construction and method of operation of the invention, however, together with additional objects and advantages thereof will be best understood from the following description of specific embodiments when read in connection with the accompanying drawings.
	abstract	The invention relates to a method for preparing a fuel based on oxide, carbide, and/or oxycarbide comprising uranium and at least one actinide and/or lanthanide component, comprising the following steps: a step for preparing a load solution consisting in a nitric solution comprising said actinide and/or lanthanide in the form of actinide and/or lanthanide nitrates and uranium as a hydroxylated uranyl nitrate complex; a step for passing said solution over a cation exchange resin comprising carboxylic groups, with which the actinide and/or the lanthanide in cationic form and the uranium as uranyl remain bound to the resin; a heat treatment step of said resin so as to obtain said fuel.
	claims	1. A method of irradiating multiple specimens within a core (14) of a nuclear reactor (16) that has a moveable in-core, radiation detector flux mapping system, wherein the core comprises a plurality of fuel assemblies respectively having instrument thimbles into which a radiation detector (12) of the flux mapping system can be inserted and travel through, comprising the steps of:inserting a first specimen holder (48) containing a first specimen (72) at a lead end of a first drive cable (36) driven by a first drive unit (34), into a first instrument thimble in the core (14);remotely detaching the first drive cable (36) from the first specimen holder (48) and fixing an axial position of the first specimen holder within the first instrument thimble;withdrawing the first drive cable (36) from the reactor (16);attaching a second specimen holder (48) containing a second specimen (72) to the lead end of the first drive cable (36) driven by the first drive unit (34);inserting the second specimen holder (48) containing the second specimen (72) into a second instrument thimble in the core (14);remotely detaching the first drive cable (36) from the second specimen holder (48) and fixing an axial position of the second specimen holder within the second instrument thimble;withdrawing the first drive cable (36) from the reactor (16);in between the withdrawing step and the second inserting step inserting a moveable in-core radiation detector (12) from the moveable in-core detector radiation flux mapping system, attached to a second drive cable (50) driven by a second drive unit (24), into and through a third instrument thimble; andwithdrawing the moveable in-core radiation detector (12) from the reactor (16) after performing a flux mapping exercise. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the inserting steps insert specimen holders (48) into as many as half the instrument thimbles accessible by the flux mapping system for simultaneous irradiation at a time when a flux map is to be conducted. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the steps of fixing the axial position of the specimen holders (48) within the respective instrument thimbles includes the steps of determining when the respective specimen holders are at a preselected axial position within the corresponding instrument thimbles. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the step of withdrawing the first drive cable (36) from the reactor comprises withdrawing the first drive cable out of the moveable in-core, radiation detector flux mapping system prior to the running of a flux map.
	abstract	A perforating apparatus (100) used to perforate a subterranean well. The perforating apparatus (100) includes a generally tubular gun carrier (106) and a charge holder (104) rotatably mounted within the gun carrier (106). At least one shaped charge (102) is mounted in the charge holder (104) and is operable to perforate the well upon detonation. A dynamically adjustable weight system (124) is operably associated to the charge holder (104). The dynamically adjustable weight system (124) is operable to adjust the center of gravity (120) of the charge holder (104) such that gravity will cause the charge holder (104) to rotate within the gun carrier (106) to position the at least one shaped charge (102) in a desired circumferential direction relative to the well prior to perforating.
	summary
055240330	abstract	Gadolinium is provided which is adapted for nuclear fuel as a burnable poison, having a plurality of isotopes in an isotopic composition such that the content of at least one even mass numbered isotope is smaller than the content of the same isotope in natural gadolinium. A fuel assembly is also provided having a plurality of nuclear fuel rods arrayed as a lattice in which at least one of the fuel rods contains the gadolinium burnable poison of the present invention. Also, a fuel assembly is described which has a plurality of nuclear fuel rods arrayed as a lattice which includes at least a first group and a second group of nuclear fuel rods containing gadolinium. The content of Gd-157 in the gadolinium is larger than that found in natural gadolinium. Further, the gadolinium concentrations in the first and second groups are different from each other.
	abstract	Systems and methods for shielding medical personnel from radiation are provided. A radiation-shielding barrier is positioned between the medical personnel and the radiation source. The radiation-shielding barrier includes an opening such that a portion of the table extends through the opening in the barrier. Medical personnel are protected from secondary radiation transmitted through the patient via a special layering technique of a first, flexible sterile drape, a flexible radiation-resistive drape, and a second flexible sterile drape. The system includes an upper shield and a lower shield of independent movement and a linking mechanism between the two, while maintaining the radiation seal. The system also includes a mechanism for maintaining the radiation barrier between the upper shield and the patient aperture hoop, preventing a radiation gap from forming between the flexible portions of the system (e.g. flexible drapes, curtains, etc.) and the non-flexible portions of the system (e.g. upper shield, lower shield, radiopaque transparent window, etc.).
062698737	abstract	A method for controlling heat exchange in a nuclear reactor. The reactor contains at least one thermal valve, at least one heat exchanger having a coolant flowing therein, with the heat exchanger being immersed in a pool containing a fluid. The heat exchanger is confined by a container having an upper part with an opening therein and a lower part having means for introducing the fluid through such lower part as well as means for partially or totally opening or closing said opening in the upper part and means for partially or totally opening or closing opening in the lower part. The method comprises the steps of closing the opening in the upper part of the container to thereby vaporize said fluid, in order to cause a cessation of heat exchange between the coolant and the fluid; and opening the opening in the upper part of the container to thereby cause the fluid to be heated and to rise by convection, thereby permitting heat exchange to occur between the coolant and the fluid.
	abstract	The invention relates to a plug device for jet pumps installed in nuclear power plant vessels, which comprises two covers (1-2) that form two independent plug units, one fitted on the even pump, which incorporates two plugs (6), and the other on the odd pump of each jet pump assembly, which incorporates three plugs (6), both mounted on a common base (3) at the end of respective arms (4), articulated in the central area, which are actuated by mechanical or hydropneumatic means. The plugs may be blind, in which case they are used to seal the five outlets of the nozzle of the jet pump, or channeled, being used to close the decontamination circuit of the recirculation loops, preventing the cleaning solution from being dispersed in the reactor.
	summary
	summary
045256292	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a deflective focusing system for a charged particle beam, the system having a magnetic lens and an electrostatic deflector. In general, deflective focusing systems for charged particle beams (referred to merely as "beams", hereinafter) are widely used in cathode ray tubes, television camera tubes, electron beam processing equipment, electron beam exposure equipment, scanning type electron microscopes, or the like. For example, as VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit) techniques evolve, the development of an electron beam exposure equipment with high speed and high accuracy is strongly desired. In order to realize such an exposure equipment, it is essentially necessary to develop a high-performance deflective focusing system. In an electron beam exposure equipment, a beam produced from an electron gun is shaped to a beam with a square section. This square beam is then demagnified. The demagnified beam is then focused and deflected to project at a desired postion on a target plane or specimen wafer on a table. In the deflective focusing system, aberrations due to the deflection of the beam, i.e., chromatic aberration, astigmatism coma, field curvature and distortion, are required to be small and the landing angle at which a beam is incident to the target must also be small. If the aberrations and the landing angle are large, resolution and accuracy of patterning are lowered. Further, from a viewpoint of the high speed deflection of beam, electrostatic deflection is preferable to magnetic deflection. Generally speaking, when a beam is focused and deflected by a magnetic focusing field and an electrostatic deflection field which overlap each other and these fields are distribute uniformly over the whole of the deflective focusing space, the aberrations are extremely low and the landing angle is small enough that the beam is incident vertically to an image plane or target. In the electron beam exposure equipment, however, a demagnifying lens is disposed on the object plane side of the deflective focusing system and a wafer or stage is disposed on the image plane side, so that it is difficult to obtain a completely uniform electromagnetic field over the whole deflective focusing space. There are fringes on the object plane side and the image plane side of the deflective focusing system where the electric field and magnetic field abruptly change. If the electromagnetic field has fringes in this way, electron optical properties of the deflective focusing system are different from the properties in case of the uniform distribution. It follows that both of the aberrations and landing angle increase. For instance, an in-lens type magnetic deflector is disclosed by J. L. Mauer et al. in "Electron Optics of an Electron-Beam Lithographic System", IBM J. RES. DEVELOP., pp. 514-521, November 1977. This deflector has large aberrations and landing angle and, since magnetic deflection is employed in this deflector, the deflection speed is slow. There have also been some proposals where a plurality of stages of deflectors are provided and adjusted in a manner so that the deflective aberrations due to the respective deflectors cancel each other out to realize small aberrations and small landing angle throughout the system as a whole. See, for example, "Advanced deflection concept for large area, high resolution e-beam lithography" by H. C. Pfeiffer et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 19(4), November/December 1981, pp. 1058-1063. In the disclosed variable axis lens, four-stage deflectors and one dynamic stigmator are used to reduce the deflective aberrations and landing angle. The deflective aberrations are completely removed and the vertical landing condition is also satisfied by such a multi-stage deflection system. These facts are theoretically proved by T. Hosokawa in "Systematic elimination of third order aberrations in electron beam scanning system", Optik, Vol. 56, No. 1 (1980), pp. 31-30. In this case, however, the number of power sources for driving deflectors is increased because of the multi-stage deflectors. Since a power source of such a deflective focusing system is very expensive, the cost of this multi-stage deflection system is very complicated. In addition, high manufacturing techniques are required, as the number of deflection stages is increased. This requirement also constitutes a barrier against the realization of a multi-stage deflection system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the above, it is an object of the present invention to provide a deflective focusing system for a charged particle beam the system having a simple arrangement which attains the reduction of the aberrations and landing angle. It is another object of the present invention to provide a deflective focusing system for a charged particle beam in which a uniform electromagnetic field without fringes is not employed; instead fringes produced in the electromagnetic field distribution of the deflective focusing system are utilized and the fringes are adjusted in such a way that an electromagnetic field distribution having small aberrations and landing angle, as in the case of a uniform electromagnetic field without fringes is obtained with a simple construction. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a deflective focusing system for a charged particle beam in which parameters of the deflective focusing system are so selected that a magnetic focusing field and an electrostatic deflection field have substatially uniform distributions in a central portion of a magnetic lens, so as to obviate the above-described disadvantages. In order to achieve these objects, a deflective focusing system according to the present invention comprises a magnetic lens for focusing a charged particle beam, a plurality of rings made of magnetic material arranged substantially concentrically with the magnetic lens inside of the magnetic lens, the rings being arranged dividedly (that is, at spaced apart positions) in the direction of the central axis of the magnetic lens so as to form a predetermined magnetic focusing field distribution, and a one-stage electrostatic deflector having a plurality of deflection electrodes which are spaced apart in a circumferential direction of the magnetic lens, the electrodes being arranged substantially concentrically with the magnetic lens inside of the magnetic lens and extending in the direction of the central axis so as to form a predetermined electrostatic deflection field distribution, so that the charged particle beam passes through the concentrically arranged deflection electrodes to be deflected in accordance with a voltage applied to the deflection electrodes. In a preferable embodiment of the present invention, ring-like grounding electrodes are disposed substantially concentrically with the magnetic lens on the object plane side and the image plane side of the electrostatic deflector along the passage of the charged particle beam. It is preferable to insert ring-like spacers between the rings of magnetic material, the spacers being made of non-magnetic material and having substantially the same diameter as the rings of magnetic material so that the magnetic focusing field distribution is adjusted by the thicknesses of the rings in the direction of the central axis and the thicknesses of the ring-like spacers. It is also preferable to provide a gap for adjusting the electrostatic deflection field between the ring-like grounding electrodes and the electrostatic deflector, so that the electrostatic deflection field distribution is adjusted in accordance with the length of the gap. For example, the electrostatic deflection field has an abrupt fringe if the gap is narrow. Further, in order to have an abrupt fringe in the field distribution, the inner diameter of the ring-like grounding electrode may be smaller than the inner diameter of the deflection electrode. It is also preferable that the end portion of the electrostatic deflector on the image plane side be shifted from the end portion of the rings of magnetic material on the image plane side toward the object plane side, in the direction of the central axis. Preferably, the electrostatic deflector may have an inner diameter substantially equal to that of the ring-like grounding electrode. It is also preferable to provide a shielding electrode, for example, in the form of a hollow cylinder, around the outer periphery of the electrostatic deflector. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a case having a first room for accommodating the coil of the magnetic lens, a second room for accommodating the rings and a third room for accommodating the electrostatic deflector and the ring-like grounding electrodes. The case may have a flange extended inwardly to cover the ring-like grounding electrode disposed on the object plane side of the electrostatic deflector. It is preferable to provide a sealing member made of non-magnetic material between the first and second rooms so that the second room is vacuum-tightly sealed and that the rings are fixed at predetermined positions. In addition, it is preferable that the ring-like grounding electrode on the image plane side has a flange for supporting the rings. Further, a stigmator coil can be wound on the periphery of a portion of the electrostatic deflector which is protrudes from the rings toward the object plane side. A dynamic focusing coil can be wound around the stigmator coil.
	claims	1. A core plate assembly for a nuclear reactor, the reactor comprising a plurality of large control rods, a plurality of cruciform shaped control rod guide tubes, and a plurality of fuel bundles having lower tie plates, said core plate assembly comprising: a flat plate; a plurality of support beams, said flat plate positioned on top of said support beams; a plurality of control rod guide tube openings, each said guide tube opening sized to receive a control rod guide tube, said control rod guide tube openings arranged in staggered rows, said guide tube openings having a cruciform shape and comprising four slots extending radially from a central portion at right angles to each other, said slots defining four fuel bundle receiving areas; a plurality of fuel supports extending through said flat plate, each said fuel support comprising: a coolant flow inlet, said coolant flow inlet positioned adjacent a support beam; a coolant flow outlet sized to receive a lower tie plate of a fuel bundle, said coolant flow outlet positioned in a fuel bundle receiving area; and a coolant flow bore extending between said coolant flow inlet and said coolant flow outlet, said coolant flow inlet offset from said coolant flow outlet so that a centerline of said coolant flow inlet is parallel to a centerline of said coolant flow outlet. 2. A core plate assembly in accordance with claim 1 wherein each said coolant flow inlet comprises an orifice plate. claim 1 3. A core plate assembly in accordance with claim 1 wherein each said fuel bundle receiving area comprises four fuel supports. claim 1 4. A core plate assembly in accordance with claim 1 wherein each said fuel bundle receiving area comprises one fuel support. claim 1 5. A core plate assembly in accordance with claim 1 wherein each fuel support further comprises: claim 1 four coolant flow inlets; four coolant flow outlets sized to receive a lower tie plate of a fuel bundle; and four coolant flow bores, each flow bore extending between a corresponding coolant flow inlet and a corresponding coolant flow outlet, said coolant flow inlets offset from said corresponding coolant flow outlets so that a centerline of said coolant flow inlet is parallel to a centerline of said corresponding coolant flow outlet, said coolant flow inlets positioned adjacent a support beam, and said coolant flow outlets positioned in a fuel bundle receiving area. 6. A core plate assembly in accordance with claim 5 wherein each said fuel bundle receiving area comprises one fuel support. claim 5 7. A core for a nuclear reactor comprising: a plurality of fuel bundles, each fuel bundle comprising a lower tie plate; a plurality of cruciform shaped large control rods; a plurality of cruciform shaped control rod guide tubes; and a core plate assembly comprising: a flat plate; a plurality of support beams, said flat plate positioned on top of said support beams; a plurality of control rod guide tube openings, each said guide tube opening sized to receive a control rod guide tube, said control rod guide tube openings arranged in staggered rows, said guide tube openings having a cruciform shape and comprising four slots extending radially from a central portion at right angles to each other, said slots defining four fuel bundle receiving areas; and a plurality of fuel supports extending through said flat plate, each said fuel support comprising: a coolant flow inlet, said coolant flow inlet positioned adjacent a support beam; a coolant flow outlet sized to receive a lower tie plate of a fuel bundle, said coolant flow outlet positioned in a fuel bundle receiving area; and a coolant flow bore extending between said coolant flow inlet and said coolant flow outlet, said coolant flow inlet offset from said coolant flow outlet so that a centerline of said coolant flow inlet is parallel to a centerline of said coolant flow outlet. 8. A core in accordance with claim 7 wherein each said coolant flow inlet comprises an orifice plate. claim 7 9. A core in accordance with claim 7 wherein each said fuel bundle receiving area comprises four fuel supports. claim 7 10. A core in accordance with claim 7 wherein each said fuel bundle receiving area comprises one fuel support. claim 7 11. A core in accordance with claim 7 wherein each fuel support further comprises: claim 7 four coolant flow inlets; four coolant flow outlets sized to receive a lower tie plate of a fuel bundle; and four coolant flow bores, each flow bore extending between a corresponding coolant flow inlet and a corresponding coolant flow outlet, said coolant flow inlets offset from said corresponding coolant flow outlets so that a centerline of said coolant flow inlet is parallel to a centerline of said corresponding coolant flow outlet, said coolant flow inlets positioned adjacent a support beam, and said coolant flow outlets positioned in a fuel bundle receiving area. 12. A core in accordance with claim 11 wherein each said fuel bundle receiving area comprises one fuel support. claim 11
	abstract	In a nuclear reactor core, a lower tie plate assembly is provided with asymmetric features designed to control or vary a loss coefficient as a function of rotation of the associated fuel assembly. An associated method is provided to control the flow of coolant through the associated fuel assembly via rotation of the fuel assembly relative to the fuel support member. Control of the flow can be used to adjust assembly flow rate, assembly power and flow quality within the fuel assembly, among other assembly operational characteristics. Such flow control will impact the flow through other assemblies as well, since core flow remains generally fixed. On a core-wide basis, such flow control can be used to optimize core wide parameters. Optimization parameters of particular interest are the fuel cycle cost and moisture carryover.
062460528	claims	1. A flexure carriage formed of a substantially rigid material, the carriage comprising: four elongate columns arranged spaced apart and at least essentially parallel to one another, each of the elongate columns having first and second ends; four first cross members arranged so that each first cross member extends between and interconnects two first ends of the elongate columns; four second cross members arranged so that each second cross member extends between and interconnects two second ends of the elongate columns; a translating section disposed within a space between the elongate columns generally equidistant between the first and second ends and interconnected thereto; and a plurality of flexures, at least one flexure interconnecting each first end of each elongate column to each first cross member, at least one flexure interconnecting each second end of each elongate column to each second cross member, and at least one flexure interconnecting each elongate column with the translating section. a pair of flexures interconnecting each elongate column with the translating section, one flexure of each pair disposed adjacent the translating section on each elongate column and nearer the first end and one flexure of each pair disposed adjacent the translating section on each elongate column and nearer the second end. a first pair of opposed slots formed transversely and extending toward one another into one of the elongate columns; a first web of the substantially rigid material left between the first pair of slots; a second pair of opposed slots spaced from the first pair of slots in the same elongate member formed transversely and extending toward one another; and a second web of the substantially rigid material left between the second pair of slots wherein the first web and the second web are arranged perpendicular to one another and spaced apart along the same elongate column. a first pair of opposed slots formed transversely and extending toward one another into one of the elongate columns; a first web of the substantially rigid material left between the first pair of slots; a second pair of opposed slots spaced from the first pair of slots in the same elongate member formed transversely and extending toward one another; and a second web of the substantially rigid material left between the second pair of slots wherein the first web and the second web are arranged perpendicular to one another and spaced apart along the same elongate column. a first piezoelectric assembly connected to the translating section for moving the translating section along only a first linear path generally perpendicular to the elongate members; and a second piezoelectric assembly connected to the translating section for moving the translating section along only a second linear path generally perpendicular to the elongate columns and to the first linear path. assemblies further comprises: a pair of flexures connected to the rigid section, one flexure of the pair interconnecting the first piezoelectric element and the rigid section and the other flexure of the pair interconnecting the second piezoelectric element and the rigid section. a first pair of opposed slots formed into a portion of the central coupler transversely and extending toward one another; a first web of the substantially rigid material left between the first pair of slots; a second pair of opposed slots spaced from the first pair of slots in the same central coupler formed transversely and extending toward one another; and a second web of the substantially rigid material left between the second pair of slots wherein the first web and the second web are arranged perpendicular to one another and spaced apart along the same central coupler. a first pair of opposed slots formed into a portion of the central coupler transversely and extending toward one another; a first web of the substantially rigid material left between the first pair of slots; a second pair of opposed slots spaced from the first pair of slots in the same central coupler formed transversely and extending toward one another; and a second web of the substantially rigid material left between the second pair of slots wherein the first web and the second web are arranged perpendicular to one another and spaced apart along the same central coupler. a flexure disposed on each first end of each elongate column integrally connected to an end of two adjacent first cross members. a flexure on each second end of each elongate column connected to an end of two adjacent second cross members. a stiffening beam disposed between a t least one pair of adjacent elongate columns and interconnected thereto, one stiffening beam near each first end and at least one near each second end. a stiffening beam disposed between at least one pair of adjacent elongate columns between each first end and the translating section and disposed nearer the translating section, and a stiffening beam disposed between each second end and the translating section and disposed nearer the translating section. four elongate columns arranged spaced apart and parallel to one another, four first cross members arranged extending between and interconnecting to first ends of each of the elongate columns; four second cross members arranged extending between and interconnecting to second ends of the elongate columns; a translating section disposed equidistant between the first and second ends of the elongate columns and interconnected thereto; a plurality of flexures, one flexure interconnecting each first end of each elongate column to each first cross member, one flexure interconnecting each second end of each elongate column to each second cross member, and at least one flexure interconnecting each elongate column with the translating section; a first piezoelectric assembly which is connected to the translating section and which is configured to move the translating section along only a first linear path generally perpendicular to the elongate members; and a second piezoelectric assembly which is connected to the translating section and which is configured to move the translating section along only a second linear path generally perpendicular to the elongate members and the first linear path. a central coupler formed from a substantially rigid material and having a rigid section connected to a portion of the translating section; at least one flexure connected to the rigid section; and first and second piezoelectric elements, the first piezoelectric element extending from the at least one flexure toward the first ends of the elongate columns and the second piezoelectric element extending from the at least one flexure toward the second ends of the elongate column. a pair of flexures connected to the rigid portion, one flexure of the pair interconnecting the first piezoelectric element and the rigid section and the other flexure of the pair interconnecting the second piezoelectric element and the rigid section. a measuring instrument; a support structure; and a flexure assembly having a moveable carriage supporting the measuring instrument for movement therewith, wherein the flexure assembly further includes: four elongate columns arranged spaced apart and parallel to one another, four first cross members arranged extending between and interconnecting to first ends of each of the elongate columns; four second cross members arranged extending between and interconnecting to second ends of the elongate columns; a translating section disposed equidistant between the first and second ends of the elongate columns and interconnected thereto; a plurality of flexures, one flexure interconnecting each first end of each elongate column to each first cross member, one flexure interconnecting each second end of each elongate column to each second cross member, and at least one flexure interconnecting each elongate column with the translating section; a first piezoelectric assembly which is connected to the translating section and which is configured to move the translating section along only a first linear path generally perpendicular to the elongate members; and a second piezoelectric assembly which is connected to the translating section and which is configured to move the translating section along only a second linear path generally perpendicular to the elongate members and the first linear path. 2. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, further comprising: 3. The flexure carriage according to claim 2, wherein each flexure comprises: 4. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, wherein each flexure comprises: 5. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, further comprising: 6. The flexure carriage according to claim 5, wherein each of the piezoelectric 7. The flexure carriage according to claim 6, further comprising: 8. The flexure carriage according to claim 7, wherein the at least one flexure further comprises: 9. The flexure carriage according to claim 7, wherein the pair of flexures each further comprise: 10. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, wherein the four elongate columns, the four first cross members, the four second cross members, the translating section, and the plurality of flexures are each formed integral with one another as a single unitary structure from the same substantially rigid material. 11. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, wherein each of the flexures is disposed on the four elongate columns. 12. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, wherein the translating section is connected to at least one flexure on each of the elongate columns. 13. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, further comprising: 14. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, further comprising: 15. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, further comprising: 16. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, further comprising: 17. The flexure carriage according to claim 1, wherein the substantially rigid material is stainless steel. 18. A flexure assembly for producing micro-positioning movement in a plane and preventing movement in a direction perpendicular to the plane, the flexure assembly comprising: 19. The flexure assembly according to claim 18, wherein each of the piezoelectric assemblies further comprises: 20. The flexure carriage according to claim 19, further comprising: 21. A high resolution measurement device comprising:
	claims	1. A method of removing a particle of a photomask using an atomic force microscope comprising:pressing a hard atomic force microscope stylus having a spring constant equal to or larger than 300 N/m to a particle;detecting bending of a cantilever relative to a press force;determining a kind of the particle from an amount of the bending; andchanging the method of removing the particle in accordance with the kind of the particle. 2. A method of removing a particle of a photomask using an atomic force microscope comprising:pressing a hard atomic force microscope stylus having a spring constant equal to or larger than 300 N/m to a particle with a constant load;measuring a depth of an impression produced by pressing the particle by a stylus which is slender and provided with a high aspect ratio;determining a kind of the particle by a difference in the measured depth; andchanging the method of removing the particle in accordance with the kind of the particle. 3. A method of removing a particle of a photomask using an atomic force microscope according to claim 1, wherein when the particle is softer than a quartz or glass substrate, an atomic force microscope stylus harder than the particle and softer than the quartz or glass substrate is used and the particle is physically removed by pressing a side face of the stylus to the particle. 4. A method of removing a particle of a photomask using an atomic force microscope according to claim 2, wherein when the particle is softer than a quartz or glass substrate, an atomic force microscope stylus harder than the particle and softer than the quartz or glass substrate is used and the particle is physically removed by pressing a side face of the stylus to the particle. 5. A method of removing a particle of photomask using an atomic force microscope according to claim 1, wherein only when the particle is equal to or harder than a quartz or glass substrate, a hard atomic force microscope stylus having a high spring constant used for pressing the particle is used as it is and the particle is physically removed by pressing a side face of the stylus to the particle. 6. A method of removing a particle of photomask using an atomic force microscope according to claim 2, wherein only when the particle is equal to or harder than a quartz or glass substrate, a hard atomic force microscope stylus having a high spring constant used for pressing the particle is used as it is and the particle is physically removed by pressing a side face of the stylus to the particle.
049820982	abstract	Disclosed is speed compensated intensifying screen which has a layer of phosphor and a protective layer superposed sequentially on a substrate and further has a light-absorbing layer capable of absorbing part of the light emitted from the layer of phosphor superposed thereon. By this light-absorbing layer, a plurality of regions differing in speed are formed within the layer of phosphor. In the plurality of regions, the speed is continuously changed across the borderlines between the regions. This continuous change in density across the borderlines prevents the borderlines between the regions of speed from appearing as line patterns in the produced X-ray radiograph. The intensifying screen of the grade adapted for X-ray radiography of the chest effects proper speed correction by incorporating therein a plurality of regions of speed formed so as to conform to the various internal organs in the chest such as the upper and lower mediastinums, the hilums of the lung, and the lungfields. The intensifying screen of the grade adapted for X-ray radiography of the head effects proper speed correction by incorporating therein a plurality of regions of speed formed so as to conform to the various parts of the head from the central part through the portion near the scalp. The intensifying screen of the grade adapted for X-ray radiography of the upper and lower jaws and the peripheries thereof effects proper speed correction such as to prevent the shadow of the backbone from giving rise to portion deficient in radiographic density.
048448591	summary	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a removable and lockable guide ring in an orifice passing through a plate and, more particularly, to a guide ring associated with a guide tube of a nuclear reactor. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In nuclear reactors which have power and shutdown control rods, it is known to use tubes not only to guide the rods themselves which are in the form of clusters, but also to guide the shaft connecting the cluster to the mechanisms controlling the translational movement of the rods. This shaft, called a follower, is centered and guided in a tube arranged in the space contained between the tubes guiding the clusters and the wall of the containment carrying the mechanisms moving the control rods. Arranged in a known way in the end part of the tube is a ring which ensures, on the one hand, the guidance of the follower and, on the other hand, the limitation of the flow of coolant which has passed through the core of the nuclear reactor. The stream of coolant is thus made to flow off via the orifices provided in the cluster guide tubes for it to pass through. Furthermore, during the operations of unloading and refuelling the reactor core, the ring associated with the guide tube makes it possible to guide the corresponding follower, in such a way that, when the cover of the vessel is lowered, this follower can enter the corresponding passage provided in the cover. Finally, this ring must be removable, in order to make it possible to carry out the conventional maintenance operations on the components of the core of the nuclear reactor, and must be lockable relative to the guide tubes, so that it is maintained in a fixed position during the normal operation of the reactor. There are known embodiments, in which the ring is held in an orifice passing through the end plate of the guide tube, in such a way as to be coaxial relative to this orifice, by maneuverable attachment means retained in place by an elastic means. The guide ring comprises a tubular body, whose first part enters the orifice in the end plate of the guide tube and whose second part comes up against the upper face of this plate. The attachment means mounted on the tubular body engage with the edges of the orifice in the plate on the lower face of the latter. The tubular body of the guide ring consists of two coaxial rings, of which one, the inner ring, is mounted slideably in the axial direction inside the other which forms the outer ring. The internal bore in the inner ring forms the guide surface for the follower. The outer ring carries the locking means which usually consist of attachment fingers mounted pivotably about horizontal axes, and the inner ring has, on its outer surface, surfaces actuating the pivoting fingers, these surfaces being designed to put these fingers into the locked or released position as a result of the axial displacement of the inner ring. An elastic means, such as a spring, is inserted between the outer ring and the inner ring, so as to exert a restoring force on the inner ring, to maintain it in the position corresponding to the locking of the fingers. The disadvantage of such guide rings is that they consist of two parts movable relative to one another and require the use of a special tool to exert a thrust on the inner ring, to ensure the release of the fingers at the moment when the guide ring is fitted on the end plate of a guide tube. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the invention is, therefore, to provide a removable and lockable guide ring in an orifice passing through a plate, so that the internal bore of the guide ring and the orifice in the plate are coaxial relative to one another, and comprising a tubular body entering the orifice in the plate by means of a first part and coming up against one of the faces of the plate round the orifice by means of a second part, means of attaching the ring to the edges of the orifice on the face of the plate opposite the bearing face of the tubular body, and an elastic means of returning the attachment means into the attachment position for locking the ring in the orifice in the plate, this guide ring of simple structure having to comprise a tubular body without a movable part, which can be fitted and locked in the orifice in the plate in a simple way and without a special tool. To achieve this object, the attachment means consists of at least two claws taking the form of a bent lever having a first arm, the end of which has an attachment surface, and a second arm forming a certain angle with the first arm, the claws being mounted freely relative to the tubular body and being retained in this tubular body by the elastic means consisting of at least one spring inserted between one part of the tubular body and the second arm of the claws, so as to push the attachment ends of the claws back in the radial direction towards the outside of the tubular body.
	claims	1. A spacer grid, comprising:a plurality of strips forming a plurality of grid cells;a plurality of fuel rods;a plurality of springs supporting the fuel rods in predetermined directions on surfaces of the grid cells; anda plurality of mixing vanes, each of the mixing vanes protruding from an upper end of an inner surface of the grid cells toward a downstream direction of coolant,wherein the mixing vanes are arranged such that a pattern of mixing vanes within the left region of a vertical standard line is symmetrical to a pattern of the mixing vanes within the right region of the vertical standard line, and a pattern of the mixing vanes within the upper region of a horizontal standard line is symmetrical to a pattern of the mixing vanes within the lower region of the horizontal standard line,wherein the vertical standard line is defined by a vertical line passing through a centerpoint of the plurality of grid cells, and the horizontal standard line is defined by a horizontal line passing through said centerpoint, andwherein a pattern of the mixing vanes arranged on the vertical standard line is the same as the pattern of the mixing vanes within the left region of the vertical standard line, and a pattern of the mixing vanes arranged on the horizontal standard line is the same as the pattern of the mixing vanes within the lower region of the horizontal standard line.
	abstract	An inadvertent actuation block valve includes inlet and outlet orifices being in selective fluid communication via a chamber. A disc is disposed within the chamber and a bellows is configured to contract at a predetermined pressure differential between reactor fluid entering a reference pressure orifice and control fluid entering the inlet orifice. When the bellows contracts, the disc engages the outlet orifice and isolates fluid communication between the inlet and outlet orifices. The inadvertent actuation block valve prevents inadvertent opening of an emergency core cooling valve when a reactor is at operating pressure that is above the predetermined set pressure range. The inadvertent actuation block valve permits the emergency cooling valves to open and to remain open when reactor pressure is below the predetermined set pressure range. The inadvertent actuation block valve does not impede long term emergency cooling that occurs when the reactor is at low pressure.
061370282	abstract	A method for the disposal of oil field wastes contaminated with naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). The method includes the steps of: drilling a pair of wells which intersect in a salt formation, providing a slurry containing NORM wastes and a carrier liquid, injecting the slurry through one of the wells into the salt formation wherein the NORM wastes settle, and removing the carrier liquid from the other one of the wells. One carrier liquid, fresh water, dissolves the salt formation to form and enlarge a cavern for receiving the NORM wastes. The quantities of carrier liquid removed from the salt formation are disposed of by injection into permeable formation remote from the salt formation.
050358405	claims	1. A process for reducing the metal salt concentration in metal salt contaminated H.sub.4 EDTA comprising the following steps in combination: (a) esterifying the metal salt contaminated H.sub.4 EDTA in the presence of an esterification reagent to produce an esterification reaction mixture comprising a metal salt and a liquid EDTA ester, and (b) separating the metal salt from the esterification reaction mixture. (a) esterifying the H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate containing radioactive metal salt in the presence of an esterification reagent and a non-protic organic solvent at a temperature of from about 0.degree. C. to the lower boiling point temperature of either the non-protic organic solvent or the esterification reagent for a period of time ranging from 15 minutes to about 24 hours to produce an esterification reaction mixture comprising a solid radioactive metal salt, and an EDTA ester, and (b) separating the solid radioactive metal salt from the esterification reaction mixture to produce a separated solid including a solid radioactive metal salt, and a clarified esterification reaction mixture. (a) esterifying the solid radioactive metal salt containing H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate in the presence of methanol at a temperature of from about 0.degree. C. to about the boiling point temperature of methanol but in any event no greater than about 220.degree. C. for a period of time of from about 15 minutes to about 24 hours to produce an esterification reaction mixture comprising the solid radioactive metal salt, methanol, and EDTA ester, and (b) filtering the esterification reaction mixture to recover the solid radioactive metal salt and to define a clarified esterification reaction mixture. 2. The process of claim 1 wherein esterifying the metal salt contaminated H.sub.4 EDTA occurs in the presence of an organic solvent. 3. The process of claim 2 wherein the organic solvent is non-protic. 4. The process of claim 1 wherein the esterification reagent is an alcohol. 5. The process of claim 1 wherein the metal salt is a salt of a radioactive metal isotope. 6. A process for removing a radioactive metal salt contained in an H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate comprising the following steps in combination: 7. The process of claim 6 wherein the esterification reagent is a primary alcohol. 8. The process of claim 7 wherein the primary alcohol is methanol. 9. The process of claim 6 wherein the non-protic organic solvent is methanol. 10. The process of claim 6 wherein the solid radioactive metal salt is separated from the esterification mixture by filtration. 11. The process of claim 6 wherein the clarified esterification mixture is disposed of by incineration. 12. The process of claim 6 wherein the clarified esterification reaction mixture is hydrolyzed to produce a hydrolysis product including an H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate essentially free of solid metal salts and an hydrolysis solution comprising non-protic organic solvent, water and alcohol. 13. The process of claim 12 wherein the essentially solid metal salt free H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate is recovered from the hydrolysis solution, and the non-protic organic solvent and the alcohol are recovered from the hydrolysis solution and recycled to the esterification reaction. 14. The process of claim 6 wherein the clarified esterification mixture is distilled to produce essentially pure component streams of esterification reagent, organic solvent, excess alcohol and EDTA ester. 15. The process of claim 14 wherein the essentially pure streams of the esterification reagent, alcohol, and organic solvent are recycled for further use in the esterification reaction. 16. The process of claim 14 wherein the essentially pure EDTA ester stream is disposed of. 17. The process of claim 14 wherein the essentially pure EDTA ester stream is hydrolyzed under acidic conditions to produce an essentially solid metal salt free H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate. 18. The process of claim 14 wherein the essentially pure EDTA ester stream is hydrolyzed at basic conditions to produce an essentially metal salt free EDTA salt solution. 19. A process for removing a solid radioactive metal salt contained in an H.sub.4 EDTA precipitate comprising:
	abstract	Disclosed is a method for treating a radioactive organic waste, the radioactive organic waste including a cation exchange resin adsorbing radionuclide ions, the method including the step of bringing the radioactive organic waste into contact with an organic acid salt aqueous solution containing an organic acid salt and whereby desorbing the radionuclide ions from the cation exchange resin, in which the organic acid salt contained in the organic acid salt aqueous solution includes a cation that is more readily adsorbable by the cation exchange resin than hydrogen ion is. This enables reduction in concentration of a radioactive substance in the radioactive organic waste and reduction in amount of a high-dose radioactive waste.
047568739	description	DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The FIGURE shows a lower pressure vessel 1 and an upper pressure vessel 2, both made of steel and releasably connected to each other. They may be connected by a flange connection 3. A helium cooled high temperature reactor 4 is installed in the lower pressure vessel 1, the core 13 has spherical fuel elements with an upward helium flow. The pressure vessel 1 also contains helium which is under the same pressure as the cooling gas. A cold gas collector space 5 is located under the high temperature reactor 4, while over the reactor a hot gas collector space 6 is provided. All of the other circulation components are housed in the upper pressure vessel 2. The two pressure vessels 1 and 2 are separated from each other in a gas tight manner by an intermediate flange 21. The flange 21 is designed for full pressure. The circulator components comprise a gas turbine 7, a two-stage compressor exhibiting a low pressure compressor 8 and a high pressure compressor 9. The heat exchange apparatuses including one or more radiators 10, one or more intermediate radiators 11 and a recuperator 12 are arranged in the upper pressure vessel. The gas turbine 7, the low pressure compressor 8 and the high pressure compressor 9 are seated on a shaft 14 coupled to a generator 15. All of these components are supported in dry or magnetic bearings. The generator 15 is located within the pressure vessel 2 in the illustrated embodiment. The generator 15 may alternatively be placed in a separate container set on the pressure vessel 2. Preferably, a high speed generator without preceding topping gear is used. The pressure vessel 2 may be filled with a protective gas, such as helium or nitrogen. As shown by the figure, the gas turbine 7, the radiators 10, the low pressure compressor 8, the intermediate radiators 11 and the high pressure compressor 9 are arranged above each other, in an alignment with the high temperature reactor 4. The recuperator 12 occupies a lateral position, located in the gas between the gas turbine 7 and the radiators 10. It is connected to the outlet of the gas turbine 7 by an approximately horizontal gas line 16. It is connected to the radiators 10, preceding the low pressure compressor 8, by a similar gas line 17. The inlet of the gas turbine 7 is connected to the hot gas collector space 6 by a gas conduit 18. A gas tight connector location is provided in the gas conduit 18 in the form of a slide connection 22. A vertical gas line 20 is connected to the cold gas collector space 5, and to the outlet of the high pressure side of the recuperator 12. Alternatively, the cold gas carrying gas line 20 under the pressure vessel 1 may be eliminated. The cold gas is then conducted directly into the pressure vessel 1 wherein it flows to the cold gas collector space 5 (not shown). In this embodiment at the entry location of the gas line 20 into the pressure vessel 1 by a slide connection is provided. The circulation of the primary gas through the plant is described as follows. The heated helium coming from the reactor core 13 is transported through the hot gas collector space 6 and the gas conduit 18 to the gas turbine 7, expanding therein. Subsequently, it flows through the gas line 16 and on the jacket side, through the recuperator 12, while heating the high pressure cold helium flowing in the bundle tubes. The gas then passes through the gas line 17 to the radiators 10. In the radiators 10 the helium is further cooled and then enters the low pressure compressor 8. Following compression and repeated cooling in the intermediate radiators 11 preceding the high pressure compressor 9, the helium is further compressed in the compressor 9 and is finally returned through the gas line 19 to the recuperator 12. Here it is distributed over the bundle tubes and heated by the low pressure gas. Subsequently, the helium is conducted through the gas line 20 to the cold gas collector space 5 and the circulation begins anew. Decay heat may be removed from an inactive plant by natural convection through the radiators 10. The shutdown and regulation of the installation ae effected by means of absorber rods, which may be displacably arranged in a reflector laterally surrounding the core 13 (not shown).
	description	This application is the US national phase of PCT application PCT/DE2003/002073, filed 21 Jun. 2003, published 31 Dec. 2003 as WO 2004/001766, and claiming the priority of German patent application 10228387.7 itself filed 25 Jun. 2002. According to the IAEA Safety Standard Series—Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material 1996 Edition Regulations no. TS-R-1 (ST-1 Revised) of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (German version BfS-ET-31/00) July 2000 salt meshes are subjected to extreme degradation in the so-called Type B casks for transporting and storing highly radioactive materials. These regulations are revised and set down in detail in English version ST-1. In general there are the following mechanical, thermal, and radiological recommendations: Nine-meter drop test, pin-drop test, heat test, water-pressure test, as well as handling regulations and regulations regarding reporting of accidents. According to industry-wide requirements that are based on the world-wide IAEA Regulations and that correspond to the recommendations of the accident-rectifying regulations (according to GGVS/ADR, GGVS/RID, GGVSee/JMDG) the construction of the Type B shipping elements (these are the casks with a radioactive inventory above the limit where their release does not create any increased danger) are based on mechanical, thermal, and radiological tests that ensure the safety of the casks even in severe accidents. They are thus the sole category of safety package where the safety is ensured even in the case of severe accidents. The mechanical tests for Type B shipping elements, the standard massive heavy vessels, belongs to the nine-meter drop sequence onto a rigid floor and a one-meter drop onto a pin in the position in which the cask is most seriously damaged, which means that for each test there must be a number of drops so that the worst damage for the various parts of the cask can be assessed for each drop. The thermal test following the drop test is a 30-minute burn with complete flame envelopment of the cask by an open fuel-oil flame which heats the entire cask to at least 800° C. These tests set by the IAEA regulations simulate “real” accident situations (prior to 11 Sep. 2001) and have quite a margin of safety. In mechanical tests it is very important that the cask be dropped on an unyielding floor as this rigidity is not really encountered in real accidents. Since the cask mass is multiplied by the impact deceleration to produce the actual impact force, a nine-meter drop onto a rigid floor produces an impact force that is much higher than that reached in reality on impacting at a much higher speed on a softer floor. This determination as well as the fact that in particular Type B cask that are used for the shipping of spent fuel elements and highly radioactive waste as a result of their massive construction have much greater safety in severe accidents as can be determined by a number of tests. In addition the Type B cask must comply with radiological requirements. These requirements are also spelled out in ST-1. Furthermore the container system can be used without this ion shielding for example for other dangerous materials. What is more, it is essential to take into account what will happen when traveling by train, truck, or boat. Even the analysis of accidents must be done according to the requirements of the IAEA and country-specific requirements. The known so-called Castor casks do not comply in various ways to the requirements of the IAEA and the applicable German requirements regarding transport and storage. This type of cask is made by machining as a monolithic object cut from a monolithic block of spherical-graphite cast iron and is provided with separate bores and with machined cooling ribs and are provided to hold spent fuel elements in water in storage pools (wet storage) in which the fuel elements are maintained cool (at least 5 years). Thus the complete machined but monolithic and thick-walled cask blocks weighing between 100 and 150 t and holding spent fuel elements are completely submerged. The normally brittle surface of the mechanically machined anthracite casting must be given some surface treatment. Here in the contaminated storage-pool water the spherical-graphite block cask is contaminated inside and outside. As a result it is necessary to meticulously decontaminate the exterior (1998 was the start of a complete handling ban from outside contamination). The required IAEA drop tests cannot be done with an empty cask. The selected spherical-graphite material does not resist such forces created by mass times acceleration without bursting because of the brittle nature of the material. Trials cannot be made according to the necessary regulations either by calculation (with a substantial margin for error). The actual results can be calculated with models provided with shock absorbers and actually done with Pollux and the so-called Japanese Castor casks. This testing of the Pollux and Japanese Castor casks, which are provided with large top and bottom shock absorbers only gives results that relate to the shock absorbers and not to the actual strength of the casks. This results in the following rule: Castor casks with top and bottom shock absorbers must be integrated into form Type B container systems. The actual spherical-graphite cask is never actually tested. Even the flame test, with 800° C. for at least 30 minutes, is not done. To date there is no reliable data. It is an object of the present invention to provide a container system of the described type that complies with the above given requirements of the national and international rules and remains undamaged when subjected to the necessary tests, with no release of radioactivity. This object is attained according to the invention in that the container system comprises an outer vessel and an inner vessel surrounded by the outer vessel and holding the radioactive material. This structure has the advantage that all potential damaging from the exterior is completely or nearly completely absorbed by the outer container so that the inner container is itself not affected or is so little affected that there is no damage to the inner container. When sufficiently strong materials are used in spite of any inherent elasticity the outer container can be constructed that even when it is damaged or even destroyed it still generally acts like a sacrificial containment that on its own satisfies the IAEA requirements. Thus the container system can be constructed such that it is used to hold the no longer compliant Castor casks in that they can be put in an outer container according to the invention without head and shock absorbers for safe transport and storage. A container system according to the invention basically comprises an outer container 1 and an inner container 2 surrounded by an intermediate container 3 inside it. The outer container 1 comprises a cylinder 4 whose side wall 5 is formed of prestressed reinforced spun concrete. It is further provided with a cover 6 and a floor 7 that are made of reinforced concrete, preferably also of prestressed spun reinforced concrete with boron oxide for additional moderating of neutrons that are present in the radioactive material inside the inner container 2. The outer container 1 defines a chamber 8 having an inner surface 9 on which are braced springs 10 and 11 also braced on the cover 6 and floor 7. These springs 10 and 11 are preferably provided with (unillustrated) shock absorbers, as for example used in the suspensions of rail cars. The springs 10 braced against the side wall 5 are distributed about the surfaces 9 to be rotation symmetrical and a plurality of the springs 10 are distributed longitudinally of the side wall 5 next to or one above the other. The springs 11 braced on the floor 7 and cover 6 are also uniformly arrayed on the cover 6 and floor 7. They have longer travel strokes and greater stiffness than the springs 10 braced against the inner surface 9 of the side wall 5. Each spring 10 and 11 is provided with an (unillustrated) prestressing device that prestresses it outward against the outer container 1. To this end the prestressing devices can be threaded bolts that extend through the side wall 5, the cover 6, and the floor 7 and engage with an internal thread in a pusher washer against which the respective spring 10 and 11 bears toward the inner chamber 8. The inner container 2 is wholly inside the intermediate container 3 on whose outer surface 12 and cover 13 and floor 14 bear the springs 10 and 11. Here the side wall 12 of the intermediate container 3 is made of prestressed spun reinforced concrete. The cover 13 and the floor 14 are also of reinforced concrete, preferably prestressed spun reinforced concrete with boron oxide for additional moderating of neutrons that are emitted by the radioactive materials in the inner container 2. The intermediate container 3 has on an inner wall surface 15 and on the inner surfaces 16 and 17 of its cover 13 and floor 14 layers 18, 19, and 20 of polyethylene that moderate neutrons that come from the radioactive material in the inner container 2. The inner container 2 is also a cylinder that is double-walled and of stainless steel. Between the inner wall 21 and the outer wall 22 of its side wall 23, its cover 24, and its floor 25 are spaces 26, 27, and 28 in which a gamma- and neutron-ray shielding absorber 29 is provided. Thus the absorber 29 completely surrounds an inner chamber 30 such that no gamma or neutron ray windows are left. The absorber 29 can be formed of depleted uranium (uranium oxide) or a similarly effective material. The inner container 2 has a particularly smooth surface finish on inner surfaces of the inner walls 21 and on outer surfaces 32 of the outer walls 22. The inner container 2 has a surface 33 turned toward the cover 24, and an annular flange 34 that projects above the inner container 2 and that is of such an outer diameter that it conforms to the outer surface 35 of the intermediate container 3 so that the radial outer surface 36 is flush with the outer surface 35 of the intermediate container. The inner container 2 has adjacent and inside the annular flange 34 a mounting ring 37 that closes an annular gap between the inner wall 21 and the outer wall 22 of the inner container 2. The mounting ring 37 is provided with threaded bores 38 holding mounting bolts 39 that pass through and secure in place the cover 24 of the inner container 2. Above the cover 24 of the inner container is an intermediate cover 40 that is secured by threaded bolts 41 to the annular flange 34 and that covers with its lower face 42 the adjacent polyethylene layer 13. The side wall 5, the cover 6, and the floor 7 of the outer container 1 as well as the side wall 12, the cover 13 and the floor 14 of the intermediate container 3 are traversed by empty tubes 43 and 44 in which are arranged mounting elements for prestressing and tightly closing the outer container 1 and the intermediate container 3. The mounting elements 45 and 46 are tie rods. The outer container 1 is provided near its floor 7 with air-inlet openings 47 and near its cover with air-outlet openings 48 that are distributed radially symmetrically about the side wall 5. The inlet openings 47 and the outlet openings 48 are closable. Instead of the inner container 2 shown here with the shielding and the intermediate container, the outer container 1 can hold in its inner chamber 8 an industry-standard Castor cask 49 and thereby form a monolithic inner container 50. The Castor ray window is covered in the interior chamber 8 by layers of polyethylene. The stainless steel used for the inner container 2 is made particularly smooth on both the inner wall 21 and the outer wall 22 so that any contamination can be held as low as possible and so as to facilitate decontamination as much as possible. The inner wall 21 and the outer wall 22 are thus preferably at most 40 mm thick. The absorber 29 in the cavities 26, 27, and 28 is mainly enriched uranium (uranium dioxide) or similar materials that function particularly as gamma- and neutron-ray shield not only because of their mass but because of their properties. The layers 18, 19, and 29 of polyethylene have the exclusive task of neutron shielding. Unlike the standard casks here there is a closed cask. By putting the inner container 2 in the intermediate container 3 there is a further complete shield container with a unifying corona effect of prestressed reinforced spun concrete, as very clearly described in DE 199 19 703. The use of prestressed reinforced spun concrete produces an extraordinarily strong and stiff but light body that even though of lesser weight has better mechanical properties than spherical-graphite cast iron. Even the shielding is at least as good. In addition prestressed reinforced spun concrete has a highly uniform and smooth surface that does not need to be painted and that is also decontaminated without great expense. The inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 have in general all the necessary features to constitute a shipping unit according to the IAEA requirements. In order however to insure that mechanical, thermal, and radiological requirements are met in the required tests (drop test, accident test, burn test), the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 are also both made out of prestressed reinforced spun concrete like the outer container 1 that itself is dimensioned such that the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 can be fitted inside with room to move. This is made possible by the prestressed springs 10 and 11 that are braced in all directions on the intermediate container 3. The energy-dissipating travel required by the accurately determined play can be related proportionally from the travels of the springs 10 and 11 and can be transformed into (damped) movements. The springs 10 and 11 distributed rotation symmetrically about the side wall 5 of the outer container 1 and longitudinally of the outer container 1 are prestressed such that the mass of the inner container 2 with the intermediate container 3 (about 80 t) when horizontal shifts only slightly out of a central position. Even when the outer container 1 is vertical the springs 11 at the cover 6 and the floor 7 are set up such that there is no significant displacement of the inner container 2. The spring prestressing is in any case so great that the weight of the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 do not cause a shift. The container system according to the invention is used as follows: Once all the springs 10 and 11 are tensioned by their tensioning elements such that they are clear of the side wall 12, cover 13, and floor 14 of the intermediate container 3, it is raised out of the outer container 1. Once the cover 13 of the intermediate container 3, the intermediate cover 40, and the cover 24 of the inner container 2 have been lifted off, the intermediate container 3 is dropped with the inner container 2 into the decay pool and the connection between the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 is released such that the inner container 2 can be lifted out of the intermediate container 3 and dropped into another intermediate container 3. This has the advantage that any radioactivity on the first intermediate container does not have to be taken care of, only those regions of the annular flange 34 that are in direct contact in the pool with the radioactive water. In order to fill another inner container, the first intermediate container 3 is fitted with the inner container 2 and dropped into the pool. After the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 are in the chamber 8 of the outer container 1, the cover 6 is closed. Then the springs 10 and 11 are set and released by screwing out the tensioning elements and fitting plugs to the holes that they leave. The outer container that is thus filled with radioactive material emits no radiation at all to the outside due to the several shieldings. Since spent fuel elements emit heat for a very long time after their use, they pose for a long time a considerable thermal stress to their environs. The result is that the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 are at a temperature of 300–500° C. In order to exploit this energy, the outer container is provided at its floor 7 with air-inlet openings 47 and corresponding air-outlet openings 48 near its cover 6. In this manner thermal action (convection) produces a cooling effect of the intermediate container 3 and the inner container 2 with the passing air being heated so that its heat energy can be exploited after it leaves the outlet openings 48, thereby avoiding the use of an expensive cooling and ventilating system for the storage area holding the container system. Calculations indicate that a heat-energy output of about 20 kw can be counted on from each container system. Since the intermediate container 3 and the inner container 2 are mounted movably in the outer container 1 by the springs 10 and 11, little heat is transmitted across to the walls of the outer container 1. The air-inlet openings 47 and the air-outlet openings 48 are closable so as fully to closed off the interior 8 of the outer container 1 in the event of a fire or for a submersion test. The container system protects against any type of mechanical action from outside by the use of the extremely strong materials, the spring suspension, and the mechanical shielding of the radioactive material in the inner container 2 and intermediate container 3. One or more blows struck as a test against the outer container 1 are withstood without substantial damage in particular as they are only affective against its own mass while the inner container 2 and intermediate container 3 are set in damped movement in the inner space 8. This is so effective that the container system can also survive an aircraft accident unscathed. It is so strongly made that it withstands a load drop of 1 t at a deceleration of 300 m/s2. Even the failure of the floor of a storage facility, which resembles an aircraft accident, is survived by the container system. Thus it is possible to use them on the insufficiently stable floors in the Gorleben, Ahaus, and Rugenow storage facilities. The container system is also safe when completely enveloped by fire. According to the IAEA rules a container must be able to withstand a temperature of 800° C. when enveloped by flames for 30 min. The system according to the invention has withstood a temperature of 1000° C. for 3 hours (New York rule). Both the inner container 2 and the intermediate container 3 satisfy all radiological requirements, especially for spent fuel rods. The depleted uranium (uranium oxide) and the like have a shielding capacity such that the activity measured outside the inner container 2 is substantially lower than the minimum required level. The container system is also optimally designed against the effect of armor-piercing-projectiles, as encountered in terrorist acts. An armor-piercing shot fired against the outer container 1 is completely stopped because of its extreme strength. Even if the armor-piercing round makes a small hole in the outer container and a heated-gas high-pressure wave created by the hollow charge enters the chamber 8 of the outer container 1, this gas will uniformly fill the space 8 and act uniformly from outside on the intermediate container 3 and the annular flange 34 of the inner container 2 without damaging either. The sudden pressurization be relieved through the inlet and outlet openings 47 and 48. The already described advantages of the container system can also be used in order so as to employ the no longer compliant Castor casks 49. These must otherwise be retired, which is a huge waste in view of the large number already in existence. Here the outer container 1 is made such that it can contain an existing Castor cask and can thus employ the already existing manipulating and storing equipment.
048184756	claims	1. In a nuclear reactor having a water coolant with said water coolant being heated in said reactor to drive a turbine and coupled main generator for supplying output power, an improved emergency coolant injection system for supplying water coolant to said reactor during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident, said system comprising: a second generator mechanically coupled to said main generator and turbine, said second generator converting rotational energy of said turbine and coupled main generator into electric power, including converting the spindown momentum of said turbine and said coupled main generator to electric power; a reactor coolant injection pump, said pump having an inlet coupled to a source of coolant for said reactor and an outlet for providing said coolant to the interior of said reactor; an electric pump motor directly coupled to said reactor coolant injection pump for driving said reactor coolant injection pump; and a dedicated power supply, said dedicated power supply originating at said second generator and supplying power to said electric pump motor coupled to said reactor coolant injection pump, whereby core coolant can be supplied to said reactor during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident using the spindown momentum of said turbine and said coupled main generator. a reactor; a steam outlet from said reactor to a main turbine; a turbine and coupled main generator for supplying electric power to a power grid; a condenser for receiving steam from said turbine and for producing condensate; and a condensate/feedwater system for supplying condensate from said condenser into the interior of said reactor; the improvement to said condensate/feedwater system comprising: a reactor coolant injection pump, said pump having an inlet coupled to said condenser for obtaining coolant and an outlet for communicating coolant to the interior of said reactor; a second generator mechanically coupled to said turbine and coupled main generator, said second generator converting rotational energy of said turbine and said coupled main generator into electric power, including converting the spindown momentum of said main turbine and coupled generator into electric power; a condensate pump electric motor for driving said reactor coolant injection pump; and a dedicated power supply, said dedicated power supply originating at said second generator and supplying power to said condensate pump electric motor coupled to said reactor coolant injection pump; whereby emergency core coolant can be supplied to said reactor during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident using the spindown momentum of said main turbine and coupled generator. a condensate pump having a suction on said condenser and an outlet, said condensate pump comprising said reactor coolant injection pump; a feedwater pump, said feedwater pump connected in series to said condensate pump having an inlet on the outlet of said condensate pump and a feedwater outlet to provide feedwater to said reactor during normal operation; said condensate pump having an outlet bypassing said feedwater pump; and means in said condensate pump outlet for preventing backflow from said reactor and the outlet of said feedwater pump to said condensate pump, whereby said condensate pump provides coolant to said reactor bypassing said feedwater pump during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident using the spindown momentum of said turbine and said coupled main generator. providing a second generator; mechanically coupling said second generator to said turbine and said coupled main generator: converting rotational energy of said turbine and said coupled main generator into electric power using said mechanical coupled second generator comprising converting the spindown momentum of said turbine and said coupled main generator to electric power through said mechanically coupled second generator; providing a reactor coolant injection pump having an inlet and an outlet; coupling said inlet to a source of coolant; coupling said outlet to the interior of said reactor; providing an electric motor to drive said reactor coolant injection pump; and supplying power from said second generator to said motor during operation of said plant, whereby power to said reactor coolant injection pump includes said power generated from the spindown momentum of said turbine and said coupled main generator. providing water coolant in said reactor; heating portions of said water coolant to steam in said reactor; providing a turbine for receiving steam and driving a coupled main generator for supplying power output to a grid; providing a condenser for receiving steam from said turbine and generating coolant for return to said reactor; providing a condensate pump having an inlet for receiving coolant from said condenser and an outlet; providing a feedwater pump for receiving coolant from the outlet of said condensate pump and for reintroducing coolant into said reactor, a process for controlling a loss-of-coolant inventory accident including the steps of: depressurizing said reactor when a loss-of-coolant inventory accident occurs; providing a bypass line from the outlet of said condensate pump to the interior of said reactor, said bypass line having a one-way flow to prevent backflow into said condensate pump; providing a second generator mechanically coupled to said turbine and said coupled main generator having a power output separate from said coupled main generator; converting the spindown momentum of said turbine and said coupled main generator into electric power using said second generator; supplying electric power from said seoond generator to said condensate pump; driving said condensate pump by said supplied power during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident; and injecting coolant into said reactor using said condensate pump when said reactor pressure falls below the shutoff head for said condensate pump. said reactor normally cooled by a forced circulation cooling system which includes a plurality of pumps and said reactor cooled during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident by an emergency core cooling system, an emergency core cooling power supply comprising: an auxiliary generator coupled to said shafting of said turbine and main generator for converting spindown momentum of said turbine and coupled main generator to electric power; and dedicated power supply means for supplying power from said auxiliary generator to said emergency core cooling system, whereby emergency coolant injection can be provided to said reactor during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident using the spindown momentum of said turbine and coupled main generator. 2. The invention of claim 1 wherein said reactor coolant injection pump is a condensate pump. 3. The invention of claim 2 and wherein said outlet for said reactor coolant injection pump includes a line for bypassing a downstream feedwater pump. 4. The invention of claim 1 and wherein said dedicated power supply includes a direct electrical connection from said second generator to said electric pump motor. 5. In a nuclear reactor power plant system for supplying power to a main grid, said power plant system including: 6. The invention of claim 5 and wherein said condensate/feedwater system includes: 7. In a nuclear reactor having water coolant heated to steam to drive a turbine, said turbine having a coupled main generator for supplying power output to a grid, said reactor further including a reactor core cooled by a water coolant injection system, an improved process for operating said water coolant injection system during a loss-of-coolant inventory accident including the steps of: 8. In a nuclear reactor of the type having a reactor core cooled by a process including the steps of: 9. In a nuclear power system of the type having a boiling water reactor for providing steam to a turbine, said turbine coupled to a main generator on common shafting for providing electric power output,
	summary
043022871	claims	1. A method for controlling the operation of a nuclear reactor to at least initially increase the reactor power in a range in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction occurs comprising the steps of at least initially increasing the reactor power from a power level in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins to take place up to a predetermined power level for the nuclear reactor and controlling the rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate to a rate no less than 0.15 KW/ft/hr., and no greater than a predetermined critical rate so as to shorten the time necessary to at least initially raise the reactor power to the predetermined power level without causing pellet-clad-mechanical-interation damage of the fuel elements. 2. A method for controlling the operation of a nuclear reactor to increase the reactor power in a range in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction occurs comprising the steps of at least initially increasing the reactor power from a power level in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins to take place up to a predetermined power level for the reactor and controlling the rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate P so as to be no less than 0.15 KW/ft/hr. and no greater than a critical rate determined in accordance with the equation ##EQU7## during at least the initial increase of the reactor power from the power level in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins to take place up to the predetermined power level for the reactor, wherein: P: linear heat generating rate (KW/ft); P: rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate (KW/ft/hr); A: numeral determined by a coefficient .alpha. of thermal expansion of a pellet and smear density; B: a constant determined by Young's modulus of a pellet and smear density; C: a constant determined by a rate of creep of a pellet; and D: a constant determined by a coefficient .alpha. of thermal expansion of a pellet, Young's modulus and smear density. 3. A method according to claim 2, wherein A is (8.0+0.5 P.sub.I), B is 3.3, C is 0.45 and D is (6.6-0.35 P.sub.I). 4. A method according to claim 2, wherein A is 8.0, B is 3.3, C is 0.45, D is 6.6, and P.sub.I is 0. 5. A method according to claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate P is controlled by the adjustment of the amount of heavy water through a core of the nuclear reactor. 6. A method according to claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate P is controlled by the adjustment of the amount of coolant through a core of the nuclear reactor. 7. A method according to claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate P is controlled by the adjustment of the consistency of liquid poison included in a coolant. 8. A method for controlling the operation of a nuclear reactor to increase the reactor power in a range in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction occurs comprising the steps of at least initially increasing the reactor power from a power level in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins to take place up to a predetermined power level for the nuclear reactor and controlling the rate P of increase of the linear heat generating rate during at least the initial means of reactor power to a rate no less than 0.15 KW/ft/hr. and no greater than a critical rate determined in accordance with the equation: ##EQU8## wherein P is a linear heat generating rate of no less than 8 KW/ft and no greater than about 20 KW/ft and the pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins at a linear heat generating rate no less than 2 KW/ft and no greater than 10 KW/ft. 9. A method for controlling the operation of a nuclear reactor wherein a fuel consists of a plurality of cylindrical pellets of fuel in oxide form of about 10.4-18.8 mm in diameter contained in a plurality of elongated zirconium alloy cladded tubular fuel elements with a cladding thickness of about 0.4-0.9 mm and an outside diameter of about 11-20 mm, to at least initially increase the reactor power in a range in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction occurs comprising the steps of at least initially increasing the reactor power from a power level in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins to take place up to a predetermined power level for the nuclear reactor and controlling the rate P of increase of the linear heat generating rate during at least the initial power increase to a rate no less than 0.15 KW/ft/hr. and no greater than a critical rate determined in accordance with the equation: ##EQU9## wherein P is a linear heat generating rate of no less than 8 KW/ft and no greater than about 20 KW/ft and the pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins at a linear heat generating rate no less than 2 KW/ft and no greater than 10 KW/ft. 10. A method for controlling the operation of a nuclear reactor wherein a fuel consists of a plurality of cylindrical pellets of fuel in oxide form of about 10.4-18.8 mm in diameter contained in a plurality of elongated zirconium alloy cladded tubular fuel elements with a cladding thickness of about 0.4-0.9 mm and an outside diameter of about 11-20 mm, to at least initially increase the reactor power in a range in which pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins to take place up to a predetermined power level for the nuclear reactor and controlling the rate P of increase of the linear heat generating rate during at least the initial power increase to a rate no less than 0.15 KW/ft/hr. and no greater than a critical rate determined in accordance with the equation: ##EQU10## wherein P is a linear heat generating rate no less than 10 KW/ft and no greater than about 20 KW/ft and the pellet-clad-mechanical-interaction begins at a linear heat generating rate no less than 4 KW/ft and no greater than 6 KW/ft. 11. A method according to claim 8, 9 or 10, wherein the rate of increase of the linear heat generating rate P is controlled by the adjustment of the consistency of liquid poison included in a coolant.
	claims	1. A nuclear fuel pellet, comprising:a pellet structure of a pressed and sintered uranium dioxide powder;wherein the pellet structure is made up of evenly distributed pores among grains of the uranium dioxide powder;wherein nanopores and metal clusters of chemically bonded uranium cations are located inside the grains;wherein the nanopores are between 1 and 200 nm in size and comprise at least 50% of a total porosity of the pellet structure;wherein the metal clusters are surrounded by the uranium dioxide powder;wherein a total content of the metal clusters is between 0.01 and 2 wt %;wherein the nuclear fuel pellet has a thermal conductivity in a range of 7.6 to 8.7 W/m·degrees over a temperature range of 600° to 900° C.
	abstract	A drawing apparatus includes a plurality of charged particle optical elements that are sequentially passed through by a plurality of charged particle beams and performs drawing on a substrate with the charged particle beams. The apparatus further includes a deflector array which includes a plurality of deflectors disposed for respective one or more charged particle beams, each of which aligning corresponding one or more charged particle beams between two of the plurality of charged particle optical elements, a plurality of devices configured to respectively apply a plurality of potentials to the deflector array, and a connector configured to connect each of a plurality of electrodes included in the deflector array to one of the plurality of devices and connect electrodes, to which an equal potential is applied, to each other. Number of devices included in the plurality of devices is less than number of electrodes included in the deflector array.
	description	1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to nuclear reactors and, more particularly, is concerned with a control rod spider assembly incorporating secure attachment joints for fastening the control rods to the spider structure. 2. Related Art In a typical nuclear reactor, such as a pressurized water reactor (PWR) type, the reactor core includes a multiplicity of fuel assemblies. Each fuel assembly is composed of top and bottom nozzles with a plurality of elongated transversely spaced guide thimbles extending longitudinally between and attached at opposite ends to the nozzles. A plurality of transverse support grids are axially spaced along and attached to the guide thimbles. A plurality of elongated fuel elements or rods transversely spaced apart from one another and from the guide thimbles are supported by the transverse grids between the top and bottom nozzles. The fuel rods each contain fissile material and are grouped together in an array which is organized so as to provide a neutron flux in the core sufficient to support a high rate of nuclear fission and thus the release of a large amount of energy in the form of heat. A liquid coolant is pumped upwardly through the core in order to extract some of the heat generated in the core for the production of useful work. Since the rate of heat generation in the reactor core is proportional to the nuclear fission rate, and this, in turn, is determined by the neutron flux in the core, control of heat generation at reactor start-up, during its operation and at shutdown is achieved by varying the neutron flux. Generally, this is done by absorbing excess neutrons using control rods which contain neutron absorbing material. The guide thimbles, in addition to being structural elements of the fuel assembly, also provide channels for insertion of the neutron absorber control rods within the reactor core. The level of neutron flux and thus the heat output of the core is normally regulated by the movement of the control rods into and out of the guide thimbles. One common arrangement utilizing control rods in association with a fuel assembly can be seen in U.S. Pat. No. 4,326,919 to Hill. This patent shows a control rod spider assembly which includes a plurality of control rods and a spider structure supporting the control rods at their upper ends. The spider structure, in turn, is connected to a control drive mechanism that vertically raises and lowers (referred to as a stepping action) the control rods into and out of the hollow guide thimbles of the fuel assembly. The typical construction of the control rod used in such an arrangement is in the form of an elongated metallic cladding tube having a neutron absorbing material disposed within the tube and with end plugs at opposite ends thereof for sealing the absorber material within the tube. The spider structure typically includes a plurality of radially extending vanes supported on and circumferentially spaced about a central hub. The vanes are flat metal plates positioned on edge and being connected at their inner ends to the central hub. Cylindrical shaped control rod connecting fingers are mounted to and are supported by the varies, with some of the vanes having only a single connecting finger and other vanes having a spaced pair of connecting fingers associated therewith. Typically, the upper end plug of each control rod has a threaded outer end which is receivable into a bore in the lower portion of one finger of the spider structure and threadable into a lapped hole formed in the finger at the inner end of the bore. The end plug is then secured or locked therein by a key or pin inserted into the side of the finger and the end plug and then welded therein, as more particularly described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,855,100. The current design has performed quite well for several years, but in a few instances, control rodlets have been dropped during operation of the reactor. A dropped rodlet is a very undesirable event and has potential for significant safety implications. Root cause evaluations have been completed on these dropped rodlet incidents and it has been determined that the rodlets were dropped because of inadequacies in the anti-rotation features of this design. The anti-rotation features comprise a hole drilled through the finger into the rodlet end plug extension and a pin is installed and welded to prevent the rodlet from unscrewing. There are several disadvantages to this approach. First, the threads in the finger are in the top of a blind hole, which means that any burr chip or nick in the thread may cause the joint not to be preloaded properly and potentially leave the joint susceptible to fatigue and failure. Secondly, assembly is slow because holes for each rodlet must be drilled during assembly. Thirdly, holes must be drilled for each rodlet to a tight tolerance depth so that the pin engages the thin finger wall. If not done properly, the rodlet can turn and become disengaged from the assembly (there have been past issues with dropped rodlets because the hole was drilled too deeply.) Fourthly, the small pin is difficult to handle. Additionally, if the locking weld is not correct for any rodlet, then there is an increased possibility of scrapping an assembly. Accordingly, a new design is desired that will assure that the threaded joint of the control rod is preloaded as designed during manufacture. Additionally, a new design is desired that will provide assurance that the rodlet will not become disengaged during operation. Furthermore, a new design is desired that will improve manufacturing and reduce cost and assembly time. In addition, a new design is required that will improve quality control inspection and not risk distorting the rodlet flex joint during assembly. The present invention provides a control rod spider assembly designed to satisfy the aforementioned needs. The control rod spider assembly of the present invention employs a mechanical attachment joint for fastening each of the control rods to the spider structure. The attachment joint is simple aid is relatively easy to reconstitute. In a general sense the present invention provides a control assembly including a spider structure, at least one control rod and an attachment joint for detachably fastening the control rod to the spider structure. The attachment joint comprises: (a) a hollow connecting finger of the spider structure, the hollow bore of the connecting finger having a reduced diameter upper section and a downwardly lacing ledge at the transition to the reduced diameter upper section; (b) an elongated control rod end plug having a reduced diameter upper section with a lip formed at the transition to the reduced diameter section and a first fastener profile formed along an upper portion of the reduced diameter section with one of either a right hand or a left hand locking contour and a second fastener profile on an intermediate section of the elongated end plug that mates with a corresponding profile on the interior of the connecting finger, that has the other of the right hand or left hand locking contour; (c) a fastener mechanism having a corresponding fastener profile and coupling with at least a portion of the first fastener profile of the upper end plug once the upper end plug has been inserted through the connecting finger, the second fastener profile is engaged with the corresponding fastener profile on the interior of the connecting finger and the downwardly facing ledge of the finger rests against the lip on the elongated control rod end plug; and (d) an anchoring mechanism for rotationally affixing the fastener mechanism to one or both of the connecting finger or the upper end plug and completing the attachment joint between the connecting finger of the spider structure and the upper end plug of the control rod. Accordingly, one embodiment the present invention provides a control assembly including a spider structure, at least one control rod and an attachment joint for detachably fastening the control rod to the spicier structure. The attachment joint comprises: (a) a hollow connecting finger of the spider structure, the hollow bore of the connecting finger having a reduced diameter upper section and a downwardly facing ledge at the transition to the reduced diameter upper section; (b) an elongated control rod end plug having a reduced diameter upper section with a first fastener profile, with one of either a right hand or a left hand locking contour on the exterior surface thereof and a second fastener profile on an intermediate section of the elongated end plug that mates with a corresponding profile on the interior of the connecting finger, that has the other of the right hand or left hand locking contour; (c) a fastener mechanism inserted over at least a portion of the first fastener profile of the upper end plug once the upper end plug has been inserted through the connecting finger and the second fastener profile is engaged with the corresponding fastener profile on the interior of the connecting finger; and (d) an anchoring mechanism for rotationally affixing the fastener mechanism to one or both of the connecting finger or the upper end plug and completing the attachment joint between the connecting finger of the spider structure and the upper end plug of the control rod. More particularly, in one preferred embodiment, the hollow-connecting means has a central bore defined therethrough from a bottom end to atop end thereof. An upper end portion of the bore is smaller in diameter than a bottom portion of the bore so as to define a downwardly facing annular shoulder on the interior of the connecting finger between the bottom and top end portions. Preferably the elongated upper end plug of the control rod has the reduced diameter upper axial portion with the male or female fastener profile formed on or along its axial section extending substantially above the top end of the connecting finger when the upper end plug is inserted through the connecting finger from the bottom end thereof. Desirably, the intermediate fastener section of the elongated upper end plug mates with the corresponding fastener profile on the interior of the connecting finger just below the downwardly facing annular shoulder when the upper end plug is inserted through the connecting finger from the bottom end thereof. In another preferred embodiment, the fastener profile on the reduced diameter upper section of the upper end plug and the intermediate fastener profile are threaded with tire reduced diameter fastener profile having one of either aright hand thread or left hand thread and the intermediate fastener profile having the other of either the right hand thread or left hand thread. The advantages and attainments of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon a reading of the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the drawings wherein there is shown and described an illustrative embodiment of the invention. In the following description, like reference characters designate like or corresponding parts throughout the several views. Also in the following description, it is to be understood that such terms as “forward”, “rearward”, “left”, “right”, “upwardly”, “downwardly”, and the like, are words of convenience and are not to be construed as limiting terms. Referring now to the drawings, and particularly to FIG. 1, there is shown an elevational view of a nuclear reactor fuel assembly, represented in vertically foreshortened form and being generally designated by the numeral 10. Being the type used in a PWR, the fuel assembly 10 basically includes a lower end structure or bottom nozzle 12 for supporting the assembly on the lower core plate (not shown) in the core region of a reactor (not shown), and a number of longitudinally extending guide tubes or thimbles 14 which project upwardly from the bottom nozzle 12. The assembly 10 further includes a plurality of transverse grids 16 axially spaced along the guide thimbles 14 and an organized array of elongated fuel rods 18 transversely spaced and supported by the grids 16. Also, the assembly 10 has an instrumentation tube 20 located in the center thereof and an upper end structure or top nozzle 22 removably attached to the upper ends of the guide thimbles 14 to form an integral assembly capable of being conventionally handled without damaging the assembly parts. As mentioned above, the fuel rods 18 in the array thereof in the assembly 10 are held in spaced relationship with one another by the grids 16 spaced along the fuel assembly length. Each fuel rod 18 includes nuclear fuel pellets 24 and the opposite ends of the rod are closed by upper and lower end plugs 26, 28 to hermetically seal the rod. Commonly, a plenum spring 30 is disposed between the upper end plug 26 and the pellets 24 to maintain the pellets in a tight, stacked relationship within tire rod 18. The fuel pellets 24 composed of fissile material are responsible for creating the reactive power of the nuclear reactor. A liquid moderator/coolant such as water, or water containing boron, is pumped upwardly through the fuel assemblies of the core in order to extract heat generated therein for the production of useful work. Turning now to FIGS. 2 and 3 as well as FIG. 1, there is shown a typical embodiment of a conventional control rod spider assembly, generally designated 32, designed for use in the conventional fuel assembly 10 of FIG. 1. In its basic components, the control assembly 32 includes a plurality of control rods 34 and a spider structure 36 which supports the control rods at their upper ends. The spider structure 36 holds the control rods 34 in a pattern matched to that of the guide thimbles 14 which adapts them to be inserted through the top nozzle 22 and downward through the guide thimbles 14 of the PWR fuel assembly 10. The spider structure 36 is connected to a control mechanism (not shown) which is operable in a known manner to move the control rods 34 so as to regulate core power. In a typical construction, each control rod 34 of the control assembly 32 is composed of an elongated metallic cladding tube 38 having a neutron absorbing material disposed therein and upper and lower end plugs 40, 42 attached at opposite ends of the cladding tube 38 for sealing the absorber material therewithin. The spider structure 36 of the control assembly 32 typically includes a plurality of radially extending flukes or vanes 44 supported on and circumferentially spaced about a central hub 46. Cylindrical shaped control rod connecting fingers 48 are mounted to and supported by the vanes 44. Some of the vanes 44 have only a single connecting finger 48 attached thereon, whereas other vanes 44 have a spaced pair of connecting fingers 48 associated therewith. Turning now to FIGS. 4-9, there is illustrated one prior art attachment joint, generally indicated by the numeral 50, provided between each control rod connecting finger 48 on the vane 44 of the control assembly spider structure 36 and the upper end plug 40 of each control rod 34. Typically, the upper end plug 40 of each control rod 34 has a threaded outer end 52. Each connecting finger 48 is mounted to the vane 44 in a bayonet-type of welded connection, and has an axial bore 54 formed in a lower portion 56 thereof with a smaller-diameter threaded hole 58 tapped therein at the inner end of the bore 54. The threaded outer end 52 of the upper end plug 40 is threadably received in the tapped hole 58 when the plug 40 is received within the axial bore 54. The end plug 40 is secured or locked therein by a key or pin 60 inserted through aligned holes 62, 64 in the sides of the finger 48 and end plug 40 and then welded thereto. Parenthetically, it should be pointed out that the axial bore 54 terminates at the start of an upper portion 66 of each connecting finger 48 where the finger connects with the vane 44. A major disadvantage of this conventional control assembly 32 is that it is not reconstitutable; that is, the assembly 32 cannot readily be taken apart and have worn or damaged components thereof replaced. Instead, the whole assembly has to be discarded. Furthermore, as previously mentioned, the prior art joint is difficult to accurately manufacture and has resulted in a few dropped rods. However, as mentioned earlier, control rod spider assemblies having removable control rods are known in the prior art. One recent control rod spider assembly that is reconstitutable is disclosed in the aforecited French patent application No. 86/08381. Similar to the above-described prior art control assembly, the French control assembly includes a spider structure with connecting fingers on vanes and a plurality of control rods with upper end plugs having a threaded outer end. However, the attachment joint employed to secure each control rod to one connecting finger is modified somewhat from that described above. Each connecting finger of the French control assembly has an axial bore extending therethrough from end to end. When the upper end plug of one control rod is inserted through the axial bore, its threaded outer end extends above the top end of the finger. A fastener or nut is threaded onto the outer end of the control rod upper end plug until it contacts the top end of the finger. Then a tubular locking cup formed on the control rod upper end plug above the threaded outer end and extending above the threaded nut is deformed radially outward to lock within a groove in the nut to retain the nut thereon. However, disadvantageously, to remove the control rod from the spider structure, the portion of the end plug which includes the threaded outer end with the nut fastened thereon must first be severed or cut off. Thus, the fastening nut must be replaced after removal and the removed control rod with the partially severed upper end plug must be replaced. This invention replaces the welded pin 60, shown in FIG. 9, with a separate cap with a thread that is opposite to the thread located in the rod cluster control assembly spider connecting finger. The control rod, sometimes referred to as a rodlet, and cap can be locked together by using a locking feature in the cap such as a helicoil or prevailing torque friction feature, such as the torque friction lock nut sold by Emhart Teknologies, a Black & Decker company, Shelton, Conn., that employ distorted threads incorporated in crown or side lock nut, or the opposite threaded cap can be tack welded to the connecting finger and/or end plug after it is installed on the extended end plug of the rodlet. The rodlet is not able to unscrew once the cap is locked by the locking feature, because the cap with opposite threads prevents rotation in one direction and the connecting finger with standard threads prevents rotation in the other direction. This design provides for simple installation and inspection and provides for a very secure rodlet retention. FIG. 10 shows the terminal end of a spider vane 36 connected to a hollow connecting finger 48 that has a control rod end plug extension 78 secured therein. The connecting finger 48 has a bore 80 that extends therethrough with a necked down reduced diameter upper section 82 that defines a downwardly facing annular shoulder 84 on the interior of the connecting finger 48 between the bottom and top portions of the connecting finger. The reduced diameter upper portion of the interior bore includes a threaded profile on the surface of the bore, for example, a right hand thread. The end plug extension 78 similarly includes a reduced diameter section 82, at least a portion of which is threaded. A lower portion 88 of the end plug extension 78 extends out radially to the full diameter of the lower bore 80 and, in the preferred embodiment, has a lip defined by the transition between the section 88 and the reduced diameter section 82 that rests up against the downwardly-facing annular shoulder 84 on the interior of the connecting finger 48 when the thread 86 on the reduced diameter section 82 is engaged. A second reduced diameter portion 74 in the lower portion of the end plug extension 78, referred to as a flex joint, is provided to permit control rod deflection to minimize loading and wear on the fuel assembly, reactor structures and control rod assembly. A nose cap 68 is employed to capture the end plug extension 82 within the interior of the bore of the connection finger 48. If the thread 86 on the reduced diameter section of the end plug extension 82 is a right hand thread, then the shank 72 on the nose cap screw 68 has a left hand thread, or vice versa. After the nose cap screw 68 is in place, the nose cap screw is tack welded at 70 to the connecting finger 48 so that any rotation of the control rod either tightens the thread interface 86 between the end plug extension 78 and the bore 80 of the connecting finger 48 or the nose screw shank 72 interface with the upper interior of the end plug extension. It should be appreciated from the foregoing description that the threads between the interior of the bore 80 and the end plug extension 78 may be moved from the reduced diameter section 82 to the lower portion of the end plug extension 88 or elsewhere along the end plug extension that closely interfaces the interior of the bore 80. Furthermore, while screw fasteners have been described as the fastening mechanism for this embodiment it should be appreciated that other fastening mechanisms may be employed. For example, the fastening mechanism may be a bayonet connection with one fastening interface having a right hand engagement while the other employs a left hand engagement. In the same regard, the control rod and nose cap can be locked together to prevent rotation using other alternate locking features such as a helicoil or a prevailing torque friction feature, for example. Additionally, alternatives are available for the nose cap screw 68 that can perform the same function. FIG. 11 illustrates such an example. The control rod connecting finger illustrated in FIG. 11 is in large part the same as that illustrated in FIG. 10, except for the upper portion of the end plug extension 78 that is above the reduced diameter section 82. This upper portion above the reduced diameter portion 82 has a further reduced diameter that is threaded on the exterior thereof at an elevation above the reduced diameter section 82. This upper threaded section having the further reduced diameter is captured within the nose cap screw 68 which has a mating internal thread with both the threads on the nose cap 68 and further reduced diameter section of the end plug having an opposite engagement direction than the thread 86. Thus, the nose cap 68 in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 11 takes the form of a nut that may be tack welded at 70 to the connection finger 72, or otherwise restrained as mentioned above. Thus the design of this invention provides a secure connection between the connecting finger and the control rod, while enabling reconstitution with minimal effort and with negligible waste. For example, the connection may be readily broken by grinding out the tack weld 70 and unscrewing the nose cap 68. While specific embodiments to the invention have been described in detail, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. For example, the internal bore 80 of the connecting finger 48 can be constructed with a single diameter from its lower end to just above its upper end with an annular lip at its terminal upper end. The end plug extension 78 can similarly have a single diameter that is closely received within the internal bore 80 and be captured by nose cap screw 68 that is seated above the annular lip on the top of the connecting finger 48. Accordingly, the particular embodiments disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the invention which is to be given the full breadth of the appended claims and any and all equivalents thereof.
	abstract	A jet pump diffuser weld repair device includes a lower ring section and an upper ring section respectively sized to fit around a circumference of the diffuser on opposite sides of the weld to be repaired. The lower and upper ring sections are provided with a plurality of aligned gripper slots. A corresponding plurality of grippers are fit into the gripper slots, where at least one of the gripper slots and the grippers defines cam surfaces shaped to drive the grippers radially inward as lower and upper ring sections are drawn toward each other. A plurality of connector bolts are secured between the lower ring section and the upper ring section. Tightening of the connector bolts draws the lower and upper ring sections toward each other.
	description	This application is a continuation-in-part of patent application Ser. No. 10/925,070 filed Aug. 23, 2004 which was issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,103,956 on Sep. 12, 2006. The present invention relates generally to sonoluminescence and, more particularly, to a method of fabricating a sonoluminescence cavitation chamber. Sonoluminescence is a well-known phenomena discovered in the 1930's in which light is generated when a liquid is cavitated. Although a variety of techniques for cavitating the liquid are known (e.g., spark discharge, laser pulse, flowing the liquid through a Venturi tube), one of the most common techniques is through the application of high intensity sound waves. In essence, the cavitation process consists of three stages; bubble formation, growth and subsequent collapse. The bubble or bubbles cavitated during this process absorb the applied energy, for example sound energy, and then release the energy in the form of light emission during an extremely brief period of time. The intensity of the generated light depends on a variety of factors including the physical properties of the liquid (e.g., density, surface tension, vapor pressure, chemical structure, temperature, hydrostatic pressure, etc.) and the applied energy (e.g., sound wave amplitude, sound wave frequency, etc.). Although it is generally recognized that during the collapse of a cavitating bubble extremely high temperature plasmas are developed, leading to the observed sonoluminescence effect, many aspects of the phenomena have not yet been characterized. As such, the phenomena is at the heart of a considerable amount of research as scientists attempt to not only completely characterize the phenomena (e.g., effects of pressure on the cavitating medium), but also its many applications (e.g., sonochemistry, chemical detoxification, ultrasonic cleaning, etc.). A by-product of this research have been several patents claiming various aspects of the process. One such patent, U.S. Pat. No. 4,333,796, discloses a cavitation chamber that is generally cylindrical although the inventors note that other shapes, such as spherical, can also be used. It is further disclosed that the chamber is comprised of a refractory metal such as tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, rhenium or some alloy thereof. U.S. Pat. No. 4,333,796 does not disclose any techniques for fabricating the chamber. Similarly U.S. Pat. No. 4,563,341, a continuation-in-part of U.S. Pat. No. 4,333,796, does not disclose fabrication techniques for use with the disclosed cylindrical chamber. Rather, the patent simply discloses the preferred materials for the chamber walls and chamber linings and the preferred mounting locations for an array of acoustic horns. U.S. Pat. No. 5,659,173 discloses a sonoluminescence system that uses a transparent spherical flask. The spherical flask is not described in detail, although the specification discloses that flasks of Pyrex®, Kontes®, and glass were used with sizes ranging from 10 milliliters to 5 liters. U.S. Pat. No. 5,858,104 discloses a shock wave chamber partially filled with a liquid. The remaining portion of the chamber is filled with gas which can be pressurized by a connected pressure source. Acoustic transducers mounted in the sidewalls of the chamber are used to position an object within the chamber. Another transducer mounted in the chamber wall delivers a compressional acoustic shock wave into the liquid. A flexible membrane separating the liquid from the gas reflects the compressional shock wave as a dilation wave focused on the location of the object about which a bubble is formed. The shape, composition and fabrication of the shock wave chamber is not disclosed. U.S. Pat. No. 6,361,747 discloses an acoustic cavitation reactor. The reactor chamber is comprised of a flexible tube through which the liquid to be treated circulates. The acoustic transducers are radially distributed around the tube. As disclosed, the reactor tube may be comprised of a non-resonant material such as a resistant polymeric material (e.g., TFE, PTFE), with or without reinforcement (e.g., fiberglass, graphite fibers, mica). Although not in the field of sonoluminescence, U.S. Pat. No. 4,448,743 discloses a confinement chamber for use with an ultra-high temperature steady-state plasma. Although the plasma is referred to as a “plasmasphere”, the specification is unclear as to whether the confinement chamber is spherical or cylindrical in nature. Furthermore a method of fabricating the disclosed chamber is not provided. Rather, the patent simply discloses the design requirements for such a chamber. For example, in describing the requirements for an isochoric heating system, the patent discloses that the vessel should be capable of containing a pressure that is slowly increased from 1.82 atmospheres to 22.1 atmospheres and be fitted with infrared and far-infrared windows as well as a down-draft vertical hydrogen jet. Although a variety of sonoluminescence systems have been designed, typically these systems are intended for low pressure research and therefore are comprised of glass or similar material. Those designed for higher pressures are usually cylindrically shaped. Those researchers who have suggested the use of spherical chambers have not disclosed how to fabricate such a chamber to enable it to handle high pressure. Accordingly, what is needed is a method of fabricating a spherical cavitation chamber that can be used for high pressure sonoluminescence. The present invention provides such a method. The present invention provides a method of fabricating a spherical cavitation chamber for sonoluminescence. Depending upon both the chamber's composition and wall thickness, chambers fabricated with the disclosed techniques can be used with either low or high pressure systems. According to the invention, chamber half portions are first fabricated and then the two half portions are joined together to form the desired cavitation chamber. According to one embodiment, during the fabrication of each chamber half, the interior surface, the mating surface and a portion of the exterior surface are fabricated while the piece of stock is mounted within a first lathe chuck. The stock piece is then un-mounted, reversed, and mounted within a second lathe chuck. The second lathe chuck may be the same as the first lathe chuck, or the second lathe chuck may have jaws with holding surfaces which match the curvature of the exterior surface of the chamber half. Once mounted within the second lathe chuck, the remaining portion of the exterior surface is turned. According to a second embodiment, during the fabrication of each chamber half the interior spherical surface is completed first along with a cylindrical portion. The stock piece is then un-mounted, reversed, and remounted prior to turning the exterior spherical surface. The cylindrical portion is then removed and the mating surface finished. According to another aspect of the invention, joining the cavitation chamber halves together is accomplished via electron beam welding. Prior to welding, the two half spheres are aligned and held together. Preferably one or more alignment pins are used to insure accurate alignment of the two halves. Alternately external alignment means can be used. During the electron beam welding process, either the chamber comprised of the two chamber halves is rotated relative to the stationary electron beam or the electron beam is rotated about the chamber. In at least one embodiment of the invention, the cavitation chamber is fabricated from stainless steel. In at least one embodiment of the invention, after the cavitation chamber is finished, at least one acoustic transducer is coupled to the chamber in order to drive sonoluminescence within the chamber. A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present invention may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and the drawings. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a spherical sonoluminescence cavitation chamber 101, hereafter referred to as simply a cavitation chamber, fabricated in accordance with the invention. In order to better illustrate the mounting locations of the acoustic transducers in this particular embodiment, FIG. 1 includes centerlines 103-106. Mounted to the exterior surface of cavitation chamber 101 are a total of 6 acoustic transducers, transducers 109-112 mounted to the lower hemisphere of chamber 101 and transducers 115-116 mounted to the upper hemisphere of chamber 101. It will be appreciated that the invention is not limited to a particular number or type of transducer, nor is the invention limited to having transducers mounted to one or more particular locations. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of a spherical cavitation chamber 201 fabricated in accordance with the invention. Chamber 201 has an outer spherical surface 203 defining the outer diameter of the chamber and an inner spherical surface 205 defining the inner diameter of the chamber. Chamber 201 can be fabricated from any of a variety of metals although there are some constraints placed on the chamber material. First, the material should be machinable. Second, if the chamber is to be operated at a high temperature, the chamber material should have a relatively high melting temperature. Additionally, a high melting temperature is useful during the fabrication process when the two halves of the chamber are coupled. Third, the chamber material should be corrosion resistant, thus allowing the chamber to be used repeatedly. Fourth, the material should be hard enough to allow a good surface finish to be obtained. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, the chamber is fabricated from 17-4 precipitation hardened stainless steel. With respect to the dimensions of the chamber, both inner and outer diameters, the selected sizes depend upon the intended use of the chamber. For example, smaller chambers are typically preferable for situations in which it is desirable to limit the amount of cavitating medium, for example due to cost, or the applied energy (e.g., acoustic energy). On the other hand large chambers, on the order of 8-10 inches or greater, typically simplify experimental set-up and event observation. Thick chamber walls are preferable if the chamber is to be operated at high static pressures. Although the invention is not limited to specific dimensions as previously noted, typical wall thicknesses include 0.25 inches, 0.5 inches, 0.75 inches, 1.5 inches, 2.375 inches, 3.5 inches and 4 inches. Typical outside diameters are in the range of 2-10 inches although, as previously noted, much larger diameters can be used. The preferred embodiment of the invention provides a means of fabricating spherical chambers while at the same time minimizing wasted material, and thus cost. The first step in the preferred method is to mount a piece 301 of the desired material into jaws 303 of lathe chuck assembly 304. The diameter 305 of piece 301 is preferably only slightly larger than the desired chamber outer diameter, typically on the order of 0.125 to 0.25 inches greater. Similarly, the length 307 is preferably only slightly larger than one half of the desired chamber outer diameter. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the inside spherical surface 401 is then fabricated (i.e., turned) to the desired diameter using the lathe. If desired, a through-hole 403 can be bored into piece 301 at this time. Next, without removing piece 301 from the lathe chuck, a portion 501 of the outer spherical surface is turned (FIG. 5). Additionally surface 503 is turned while piece 301 is mounted within chuck assembly 304. FIGS. 6 and 7 illustrate the preferred jaw assembly used during the next phase of chamber fabrication. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of lathe chuck assembly 601 and FIG. 7 is an end view of chuck assembly 601. Although chuck assembly 601 is shown with 4 jaws 603, it will be appreciated that chuck assembly 601 could have fewer jaws (e.g., a 3 jaw chuck) or more jaws (e.g., a 6 jaw chuck). Holding surfaces 605 of jaws 603 are shaped such that they have a curvature that matches the curvature of surface 501 of piece 301. Curving the surfaces of jaws 603 provides a large contact area between jaws 603 and surface 501, thus spreading out the force applied to the chamber by the jaws. As a result, thinner wall thicknesses can be achieved without deforming the chamber walls, a result that is difficult to achieve using standard, straight-faced jaws. Additionally this approach provides a stronger mounting configuration, thus preventing piece 301 from being pulled out of chuck assembly 601, or moving within chuck assembly 601, during the final fabrication of the outer surface of the spherical chamber. It will be appreciated that if piece 301 moves within the chuck assembly even by a minor amount, the finished chamber half will not have the preferred inside/outside spherical symmetry. FIG. 8 illustrates piece 301 mounted in chuck assembly 601. During the final step of fabricating this spherical cavitation chamber half, surface 901 is turned as shown in FIG. 9. Prior to chamber assembly, chamber surface 503 is finished flat. Assuming a chamber outside diameter of 10 inches or less, surface 503 is finished flat to within at least ±0.01 inches, preferably within ±0.001 inches, and still more preferably within ±0.0005 inches. For diameters greater than 10 inches, the inventor has found that as a general rule, the finish surfaces previously noted are multiplied by a tenth of desired chamber's outside diameter (in inches). Thus for example, assuming a desired chamber diameter of 30 inches, the end surface would be finished flat to within at least ±0.03 inches, preferably within ±0.003 inches, and still more preferably within ±0.0015 inches. Although preferably the spherical chamber halves are fabricated as disclosed above, it will be understood that the inventor also envisions minor variations of this fabrication technique. For example as illustrated in FIG. 10, dimension 307 of a stock piece 1001 can be larger than noted above with respect to FIG. 3. Then during the initial fabrication step (FIG. 11), a cylindrical portion 1003 is turned as well as inside spherical surface 401. Next, as illustrated in FIG. 12, piece 1001 is removed from chuck assembly 304, reversed, and mounted within chuck assembly 1201. Chuck assembly 1201 may be the same as chuck assembly 304 or may be different, for example having jaws 1203 which have the same curvature as that of cylindrical portion 1003. The outside spherical surface 1301 is then fabricated (i.e., turned) as shown in FIG. 13. If desired, at this point through-hole external features (i.e., pipe threads) can be added. After turning outside surface 1301, the spherical chamber half is removed from cylindrical portion 1003 along line 1303. Assuming a chamber outside diameter of 10 inches or less, the end surface of the chamber half is then finished flat to within at least ±0.01 inches, preferably within ±0.001 inches, and still more preferably within ±0.0005 inches. For diameters greater than 10 inches, the inventor has found that as a general rule, the finish surfaces previously noted are multiplied by a tenth of desired chamber's outside diameter (in inches). Thus for example, assuming a desired chamber diameter of 30 inches, the end surface would be finished flat to within at least ±0.03 inches, preferably within ±0.003 inches, and still more preferably within ±0.0015 inches. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, the inner and outer spherical chamber surfaces are used as turned. It will be appreciated, however, that various surface finishing procedures (e.g., surface grinding or polishing) can be performed on either or both surfaces if desired. Regardless of the exact method of fabricating the spherical chamber halves, the next step is to join two halves to form the desired cavitation chamber. As shown in FIG. 14, spherical chamber halves 1401 and 1403 are ready to be joined. As illustrated, chamber halves 1401 and 1403 each include a through-hole 1405 although, as previously described, one or both chamber halves can include any number of through-holes or ports (including no through-holes or ports). Preferably any desired through-holes or ports are completed prior to joining the chamber halves, thus insuring that the inner surfaces are finished and cleaned, a process that is more difficult after the chamber halves have been joined. After the surfaces to be mated, surfaces 1405 and 1407, are finished as previously described, they are ready to be joined, preferably using an electron beam welding operation. Electron beam welding provides a strong joint between the chamber halves that is capable of withstanding the high pressures often encountered during cavitation system operation. During the electron beam welding operation, the mating surfaces of spherical cavitation chamber halves 1401 and 1403 are aligned and pressed together. Then either the electron beam is rotated about the chamber in order to weld together mating surfaces 1405 and 1407 or, as preferred, the chamber comprised of the two chamber halves is rotated relative to the stationary electron beam. Although the actual welding operation can be performed under low vacuum and non-vacuum conditions using techniques known by those of skill in the electron beam welding arts, preferably the welding operation is performed under high vacuum conditions, thus achieving optimal weld purity and depth. If the welding process is performed under vacuum conditions, for example within an evacuated welding chamber, at least one through-hole 1405 must be included in at least one of the chamber halves to allow pressure relief/equalization. During the welding process, spherical cavitation chamber halves 1401 and 1403 are aligned to insure that the inner sphere surface does not have a discontinuity at the seam line after fabrication. One process for insuring alignment is to use a lip 1503 on one chamber half that fits within a groove 1505 on the second chamber half as shown in FIG. 15. Alternately one of the mating surfaces can include two or more alignment pins that correspond to holes on the other mating surface. If alignment pins are used, preferably they are fabricated from the same material as that of the spherical chamber halves. As previously noted, during welding either the chamber can be rotated or the welding beam can be rotated about the chamber. Assuming the former, preferred, approach, one chamber half (e.g., 1601) can be held in a chuck 1603 connected to motor 1605 while the second chamber half (e.g., 1607) is held in a place by a freely rotating tail stock 1609 (FIG. 16). Alternately and as shown in FIG. 17, the freely rotating tail stock can be replaced with a freely rotating chuck 1701. Regardless, as the chamber is rotated, electron beam 1611 welds the two chamber halves together along chamber seam 1613. If each chamber half includes a through-hole 1801 located on the centerline as shown in FIG. 18, an alternate welding jig can be used in which the two chamber halves 1803/1805 are held together with an all-thread 1807 and compression nuts 1809. One end of all-thread 1807 is coupled to a motor 1811 while the second end of all-thread 1807 is held by a freely rotating member 1813. As in the previous jigs, the chamber is rotated relative to electron welding beam 1611. Preferably during welding the chamber halves are vertically positioned as shown in FIGS. 16-18, thus using the upper chamber's weight to press the mating surfaces together during welding. It should be appreciated, however, that vertical positioning, as shown, is not required during the welding process. As will be understood by those familiar with the art, the present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. Accordingly, the disclosures and descriptions herein are intended to be illustrative, but not limiting, of the scope of the invention which is set forth in the following claims.
042347980	summary	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to our co-pending applications Ser. Nos. 875,079 and 903,093 filed Feb. 3 and May 5, 1978 respectively. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a transport and storage receptacle for radioactive waste and, more particularly, to an enclosure for radioactive waste which is capable of preventing penetration of radioactivity into the ambient environment. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In modern technology it is frequently necessary to transport and store radioactive materials, such as radioactive wastes, in small units, such that the radioactivity in these materials does not escape into the environment. The canisters, containers, receptacles or enclosures used for this purpose should generally be of a sort which enables them to be transported or moved around and the receptacles must be of a material capable of absorbing radioactivity in particular of acting as a neutron absorber. Various receptacles and receptacle configurations have been provided for this purpose and can be used particularly for the shielding storage and transport of radioactive waste, such as spent nuclear fuel elements, nuclear fuel residues and the products of nuclear fuel reclaiming plants. It is known, for example, to provide a transport or storage receptacle for radioactive waste, especially nuclear reactor fuel elements, which comprises a receptacle shell, a receptacle bottom and a cover for the chamber surrounded by the shell and closed at its face by the bottom. More specifically, in this earlier system, the receptacle shell and receptacle bottom is cast in one piece (unitarily) from metal especially cast iron or cast steel, the cast iron being generally spherolytic cast iron. Such substances have a high neutron absorption cross section. The cover can be a shielding cover, i.e. can have a portion which is recessed in the wall of the receptacle so that any gaps between the cover and the wall are labyrinthine in configuration, thereby, precluding a straight-line path for the escape of radiation. Naturally, the thickness of our receptacle wall or shell, of the bottom and of the shielding cover, measured perpendicular to the surface defining the storage compartment or chamber for the radioactive waste must be sufficient enable the receptacle to withstand the static or dynamic stress to which the receptacle may be subject during transport or storages and, in addition, must be sufficient to prevent any escape of the radiation to the exterior whether the radiation is gamma rays or neutron emissions. In conventional systems of the above described type, servicing of the receptacles is a problem since access parts and fittings are provided on various sides of the receptacles so that operations which must be carried out necessitate manipulating the vessel. Furthermore, it is frequently desirable to provide such receptacles in conjunction with apparatus for the processing of radioactive waste or other materials. The apparatus can be of various types and connection of the receptacle to such apparatusses must be afforded (see German Patent Application-Offenlegungsschriften-DT-OS Nos. 25 11 957 and 25 20 850. With such systems, the conventional receptacles cause problems because of the complex connections which may be necessary. OBJECT OF THE INVENTION It is the principal object of the present invention to provide a storage receptacle for radioactive waste which provides the disadvantages of earlier systems and enables a simplified handling of the receptacles under the system described above. Another object of the invention is to provide a receptacle suitable for the transport and storage of radioactive material and which is free from the drawbacks of earlier systems for this purpose can be used more easily in conjunction with apparatusses of various types and affords greater ease of handling and treatment of the material within such a receptacle. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION These objects, and others which will become apparent hereinafter are attained in accordance with the present invention in a receptacle for the shielding storage and transport of radioactive waste in which all of the elements and components for service and access to the contents of the vessel are disposed on one side of the vertical prismatic body, namely the upper face thereof, thereby enabling the vessel to be filled simply and to be handled readily, permitting the vessel to be connected to an apparatus in a convenient manner, and allowing the processing of the contents of the vessels with ease. According to the invention, the vessel comprises a thick vertical wall structure and is generally prismatic, i.e. of rectangular parallele pipedal configuration with the vertical wall being unitary with the base and cast in one piece therewith from cast iron, especially spherolytic cast iron, or steel, a removable cover, having a thick shielding portion which is received in the chamber or compartment formed by the wall and the bottom of the container and accommodating the radioactive waste. According to an essential feature of the invention, passage is formed in situ by casting in the body constituted by the wall and the bottom of the receptacle and connects with the interior of the vessel at a low point of the chamber, this passage running to the upper end face of the body at which means is provided to close this passage. The passage can be formed by enbedding a tube in the cast material of the body. The closure means along the top face of the body can be a special cover provided exclusively to close this passage and removably connected to or forming part of the shielding cover. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, however the closure means it is a separate cover, which overlies the shielding cover of the receptacle, the latter cover being recessed in the upper end face of the body. In the best mode currently known to us for carrying the invention in practice, the additional or passage cover overlies the shielding cover and is also recessed in the end face of the body. Both covers may be connected to the body by screws, bolts or clamping devices. In the best-mode embodiment of the invention, moreover, an additional passage can be cast or formed in situ in the wall of the body and connects with the waste-receiving chamber at the upper end thereover, i.e. immediately below the shielding cover while running to the upper face or end of the body. This further passage may also be formed by a tube which is imbedded in the cast iron or steel of the body. The additional passage may also be closed by a separate cover which is removable although it is preferred to close it with the additional or passage cover referred to above. When the additional cover is connected to the shielding cover, it maybe constituted as a flange thereof, although in the preferred embodiment of the invention, it is a separate element. The passages which are provided in accordance with the present invention allow water which may be introduced into the storage chamber or compartment to be sucked out during the filling from the filling side of the vessel. It has also been found adventageous to use the two passages for the circulation of a coolant through the storage chamber to dissipate the heat generated by fission of the radioactive material or by radioactive decay or to enable of body of coolant to permit heat transfer to the wall of the vessel. Naturally, using the principles set forth, still other passages can be formed in the body for any desirable treatment or servicing purpose. When the radioactive waste is highly neutron emission, the invention provides that the tube or tubes cast suitable in the wall of the vessel can be located at an inner portion of the wall, i.e. the inner half of the thickness thereof, while shielding or moderating material of high neutron-capture cross section is disposed along an outer portion (half) of the thickness of the wall. This outer portion of the thickness of the wall can be formed with chambers which are filled with the moderating material. These chambers can be formed as simple bores although they are preferably of oval cross section and are disposed so that straight-line radiation from the interior of the vessel is always intercepted by the moderating or shielding material. The moderating material can also be retained in tubes which are closed at the bottom and embedded in the aforementioned body. When the evolution of heat as a result of radioactive instability is considerable, it is advantageous to provide outer surfaces of the body, at least between the bottom and the cover of the vessel with cooling ribs which advantageously run vertically and are spaced apart about the perimeter of the vessel. The mutually parallel coding ribs, which are cast in one piece with the remainder of the body, can be interruppted by gaps to facilitate thermal expansion and contraction and improved heat transfer to ambient air. Alternatively the cooling ribs can run circumferentially or peripherally. The interruptions in the cooling ribs have been also found to facilitate dimensional changes during the casting process. The principal advantage of the system of the present invention is that it facilitates the filling of the vessel without complex apparatus and without the need for expensive hand-operated instruments or units. Venting, cooling, draining, filling and like elements of the apparatus can be connected at the same end as that at which filling takes place without danger to personnel. Personnel safety is thus increased since all of the access is at one and the same end and the thickness of the body can be relatively great. The inner chamber is so dimensioned that it can receive four fuel elements of a pressurized water reactor or sixteen elements of a boiling water reactor. The closing ribs, more over, dissipate sufficient heat that the cans or tubular containment of the fuel elements are not destroyed or damaged by the heat which is involved.
	abstract	A collector mirror assembly includes a collector mirror that includes a reflective surface and a hole having an edge. The hole extends through the reflective surface. The assembly also includes a tubular body having an inner surface and an outer surface. The tubular body is constructed and arranged to guide a gas flow in a direction substantially transverse to the reflective surface. The outer surface of the tubular body and the edge of the hole form an opening arranged to guide a further gas flow that diverges with respect the gas flow substantially transverse to the reflective surface.
053393406	summary	The present invention relates generally to nuclear reactors, and, more specifically, to air cooling thereof. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In one type of nuclear reactor referred to as an advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR) a nuclear reactor core is submerged in a hot liquid metal such as liquid sodium within a reactor vessel. The liquid metal is used for cooling the reactor core, with the heat absorbed thereby being used for producing power in conventional manners. Surrounding the reactor vessel is a containment vessel, with the space therebetween being filled with an inert gas such as argon. Operation of the reactor is controlled by control rods which are selectively inserted into or withdrawn from the reactor core. The control rods may be fully inserted therein in order to shutdown the reactor core. However, residual decay heat continues to be generated from the core for a certain time, with the heat being transferred by thermal radiation from the reactor vessel to the containment vessel which increases its temperature. heat from the containment vessel will also radiate outwardly toward a concrete silo spaced outwardly therefrom. In order to prevent excessive heating of these components, a passive heat removal system referred to as the reactor vessel auxiliary cooling system (RVACS) is provided and is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,043,135 for example, which is assigned to the present assignee. In the current RVACS, an imperforate heat collector cylinder is disposed concentrically between the containment vessel and the silo to define an air riser between its inner surface and the containment vessel, and an air downcomer between its outer surface and the silo. Atmospheric air is suitably channeled downwardly through the downcomer to its bottom wherein it is turned upwardly into the air riser for flow upwardly to cool the containment vessel. The inner surface of the collector cylinder receives thermal radiation from the containment vessel, with the heat therefrom being transferred by natural convection into the rising air for flow upwardly to remove the heat. The outer surface of the collector cylinder includes thermal insulation to reduce transfer of the heat from the collector cylinder into the silo and into the air flowing downwardly in the downcomer. The greater the differential in temperature between the relatively cold downcomer air and the heated air within the riser, the greater will be the degree of natural circulation for driving the air cooling passively without motor-driven pumps. In this configuration, the average temperature of the containment vessel during steady-state operation as well as the transient peak temperatures thereof following certain transient operations, are relatively high, which requires that the containment vessel be designed to high-temperature ASME code requirements, which increases the cost thereof. Furthermore, the thermal insulation provided over the outer surface of the heat collector cylinder is complex and relatively expensive to ensure that the concrete silo is not excessively heated. Accordingly, improved air cooling of the containment vessel is desired for reducing complexity and cost of the cooling system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A baffle is provided between a relatively hot containment vessel and relatively cold silo for enhancing air cooling performance. The baffle includes a perforate inner wall positionable outside the containment vessel to define an inner flow riser therebetween, and an imperforate outer wall positionable outside the inner wall to define an outer flow riser therebetween. Apertures in the inner wall allow thermal radiation to pass laterally therethrough to the outer wall, with cooling air flowing upwardly through the inner and outer risers for removing heat.

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