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202594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellis%20Air%20Force%20Base	Nellis Air Force Base	Nellis Air Force Base ("Nellis" colloq.) is a United States Air Force installation in southern Nevada with military schools and more squadrons than any other USAF base. Nellis hosts air combat exercises such as Exercise Red Flag and close air support exercises such as Green Flag-West flown in "Military Operations Area (MOA) airspace", associated with the nearby Nevada Test and Training Range (NTTR). The base also has the Combined Air and Space Operations Center-Nellis. History After World War I, Nevada and other western inland states were surveyed by Capt. Lowell H. Smith and Sgt. William B. Whitefield for landing sites, and by "mid-1925 the Air Service possessed information on nearly thirty-five hundred landing places, including more than twenty-eight hundred emergency landing areas, in the United States." The 1929 airfield (dirt runway, water well, and small operations shack) north of Las Vegas—operated by the 1925 Western Air Express for Contract Air Mail (CAM) Route #4, LA-to-SLC—was used by the Army Air Corps in the 1930s for training flights. After the Invasion of Poland in 1939, the "western site board" had located a southern Nevada area "near Tonopah, Nev" by April 1940 for a military range, and in October 1940, Air Corps Major David Schlatter surveyed the southwest United States for a military airfield. "The 60 × 90 mile area at Tonopah was transferred to the War Department on 29 October 1940" by Executive Order 8578. McCarran Field Renamed to McCarran Field in the mid-1930s, there were "difficulties in securing the use" of the airfield north of Las Vegas for a Nevada World War II Army Airfield. McCarran Field was bought on 2 January 1941 by the City of Las Vegas, was leased to the Army on 5 January, and was "signed over" to the Quartermaster Corps on 25 January—Army construction began in March 1941. The city's Federal Building became the May 1941 location of the 79th Air Base Group detachment (5 staff officers commanded by Lt. Col. Martinus Stenseth), and a month later 5 administrative NCOs plus other support personnel arrived. WPA barracks in Las Vegas were used for enlisted men, and the motor pool with 6 vintage trucks and a semi-trailer was next to the WPA barracks. Vehicle parts were from local service stations and gasoline and oil from the Civilian Conservation Corps (the Block 16 brothels in Las Vegas were closed.) Permanent construction for barracks to house 3,000 people began in mid-1941, and by 7 December, 10 AT-6 Texan advanced flight trainers and 17 Martin B-10 bombers were at the airfield. Las Vegas Army Airfield Las Vegas Army Airfield was both activated and began flying training on 20 December 1941. Gunnery training began in January 1942, with guntruck platforms being used in January and February.. Many pieces of the destroyed aerial drone targets litter the hillside north of the gunnery range, and can be seen in town when the sun reflects off them. The first B-17 Flying Fortresses arrived in 1942 and allowed training of 600 gunnery students and 215 co-pilots from the field every five weeks at the height of the war. More than 45,000 B-17 gunners were trained; the USAAF training movie The Rear Gunner was filmed at the airfield in 1943. The 82d Flying Training Wing (Flexible Gunnery) was activated at the base as one of ten Army Air Forces Flying Training Command wings on 23 August 1943. By 1944, gunnery students utilized B-17, B-24 Liberator and B-40 Flying Fortress gunship aircraft (for example by firing at aircraft-towed targets). In March 1945, the base switched to B-29 gunnery training which included the manipulation trainer on the ground with camera guns. The subsequent population peaked with nearly 11,000 officers and enlisted personnel including more than 4,700 students. Flexible gunnery training ended in September 1945, and the base became a demobilization center for soldiers' separation physicals and final pay. A course of navigator, bombardier, and radar operator training planned for LVAAF was instead begun at Mather Army Airfield in June 1946. AAF Training Command closed LVAAF which went on caretaker status 28 August 1946 ("officially deactivated in January 1947"). During the planning for a separate air force, the Las Vegas AAF was reactivated "30 Aug 47 as a subinstallation of Mather", and it transferred to the USAF after the branch was created in September. Las Vegas Air Force Base Renamed Las Vegas Air Force Base on 13 January 1948 and assigned as a subinstallation of Williams AFB on 1 April, the 3595th Pilot Training Wing (Advanced Single-Engine) was established on 22 December 1948. Training began at Las Vegas AFB on 1 March 1949 with 5 squadrons using P-51 Mustangs for a 6-month course (3,000 USAF pilots needed trained by 1950). The 3525th Aircraft Gunnery Squadron activated on 11 February 1949, the base hosted the 1st USAF Gunnery Meet on 2 May, and ATC (air traffic control) opened its LVAFB Aircraft Gunnery School on 15 May 1949. Nellis AFB Nellis Air Force Base was named on 30 April 1950, and the 20 May 1950 dedication was attended by Lieutenant Nellis' family. By 1 July the Air Force had directed ATC to accelerate Korean War training for a new 95-wing Air Force. The first school opened at Nellis, and ATC redesignated the 3595th Pilot Training Wing (Advanced Single-Engine) as the 3595th Training Wing (Combat Crew). On 17 July 1950, Nellis began a replacement pilot training program to provide 115 FEAF F-51 Mustang pilots and 92 combat-ready F-80 Shooting Star pilots. Nellis' advanced single-engine pilot training transferred to Alabama on 1 September 1950. Nellis assumed fighter-bomber training, and ATC established its USAF Air Crew School (Fighter) on 14 November 1950, equipped with F-80s and early-model F-84C Thunderjets. On 1 October, Nellis AFB base management functions transferred from Williams AFB. In early 1951, ATC assigned recently graduated airplane and engine mechanics to Nellis to learn jet aircraft maintenance. The airfield was expanded 1951–1954 with longer jet-capable runways, reconfigured taxiways and a larger aircraft parking ramp; and World War II wooden structures were replaced with concrete and steel structures (e.g., barracks and base housing for married personnel). The first Wherry houses were completed in 1954, with updated Capehart houses being completed in February 1960. USAF Fighter Weapons School The USAF Fighter Weapons School was designated on 1 January 1954 from the squadron when the Air Crew School graduated its last Combat Crew Training Class (the primary Weapons School mission was gunnery instructor training.) In the mid-1950s for Operation Teapot nuclear testing, 1 of the 12 Zone Commanders was based at Nellis AFB for community liaison/public relations (weapons for other atomic tests were stored at Nellis). Air Training Command suspended training at the Nellis fighter weapons school in late 1956 because of the almost total failure of the F-86 Sabre aircraft used at Nellis, and during 1958 ATC discontinued its Flying Training and Technical Training. Tactical Air Command Nellis AFB transferred to Tactical Air Command on 1 February 1958, and the Nellis mission transitioned from initial aircraft qualification and gunnery training to advanced, graduate-level weapons training. Soon after the transfer to TAC, the F-100C, F-100D, and tandem cockpit F-100F entered the school inventory. On April 21, 1958 an F-100F on a training flight out of Nellis was involved in a mid-air collision with United Airlines Flight 736. All 47 aboard the airliner and both Air Force pilots in the fighter jet were killed. The 3595th wing assets were redesignated as the 4520th Combat Crew Training Group by TAC on 1 July 1958. 4520th Combat Crew Training Wing The 4520th Combat Crew Training Wing was designated from the 4520th CCTG on 1 May 1961, and the Combat Crew training squadrons were renumbered. The 4537th Fighter Weapons Squadron had been assigned F-105D Thunderchiefs in March 1961, and the wing taught veteran pilots in all phases of fighter weapon employment: air-to-air gunnery, rocketry, conventional and nuclear bombing, aerial refueling, and combat navigation. The F-4 Phantom II Instructor Course began in mid-1965 and during the Vietnam War, experienced combat pilots were used as Fighter Weapons instructors at Nellis. On 1 January 1966 the USAF Fighter Weapons School was activated at Nellis with F-100, F-4, and F-105 divisions and on 1 September 1966, Fighter Weapons School elements and the 4520th CCTW merged to activate the 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing. USAF Tactical Fighter Weapons Center The USAF Tactical Fighter Weapons Center activated at Nellis AFB on 1 January 1966 (USAF Warfare Center after 15 November 2005) is the USAF authority for employment of tactical fighter weapons. The center has developed, refined, coordinated, validated and tested fighter concepts, doctrine, tactics, and procedures. The FWC also performed operational test and evaluation and prepared or monitored Air Force publications on employment tactics, aircrew training, and aircrew weapons delivery. It has supervised courses of the US Air Force Fighter Weapons School, adversary tactics training, and Wild Weasel training, and other combat and tactical schools. The FWC supervised Red Flag operational training and other continuing air exercises, such as Green Flag and Silver Flag Alpha. The center also directed operations of the US Air Force Bomber and Tanker, Employment School since 1992 and the Air Rescue Center since 1993. The USAF Air Demonstration Squadron with the United States Air Force Thunderbirds moved from Arizona to Nellis AFB in June 1956. 474th Tactical Fighter Wing The 474th Tactical Fighter Wing was reassigned from New Mexico to Nellis AFB on 20 January 1968 and was the first USAF operational wing equipped with the General Dynamics F-111—6 of the F-111As departed Nellis for Vietnam on 15 March 1968 (Combat Lancer). Nellis provided replacements for 2 lost F-111s, and the F-111s returned to the USA in November 1968. The wing's 428th Tactical Fighter Squadron reached IOC in spring 1968 with F-111s, and the TFW was fully operational in July 1971. The Lake Mead Base, a 1953–6 United States Navy's weapons storage area of , became Area II of the Nellis AFB complex in September 1969. The 430th TFS returned to the 474th TFW Nellis on 22 March 1973 assuming a replacement training unit mission, while the 428th and 429th were transferred to Mountain Home AFB on 30 July 1973. Post-war the 474th's mission was to train combat-ready force of aircrews and maintained a rapid-reaction capability to execute fighter attacks against enemy forces and facilities in time of crisis. In 1975, the 428th and 429th Tactical Fighter Squadrons were reassigned to the wing with F-111As (transferred to Mountain Home AFB, Idaho, in August 1977) and the 474th Wing absorbed the F-4D Phantom II aircraft, crews, and resources of the inactivating provisional 474th Tactical Fighter Wing at Nellis in April 1977. The wing was inactivated in September 1989, and its F-16As transferred to Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve squadrons. 57th Fighter Weapons Wing The 57th Fighter Weapons Wing was activated at Nellis on 15 October 1969 to replace the 4525th FWW (its Fighter Weapons Squadrons transferred to the 57th). The USAF Air Demonstration Squadron (the "Thunderbirds") was assigned to the 57th in February 1974, and the wing incorporated intelligence training after March 1980. Redesignated the 57th Tactical Training Wing in 1977, the wing trained tactical fighter aircrews, conducted operational tests and evaluations, demonstrated tactical fighter weapon systems, and developed fighter tactics. The 57th's 4440th Tactical Fighter Training Group (Red Flag) assumed operational control of Red Flag exercises in October 1979; and the 57th developing realistic combat training operations featuring adversary tactics, dissimilar air combat training, and electronic warfare. Nellis' 4477th Tactical Evaluation Flight ("Red Eagles") operated MiG-17s, MiG-21s and MiG-23s at the Tonopah Test Range Airport (late 1960s-) to simulate combat against U.S. combat aircraft. Named Constant Peg in 1980, the operation assessed the Soviet technology and developed adversary tactics for dissimilar air combat training. After completion of training, the Aggressor pilots were assigned to the DACT squadrons, one of which was assigned to Nellis. During the 1970s, a site northwest of Nellis evaluated a Soviet "Barlock" search radar to develop techniques for countering Soviet air defense systems. The USAF Fighter Weapons School reactivated 30 December 1981 in the 57th wing and the 66th, 414th and 433d Fighter Weapons Squadrons became its "A-10", "F-4E" and "F-15A" divisions (the 414th was the "Red Flag Training Squadron" in 1996). The 422d FWS aircraft and personnel became the "F-16 Division" and the squadron heraldry transferred to the 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron. The FWS mission expanded on 15 June 1993 to include all Air Combat Command weapons (B-52 & B-1 Divisions) and in 1995, rescue helicopters (HH-60 Division). RC-135 Rivet Joint and EC-130 Compass Call courses were also added to the CCO Division in 1995, as well as a Space Division in 1996 (UAVs in 2008). In 1981, the Gunsmoke gunnery meet was first held and the 57th Fighter Weapons Wing was reorganized as part of the establishment of the Fighter Weapons School, e.g., the 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron for aircraft modifications was established on 30 December 1981 from the 422d Fighter Weapons Squadron. In 1990, the 64th and 65th Tactical Fighter Training Aggressor Squadrons and the 4440th TFTG were inactivated in 1990 at the end of the Cold War. In November 1991, the 57th implemented the USAF Objective Wing organization which was the most comprehensive USAF reorganization plan since 1947, activating the 57th Operations Group for Nellis airfield operations and establishing the 57th Test Group. Air Combat Command Nellis transferred to Air Combat Command on 1 June 1992, at the end of the Cold War when Tactical Air Command was inactivated. The 57th Wing was designated on 15 June 1993 from the 57th Operations Group in conjunction with the introduction of the RQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The USAF Combat Rescue School was also established in 1993 for HH-60 Pave Hawk instructional flying. "In 1996, AETC moved the PJ Advanced Weapons Course from Nellis AFB to Kirtland AFB". The 98th Range Wing was activated at Nellis on 29 October 2001 for Nellis Air Force Range control (previous range control was by the FWC.) After Detachment 13, 372d Training Squadron opened its F/A-22 maintenance training facility on 29 November 2001, on 14 January 2003 Nellis received the first production F-22A Raptor for the F-22 Force Development Evaluation program and Weapons School (12 Raptors had been assigned to the 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron by July 2008.) "Aggressor" training was reactivated under the 57th Operations Group in 2003 and in 2006 Nellis had the Air Ground Operations School. On 1 May 2007, the UAV reconnaissance elements assigned to the 57th Operations Group transferred to the 432nd Wing. Detachment 1 of the Space Warfare Center was established at Nellis in 1996 after the "Nellis Combined Air Operations Center", the Warfare Center transferred Nellis Air Force Range control to the 98th Range Wing in 2001, and the annual Aviation Nation airshow began at Nellis in 2002. The Nellis Solar Power Plant constructed 23 April–December 2007 on Nellis' west side was visited by president Barack Obama on 27 May 2009. In 2010, the 505th Operations Squadron operated the Combined Air and Space Operations Center-Nellis. The 57th Adversary Tactics Group merged into the 57th Operations Group on 31 March 2020. On 1 June 2020 the 800th Rapid Engineer Deployable, Heavy Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer (RED HORSE) Group activated at Nellis, with the 820th Red Horse Squadron as a subordinate unit. Major commands to which assigned West Coast Air Corps Training Center, April 1941 Air Corps Flying Training Command, 23 January 1942 and various subsequent designations through Air Training Command, 1 July – 31 December 1946, 30 August 1947 Tactical Air Command, 1 July 1958 Air Combat Command, 1 June 1992 – present Major units assigned 79th Air Base Group, 7 July 1941 70th Base HQ and Air Base Squadron, c. 14 August 1942 82d Flying Training Wing (Flexible Gunnery) 8 January 1943 – 16 June 1946 3595th Pilot Training Wing, 1 April 1948 – 1 July 1958 4520th Combat Crew Training Wing, 1 July 1958 – 1 September 1966 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing, 1 September 1966 – 15 October 1969 474th Tactical Fighter Wing, 20 January 1968 – 15 October 1989 57th Wing (Various Designations), 22 August 1969 – present 554th Operations Support Wing, 1 March 1980 – 1 November 1995 USAF Fighter Weapons School, 1 January-1 September 1966; 30 December 1981 (USAF Weapons School on 15 June 1993) 4477th Tactical Evaluation Flight ("Red Eagles"), 1 April 1975 – 1990 USAF Tactical Fighter Weapons Center, 1 September 1966 (USAF Warfare Center on 15 November 2005) Role and operations Nellis Air Force Base is known by the USAF as the "Home of the Fighter Pilot" and is the Air Force's focus for advanced combat training. The main unit at Nellis is the USAF Warfare Center, which coordinates training for composite strike forces involving aircraft types from across the USAF inventory, accompanied by air and ground units of the US Army, US Navy, US Marines, and aircraft from other NATO and allied nations. Training is delivered through a series of exercises which typically take place at the Nevada Test and Training Range (NTTR), the primary examples being Exercise Red Flag and Exercise Green Flag (West). As of October 2019, Nellis employed 9,500 military and civilian personnel. The total military population is more than 40,000, including family members and retired military personnel in the area. The base also supports operations at nearby Creech Air Force Base, Tonopah Test Range, and the Nevada National Security Site. Nellis ground systems for range operations (e.g., by callsign "Nellis Control") include the Computer and Computed Subsystem used to receive microwave signals from the NTTR Ground-Based per Station the Tracking and Communications Subsystem (TCS) for presentation on Nellis' Display and Debrief SubSystem (DDS). Nellis Area I has the airfield (2 runways and ramp space for up to 300 aircraft), recreation and shopping facilities, dormitories/temporary lodging, some family housing, "and most of the command and support structures", e.g., Suter Hall for Red Flag. Nellis Area II northeast of the main base "at the foot of Sunrise Mountain" (formerly the U.S. Navy's Lake Mead Base) has Nellis Gun Club and the 820th Red Horse Squadron. Nellis Area III is west of the main base with family housing, administration and industrial areas, and the Mike O'Callaghan Federal Hospital. Area III also includes a munitions response area (MRA XU741) which had World War II storage for small arms ammunition, pyrotechnics, and chemical bombs and that now includes 2 remaining World War II buildings (numbers 1039 & 1047), 5 modern igloos, and RV storage. Based units Flying and notable non-flying units based at Nellis Air Force Base. Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Nellis, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location. United States Air Force Air Combat Command US Air Force Warfare Center 99th Air Base Wing (Host wing) 99th Comptroller Squadron 99th Mission Support Group 99th Civil Engineer Squadron 99th Communications Squadron 99th Contracting Squadron 99th Logistics Readiness Squadron 99th Force Support Squadron 99th Security Forces Squadron 99th Medical Group 99th Aerospace Medical Squadron 99th Dental Squadron 99th Medical Operations Squadron 99th Medical Support Squadron 53rd Wing 53rd Test and Evaluation Group (GSU) 88th Test and Evaluation Squadron – HC-130J Combat King II and HH-60G Pave Hawk 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron – A-10C Thunderbolt II, F-15C/D Eagle, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16C/D Fighting Falcon, F-22A Raptor, F-35A Lightning II Combat Search and Rescue Combined Test Force Detachment 3 53rd Test Management Group (GSU) 59th Test and Evaluation Squadron 57th Wing 561st Joint Tactics Squadron US Air Force Weapons School 6th Weapons Squadron – F-35A Lightning II 8th Weapons Squadron 16th Weapons Squadron – F-16C/D Fighting Falcon 17th Weapons Squadron – F-15E Strike Eagle 19th Weapons Squadron 26th Weapons Squadron – MQ-9A Reaper 32nd Weapons Squadron 34th Weapons Squadron – HC-130J Combat King II and HH-60G Pave Hawk 57th Weapons Support Squadron 66th Weapons Squadron – A-10C Thunderbolt II 315th Weapons Squadron – LGM-30 Minuteman III 328th Weapons Squadron 433rd Weapons Squadron – F-15C/D Eagle and F-22A Raptor 57th Operations Group 6th Combat Training Squadron 57th Adversary Tactics Support Squadron 57th Information Aggressor Squadron 57th Operations Support Squadron 64th Aggressor Squadron – F-16C/D Fighting Falcon 65th Aggressor Squadron – F-35A Lightning II 414th Combat Training Squadron 507th Air Defense Aggressor Squadron 547th Intelligence Squadron 549th Combat Training Squadron 57th Maintenance Group 57th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron 57th Munitions Squadron 757th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron US Air Force Air Demonstration Squadron (Thunderbirds) – F-16C/D Fighting Falcon US Air Force Advanced Maintenance and Munitions Operations School 505th Command and Control Wing 505th Test and Evaluation Group (GSU) 505th Test Squadron Combined Air Operations Center - Nellis Nevada Test and Training Range Fifteenth Air Force 355th Wing Detachment 1 (GSU) 563rd Rescue Group (Operating Location-Alpha (OL-A)) (GSU) 58th Rescue Squadron 66th Rescue Squadron – HH-60G Pave Hawk 855th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron 800th RED HORSE Group 820th RED HORSE Squadron Sixteenth Air Force 363rd Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Wing 365th Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Group (GSU) 526th Intelligence Squadron 547th Intelligence Squadron Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) Air Force Test Center 96th Test Wing 96th Operations Group 413th Flight Test Squadron Detachment 1 (GSU) – HH-60G Pave Hawk Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) Tenth Air Force 926th Wing 926th Operation Group 706th Fighter Squadron – A-10C Thunderbolt II, F-15C/D Eagle, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16C/D Fighting Falcon, F-22A Raptor, F-35A Lightning II 926th Aerospace Medicine Squadron 926th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron 926th Force Support Squadron 926th Security Forces Squadron Department of Defense United States Strategic Command Global Operations (J3) Directorate Joint Electromagnetic Preparedness for Advanced Combat Geography Nellis AFB covers about in the northeast corner of the Las Vegas Valley, an alluvial basin in the Basin and Range Province. Since World War II, Nellis has had areas added, such as Area II in 1969, but still has about of undeveloped space. One World War II runway has been removed. The base has 3 areas (I, II, III). The United States Geological Survey names five different locations for the base: "Nellis Air Force Base", the airfield, the post office, a Community College of Southern Nevada campus, and the census-designated place (CDP). Census-designated place The Nellis Air Force Base CDP is an region defined by the United States Census Bureau as of the 2010 United States Census. The CDP area includes military family housing (e.g., in Nellis Areas I & III), dormitories, and lodging as for aircrew temporary quarters during Red Flag exercises. Nellis AFB complex The Nellis Air Force Base Complex is a group of southern Nevada military areas that are predominantly USAF and Bureau of Land Management areas outside of the base (e.g., controlled by military units at Nellis). The complex's land areas include Nellis AFB, the USAF Nevada Test and Training Range, the active portion of the Small Arms Range Annex north of the base, the annex's Formerly Used Defense Site of (cleared in March 1972, returned to the DoI), 13 BLM areas of each leased for Patriot Radar/Communications Exercises, and other BLM sites "under Military Operations Area (MOA) airspace". Nellis AFB also leases space at the former Las Vegas AFS, and environmental sites of the Tonopah Bombing Range (FUDS) are monitored by the EPA. Additional Formerly Used Defense Sites associated with the area's military operations are the Nye County Areas A, G, H, & I; the "Delamar Dry Lake Test Annex" and the "Sunrise Mountain Machine Gun Range". In popular culture A scaled-down version of Nellis Air Force Base appears in the 2010 video game Fallout: New Vegas. The base's inhabitants were killed by nuclear radiation during the Great War of 2077. In the game's starting year of 2281, it is occupied by a militaristic, xenophobic tribe of survivors from Vault 34, calling themselves "Boomers". The base is briefly mentioned at the end of Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines. The base is said to be under attack from the machines. See also List of United States Air Force installations Nevada World War II Army Airfields Notes References Shaw, Frederick J. (2004), Locating Air Force Base Sites History's Legacy, Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington DC, 2004. Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. . 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202601	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slapping%20%28music%29	Slapping (music)	Slapping and popping are ways to produce percussive sounds on a stringed instrument. It is primarily used on the double bass or bass guitar. Slapping on bass guitar involves using the edge of one's knuckle, where it is particularly bony, to quickly strike the string against the fretboard. On bass guitars, this is commonly done with the thumb, while on double bass, the edge of the hand or index finger may be used. Popping refers to pulling the string away from the fretboard and quickly releasing it so it snaps back against the fretboard. On bass guitar, the two techniques are commonly used together in alternation, though either may be used separately. Overview On the double bass, the technique was developed by jazz bands in New Orleans in the early 1900s, and later spread to other genres, including western swing, rockabilly, and other offshoots of those styles. On the bass guitar, the technique is widely credited to Larry Graham, an electric bassist playing with Sly and the Family Stone in the late 1960s. The technique quickly spread to the funk and disco genres. Slapping is a technique also adopted by acoustic and electric fingerstyle guitarists. Double bass On double bass it refers to the technique that is a more vigorous version of pizzicato, where the string is plucked so hard that when released it bounces off the finger board, making a distinctive sound. A percussive sound can also be made by smacking the strings with some or all of the fingers on the right hand in between the notes of a bassline, usually in time with the snare drum. The earliest players of this technique in American music include Bill Johnson (1872–1972), Theodore "Steve" Brown (1890–1965), Wellman Braud (1891–1966), Pops Foster (1892–1969), and Chester Zardis (1900–1990). Slap bass was used by Western Swing and Hillbilly Boogie musicians. It became an important component of an early form of rock and roll that combined blues and what was then called hillbilly music—a musical style now referred to as rockabilly. Bill Black, who played with Elvis Presley and Scotty Moore was a well-known slap bass player. The technique inspired the George and Ira Gershwin song "Slap That Bass". Slap bass continues to be used in the 21st century, as it is widely used by modern rockabilly and psychobilly band bassists, including Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army), Scott Owen (The Living End) and Jimbo Wallace (The Reverend Horton Heat). Kresge's rapid slapping ability is all the more remarkable given that for much of his career he was an electric bassist. The top rockabilly and psychobilly bassists have developed the ability to perform rapid triplet slaps at the same time as they play a walking bassline. Bass guitar On bass guitar, slapping usually refers to a percussive playing technique most commonly used in funk, disco, soul, R&B, jazz, country music, rock, and many other genres. The style sounds much more percussive than regular plucking of notes with the soft part of the plucking hands fingers, and is also usually louder (although on an electric instrument, the volume can be adjusted with the volume knob or through compression), brighter, and more distinct than the sound of a bass guitar played with the usual plucking or pick techniques. The slap sound comes from the combination of two elements: slapping, which involves striking the string with the side of the bony joint in the middle of the thumb, a harder surface than the pads of the fingers (used in plucked fingering); and intentionally allowing the vibrating string to come into contact with the metal frets, producing a "toney" or buzzing sound that is normally avoided in plucked/fingered bass. In the slap technique, the bassist replaces the usual plucking motion of the index and middle fingers with "slaps" and "pops". In the slap, the bassist uses the thumb to strike the strings (usually the lower E and A strings) near the base of the bass's neck. In the pop, the bassist will use the index or middle finger of the plucking hand to snap the strings (usually the higher D and G strings) away from the body of the bass, causing them to bounce off the fretboard; this produces a prominent buzzing tone with a sharp attack and more high-frequency vibrations than present in plucked bass. The bassist can play many notes quickly by rotating the forearm, alternately slapping and popping: during the pop, the hand moves away from the fretboard, "winding up" or getting in position for the next slap. The slap and pop techniques are commonly used with pull-offs and hammer-ons with the fretting (usually left) hand, to further increase the rate at which notes may be played. Ghost notes, or notes played with the string damped, are also commonly played in slap bass to increase the percussive feel of the technique. The invention of slap on electric bass is generally credited to funk bassist Larry Graham. Graham has stated in several interviews that he was trying to emulate the sound of a drum set before his band had found its drummer. Graham himself refers to the technique as "thumpin′ and pluckin′". Selected slap bass players Some prominent electric bass players known for their use of slapping in their playing include: Mark Adams (funk band, Slave,"Slide",1978 James Alexander (The Bar-Kays), "Shut The Funk Up", 1977 Bootsy Collins (solo artist; Bootsy's Rubber Band, Funkadelic, Parliament, Praxis) Marvin Craig (Lakeside),"Fantastic Voyage", 1981 Nathan East (Fourplay, Daft Punk) Bernard Edwards (Chic) Jerry Barne (Chic) Jake Erwins The Hot Club of Cowtown (Jake Erwin) Fleas (Red Hot Chili Peppers) Johnny Flippins (Fatback Band) Derek Forbe (Simple Minds and Propaganda) Mike Gordon (Phish) Billy Gould (Faith No More) Les Claypool (Primus) Larry Graham (Sly and the Family Stone, Graham Central Station), credited with inventing the technique for electric bass. Sly and the Family Stone "Thank You" (1970) Louis Johnson (The Brothers Johnson, Quincy Jones, Michael Jackson) Mark King (Level 42) Tony Levin (King Crimson, Peter Gabriel, Stick Men) Kevin McCord (Funk band, One Way), "One of Us", 1982 Marcus Miller (solo artist, Miles Davis, David Sanborn, Luther Vandross) Lee Rocker (Stray Cats) Robert Trujillo (Metallica, Suicidal Tendencies) Doug Wimbish (Sugarhill Gang, Grandmaster Flash, Living Colour, Mick Jagger) Victor Wooten (Béla Fleck and the Flecktones) Ryan Martinie (Mudvayne) Doug Rauch (Giants, "Attitude" 1970. Also; Santana, Betty Davis, Lenny White, Billy Cobham) pioneer of "double" thumb technique Jamie Stewart (The Cult) Davie504, a YouTube bassist and comedian Rob Scallon, a YouTube guitarist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu (Korn) Variants There are numerous variants of the slapping technique. Some bassists use other fingers of the strumming hand to achieve this sound, such as bassist Abraham Laboriel, Sr., who uses his thumb to pop the strings, and his other four fingers to slap the strings. Bassist Victor Wooten uses a double thump technique which is like a slap, but uses both sides of the thumb for all the strings, fast enough to produce the equivalent of a drumroll on the bass guitar. Funk fingers invented by progressive rock bass player Tony Levin create a similar sound by using a hard surface to strike the strings and intentionally cause string contact with the fretboard. Spank bass developed from the slap and pop style and treats the electric bass as a percussion instrument, striking the strings above the pickups with an open palmed hand. The slap technique bears some resemblance to tambour, a percussive technique used in flamenco and classical guitar, although the tonal quality produced in this technique is quite different from that of a slapped electric bass. Japanese musician Miyavi is well known for creating a unique slapping style of playing electric guitars. Tosin Abasi, guitarist for progressive metal band Animals as Leaders, is also known for a slapping and popping technique on electric guitar, which he uses for both melodic and percussive effect. Use in popular culture The theme song for the television sitcom Seinfeld uses slap bass keyboard samples. A sample was also played in between scenes in each episode, often punctuating a scene or highlighting a punchline. The slap bass technique is used for the instrumental for theme song of the Nickelodeon show Kenan and Kel. The 2008 film Forgetting Sarah Marshall parodies Seinfeld's usage when the main character Peter (played by Jason Segel), who produces music for a TV series, inserts a goofy slap bass sample into a dramatic scene where "dark and ominous" music was needed. The original 1987-94 run of the Welsh children's series Fireman Sam uses slap bass in the theme song. Kylie Minogue's billboard #3 hit "The Locomotion" features slap bass. In television sitcom Everybody Hates Chris, a slap bass sample of Marcus Miller is used in between scenes in each episode, often punctuating a scene or highlighting a punchline. The theme song for the television sitcom ALF features a slap bass. In the popular British series The Mighty Boosh, the recurring character "The Hitcher" uses his large thumb for playing slap bass. The 1990s sitcom Martin features slap bass riffs as well as many sitcoms of that period with soul, funk-oriented theme songs. A joke in the 2009 film I Love You, Man is the main character's enthusiasm for "slappin da bass". 'I Could Be So Good for You', by Dennis Waterman and the theme tune for the British television series 'Minder' features slap bass. References External links Slap Bass Audio & Video Samples from FunkyChops Free Examples with Audio and TAB from Slap It! 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202603	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20contribution%20to%20the%202003%20invasion%20of%20Iraq	Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq	Australia joined a US-led coalition in its 2003 Iraq invasion, widely viewed as illegal under international law. Declassified documents reveal that the decision to go to war was taken primarily with a view to enhancing its alliance with the United States. The Howard Government supported the disarmament of Iraq during the Iraq disarmament crisis. Australia later provided one of the four most substantial combat force contingents during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, under the operational codename Operation Falconer. Part of its contingent were among the first forces to enter Iraq after the official "execute" order. The initial Australian force consisted of three Royal Australian Navy ships, a 500-strong special forces task group, two AP-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft, two B707 Air-to-Air refuelling aircraft, C-130 Hercules transport aircraft and No. 75 Squadron RAAF (which included 14 F/A-18 Hornet fighters). Combat forces committed to Operation Falconer for the 2003 Invasion were withdrawn during 2003. Under the name Operation Catalyst, Australian combat troops were redeployed to Iraq in 2005, however, and assumed responsibility for supporting Iraqi security forces in one of Iraq's southern provinces. These troops began withdrawing from Iraq on 1 June 2008 and were completely withdrawn by 28 July 2009. Forces committed A headquarters staff of about 60 personnel under the command of Brigadier Maurie McNarn. Royal Australian Navy The frigates HMAS Anzac and HMAS Darwin, which were already on-station as part of the Multinational Interception Force enforcing economic sanctions against Iraq before the invasion plan was entered into. Each ship carried a single Seahawk helicopter from 816 Squadron RAN. The transport ship HMAS Kanimbla carrying 350 crew and soldiers, including embarked Australian Army LCM-8 landing craft and an anti-aircraft contingent, a Sea King helicopter from 817 Squadron RAN, and a bomb disposal team. A detachment from the Army's 16th Air Defence Regiment provided point defence to the Kanimbla. Clearance Diving Team Three, which worked alongside divers from several nations to clear Iraqi ports of mines. Royal Australian Air Force No. 75 Squadron, operating 14 F/A-18 Hornet fighter jets together with 250 command, coordination, support and aircrew personnel. Three C-130H Hercules transport aircraft from No. 36 Squadron RAAF and 150 support personnel. Two AP-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft and 150 support personnel (these aircraft may have operated in the electronic intelligence gathering role). Australian Army A 500-strong special forces task group consisting of: Forward Command Element Special Forces Task Group attached to Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force-West (CJSOTF-W) 1st Squadron Group, Australian Special Air Service Regiment Platoon (+), 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (Commando) D Troop, Incident Response Regiment Combat Service Support Group Troop, C Squadron, 5th Aviation Regiment (3 CH-47 Chinook) 2 LCM-8 Landing Craft, 70/71 Troop Water Transport Squadron Operations by Australian Forces Planning for the deployment of ADF units to the Middle East began in mid-2002 when Australian officers were attached to United States planning teams. This was before the Government's announcement that Australia would join the United States and British buildup, but was conducted as contingency planning which did not imply a commitment to war. In keeping with its relatively small size, the Australian force made an important though limited contribution to Coalition operations during the invasion of Iraq. The Australian contribution was also geographically dispersed, with the Australian forces forming part of larger US and British units rather than a concentrated Australian unit. No Australian personnel were killed or taken prisoner during the war. Brigadier Maurie McNarn on 21 March 2003, was the first Coalition commander to hold an official press conference with the international media in Qatar. Australian contributions at the time were widely quoted owing to the lack of official operational news from other participants. Maritime operations Prior to the outbreak of war the Australian naval force in the Persian Gulf continued to enforce the sanctions against Iraq. These operations were conducted by boarding parties from the RAN warships and the AP-3 Orion patrol aircraft. Upon the outbreak of war the RAN's focus shifted to supporting the coalition land forces and clearing the approaches to Iraqi ports. HMAS Anzac provided gunfire support to Royal Marines during fighting on the Al-Faw Peninsula and the Clearance Diving Team took part in clearing the approaches to Umm Qasr. Boarding operations continued during the war, and on 20 March boarding parties from HMAS Kanimbla seized an Iraqi ship carrying 86 naval mines. Army LCM-8 Landing Craft were used as forward deployment and support platforms for the Navy boarding parties and were the first regular Maritime assets to the port of Umm Qasr, moving as far north as Basara on the inland waterways collecting intelligence for allied forces. LCM-8 Assets were utilised by British and American forces for various cargo transportation duties during the course of the war. Special forces operations The primary role of the Special Forces Task Group was to secure an area of western Iraq from which it was feared that SCUD missiles could be launched. The SAS successfully entered Iraq by vehicle and United States helicopters and secured their area of responsibility after a week of fighting. Following this the SAS patrolled the highways in the area in order to block the escape of members of the Iraqi government and to prevent enemy foreign fighters from entering the country. On 11 April the SAS Squadron was concentrated to capture the Al Asad Airbase. While this base proved to be almost undefended, the Australian troops captured over 50 MiG jets and more than 7.9 million kilograms of explosives. After securing the air base the SAS were reinforced by 4 RAR and the IRR elements. The Special Forces Task Group remained at Al Asad until the end of the war, when most of the SAS Squadron and IRR Troop returned home and the 4 RAR platoon (reinforced by elements of the SAS) was deployed to Baghdad to protect Australian diplomats. Air operations No. 75 Squadron's initial role was to escort high-value Coalition aircraft such as tankers and AWACS aircraft. As it became clear that the Iraqi Air Force posed no threat, the role of No. 75 Squadron shifted to providing close air support to Coalition ground forces and air interdiction against Iraqi forces. These missions were initially flown in support of the US Army but the Squadron later switched to supporting the US Marines. As organized Baathist resistance crumbled, the F/A-18s were increasingly tasked to provide 'shows of force' to encourage Iraqi forces to surrender. During the war No. 75 Squadron flew a total of 350 sorties and dropped 122 laser-guided bombs. Reports indicate that the No. 75 Squadron's activities were somewhat restricted in their military role compared to similarly equipped US forces. Australian aircraft were not permitted to operate in the "Baghdad SuperMEZ" (Missile Exclusion Zone) because of fears that the Hornet's electronic warfare systems were inadequate, though the report indicates that they were identical to American Hornets operating in this area. Furthermore, they were not permitted to conduct close air support missions in urban areas because of fears of collateral damage. These restrictions were in line with the rules of engagement set by the Australian Government, which were reportedly more restrictive than the rules governing the conduct of British and American forces. The Australian C-130 transports and CH-47 helicopters provided airlift to Coalition forces, including the Australian Special Forces Task Group. Post-invasion operations – Operation Catalyst Following the capture of Baghdad Australian C-130 aircraft flew humanitarian supplies into the city. Almost all the forces deployed for the war returned to Australia shortly after the end of major fighting. Unlike the three other countries which contributed combat forces to the war, Australia did not immediately contribute military forces to the post-war reconstruction of Iraq. Following victory, the Australian force in Iraq was limited to specialists attached to the Coalition headquarters in Baghdad and the search for Iraq's suspected weapons of mass destruction, a frigate in the Persian Gulf, a party of air traffic controllers at Baghdad International Airport, two C-130 Hercules transport aircraft, two AP-3C Orion aircraft and small Security Detachment (SECDET) consisting of infantry, Armoured and support elements with the Military Police Close Protection Team protecting the Australian military units and diplomats based in Baghdad. This force was later expanded to include an Army training detachment and a small medical detachment attached to a US Air Force hospital. The Royal Australian Navy has also assumed command of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf on two occasions; Combined Task Force 58 in 2005 and Combined Task Force 158 in 2006. The Australian Government refused requests made during 2003 and 2004 by the United States and United Nations to increase Australia's contribution to the Multinational force in Iraq. In 2004 the government argued that assistance it had provided to prepare a Fijian force for Iraq met its obligation to contribute to security arrangements for the January 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election. In February 2005, however, the Australian government announced that Australian Army would deploy a battlegroup to Al Muthanna Province to provide security for the Japanese engineers deployed to the province as well as to help train Iraqi security forces. This force — approximately 500 strong and equipped with armoured vehicles including ASLAVs and Bushmasters – named the Al Muthanna Task Group, commenced operations in April 2005. Following the withdrawal of the Japanese force and the transition of Al Muthanna to Iraqi control the Australian battlegroup relocated to Tallil Air Base in neighbouring Dhi Qar province in July 2006. The name AMTG was subsequently abandoned in favour of the title Overwatch Battle Group (West), reflecting the unit's new role. Al Muthana and Dhi Qar are the westernmost of the four southern provinces and OBG(W) became the prime coalition intervention force in the western sector of the British Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq) (MND-SE) Area of Operations, with MND-SE based in the southern port city of Basrah. Responsibility for overwatch in Dhi Qar was subsequently assumed from the withdrawing Italian contingent in late October 2006, whilst OBG(W) continued to train Iraqi security forces. By late 2006 overall personnel numbers committed to Operation Catalyst (Iraq) had risen to 1400. After the Labor Party achieved a landslide victory the 2007 election, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd's government withdrew Australian combat forces began from Iraq on 1 June 2008 and the Overwatch Battle Group (West) and Australian Army Training Team formally ceased combat operations on 2 June 2008, having helped train 33,000 Iraqi soldiers. Approximately 200 Australian personnel will remain in Iraq on logistical and air surveillance duties. All personnel other than those in SECDET and two officers attached to the United Nations will be withdrawn in July 2009. Casualties No Australian military personnel were killed in direct combat action during Operation Falconer or Operation Catalyst. One Australian Soldier died in 2015 as a direct result of injuries sustained in an IED Blast in 2004, three died in accidents or during service with British forces; many more have been wounded. Additionally as many as six Australians have been killed whilst working as private security contractors. Matthew Millhouse, 36, was a Trooper serving in the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, when the ASLAV he was driving was struck by a VBIED on the 25th of October 2004. He was knocked unconscious, but awoke and ran to the aid of LT Garth Callender who was severely injured. LT Callander later recovered from his physical wounds, but as a result of the blast TPR Millhouse was diagnosed with younger-onset dementia which claimed his life on the 28th of August 2015. He has since been listed on the Australian War Memorial Honour Roll as a casualty of the Iraq War. Paul Pardoel, 35, was a Flight Lieutenant serving as a Navigator in the RAF. He died when his C-130 Hercules from No 47 Squadron crashed in Iraq on 30 January 2005 killing all ten crew aboard. He was an Australian citizen serving in the British Armed Forces, having transferred from the RAAF in 2002. He was originally from Victoria. David Nary, 42, was a Warrant Officer with the Australian Special Air Service Regiment. He was killed on 5 November 2005 after being struck by a vehicle during a training exercise in Kuwait prior to deployment to Iraq. Jake Kovco, 25, was a Private serving in the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR). He was part of the security detachment (SECDET) in Baghdad when he was killed on 21 April 2006 from a gunshot wound to the head that was believed to have been accidentally self-inflicted. Australian contribution in context Scale of the Australian force commitment The Australian military contribution was relatively small in proportional terms, around 2,000 personnel in total, or 2.42% of its military compared to the United States 4.85% and the United Kingdom's 12%. With one obvious exception, the particular forces committed by the Australian Government can be seen by some as modest and to follow past practice closely. Australia committed special forces to the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in roughly similar numbers to those above. The two RAN frigates were already on-station for the Afghanistan campaign; Kanimbla was a relatively small addition to the naval force. RAN clearance divers also took part in the Gulf War. Australia sent Hercules and Orion aircraft to assist in the Afghanistan campaign—but also Boeing 707 tankers, which had not been committed to the Gulf War, despite a marked Coalition shortage of probe/drogue capable tanker aircraft. The absence of the 707s was likely caused by technical rather than policy reasons: the RAAF has only four second-hand 707 tankers; all are at the end of their service lives, very difficult to maintain and soon to be replaced. The commitment of No. 75 Squadron and its supporting personnel, however, was a major change from past practice. Australia did not commit combat aircraft to the 1991 Gulf War, and although a small detachment of Hornets was deployed to Diego Garcia during the Afghanistan campaign to provide airfield defence for the joint United States-United Kingdom military facility present there, this was not a true combat role, however, but simply a precaution against possible suicide attacks by hijacked civil aircraft. The commitment of No. 75 Squadron was the first combat deployment of Australian aircraft since the Vietnam War. No official statement has been made on the reasons behind the choice of F/A-18 fighters as Australia's primary combat commitment, but it is commonly assumed that the obvious alternative of sending a substantial land force instead was considered to involve an unacceptably high risk of casualties, particularly given the possibility of house-to-house fighting in Iraqi cities. Iraq is largely landlocked, and Australia no longer has a fixed-wing naval aviation component; thus, a larger naval commitment could not be considered particularly helpful. The choice of the F/A-18 deployment rather than of the F-111 tactical bomber may have been due to the higher cost of operation of the F-111, and its use being limited to more politically contentious ground attack missions rather than more uncontentious tasks like combat air patrols. Financial costs The cost of the Iraq war to Australian taxpayers is estimated to have exceeded A$5 billion. The cost of Australia's involvement in Iraq has risen since the initial invasion gave way to a protracted insurgency. Excluding debt relief, the annual cost has risen from just over $400 million in 2003–04 to $576.6 million in the 2007 financial year. Ancillary costs included: $494.5 million in the base wage and personnel costs for Australian Defence Force troops deployed in Iraq not included in the net additional spending figures; $211.5 million spent by Foreign Affairs and other departments on aid, reconstruction, Australia's diplomatic presence in Baghdad and tax concessions for soldiers; and $668 million in Iraqi debts waived by Australia. References Further reading Tony Holmes 'RAAF Hornets at War' in Australian Aviation. January/February 2006 No. 224. Greg Nash and David Stevens (2006) Australia's Navy in the Gulf. From Countenance to Catalyst, 1941–2006. Topmill, Sydney. External links Operation Catalyst: Department of Defence – official. 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202610	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32nd%20century%20BC	32nd century BC	The 32nd century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3200 BC to 3101 BC. Events c. 3190–3170 BC? reign of King Double Falcon of Lower Egypt. There is a strong possibility that he appears on the Palermo stone, although half his name is chipped away. c. 3185–3160 BC? reign of Scorpion I in Upper Egypt. c. 3160 In Upper Egypt Thinis annexes Nubt. c. 3155–3140 BC? King Iry-Hor reigns from Abydos over most of Egypt. c. 3150–3120 BC reign of King Ka in Ancient Egypt. c. 3139 BC Kurukshetra War between Kauravas and Pandavas in the great Indian epic Mahabharata. c. 3138 BC Ljubljana Marshes Wheel is a wooden wheel that was found in the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia. Radiocarbon dating showed that it is approximately 5,150 years old, which makes it the oldest wooden wheel yet discovered. c. 3120–3110 BC reign of Scorpion II in Lower Egypt. c. 3110 BC beginning of the reign of Narmer, first pharaoh to unify Ancient Egypt and founder of the 1st Dynasty. c. 3100 BC: The earliest phase of Stonehenge construction begins. Varna Necropolis: what have been claimed to be the earliest-known worked gold artifacts are manufactured Malta: Construction of the Ħaġar Qim megalithic temples, featuring both solar and lunar alignments. "Tarxien period" of megalithic temple construction reaches its apex Sumerian cuneiform writing system Ancient Egypt: Earliest known Egyptian hieroglyphs, beginning of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, Horus was the main god worshiped in Upper Egypt, Neith was the main god worshiped in Lower Egypt Crete: Rise of Minoan civilization Ötzi: The final years of the Iceman's life Neolithic settlement built at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, Scotland (pictured) Earliest buildings at the Ness of Brodgar in the Orkney Islands constructed. New Stone Age people in Ireland build the 250,000-ton (226,796.2-tonne) Newgrange solar-oriented passage tomb Calendar epochs 3114 BC: According to the most widely accepted correlations between the Western calendar and the calendar systems of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, the mythical starting point of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar cycle occurs in this year. The Long Count calendar, used and refined most notably by the Maya civilization but also attested in some other (earlier) Mesoamerican cultures, consisted of a series of interlocked cycles or periods of day-counts, which mapped out a linear sequence of days from a notional starting point. The system originated sometime in the Mid- to Late Preclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, during the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. The starting point of the most commonly used highest-order cycle—the b'ak'tun-cycle consisting of thirteen b'ak'tuns of 144,000 days each—was projected back to an earlier, mythical date. This date is equivalent to 11 August 3114 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar (or 6 September in the proleptic Julian calendar), using the correlation known as the "Goodman-Martínez-Thompson (GMT) correlation". The GMT-correlation is worked out with the Long Count starting date equivalent to the Julian Day Number (JDN) equal to 584283, and is accepted by most Mayanist scholars as providing the best fit with the ethnohistorical data. Two succeeding dates, the 12th and 13 August (Gregorian) have also been supported, with the 13th (JDN = 584285, the "astronomical" or "Lounsbury" correlation) attracting significant support as according better with astronomical observational data. Although it is still contended which of these three dates forms the actual starting base of the Long Count, the correlation to one of this triad of dates is definitively accepted by almost all contemporary Mayanists. All other earlier or later correlation proposals are now discounted. The end of the thirteenth baktun was either on December 21 or 23 of 2012 (supposed end of the world). 3102 BC: The beginning of Kali Yuga as per Hindu calendar. 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202611	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st%20century%20BC	31st century BC	The 31st century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3100 BC to 3001 BC. Events 3100 BC: The Anu Ziggurat and White Temple are built in Uruk. 3100 BC: Predynastic period (Neolithic) ends in Ancient Egypt. 3100 BC: Early Dynastic (Archaic) period starts in Ancient Egypt. c. 3100 BC: The first temple of Tarxien is in use by the Neolithic inhabitants of Malta. c. 3100 BC: First stage in the construction of Stonehenge. c. 3100 BC – 2600 BC: Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland is inhabited. c. 3090 BC: Narmer (Menes) unifies Upper and Lower Egypt into one country; he rules this new country from Memphis. c. 3051 BC: The oldest currently living organism, a Great Basin bristlecone pine, undergoes germination in the White Mountains of California. Inventions, discoveries, introductions Drainage and sewage system in the Indus Valley Dams, canals, stone sculptures using inclined plane and lever in Sumer and the Tigris-Euphrates Valley Copper was in use, both as tools and weapons Senet is one of the oldest known board games in the world. c. 3100 BC – Invention of writing in Mesopotamia and Egypt The Sydney rock engravings date to around 3000 BC (Sydney, Australia). 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202612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd%20century%20BC	33rd century BC	The 33rd century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3300 BC to 3201 BC. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis. The bronze age started in the 33rd century BC. Events Major climate shift possibly due to shift in solar activity. Glaciers expand, covering plants. Atmospheric temperatures fall. India Mathura Lord Krishna was born Sahara changes from a habitable region into a barren desert Ancient Egypt begins using clay, bone and ivory tags to label boxes, possibly an example of proto-writing Indus Valley Civilization (also known as Harappan civilization) begins in Harappa c. 3300 BC: Archaeological evidence suggests the transition from Copper to Bronze took place around 3300 BC. c. 3300 BC: Harappan script is developed in Indus Valley c. 3300 BC: Pictographs in Uruk 3300 BC: to 3000 BC: Face of a woman, from Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq) is made. It is now in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad (stolen and recovered in 2003). c. 3300 BC: The Red Temple, the first phase of the Monte d'Accoddi sanctuary in Northwest Sardinia, is built. 3300-3000 BC: Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period. Proto-Dacian or proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early Bronze Age Inventions, discoveries, introductions The Bronze Age begins in the Fertile Crescent (Roux, 1980) Cattle introduced to the Nile valley Egyptians domesticate the wild ass of North Africa (Clutton-Brock) c. 3250 BC – Potter's wheel in use in Ancient Near East Hindu Lord Krishna was born 3228 BC in Mathura India References -7 -67	[ -0.28126659989356995, -0.10882436484098434, -0.9278927445411682, 0.6351493000984192, -0.5415288805961609, 0.40686148405075073, 0.17149892449378967, 0.8265584707260132, -0.2818699777126312, 0.12886033952236176, 0.34578371047973633, -0.33581024408340454, -0.6953991055488586, 0.24826109409332275, 0.3278956413269043, -0.06933626532554626, 0.2944270968437195, 0.212998628616333, 0.20070292055606842, 0.2998838722705841, 0.14792078733444214, 0.010038657113909721, 0.43530887365341187, 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202613	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/34th%20century%20BC	34th century BC	The 34th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3400 BC to 3301 BC. Cultures Stage IIIa2 of the Naqada culture in Egypt (dated in 1998). Archaic forms of cuneiform emerge in the late Uruk period in Mesopotamia. Burial of a child at Ashleypark Burial Mound, Ireland (c. 3350 BC) Religion Enoch (c. 33hej References -6 -66	[ -0.25620388984680176, 0.014312176033854485, -0.9429366588592529, 0.6387391090393066, -0.5454890131950378, 0.49620750546455383, 0.24979950487613678, 0.783682644367218, -0.21639077365398407, -0.055489301681518555, 0.5416752696037292, -0.569571852684021, -0.34663158655166626, 0.41817745566368103, 0.11984831839799881, 0.01813650131225586, 0.27124711871147156, -0.067840576171875, 0.30936741828918457, 0.18176215887069702, -0.05245305597782135, 0.051980193704366684, 0.2433435469865799, 0.31972095370292664, -0.06765921413898468, -0.06917404383420944, 0.08178646862506866, -0.28719404339790344, 0.38846147060394287, -0.9429019689559937, -0.12522831559181213, -0.1778746247291565, -0.4232018291950226, -0.6669667363166809, -0.30760058760643005, -0.41211697459220886, -0.405916690826416, 0.21859551966190338, 0.18859651684761047, -0.5622711777687073, -0.7063655853271484, 0.24141815304756165, 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202614	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karelian%20Isthmus	Karelian Isthmus	The Karelian Isthmus (; ; ) is the approximately stretch of land, situated between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in northwestern Russia, to the north of the River Neva. Its northwestern boundary is a line from the Bay of Vyborg to the westernmost point of Lake Ladoga, Pekonlahti. If the Karelian Isthmus is defined as the entire territory of present-day Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast to the north of the Neva and also a tiny part of the Republic of Karelia, the area of the isthmus is about . The smaller part of the isthmus to the southeast of the old Russia-Finland border is considered historically as Northern Ingria, rather than part of the Karelian Isthmus itself. The rest of the isthmus was historically a part of Finnish Karelia. This was conquered by the Russian Empire during the Great Northern War in 1712 and included within the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland (1809–1917) of the Russian Empire. When Finland became independent in 1917, the isthmus (except for the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Vsevolozhsky District and some districts of Saint Petersburg) remained Finnish. Finnish Karelia was partly ceded to the Soviet Union by Finland following the Winter War (1939–1940) and Continuation War (1941–1944). In 1940–1941, during the Interim Peace, most of the ceded territories in the isthmus were included within the Karelo-Finnish SSR. However, since World War II the entire isthmus has been divided between the city of Saint Petersburg (mostly Kurortny District), as well as Priozersky District, Vsevolozhsky District and Vyborgsky District of Leningrad Oblast. According to the 2002 census, the population of the Kurortny District of Saint Petersburg and the parts of Leningrad Oblast situated on the Karelian Isthmus amounts to 539,000. Many Saint Petersburg residents also decamp to the Isthmus during their vacations. The main population centers of the Isthmus are Vyborg (Выборг; ; ), Priozersk (Приозе́рск; ; ) and Primorsk (Примо́рск; ; ). Geography and wildlife The isthmus' terrain has been influenced dramatically by the Weichselian glaciation. Its highest point lies on the Lembolovo Heights moraine at about 205 m (670 ft). There are no mountains on the isthmus, but steep hills occur in some places. The Vuoksi, the largest river, runs southeastwards from Lake Saimaa of Finland to Lake Ladoga, dividing the isthmus into two uneven parts. Saimaa Canal opened in 1856 links Lake Saimaa to the Bay of Vyborg passing through the city of Lappeenranta in South Karelia, Finland. The Karelian Isthmus lies within the ecoregion of Scandinavian and Russian taiga. Geobotanically, it lies at the juncture of the Central European, Eastern European and Northern European floristic provinces of the Circumboreal Region of the Holarctic Kingdom. The isthmus is mostly covered by coniferous forests formed by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies), with numerous lakes (e.g. Lake Sukhodolskoye and Lake Glubokoye) as well as small grass, fen and Sphagnum raised bogs. Forests cover approximately 11.700 km of the isthmus, more than three-fourths of its total square. Swampy areas occupy on average 5.5 percent of the territory. In the large contiguous area along the shore of Lake Ladoga in Vsevolozhsky District, in the southeastern part of the isthmus, bogs occur much more frequently than in other parts. The same was once true of the lowland along the Neva River, which has been drained. The soil is predominantly podsol, which contains massive boulders, especially in the north and northwest, where large granite rocky outcrops occur. Pine forests (with Pinus sylvestris) are the most widespread and occupy 51% of the forested area of the Karelian Isthmus, followed by spruce forests (with Picea abies, 29%) and birch forests (with Betula pendula and B. pubescens, 16%). Stands on more fertile soils and in more favorable locations are occasionally dominated by Norway maple, black alder, grey alder, common aspen, English oak, grey willow, dark-leaved willow, tea-leaved willow, small-leaved lime or European white elm. Common vegetation of various types of pine forests includes heather, crowberry, common juniper, eared willow, lingonberry, water horsetail, bracken, graminoids (i.e. grasses in the wider sense) Avenella flexuosa and Carex globularis, mosses Pleurozium schreberi, Sphagnum angustifolium and S. russowii, and lichens Cladonia spp. Prominent in various spruce forests are wood horsetail, common wood sorrel, bilberry, lingonberry, graminoids Avenella flexuosa, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Carex globularis, and mosses Polytrichum commune and Sphagnum girgensohnii. Prominent vegetation of various birch forests include meadowsweet, common wood sorrel, bilberry and graminoids Calamagrostis arundinacea and C. canescens. 1184 species of wild vascular plants are recorded in the isthmus. See also the List of the vascular plants of the Karelian Isthmus. Red squirrel, moose, red fox, mountain hare and boar (reintroduced) are typical inhabitants of the forests. The climate of the isthmus is moderately continental, with 650–800 mm (25–32 in) average precipitation per year, long snowy winters lasting from November through mid-April and occasionally reaching about -40 °C (-40 F), moderately cool summers and short frost-free period. Compared to other parts of the Leningrad Oblast, the winter here is usually milder due to the moderating influence of the Gulf of Finland, but longer. The city of Vyborg and the town of Priozersk are situated on the northwestern part of the isthmus. The Karelian Isthmus is a popular place for hiking, cycling, skiing (Korobitsyno and Kavgolovo), climbing (near Kuznechnoye), canoeing (Losevo), fishing for consumption (of carp bream, northern pike, roach, European perch, ruffe, burbot and others), mushroom hunting (for porcini, red-capped scaber stalk, birch bolete, velvet bolete, slippery Jack, golden chanterelle, Lactarius resimus, woolly milk-cap, ugly milk-cap, saffron milk-cap, Lactarius rufus, various Russulas and others), berry picking (of bilberry, raspberry, woodland strawberry, cowberry, cranberry, cloudberry, bog bilberry and stone bramble). It is a popular summer resort for Saint Petersburg citizens since the late 19th century, served by trains of Finlyandsky Rail Terminal. The isthmus, especially the land along Saint Petersburg–Vyborg and Saint Petersburg–Priozersk railroads, hosts numerous dachas. A 20–35 km wide stretch of land in Vyborgsky District and Republic of Karelia to the west of the Vyborg–Hiitola railway, as well as the islands and shores of the Gulf of Vyborg, belongs to the strictly guarded zone of the border control, reaching the shore of Lake Ladoga at Hiitola. In 1993–2006 the zone was formally 5 km wide, although in fact it has always been much wider. Visiting it is forbidden without a permit issued by the FSB (by KGB during the time of the Soviet Union). Geological history Geologically the Karelian Isthmus lies on the southern edge of the Baltic Shield's crystalline bedrock. During the final part of the last Weichselian glaciation, deglaciation in the central parts of the Isthmus started as early as 14000 BP, when it formed the bottom of a large lake dammed by the surrounding ice sheet. During further deglaciation, at the time of the Baltic Ice Lake, an early high water stage of the Baltic Sea, when the ice sheet retreated to Salpausselkä, the upland area of the Isthmus remained a large island and many upland lakes emerged. Prior to 12650 BP, the land was characterized by harsh Arctic conditions with permafrost and sparse vegetation. Steppe-tundra complexes developed after this point. Around 11000 BP climate began to warm and became humid, first pine and birch forests were established. Around 9000 BP Ancylus Lake, another stage of the Baltic Sea, retreated, and many lowland lakes were also isolated in depressions formed earlier by glacial exaration and fluvioglacial activity. Lake Ladoga was separated from the sea as well. Due to land uplift, around 5000 BP the River Vuoksi started emptying into Lake Ladoga as a new outlet of Lake Saimaa. Lake Ladoga transgressed, flooding lowland lakes and the Vuoksi, and became connected with the sea at Heinjoki (now Veshchevo), to the east of present-day Vyborg. Around 3100–2400 BP the Neva River emerged, draining Lake Ladoga into the Baltic Sea. Ladoga level gradually sank from 15–18 m to its modern position of 4–5 m above sea-level, and lowland lakes were isolated again. However, the Vuoksi still had a significant direct outflow connection to the Bay of Vyborg, possibly as late as in the 12th century AD. The connection disappeared due to ongoing land uplift in the 2nd millennium AD. In 1818 a canal, which was dug to drain spring flood waters from Lake Suvanto (now Lake Sukhodolskoye, a 40-km long narrow lake in the eastern part of the Isthmus) into Lake Ladoga, unexpectedly eroded and turned into the Taipaleenjoki (now Burnaya River). The Taipaleenjoki started draining Suvanto and decreased its level by 7 m. Originally waters of Lake Suvanto flowed into the Vuoksi River through a waterway at Kiviniemi (now Losevo), but as a result of the change, the waterway dried out. In 1857 the canal was dug there, but the stream reversed direction, revealed rapids and rendered navigation at Kiviniemi impossible. Since 1857 Suvanto and the Taipaleenjoki have constituted the southern armlet of the Vuoksi River, which has decreased the level of the original northern armlet emptying into Ladoga near Kexholm (now Priozersk) by 4 m, isolating it as a separate river basin. Cities, towns and urban-type settlements Kamennogorsk () Kuznechnoye (Kaarlahti) Lesogorsky (Jääski) Primorsk (Koivisto) Priozersk (Käkisalmi) Roshchino (Raivola) Saint Petersburg (Pietari) Sertolovo (Sierattala) Sestroretsk (Siestarjoki) Sovetsky (Johannes) Svetogorsk (Enso) Toksovo (Toksova) Vsevolozhsk (Seuloskoi) Vyborg (Viipuri) Vysotsk (Uuras) Zelenogorsk (Terijoki). Administrative territorial division The Karelian Isthmus is located in two regions of the Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg and the Leningrad Oblast. Saint Petersburg is represented by seven districts, the Leningrad Oblast by three. History Archaeology Apart from the old towns of Vyborg and Priozersk, and churches on the Konevets island of Lake Ladoga, since the late 19th century a number of other archaeological sites have been discovered on the isthmus. Numerous archaeological remnants of the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age occur all over the isthmus. The eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus hosts a number of medieval remnants. There are many grave pits of Karelians of the 10th–15th centuries with metal and ceramic artifacts along the northern armlet of the Vuoksi, near Lake Sukhodolskoye and in a few other places in Priozersky District. On the southern shore of Lake Sukhodolskoye small medieval burial mounds are abundant as well. A lot of large cult stones have been found along these bodies of water, as well as agglomerations of cairns. Remnants of several rural settlements were also discovered there as well as on the shore of Lake Ladoga. Remnants of the Tiuri (Tiversk) town (10th–15th centuries) were excavated on a former island in the northern Vuoksi armlet near the Tiuri village (now Vasilyevo). A few treasures of silver adornments and medieval Arabian and Western European coins have also been found, as the isthmus laid on the Volga trade route (at that time, the Vuoksi River had a distributary emptying into the Bay of Vyborg). Prehistory and Medieval Ancestors of Baltic Finns wandered to the Karelian Isthmus possibly around 8500BC. In the 11th century, Sweden and Novgorod Republic started to compete tax holding rights. The Treaty of Nöteborg of 1323 established a border between them along the rivers now known as the Sestra and the Volchya. 17th–20th centuries During 17th century Sweden gained the whole isthmus and also Ingria. In this time many Karelians escaped to Tver's Karelia. From 1721–1812 the isthmus belonged to the Russian Empire, won in the Great Northern War that started with the Russian conquest of Ingria where the new imperial capital, Saint Petersburg, was founded (1703) in the southern end of the isthmus, in place of old Swedish town Nyenskans. Then in 1812, the northwestern half was transferred, as a part of Old Finland, to the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, created in 1809 and in a personal union with Russia. Due to its size, favorable climate, rich fishing waters and proximity to Saint Petersburg, the capital of the Russian Empire, the Karelian Isthmus became the wealthiest part of Finland once the industrial revolution had gained momentum in the 19th century. The railroads Saint Petersburg–Vyborg–Riihimäki (1870), Vyborg–Hiitola–Sortavala (1893), Saint Petersburg–Kexholm–Hiitola (1917) crossed the isthmus, contributing to its economic development. By the end of the 19th century the nearby areas along the Saint Petersburg–Vyborg section had become popular place of summer resort for wealthy Saint Petersburgers. When Finland declared its independence in 1917, the isthmus (except for the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Vsevolozhsky District and some districts of Saint Petersburg) remained Finnish, part of the Viipuri province with its center in Viipuri, the fourth largest Finnish city. A considerable part of the remaining area populated by Ingrian Finns seceded from Bolshevist Russia as the Finland-backed Republic of North Ingria, but was reintegrated with Russia in the end of 1920 according to the conditions of the Treaty of Tartu. In 1928–1939 parts of the isthmus which belonged to Russia constituted the Kuivaisi National District with its center in Toksova, with Finnish as the official language, according to the policy of national delimitation in the Soviet Union. However, in 1936 the entire Finnish population of the parishes of Valkeasaari, Lempaala, Vuole and Miikkulainen along the Finnish border was deported by the Soviet government. World War II A number of defensive lines crossed the isthmus during the Soviet-Finnish hostilities in World War II, such as Mannerheim Line, VKT-line, VT-line, Main line (Finnish) and KaUR (Soviet), and fronts moved back and forth over it. In November 1939, the Soviet Union staged the Shelling of Mainila and invaded Finland in what became known as the Winter War, which took a disproportionally heavy death toll on the Red Army. Only in February 1940 did the Soviet forces manage to penetrate the Mannerheim Line across the isthmus, the strength of which is often exaggerated. Finland ceded the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia to the Soviet Union in the Peace of Moscow of 12 March. According to the protocol appended to the Moscow Peace Treaty, the fighting was ended at noon (Leningrad time) on 13 March and by 26 March the Finnish troops had been completely withdrawn. The entire Karelian population of the ceded areas of about 422 thousand people was evacuated to other parts of Finland (see Evacuation of Finnish Karelia). On 31 March most of the ceded territories were incorporated into Karelo-Finnish SSR by a decision of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union (in the Karelian Isthmus the districts of Jääski, Kexholm and Vyborg). The districts of Kanneljärvi, Koivisto and Rautu as well as the town of Terijoki were, however, included into Leningrad Oblast. In 1941, during World War II, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Few days later Continuation War as it is known in Finland (it is considered to be a front of the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union and Russia) started. Finland initially regained the lost territory, reaching the Russian side of the border of 1939 and seen by the Russians as indirectly contributing to the Siege of Leningrad (see Finnish reconquest of the Karelian Isthmus (1941)). Some 260,000 Karelian evacuees returned home. On 9 June 1944, strong Soviet forces opened the Vyborg Offensive and pushed the front from the pre-1939 border to Vyborg in ten days. The returned Karelians were evacuated to Finland again. In the Battle of Tali-Ihantala, 25 June–9 July, the Finns concentrated their military strength and brought the offensive to a halt at the River Vuoksi, in the northwesternmost part of the isthmus, at the closest point only 40 kilometres from the border of 1940. The Moscow Armistice ending the war was signed on 19 September 1944. The entire isthmus became Soviet, although most of it has never been captured by the Soviets in battles. This time the ceded territories of the Karelian Isthmus (including the districts of Jääski, Kexholm and Vyborg) were incorporated into Leningrad Oblast (unlike Ladoga Karelia, which remained within the Karelo-Finnish SSR). The border of the Moscow Peace Treaty (1940) was recognized by Finland again in the Peace of Paris, 1947. After the war As a result of the war, the population of the Karelian Isthmus has been almost completely replaced. After the war the isthmus was included into the Leningrad Oblast and people from other parts of the Soviet Union, mostly Russian, were settled here. The vast majority of the old Finnish toponyms in the conquered territories were renamed to invented Russian ones by the government around 1948. The Finnish toponyms of the territories included within Karelo-Finnish SSR and of the southern part of the isthmus (albeit assimilated) mostly remained. A lot of youth summer camps were built all over the isthmus during the time of the Soviet Union. Some of them still exist. Transport The western part of the Karelian Isthmus is an important transport corridor linking Scandinavia and Central Russia. Primorsk, terminus of the Baltic Pipeline System, which has recently become one of the most efficient Russian sea ports, is also located here. The only motorway on the isthmus is the recently completed E18 "Scandinavia" (M10) going from Saint Petersburg through Vyborg and Vaalimaa. Saimaa Canal (opened in 1856) is an important link connecting inland waterways of Finland with the Gulf of Finland. The Karelian Isthmus is served by a number of railways; the trains arrive from Finlyandsky Rail Terminal and Ladozhsky Rail Terminal of Saint Petersburg: Saint Petersburg-Hiitola railroad eastern part of the Saint Petersburg-Riihimäki railroad Saint Petersburg – Sestroretsk – Beloostrov southern part of the Vyborg-Joensuu railroad Saint Petersburg – Vsevolozhsk – Ladozhskoye Ozero Saint Petersburg – Vsevolozhsk – Petrokrepost – Nevskaya Dubrovka Vyborg – Veschevo (earlier also through Zhitkovo to Michurinskoye) Kamennogorsk – Svetogorsk – Imatra Zelenogorsk – Primorsk – Sovetsky – Vyborg Also on the Karelian isthmus are all lines of the St. Petersburg metro. Industry The pulp-and-paper, timber and woodworking industries (JSC Svetogorsk, pulp and paper mill in Svetogorsk, Vyborgsky Pulp and Paper Mill in Vyborg, Priozersky Furniture and Woodworking Industrial Complex and Priozersky Woodworking Factory in Priozersk, as well as other smaller enterprises all over the isthmus) are well developed in Vyborgsky and Priozersky Districts. The pulp and paper industry, however, affects the environment adversely. The predecessor of the Priozersk facilities, Priozersky Pulp and Paper Mill, a major polluter of Lake Ladoga constructed in 1931, was closed down in 1986. Northern and western parts of the isthmus are also an important reserve of granite (quarries in Kuznechnoye, as well as a number of others along the Vyborg-Hiitola railroad). Vyborg Shipyard is one of the largest shipbuilding companies in Northwestern Russia. Roskar Battery Farm in Pervomayskoye is a leading producer of chicken and eggs. In Vsevolozhsky District state-owned Morozov Plant is located, which is an important producer of paints, adhesives, abrasives and other substances. In Kuzmolovsky, Vsevolozhsky District, near the station Kapitolovo of the Saint Petersburg–Hiitola railroad, a facility of the Saint Petersburg nuclear enterprise Izotop is located, which specializes in transportation of nuclear materials and radioactive waste. Bogs of Vsevolozhsky District along the shores of Lake Ladoga and the Neva River were major sources of peat for fuel. Now it is extracted in smaller quantities, mostly for agricultural purposes. The district is also an important supplier of sand. A plant of Ford Motor Company producing Ford Focus cars was opened in Vsevolozhsk in 2002. Military The Karelian Isthmus is included within Leningrad Military District of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. The isthmus hosts airfields in Levashovo, Pribylovo and Gromovo. Other airfields in Veshchevo and Kasimovo (Vartemyagi) have been abandoned. In the northern part of Vsevolozhsky District, to the south of the old Finnish border, Karelian Fortified Region (KaUR) is located, which was reconstructed as late as in the 1960s, but now seems to be abandoned as well. There is Bobochinsky tank range (195.975 km², founded in 1913) between Kamenka and Kirillovskoye and a number of military facilities in Vsevolozhsky District in the lowlands between Lake Ladoga and Saint Petersburg-Hiitola railroad, including Rzhevsky artillery range (founded in 1879), a huge area, , encircled by the Road of Life, the roads Rzhevka – Novoye Devyatkino and Novoye Devyatkino – Matoksa and the coast of Lake Ladoga (available to visitors since 2003). In 2006 a Voronezh early warning radar was built in Lekhtusi, Vsevolozhsky District. The port of Vysotsk is a base of the Baltic Fleet. 138th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade is located in Kamenka, and in the 56th District Training Centre in Sertolovo. Population The population of the Karelian isthmus today is slightly less than 3.1 million inhabitants. Of these, about 2.4 million live in St. Petersburg and a little less than 700 thousand in the Leningrad region. The population is growing solely due to migration, as the mortality rate is much higher than the birth rate, but the migration attractiveness of St. Petersburg and the surrounding areas of the Leningrad region is very high. Thus, about 40% of the population of St. Petersburg and about 30% of the population of the Leningrad region live on the Karelian isthmus. There is strong growth in population in all the districts of the Karelian isthmus in addition to the Vyborg district and Priozersk district . Notable people from the isthmus Finnish period Martti Ahtisaari, Finnish president, and recipient of the 2008 Nobel Peace Prize Georg Elfvengren, Finnish military commander Gustav Hägglund, Finnish military commander Max Jakobson, Finnish diplomat Gustaf Komppa, Finnish chemist Juho Niukkanen, Finnish politician Karl Lennart Oesch, Finnish military commander Larin Paraske, Finnish oral poet Edith Södergran, Swedish-speaking Finnish poet. Lauri Törni, born in Viipuri, Törni was a soldier and winner of the Mannerheim Cross during the Continuation War, who later served with the German and American armies. Uno Ullberg, Finnish architect Johannes Virolainen, Finnish politician Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Finnish chemist, and recipient of the 1945 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Soviet and post soviet period Elena Pogrebizhskaya Ilia Shtokalov Nastasya Samburskaya Lyubov Kozyreva (cross-country skier) Elena Kondulainen References Further reading Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Юго-западный сектор, часть 1: Кивеннапа – Териоки (Первомайское – Зеленогорск). СПб.: Новое время, 1998. . Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Юго-западный сектор, часть 2: Уусикиркко (Поляны). СПб.: Новое время, 2000. . Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Юго-западный сектор, часть 3: Каннельярви – Куолемаярви (Победа – Пионерское). СПб.: Новое время, 1998. . Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 2–3. Юго-западный сектор: Уусикиркко – Куолемаярви – Каннельярви (Поляны – Красная Долина – Победа). 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. СПб.: Нива, 2002. . Шитов Д.И. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 4. Восточный сектор: Рауту – Саккола (Сосново – Громово). СПб.: Нордмед-Издат, 2000. . Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 5. Западный сектор: Койвисто (Приморск). СПб.: КультИнформПресс, 2002. . Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 5 – 6. Западный сектор: Койвисто – Йоханнес (Приморск – Советский). 2-е изд., испр. и доп. СПб.: Нива, 2003. . Орехов Д.И., Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 7. Центральный сектор: Муолаа – Яюряпяя (Красносельское – Барышево). СПб.: Нива, 2004. . Орехов Д.И., Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 8. Восточный сектор: Метсяпиртти (Запорожское). СПб.: Нива, 2005. . Балашов Е. А. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 9. Центральный сектор: Валкъярви – Вуоксела (Мичуринское – Ромашки). СПб.: Нива, 2005. . Шитов Д.И. Карельский перешеек: Земля неизведанная. Часть 10. Северо-восточный сектор: Ряйсяля (Мельниково). СПб., 2006. . Иллюстрированный определитель растений Карельского перешейка / Под ред. А. Л. Буданцева, Г. П. Яковлева. – СПб: СпецЛит, 2000. External links Detailed and historical maps (site navigation in Russian) Site of the local history association "Karelia" (in Russian). 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202615	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35th%20century%20BC	35th century BC	The 35th century BC in the Near East sees the gradual transition from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Proto-writing enters transitional stage, developing towards writing proper. Wheeled vehicles are now known beyond Mesopotamia, having spread north of the Caucasus and to Europe. Cultures Susa (Iran since 7000 BC) Uruk period (Sumer) Naqada IIb (Ancient Egypt) Early Minoan I Sredny Stog culture (final phase) Yamna culture (early phase) Cucuteni culture Vinča culture Megalithic Europe (Atlantic fringe) Nuragic civilization (Sardinia) Comb Ceramic culture Funnelbeaker culture Yangshao culture Artifacts Only approximate dating is usually possible for mid-4th millennium artifacts. Kish tablet Bronocice pot Ginger (mummy) Knap of Howar Events The Sahara desert starts to form from semi-arid savannah, through desertification. c. 3500 BC: First known zoo at Hierakonpolis. c. 3400 BC: Sumerian temple record keepers redesign the stamp seal in the form of a cylinder. c. 3500 BC: Pictographic proto-writing starts developing towards writing proper in Sumer, thus starting what is technically considered history. c. 3500 BC: The first monument of which there is still a trace () is built on the Hill of Tara, the ancient seat of the High King of Ireland. c. 3500 BC: Tin is discovered. c. 3500 BC: The Eruption of Mount Isarog in the Philippines. c. 3500 BC: The Sumerians develop a logographic script, cuneiform Sovereign states References -5 -65	[ 0.03777102380990982, 0.5414121150970459, -0.7838333249092102, 0.5840190052986145, -0.5366160273551941, 0.7003248929977417, 0.03406596928834915, 0.9299935698509216, -0.12532298266887665, -0.509404182434082, 0.2594647705554962, 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202616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36th%20century%20BC	36th century BC	The 36th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3600 BC to 3501 BC. Events Civilization in Sumer (Uruk period). Beginning of the construction of the megalithic Ggantija temple complex in Malta. Mnajdra solar temple complex, Malta. Colombia, first rupestrian art at Chiribiquete (Caquetá). Maize is domesticated at Balsas River by the Tehuacán culture In Egypt, evidence found of mummification around this time at a cemetery in Nekhen (Hierankopolis). Fortified town at Amri on the west bank of the Indus River. Cultures Baden culture (present-day Moravia, Hungary, Slovakia and Eastern Austria) Funnelbeaker culture (north central Europe and southern Scandinavia) Boian culture, Phase IV or Spanţov Phase (also known as the Boian-Gumelniţa culture) (lower Danube river) Chasséen culture (present-day France) Pfyn culture (present-day Switzerland) Cucuteni-Trypillian culture (present-day Romania, Moldova and Ukraine) Beginning of Wartberg culture (present-day Germany) Inventions, discoveries, introductions First known evidence of popcorn. Excavations of the Bat Cave in Carlsbad Caverns National Park in New Mexico in 1948 and 1950 discovered ears of popcorn dated to circa 3600 BC. 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202617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/37th%20century%20BC	37th century BC	The 37th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3700 BC to 3601 BC. Events In the south of England, a rapid expansion of monument building occurred around 3700 BC. In the city of Uruk, southern Mesopotamia, groups of tokens representing commercial transactions begin to be enclosed in hollow clay balls and kept in archives. The Maykop culture, a major Bronze Age archaeological culture in the Western Caucasus region of Southern Russia, began around 3700 BC. Lothal of Indus Valley Civilization in India (3700 BC). 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202618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th%20century%20BC	38th century BC	The 38th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3800 BC to 3701 BC. Events An earthquake near a Neolithic culture at Sotira in Cyprus destroys much of the local infrastructure. Ubaid period came to an abrupt end in eastern Arabia and the Oman peninsula at 3800 BC. In Syria, mass graves at Tell Brak, dating from c. 3800 to 3600 BC, have been unearthed, suggesting advanced warfare around this period. 3800–2700 BC – Dolmen of Dombate (Galicia) 3800–3200 BC – 120 Wedge tombs (Ireland) 3760 BC – the first year of the Hebrew calendar c. 3750 BC – origins of Proto-Semitic language Calendar epochs 25th of Elul, 21st of September 3760 BC — Considered the first day of creation from formless matter (Gen. 1.2), traditionally interpreted as out of nothing, on which the Bible recalls that God created existence, time, matter, darkness and light. 1st of Tishrei, 26th of September 3760 BC — Considered the sixth day of creation (Rosh Hashanah Day 1), on which the Bible recalls that God created Adam and Eve. 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26952537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Broudie%20production%20discography	Ian Broudie production discography	Ian Broudie is a producer and musician known for his work with The Lightning Seeds, Echo & the Bunnymen and The Coral amongst others. Albums 1980s 1980: Echo & the Bunnymen - Crocodiles 1980: Original Mirrors - Original Mirrors 1981: TV21 - A Thin Red Line 1983: Echo & the Bunnymen - Porcupine 1984: The Danse Society - Heaven Is Waiting 1985: The Pale Fountains - ...From Across the Kitchen Table 1985: Wall of Voodoo - Seven Days in Sammystown 1986: The Colourfield - The Colour Field 1986: The Three O'Clock - Ever After 1987: The Icicle Works - If You Want to Defeat Your Enemy Sing His Song 1987: The Bodines - Played 1988: Richard Jobson - Badman 1988: Human Drama - Hopes Prayers Dreams Heart Soul Mind Love Life Death 1988: The Fall - I Am Kurious Oranj 1988: Shack - Zilch 1989: Benny Profane - Trapdoor Swing 1989: Noir Désir - Veuillez rendre l'âme (à qui elle appartient) 1990s 1990: The Lightning Seeds - Cloudcuckooland 1990: Frazier Chorus - Ray 1990: The Wild Swans - Space Flower 1991: Northside - Chicken Rhythms 1991: The Primitives - Galore 1991: The Wendys - Gobbledygook 1991: The Katydids - Shangri-La 1991: Bill Pritchard - Jolie 1992: Popinjays - Flying Down to Mono Valley 1992: The Lightning Seeds - Sense 1993: Dodgy - The Dodgy Album 1994: The Frank and Walters - Trains, Boats and Planes 1994: Alison Moyet - Essex 1994: Terry Hall - Home 1994: Dodgy - Homegrown 1994: The Lightning Seeds - Jollification 1995: Sleeper - Smart 1996: The Lightning Seeds - Dizzy Heights 1998: Republica - Speed Ballads 1999: The Lightning Seeds - Tilt 2000s 2002: The Coral - The Coral 2002: Texas - Careful What You Wish For 2003: I Am Kloot - I Am Kloot 2003: The Coral - Magic and Medicine 2004: The Coral - Nightfreak and the Sons of Becker 2004: The Zutons - Who Killed...... The Zutons? 2004: Ian Broudie - Tales Told 2005: The Subways - Young for Eternity 2006: The Rifles - No Love Lost 2006: The Automatic - Not Accepted Anywhere 2007: The Coral - Roots & Echoes 2009: The Lightning Seeds - Four Winds 2010s 2013: Miles Kane - Don't Forget Who You Are Production discographies Discographies of British artists Rock music discographies	[ 0.7444832921028137, 0.8809923529624939, -1.0829627513885498, -0.5402924418449402, -0.2673833966255188, 0.1516781896352768, 0.1665954887866974, 0.09189498424530029, -0.45862841606140137, 0.1433902084827423, 0.030678456649184227, 0.8671249747276306, -0.27848243713378906, 0.5632506608963013, -0.2365761250257492, 0.5213489532470703, -0.438459575176239, 0.15220065414905548, -0.05245542526245117, -0.43848133087158203, 0.39711785316467285, -0.2153443992137909, -0.15850315988063812, 0.3751773536205292, -0.43545353412628174, 0.19421403110027313, -0.2461782991886139, -0.13569758832454681, -0.4569750726222992, -0.327719509601593, 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202619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/39th%20century%20BC	39th century BC	The 39th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3900 BC to 3801 BC. Events The Post Track, an ancient causeway in the Somerset Levels, England, is built, c. 3838 BC. It is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered in Northern Europe. The Sweet Track, an ancient causeway also in the Somerset Levels, the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe, is built in 3807 BC or 3806 BC; tree-ring dating (Dendrochronology) enabled very precise dating. Plough in use. 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202620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th%20century%20BC	40th century BC	During the 40th century BC, the Eastern Mediterranean region was in the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age), transitional between the Stone and the Bronze Ages. Northwestern Europe was in the Neolithic. China was dominated by the Neolithic Yangshao culture. The Americas were in a phase of transition between the Paleo-Indian (Lithic) to the Meso-Indian (Archaic) stage. This century started in 4000 BC and ended in 3901 BC. Cultures Near East In Predynastic Egypt, the El Omari culture arose during this period Start of the Naqada culture in Egypt In Mesopotamia, the Uruk period began Europe The Linear Pottery culture gives way to the Funnelbeaker culture in the north Cucuteni–Trypillian culture Pit–Comb Ware culture In the Pontic steppe, the Dnieper–Donets and Sredny Stog cultures flourish, according to the Kurgan hypothesis associated with Proto-Indo-Europeans East Asia Liangzhu culture Early Jōmon period begins on the islands of Japan Events and innovations 5.9-kiloyear event c. 4000 BC, more than 100 dwellings surrounding a community center, a cemetery and a kiln are built in Jiangzhai, near modern Xi'an, China Susa is a center of pottery production; c. potter's wheel in Mesopotamia Approximate time of the construction of the Merheleva Ridge complex Megalithic monuments are constructed in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Lisbon), central and southern France, Corsica and Great Britain Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe Domestication of the horse Plough in use Clay pots and vats discovered at a sprawling cave system in southern Armenia near the border with Iran shows signs of an organized effort to press and distill grapes Calendars Bede began his history of the world with 3952 BC In their ceremonial or commemorative proceedings, Freemasons add 4,000 years to the current Anno Domini calendar year and append Anno Lucis ("Year of Light") to the year (i.e., 2020 AD = 6020 AL). This alternative calendar era, which would designate 4000 BC as "year zero", was created in the 18th century (58th century AL) in deference to the Hebrew calendar's Anno mundi and other ideas regarding the year of creation at the time. 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202626	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depiction%20of%20Jesus	Depiction of Jesus	The depiction of Jesus in pictorial form was controversial in the early Church. The depiction of him in art took several centuries to reach a conventional standardized form for his physical appearance, which has subsequently remained largely stable since that time. Most images of Jesus have in common a number of traits which are now almost universally associated with Jesus, although variants are seen. The conventional image of a fully bearded Jesus with long hair emerged around AD 300, but did not become established until the 6th century in Eastern Christianity, and much later in the West. It has always had the advantage of being easily recognizable, and distinguishing Jesus from other figures shown around him, which the use of a cruciform halo also achieves. Earlier images were much more varied. Images of Jesus tend to show ethnic characteristics similar to those of the culture in which the image has been created. Beliefs that certain images are historically authentic, or have acquired an authoritative status from Church tradition, remain powerful among some of the faithful, in Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, and Roman Catholicism. The Shroud of Turin is now the best-known example, though the Image of Edessa and the Veil of Veronica were better known in medieval times. There is only one description of the physical appearance of Jesus given in the New Testament, which is in the Book of Revelation 1:12-16. Early Christianity Before Constantine Except for Jesus wearing tzitzit—the tassels on a tallit—in Matthew 14:36 and Luke 8:43–44, there is no physical description of Jesus contained in any of the canonical Gospels. In the Acts of the Apostles, Jesus is said to have manifested as a "light from heaven" that temporarily blinded the Apostle Paul, but no specific form is given. In the Book of Revelation there is a vision the author had of "someone like a Son of Man" in spirit form: "dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around his chest. The hair on his head were white like wool, and his eyes were like blazing fire. His feet were like burnt bronze glowing in a furnace (...) His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance" (Revelation 1:12–16, NIV). Use in art of the Revelation description of Jesus has generally been restricted to illustrations of the book itself, and nothing in the scripture confirms the spiritual form's resemblance to the physical form Jesus took in his life on Earth. Exodus 20:4–6 "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image" is one of the Ten Commandments and made Jewish depictions of first-century individuals a scarcity. But attitudes towards the interpretation of this Commandment changed through the centuries, in that while first-century rabbis in Judea objected violently to the depiction of human figures and placement of statues in Temples, third-century Babylonian Jews had different views; and while no figural art from first-century Roman Judea exists, the art on the Dura synagogue walls developed with no objection from the Rabbis early in the third century. During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily furtive and ambiguous, and there was hostility to idols in a group still with a large component of members with Jewish origins, surrounded by, and polemicising against, sophisticated pagan images of gods. Irenaeus (d. c. 202), Clement of Alexandria (d. 215), Lactantius (c. 240–c. 320) and Eusebius of Caesarea (d. c. 339) disapproved of portrayals in images of Jesus. The 36th canon of the non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira in 306 AD reads, "It has been decreed that no pictures be had in the churches, and that which is worshipped or adored be not painted on the walls", which has been interpreted by John Calvin and other Protestants as an interdiction of the making of images of Christ. The issue remained the subject of controversy until the end of the 4th century. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of tombs belonging, most likely, to wealthy Christians in the catacombs of Rome, although from literary evidence there may well have been panel icons which, like almost all classical painting, have disappeared. Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the ichthys (fish), the peacock, or an anchor (the Labarum or Chi-Rho was a later development). The staurogram seems to have been a very early representation of the crucified Jesus within the sacred texts. Later personified symbols were used, including Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between Christ's death and resurrection; Daniel in the lion's den; or Orpheus charming the animals. The image of "The Good Shepherd", a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images, and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus at this period. It continues the classical Kriophoros ("ram-bearer" figure), and in some cases may also represent the Shepherd of Hermas, a popular Christian literary work of the 2nd century. Among the earliest depictions clearly intended to directly represent Jesus himself are many showing him as a baby, usually held by his mother, especially in the Adoration of the Magi, seen as the first theophany, or display of the incarnate Christ to the world at large. The oldest known portrait of Jesus, found in Syria and dated to about 235, shows him as a beardless young man of authoritative and dignified bearing. He is depicted dressed in the style of a young philosopher, with close-cropped hair and wearing a tunic and pallium—signs of good breeding in Greco-Roman society. From this, it is evident that some early Christians paid no heed to the historical context of Jesus being a Jew and visualised him solely in terms of their own social context, as a quasi-heroic figure, without supernatural attributes such as a halo. The appearance of Jesus had some theological implications. While some Christians thought Jesus should have the beautiful appearance of a young classical hero, and the Gnostics tended to think he could change his appearance at will, for which they cited the Meeting at Emmaus as evidence, others including the Church Fathers Justin (d. 165) and Tertullian (d. 220) believed, following Isaiah:53:2, that Christ's appearance was unremarkable: "he had no form nor comeliness, that we should look upon him, nor beauty that we should delight in him." But when the pagan Celsus ridiculed the Christian religion for having an ugly God in about 180, Origen (d. 248) cited Psalm 45:3: "Gird thy sword upon thy thigh, mighty one, with thy beauty and fairness" Later the emphasis of leading Christian thinkers changed; Jerome (d. 420) and Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) argued that Jesus must have been ideally beautiful in face and body. For Augustine he was "beautiful as a child, beautiful on earth, beautiful in heaven." From the 3rd century onwards, the first narrative scenes from the Life of Christ to be clearly seen are the Baptism of Christ, painted in a catacomb in about 200, and the miracle of the Raising of Lazarus, both of which can be clearly identified by the inclusion of the dove of the Holy Spirit in Baptisms, and the vertical, shroud-wrapped body of Lazarus. Other scenes remain ambiguous—an agape feast may be intended as a Last Supper, but before the development of a recognised physical appearance for Christ, and attributes such as the halo, it is impossible to tell, as tituli or captions are rarely used. There are some surviving scenes from Christ's Works of about 235 from the Dura Europos church on the Persian frontier of the Empire. During the 4th century a much greater number of scenes came to be depicted, usually showing Christ as youthful, beardless and with short hair that does not reach his shoulders, although there is considerable variation. Jesus is sometimes shown performing miracles by means of a wand, as on the doors of Santa Sabina in Rome (430–32). He uses the wand to change water to wine, multiply the bread and fishes, and raise Lazarus. When pictured healing, he only lays on hands. The wand is thought to be a symbol of power. The bare-faced youth with the wand may indicate that Jesus was thought of as a user of magic or wonder worker by some of the early Christians.<ref> The Two Faces of Jesus by Robin M. Jensen, Bible Review, 17.8, Oct 2002</ref> No art has been found picturing Jesus with a wand before the 2nd century. Some scholars suggest that the Gospel of Mark, the Secret Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John (the so-called Signs Gospel), portray such a wonder worker, user of magic, a magician or a Divine man. Only the Apostle Peter is also depicted in ancient art with a wand. Another depiction, seen from the late 3rd century or early 4th century onwards, showed Jesus with a beard, and within a few decades can be very close to the conventional type that later emerged. This depiction has been said to draw variously on Imperial imagery, the type of the classical philosopher, and that of Zeus, leader of the Greek gods, or Jupiter, his Roman equivalent, and the protector of Rome. According to art historian Paul Zanker, the bearded type has long hair from the start, and a relatively long beard (contrasting with the short "classical" beard and hair always given to St Peter, and most other apostles); this depiction is specifically associated with "Charismatic" philosophers like Euphrates the Stoic, Dio of Prusa and Apollonius of Tyana, some of whom were claimed to perform miracles. After the very earliest examples of c. 300, this depiction is mostly used for hieratic images of Jesus, and scenes from his life are more likely to use a beardless, youthful type. The tendency of older scholars such as Talbot Rice to see the beardless Jesus as associated with a "classical" artistic style and the bearded one as representing an "Eastern" one drawing from ancient Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia seems impossible to sustain, and does not feature in more recent analyses. Equally attempts to relate on a consistent basis the explanation for the type chosen in a particular work to the differing theological views of the time have been unsuccessful. From the 3rd century on, some Christian leaders, such as Clement of Alexandria had recommended the wearing of beards by Christian men. The centre parting was also seen from early on, and was also associated with long-haired philosophers. After Constantine From the middle of the 4th century, after Christianity was legalized by the Edict of Milan in 313, and gained Imperial favour, there was a new range of images of Christ the King, using either of the two physical types described above, but adopting the costume and often the poses of Imperial iconography. These developed into the various forms of Christ in Majesty. Some scholars reject the connection between the political events and developments in iconography, seeing the change as a purely theological one, resulting from the shift of the concept and title of Pantocrator ("Ruler of all") from God the Father (still not portrayed in art) to Christ, which was a development of the same period, perhaps led by Athanasius of Alexandria (d. 373). Another depiction drew from classical images of philosophers, often shown as a youthful "intellectual wunderkind" in Roman sarcophagii; the Traditio Legis image initially uses this type. Gradually Jesus became shown as older, and during the 5th century the image with a beard and long hair, now with a cruciform halo, came to dominate, especially in the Eastern Empire. In the earliest large New Testament mosaic cycle, in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (c. 520), Jesus is beardless though the period of his ministry until the scenes of the Passion, after which he is shown with a beard. The Good Shepherd, now clearly identified as Christ, with halo and often rich robes, is still depicted, as on the apse mosaic in the church of Santi Cosma e Damiano in Rome, where the twelve apostles are depicted as twelve sheep below the imperial Jesus, or in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna. Once the bearded, long-haired Jesus became the conventional representation of Jesus, his facial features slowly began to be standardised, although this process took until at least the 6th century in the Eastern Church, and much longer in the West, where clean-shaven Jesuses are common until the 12th century, despite the influence of Byzantine art. But by the late Middle Ages the beard became almost universal and when Michelangelo showed a clean-shaven Apollo-like Christ in his Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1534–41) he came under persistent attack in the Counter-Reformation climate of Rome for this, as well as other things. French scholar Paul Vignon has listed fifteen similarities ("marks", like tilaka) between most of the icons of Jesus after this point, particularly in the icons of "Christ Pantocrator" ("The all-powerful Messiah"). He claims that these are due to the availability of the Image of Edessa (which he claims to be identical to the Shroud of Turin, via Constantinople) to the artists. Certainly images believed to have miraculous origins, or the Hodegetria, believed to be a portrait of Mary from the life by Saint Luke, were widely regarded as authoritative by the Early Medieval period and greatly influenced depictions. In Eastern Orthodoxy the form of images was, and largely is, regarded as revealed truth, with a status almost equal to scripture, and the aim of artists is to copy earlier images without originality, although the style and content of images does in fact change slightly over time. As to the historical appearance of Jesus, in one possible translation of the apostle Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul urges Christian men of first-century Corinth not to have long hair. An early commentary by Pelagius (c. AD 354 – c. AD 420/440) says, "Paul was complaining because men were fussing about their hair and women were flaunting their locks in church. Not only was this dishonoring to them, but it was also an incitement to fornication." Some have speculated that Paul was a Nazirite who kept his hair long even though such speculation is at odds with Paul's statement in I Corinthians 11:14 that long hair for men was shameful at the time. Jesus was a practicing Jew so presumably had a beard. Later periods By the 5th century depictions of the Passion began to appear, perhaps reflecting a change in the theological focus of the early Church. The 6th-century Rabbula Gospels includes some of the earliest surviving images of the crucifixion and resurrection. By the 6th century the bearded depiction of Jesus had become standard in the East, though the West, especially in northern Europe, continued to mix bearded and unbearded depictions for several centuries. The depiction with a longish face, long straight brown hair parted in the middle, and almond shaped eyes shows consistency from the 6th century to the present. Various legends developed which were believed to authenticate the historical accuracy of the standard depiction, such as the image of Edessa and later the Veil of Veronica. Partly to aid recognition of the scenes, narrative depictions of the Life of Christ focused increasingly on the events celebrated in the major feasts of the church calendar, and the events of the Passion, neglecting the miracles and other events of Jesus' public ministry, except for the raising of Lazarus, where the mummy-like wrapped body was shown standing upright, giving an unmistakable visual signature. A cruciform halo was worn only by Jesus (and the other persons of the Trinity), while plain halos distinguished Mary, the Apostles and other saints, helping the viewer to read increasingly populated scenes. The period of Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again. The Transfiguration of Jesus was a major theme in the East and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration. However, while Western depictions increasingly aimed at realism, in Eastern icons a low regard for perspective and alterations in the size and proportion of an image aim to reach beyond earthly reality to a spiritual meaning. The 13th century witnessed a turning point in the portrayal of the powerful Kyrios image of Jesus as a wonder worker in the West, as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death via the nativity scene as well as the crucifixion.The tradition of Catholic prayer by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 pp. 86–87 The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions and as the joys of the Nativity of were added to the agony of crucifixion a whole new range of emotions were ushered in, with wide-ranging cultural impact on the image of Jesus for centuries thereafter.Philippines by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan-Mercado 2005 p. 109 After Giotto, Fra Angelico and others systematically developed uncluttered images that focused on the depiction of Jesus with an ideal human beauty, in works like Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, arguably the first High Renaissance painting.Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper: a Cosmic Drama and an Act of Redemption by Michael Ladwein 2006 pp. 27, 60 Images of Jesus now drew on classical sculpture, at least in some of their poses. However Michelangelo was considered to have gone much too far in his beardless Christ in his The Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel, which very clearly adapted classical sculptures of Apollo, and this path was rarely followed by other artists. The High Renaissance was contemporary with the start of the Protestant Reformation which, especially in its first decades, violently objected to almost all public religious images as idolatrous, and vast numbers were destroyed. Gradually images of Jesus became acceptable to most Protestants in various contexts, especially in narrative contexts, as book illustrations and prints, and later in larger paintings. Protestant art continued the now-standard depiction of the physical appearance of Jesus. Meanwhile, the Catholic Counter-Reformation re-affirmed the importance of art in assisting the devotions of the faithful, and encouraged the production of new images of or including Jesus in enormous numbers, also continuing to use the standard depiction. During the 17th century, some writers, such as Thomas Browne in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica criticized depictions of Jesus with long hair. Although some scholars believed that Jesus wore long hair because he was a Nazarite and therefore could not cut his hair, Browne argues "that our Saviour was a Nazarite after this kind, we have no reason to determine; for he drank Wine, and was therefore called by the Pharisees, a Wine-bibber; he approached also the dead, as when he raised from death Lazarus, and the daughter of Jairus.” By the end of the 19th century, new reports of miraculous images of Jesus had appeared and continue to receive significant attention, e.g. Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph of the Shroud of Turin, one of the most controversial artifacts in history, which during its May 2010 exposition it was visited by over 2 million people.William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud:An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983 Another 20th-century depiction of Jesus, namely the Divine Mercy image based on Faustina Kowalska's reported vision has over 100 million followers.Am With You Always by Benedict Groeschel 2010 p. 548 The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 film La Passion du Christ produced in Paris, which lasted 5 minutes.Encyclopedia of early cinema by Richard Abe 2005 p. 518 Thereafter cinematic portrayals have continued to show Jesus with a beard in the standard western depiction that resembles traditional images. A scene from the documentary film Super Size Me showed American children being unable to identify a common depiction of Jesus, despite recognizing other figures like George Washington and Ronald McDonald. Conventional depictions Conventional depictions of Christ developed in medieval art include the narrative scenes of the Life of Christ, and many other conventional depictions: Common narrative scenes from the Life of Christ in art include: Nativity of Jesus in art Adoration of the Shepherds Adoration of the Magi Finding in the Temple Baptism of Jesus Crucifixion of Jesus Descent from the Cross Last Judgement Devotional images include: Madonna and child Christ in Majesty Christ Pantokrator Sacred Heart Pietà (mother and dead son) Lamb of God Man of sorrows Pensive Christ Range of depictions Certain local traditions have maintained different depictions, sometimes reflecting local racial characteristics, as do the Catholic and Orthodox depictions. The Coptic Church of Egypt separated in the 5th century, and has a distinctive depiction of Jesus, consistent with Coptic art. The Ethiopian Church, also Coptic, developed on Coptic traditions, but shows Jesus and all Biblical figures with the Ethiopian appearance of its members. Other traditions in Asia and elsewhere also show the race of Jesus as that of the local population (see Chinese picture in the gallery below). In modern times such variation has become more common, but images following the traditional depiction in both physical appearance and clothing are still dominant, perhaps surprisingly so. In Europe, local ethnic tendencies in depictions of Jesus can be seen, for example in Spanish, German, or Early Netherlandish painting, but almost always surrounding figures are still more strongly characterised. For example, the Virgin Mary, after the vision reported by Bridget of Sweden, was often shown with blonde hair, but Christ's is very rarely paler than a light brown. Some medieval Western depictions, usually of the Meeting at Emmaus, where his disciples do not recognise him at first (Luke.24.13–32), showed Jesus wearing a Jewish hat. In 2001, the television series Son of God used one of three first-century Jewish skulls from a leading department of forensic science in Israel to depict Jesus in a new way. A face was constructed using forensic anthropology by Richard Neave, a retired medical artist from the Unit of Art in Medicine at the University of Manchester. The face that Neave constructed suggested that Jesus would have had a broad face and large nose, and differed significantly from the traditional depictions of Jesus in renaissance art. Additional information about Jesus' skin color and hair was provided by Mark Goodacre, a New Testament scholar and professor at Duke University. Using third-century images from a synagogue—the earliest pictures of Jewish people—Goodacre proposed that Jesus' skin color would have been darker and swarthier than his traditional Western image. He also suggested that he would have had short, curly hair and a short cropped beard. Although entirely speculative as the face of Jesus, the result of the study determined that Jesus' skin would have been more olive-colored than white or black, and that he would have looked like a typical Galilean Semite. Among the points made was that the Bible records that Jesus's disciple Judas had to point him out to those arresting him in Gethsemane. The implied argument is that if Jesus's physical appearance had differed markedly from his disciples, then he would have been relatively easy to identify. Miraculous images of Jesus There are, however, some images which have been claimed to realistically show how Jesus looked. One early tradition, recorded by Eusebius of Caesarea, says that Jesus once washed his face with water and then dried it with a cloth, leaving an image of his face imprinted on the cloth. This was sent by him to King Abgarus of Edessa, who had sent a messenger asking Jesus to come and heal him of his disease. This image, called the Mandylion or Image of Edessa, appears in history in around 525. Numerous replicas of this "image not made by human hands" remain in circulation. There are also icon compositions of Jesus and Mary that are traditionally believed by many Orthodox to have originated in paintings by Luke the Evangelist. A currently familiar depiction is that on the Shroud of Turin, whose records go back to 1353. Controversy surrounds the shroud and its exact origin remains subject to debate. The Shroud of Turin is respected by Christians of several traditions, including Baptists, Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Orthodox, Pentecostals, and Presbyterians. It is one of the Catholic devotions approved by the Holy See, that to the Holy Face of Jesus, now uses the image of the face on the shroud as it appeared in the negative of the photograph taken by amateur photographer Secondo Pia in 1898.Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices pp. 239, 635 The image cannot be clearly seen on the shroud itself with the naked eye, and it surprised Pia to the extent that he said he almost dropped and broke the photographic plate when he first saw the developed negative image on it in the evening of 28 May 1898. Before 1898, devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus used an image based on the Veil of Veronica, where legend recounts that Veronica from Jerusalem encountered Jesus along the Via Dolorosa on the way to Calvary. When she paused to wipe the sweat from Jesus's face with her veil, the image was imprinted on the cloth. The establishment of these images as Catholic devotions traces back to Sister Marie of St Peter and the Venerable Leo Dupont who started and promoted them from 1844 to 1874 in Tours France, and Sister Maria Pierina De Micheli who associated the image from the Shroud of Turin with the devotion in 1936 in Milan Italy. A very popular 20th-century depiction among Roman Catholics and Anglicans is the Divine Mercy image, which was approved by Pope John Paul II in April 2000. The Divine Mercy depiction is formally used in celebrations of Divine Mercy Sunday and is venerated by over 100 million Catholics who follow the devotion. The image is not part of Acheiropoieta in that it has been depicted by modern artists, but the pattern of the image is said to have been miraculously shown to Saint Faustina Kowalska in a vision of Jesus in 1931 in Płock, Poland. Faustina wrote in her diary that Jesus appeared to her and asked her to "Paint an image according to the pattern you see". Faustina eventually found an artist (Eugene Kazimierowski) to depict the Divine Mercy image of Jesus with his right hand raised in a sign of blessing and the left hand touching the garment near his breast, with two large rays, one red, the other white emanating from near his heart.Catherine M. Odell, 1998, Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy OSV Press pp. 63–64 After Faustina's death, a number of other artists painted the image, with the depiction by Adolf Hyla being among the most reproduced. Warner Sallman stated that The Head of Christ was the result of a "miraculous vision that he received late one night", proclaiming that "the answer came at 2 A.M., January 1924" as "a vision in response to my prayer to God in a despairing situation." The Head of Christ is venerated in the Coptic Orthodox Church, after twelve-year-old Isaac Ayoub, who diagnosed with cancer, saw the eyes of Jesus in the painting shedding tears; Fr. Ishaq Soliman of St. Mark's Coptic Church in Houston, on the same day, "testified to the miracles" and on the next day, "Dr. Atef Rizkalla, the family physician, examined the youth and certified that there were no traces of leukemia". With episcopal approval from Bishop Tadros of Port Said and Bishop Yuhanna of Cairo, "Sallman's Head of Christ was exhibited in the Coptic Church", with "more than fifty thousand people" visiting the church to see it. In addition, several religious magazines have explained the "power of Sallman's picture" by documenting occurrences such as headhunters letting go of a businessman and fleeing after seeing the image, a "thief who aborted his misdeed when he saw the Head of Christ on a living room wall", and deathbed conversions of non-believers to Christianity. As an extraordinarily successful work of Christian popular devotional art, it had been reproduced over half a billion times worldwide by the end of the 20th century. Controversies The representation of Jesus has been controversial since the Synod of Elvira in 306 which states in the 36th canon that no worship image should be found in a church. In the 16th century, John Calvin and other Protestant reformers denounced the idolatry of images of Christ and called for their removal. Due to their understanding of the second of the Ten Commandments, most Evangelicals do not have a representation of Jesus in their places of worship. Doug Jones, Sound of Worship, Taylor & Francis, USA, 2013, p. 90 In 2020, the European (race and appearance of Jesus) depiction of Christ has been criticized by African-American Christians, because it would not be faithful to the first images of Jesus where he had dark skin. Examples Sculpture See also :Category:Cultural depictions of Jesus Crucifixion God the Father in Western art Holy card Ichthys Perceptions of religious imagery in natural phenomena Race of Jesus Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art Salvator Mundi Veil of Veronica Passion Play Christ figure Notes References Cartlidge, David R., and Elliott, J.K.. Art and the Christian Apocrypha, Routledge, 2001, , Google books Every, George; Christian Mythology, Hamlyn 1988 (1970 1st edn.) Grabar, André; Christian iconography: a study of its origins, Taylor & Francis, 1968, Google books Grigg, Robert, "Byzantine Credulity as an Impediment to Antiquarianism", Gesta, Vol. 26, No. 1 (1987), pp. 3–9, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the International Center of Medieval Art, JSTOR James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, 1983, John Murray, London, Hellemo, Geir. Adventus Domini: eschatological thought in 4th-century apses and catecheses. Brill; 1989. . G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, Eduard Syndicus; Early Christian Art; Burns & Oates, London, 1962 David Talbot Rice, Byzantine Art, 3rd edn 1968, Penguin Books Ltd Zanker, Paul. :de:Paul Zanker. The Mask of Socrates, The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity'', University of California Press, 1995 Online Scholarship editions External links Pictures of Jesus Perhaps Derived from the Shroud of Turin December 2005 Warner Sallman's Head of Christ: An American Icon Is this the real face of Jesus Christ? 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202634	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Bagnold	Ralph Bagnold	Brigadier Ralph Alger Bagnold, OBE, FRS, (3 April 1896 – 28 May 1990) was an English 20th-century desert explorer, geologist and soldier. In 1932, he staged the first recorded East-to-West crossing of the Libyan Desert. His work in the field of Aeolian processes was the basis for the book The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, establishing the discipline of aeolian geomorphology, combining field work observations, experiments and physical equations. His work has been used by United States' space agency NASA in its study of the terrain of the planet Mars, the Bagnold Dunes on Mars' surface being named after him by the organization. During the Second World War, he was a soldier in the British Army, in which he founded the behind-the-lines reconnaissance, espionage and raiding unit that was named the "Long Range Desert Group", serving as its first commanding officer in the North Africa Campaign. Early life Bagnold was born in Devonport, England. His father, Colonel Arthur Henry Bagnold (1854–1943) (Royal Engineers), participated in the rescue expedition of 1884–85 to rescue General Gordon in Khartoum, Sudan. His sister was the novelist and playwright Enid Bagnold, who wrote the 1935 novel National Velvet. After Malvern College, he attended the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. In 1915, Ralph Bagnold followed in his father's footsteps and was commissioned into the Royal Engineers. He spent three years in the trenches in France, being mentioned in despatches in 1917 and receiving the Belgian Order of Leopold in 1919. After the war Bagnold studied engineering at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge University, obtaining an MA before returning to active duty with the British Army in 1920 with the Royal Corps of Signals. He served in Cairo and the North West Frontier, India, where he was again mentioned in dispatches. In both of these locations, he spent much of his leave exploring the local deserts. After having read Ahmed Hassanein's "Lost Oasis" he spent one such expedition in 1929 using a Ford Model A automobile and two Ford lorries exploring the vast swathe of desert from Cairo to Ain Dalla which was an area reputed to contain the mythical city of Zerzura. After a brief period of half-pay, he left the Army in 1935, but rejoined upon the outbreak of the Second World War. Desert exploration Bagnold and his travelling companions were early pioneers in the use of motor vehicles to explore the desert. In 1932 Bagnold explored the Mourdi Depression, in present-day Chad, and found implements dated to the Palaeolithic period in the valley. Bagnold wrote of his travels in the book Libyan Sands: Travel in a Dead World (first published 1935; reprinted by Eland in 2010). He is credited with developing a sun compass, which is not affected by the large iron ore deposits found in the desert areas or by metal vehicles as a magnetic compass might be. During the 1930s his group also began the practice of reducing tyre pressure when driving over loose sand. In addition Bagnold is credited with devising a method of driving over the large sand dunes found in the "sand seas" of the Libyan Desert. He wrote, "I increased speed. ... A huge glaring wall of yellow shot up high into the sky. The lorry tipped violently backwards—and we rose as in a lift, smoothly without vibration. We floated up on a yellow cloud. All the accustomed car movements had ceased; only the speedometer told us we were still moving fast. It was incredible ..." However, noted Fitzroy Maclean, "too much dash had its penalties. Many of the dunes fell away sharply at the far side and if you arrived at the top at full speed, you were likely to plunge headlong over the precipice. ... and end up with your truck upside down on top of you." A recently discovered silent film documents Bagnold's explorations and is available via the British Film Institute. Second World War Bagnold wrote, "Never in our peacetime travels had we imagined that war could ever reach the enormous empty solitudes of the inner desert, walled off by sheer distance, lack of water, and impassable seas of sand dunes. Little did we dream that any of the special equipment and techniques we had evolved for very long-distance travel, and for navigation, would ever be put to serious use." On 10 June 1940 Italy declared war on the United Kingdom in alliance with Germany while Bagnold was in Cairo due to an accident involving a troopship collision that he was on interrupting his journey elsewhere. Upon hearing the news and realizing that North Africa was about to become a theatre of war, he requested an interview with General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief Middle East. Having secured it, Bagnold suggested that Wavell use his knowledge of the terrain in North Africa to establish a mobile scouting force for desert operations against the Italian Armed Forces in Libya, which Wavell was charged with defeating in the field. During the conversation Wavell asked Bagnold what he would do if he found that the Italians were not doing anything beyond the Libyan coast in the desert interior. Bagnold replied that the new unit that he had in mind might be able to commit "acts of piracy". Wavell granted Bagnold authority to form a unit along these lines, with it being constituted in July 1940 with the name Long Range Desert Group (L.R.D.G.). After assembling its first formation, Bagnold was the L.R.D.G.'s Commanding Officer until August 1941, when he handed over command to Guy Prendergast on being promoted to the post of Inspector of Desert Troops. Later in the war he was promoted to the post of Deputy Signal Officer-in-Chief Middle East, with the temporary rank of Brigadier. On 7 June 1944 Bagnold retired from the British Army with the end of military operations in North Africa after the Axis powers' defeat in that theatre. and returned to his scientific interests, being elected to a Fellowship of the Royal Society in the same year. Later work After the war Bagnold continued to work in the field of the geological science, and he published academic papers into his nineties. He made significant contributions to the understanding of desert terrain such as sand dunes, ripples and sheets. He developed the dimensionless "Bagnold number" and "Bagnold formula" for characterising sand flow. He gave a constitutive relation for a suspension of neutrally buoyant particles in a Newtonian fluid. He also proposed a model for "singing sands". and made contributions to the science of Sedimentology. His work received a number of awards. He was the 1969 recipient of the G. K. Warren Prize from the National Academy of Sciences. In 1971 he received the Wollaston Medal, the highest award granted by the Geological Society of London, and in 1981 the David Linton Award of the British Geomorphological Research Group. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1974. Other awards included the 1970 Penrose Medal by the Geological Society of America; and the Sorby Medal from the International Association of Sedimentologists. He also received honorary D.Sc. degrees from both the University of East Anglia and the Danish University of Aarhus. Death In his final years, Bagnold lived in Edenbridge in the county of Kent in England. He died at Hither Green on 28 May 1990 at the age of 94. Personal life Bagnold married Dorothy on 8 May 1946 at Rottingdean in East Sussex, and had a son and a daughter. Honours and awards Founder's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1935 Officer of the Order of the British Empire 8 July 1941 Mentioned in Despatches 2 January 1917, 1 September 1931, 30 December 1941 Knight, Order of Leopold with palm (Belgium), 5 April 1919, etc. See also Aeolian processes Bagnold formula Bagnold number Bill Kennedy Shaw Guy Lenox Prendergast Pat Clayton References List of publications Bagnold, R.A. 1931. Journeys in the Libyan Desert, 1929 and 1930. The Geographical Journal 78(1):13–39; (6):524–533. Bagnold, R.A. 1933. A further journey through the Libyan Desert. The Geographical Journal 82(2):103–129; (3):211–213, 226–235. Bagnold, R.A. 1935. The movement of desert sand. The Geographical Journal 85(4):342–365. Bagnold, R.A. 1935. Libyan Sands. London: Travel Book Club, 351 pp. Bagnold, R.A. 1936. The movement of desert sand. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 157(892):594–620. Bagnold, R.A. 1937. The transport of sand by wind. The Geographical Journal 89(5):409–438. Bagnold, R.A. 1937. The size-grading of sand by wind. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 163(913):250–264. Bagnold, R.A. 1938. Grain structure of sand dunes in relation to water content. Nature 142(3591):403–404. Bagnold, R.A. 1938. The measurement of sand storms. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 167(929):282–290. Bagnold, R.A. 1939. A lost world refound. Scientific American 161(5, November):261–263. Bagnold, R.A. 1939. Committee on wave pressures: interim report on wave-pressure research. Journal of the Institution of Civil Engineers 12:201–226. Bagnold, R.A., Myers, O.H., Peel, R.F. and Winkler, H.A. 1939. An expedition to the Gilf Kebir and 'Uweinat, 1938. The Geographical Journal 93(4):281–313. Bagnold, R.A. 1940. Beach formation by waves: some model experiments in a wave tank. Journal of the Institute of Civil Engineers 15(5237):27–53. Bagnold, R.A. 1941. The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. London: Methuen, 265 pp. Bagnold, R.A. 1945. Early days of the Long Range Desert Group. The Geographical Journal 105(1–2):30–42. Bagnold, R.A. 1946. Motion of waves in shallow water. Interaction between waves and sand bottoms. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 187:1–18. Bagnold, R.A. 1947. Sand movement by waves: some small-scale experiments with sand of very low density. Journal of the Institute of Civil Engineers 27(5554):447–469. Bagnold, R.A. 1951. Measurement of very low velocities of water flow. Nature 167:1025–1027. Bagnold, R.A. 1951. The movement of a cohesionless granular bed by fluid flow over it. British Journal of Applied Physics 2(2):29–34. Bagnold, R.A. 1951. Some problems of desert physics. Bulletin de l'Institut Fouad premier du désert 1(2):27–34. Bagnold, R.A. 1951. The sand formations in southern Arabia. The Geographical Journal 117(1):78–86. Bagnold, R.A. 1953. Navigating ashore. Journal of the Institute of Navigation 6:184–193. Bagnold, R.A. 1953. Forme des dunes de sable et régime des vents. In: Actions éoliennes, phénomènes d'évaporation et d'hydrologie superficielle dans les régions arides, Centre national de la Recherche scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Colloques internationaux 35, pp. 23–32. Bagnold, R.A. 1953. The surface movement of blown sand in relation to meteorology. In: Desert Research, Proceedings of the International Symposium, Jerusalem, 7–14 May 1952, Research Council of Israel, Special Publication 2, pp. 89–93. Bagnold, R.A. 1954. Physical aspects of dry deserts. In: Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. (ed). Biology of Deserts, Proceedings of a symposium held in London, 1952, Institute of Biology, London, pp. 7–12. Bagnold, R.A. 1954. Experiments on a gravity-free dispersion of large solid spheres in a Newtonian fluid under shear. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 225(1160):49–63. Bagnold, R.A. 1955. Some flume experiments on large grains but little denser than the transporting fluid, and their implications. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 4(3):174–205. Bagnold, R.A. 1956. The flow of cohesionless grains in fluids. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A 249(964):235–297. Bagnold, R.A. 1960. The re-entrainment of settled dust. International Journal of Air Pollution 2(3):357–363. Bagnold, R.A. 1960. Some aspects of shape of river meanders. United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper 282-E, pp. 135–144. Bagnold, R.A. 1960. Sediment discharge and stream power; a preliminary announcement. US geol. Surv. Circular 421. Leopold, L.B., Bagnold, R.A., Wollman, M.G. and Brush, L.M. 1960. Flow resistance in sinuous or irregular channels. United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper 282-D, pp. 111–134. Bagnold, R.A. 1962. Saltation (air and water). In: Thewlis, J. (ed), Encyclopaedic dictionary of physics, Volume 6, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 370–371. Bagnold, R.A. 1962. Transport of sand by wind. In: Thewlis, J. (ed), Encyclopaedic dictionary of physics, Volume 7, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 436–440. Bagnold, R.A. 1962. Auto-suspension of transported sediment; turbidity currents. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 265:315–319. Bagnold, R.A. 1963. Beach and nearshore processes – Part 1, Mechanics of marine sedimentation. In: Hill, M.N. (ed.), The sea – ideas and observations on progress in the study of the sea. New York and London: Interscience Wiley, vol. 3, pp. 507–528. Inman, D.L. and Bagnold, R.A. 1963. Beach and nearshore processes – Part 2, Littoral processes. In: Hill, M.N. (ed), The sea – ideas and observations on progress in the study of the sea. New York and London: Interscience Wiley, vol. 3, pp. 529–553. Bagnold, R.A. 1966. The shearing and dilation of dry sand and the "singing" mechanism. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 295(1442):219–232. Bagnold, R.A. 1966. An approach to the sediment transport problem from general physics. United States Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 422-I, 37 pp. Smith, W.O., Olsen, H.W., Bagnold, R.A. and Rice, J.C. 1966. Certain flows of air and water in sands during infiltrations. Soil Science 101(6):441–449. Bagnold, R.A. 1968. Deposition in the process of hydraulic transport. Sedimentology 10(1):45–56. Bagnold, R.A. 1971. Response to presentation of the 1970 Penrose Medal. Geological Society of America Bulletin 82:xiii-xvii. Bagnold, R.A. 1971. Singing sands. In: Thewlis, J. (ed), Encyclopaedic dictionary of physics, Volume 4, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 408–410. Bagnold, R.A. 1973. The nature of saltation and of "bed-load" transport in water. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 332(1591):473–504. Bagnold, R.A. 1974. Fluid forces on a body in shear-flow: Experimental use of 'stationary flow'. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 340(1621):147–171. Sagan, C. and Bagnold, R.A. 1975. Fluid transport on Earth and aeolian transport on Mars. Icarus 26(2):209–218. Bagnold, R.A. 1977. Bed load transport by natural rivers. Water Resources Research 13:303–312. Bagnold, R.A. 1979. Sediment transport by wind and water. Nordic Hydrology 10(5):309–322. Bagnold, R.A. 1980. An empirical correlation of bedload transport rates in flumes and natural rivers. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 372(1751):453–473. Bagnold, R.A. and Barndorff-Nielsen, O.E. 1980. The pattern of natural size distributions. Sedimentology 27(2):199–207. Bagnold, R.A. 1983. The nature and correlation of random distributions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 388(1795):273–291. Bagnold, R.A. 1985. Transport of granular solids by wind and water compared. In: Barndorff-Nielsen, O., Møller, J.-T., Rasmussen, K.R. and Willetts, B.B. (eds), Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Physics of Blown Sand, 28–31 May, University of Aarhus, Department of Theoretical Statistics, Institute of Mathematics, Memoir 8, pp. 1–8. Bagnold, R.A. 1986. Transport of solids by natural water flow: evidence for a worldwide correlation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 405(1829):369–374. Bagnold, R.A. 1988 Concluding remarks. In: Thorne, C.R., MacArthur R.C. and Bradley, J.B. (eds), The Physics of Sediment Transport, A Collection of Hallmark Papers by R. A. Bagnold. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, Hydraulics Division, Book number 665, pp. 352–353. Bagnold, R.A. 1990. Sand, Wind, and War; Memoirs of a Desert Explorer. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, , 202 pp. External links A short film containing an interview with R.A. Bagnold The Bibliography of Aeolian Research British Army Officers 1939–1945 Catalogue of the papers and correspondence of Brigadier Ralph Alger Bagnold held at Churchill Archives Centre. The National Archives. Imperial War Museum Interview Generals of World War II 1896 births 1990 deaths Royal Engineers officers British Army personnel of World War I British Army generals of World War II Fellows of the Royal Society Wollaston Medal winners Order of Leopold (Belgium) Officers of the Order of the British Empire People from Devonport, Plymouth Process geomorphologists Fluid dynamicists Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge People educated at Malvern College Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Penrose Medal winners Sedimentologists Long Range Desert Group personnel Military personnel from Devon British Army brigadiers of World War II British Army brigadiers	[ -0.12523120641708374, 0.8633716106414795, -0.592514157295227, -0.5473102927207947, 0.1820731908082962, 0.6062120795249939, 0.9522110223770142, -0.12761996686458588, -0.05447609722614288, 0.32952985167503357, -1.0183440446853638, 0.2454112470149994, 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202636	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeric%20Pressburger	Emeric Pressburger	Emeric Pressburger (born Imre József Pressburger; 5 December 19025 February 1988) was a Hungarian-British screenwriter, film director, and producer. He is best known for his series of film collaborations with Michael Powell, in a collaboration partnership known as the Archers, and produced a series of films, including 49th Parallel (1941), The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943), A Matter of Life and Death (US: Stairway to Heaven, 1946), Black Narcissus (1947), The Red Shoes (1948), and The Tales of Hoffmann (1951). Early years Imre József Pressburger was born in Miskolc, in the Kingdom of Hungary, of Jewish heritage. He was the only son (he had one elder half-sister from his father's previous marriage) of Kálmán Pressburger, estate manager, and his second wife, Kätherina (née Wichs). He attended a boarding-school in Temesvár, where he was a good pupil, excelling at mathematics, literature and music. He then studied mathematics and engineering at the Universities of Prague and Stuttgart before his father's death forced him to abandon his studies. Film career Berlin and Paris Pressburger began a career as a journalist. After working in Hungary and Weimar Republic-era Germany he turned to screenwriting in the late 1920s, working for UFA in Berlin (having moved there in 1926). The rise of the Nazis forced him to flee to Paris, where he again worked as screenwriter, and then to London. He later said, "[the] worst things that happened to me were the political consequences of events beyond my control ... the best things were exactly the same." Pressburger's early films were mainly made in Germany and France where he worked at the UFA Studios in the Dramaturgie department (script selection, approval and editing) and as a scriptwriter in his own right. In the 1930s, many European films were produced in multiple-language versions. Some of the films made in Germany survive with French intertitles and vice versa. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power, UFA's head sacked the company's remaining Jewish employees with Pressburger being told his contract would not be renewed. He left his Berlin apartment, "leaving the key in the door so that the Stormtroopers wouldn't have to break the door down" and left for Paris. Late in 1935, Pressburger decided that he would do better in England. Emigrated to the UK Pressburger entered Britain in 1935 on a stateless passport; once he decided to settle, he changed his name to Emeric in 1938. In England he found a small community of Hungarian film-makers who had fled the Nazis, including Alexander Korda, owner of London Films, who employed him as a screenwriter. Asked by Korda to improve the script for The Spy in Black (1939), he met the film's director, Michael Powell. Their partnership would produce some of the finest British films of the next decade. However, Pressburger still did some projects on his own. Pressburger was much more than simply "Michael Powell's screenwriter" as some have categorised him. The films they made together in this period were mainly original stories by Pressburger, who also did most of the work of a producer for the team. Pressburger was also more involved in the editing process than Powell, and, as a musician, Pressburger was also involved in the choice of music for their films. Later work Powell and Pressburger began to go their separate ways after the mid-1950s. They remained close friends but wanted to explore different things, having done about as much as they could together. Two of his later films were made under the pseudonym "Richard Imrie". Two novels by Pressburger were published. The first Killing a Mouse on a Sunday (1961), is set in the period immediately following the Spanish Civil War. It received favourable reviews and was soon translated into a dozen languages. The Glass Pearls (1966), reissued in 2015 by Faber, gained an especially negative assessment from The Times Literary Supplement, its only review. It was described by Lucy Scholes in The Paris Review in 2019 as "a truly remarkable work. It deserves to be recognized both for its own virtuosity, and as an important addition to the genre of Holocaust literature." Personal life On 24 June 1938, Pressburger married Ági Donáth, the daughter of Andor Donáth, a general merchant, but they divorced in 1941. The union was childless. He remarried, on 29 March 1947, to Wendy Orme, and they had a daughter, Angela, and another child who died as a baby in 1948; but this marriage also ended in divorce in Reno, Nevada in 1953 and in Britain in 1971. His daughter Angela's two sons both became successful film-makers: Andrew Macdonald as a producer on films such as Trainspotting (1996), and Kevin Macdonald as an Oscar-winning director. Kevin has written a biography of his grandfather, and a documentary about his life, The Making of an Englishman (1995). Pressburger became a British citizen in 1946. He was made a Fellow of BAFTA in 1981, and a Fellow of the BFI in 1983. Pressburger was a diffident and private person who, at times, particularly later on in his life, could be hypersensitive and prone to bouts of melancholia. He loved French cuisine, enjoyed music, and possessed a great sense of humour. In appearance he was short, wore glasses, and had a sagacious, bird-like facial expression. He was a keen supporter of Arsenal F.C., a passion he developed soon after arriving in Britain. From 1970 he lived in Aspall, Suffolk and he died in a nursing home in nearby Saxtead on 5 February 1988, due to the complications of old age and pneumonia. He is interred in the cemetery of Our Lady of Grace Church, Aspall. His is the only grave in that Church of England graveyard with a Star of David. Filmography UFA period 1930: Die Große Sehnsucht, Farewell 1931: Ronny, Das Ekel, Dann schon lieber Lebertran, Emil und die Detektive, Der kleine Seitensprung 1932: , ...und es leuchtet die Puszta, Sehnsucht 202, Petit écart, Lumpenkavaliere, Held wider Willen, Eine von uns, La belle aventure, Wer zahlt heute noch?, Das schöne Abenteuer, A vén gazember Paris 1933: Une femme au volant, Incognito 1934: Mon coeur t'appelle, Mein Herz ruft nach dir, Milyon avcilari 1935: Monsieur Sans-Gêne, Abdul the Damned 1936: Sous les yeux d'occident British period 1936: Port Arthur, La Vie parisienne, Parisian Life, One Rainy Afternoon 1937: The Great Barrier 1938: The Challenge 1939: The Silent Battle 1940: Spy for a Day 1941: Atlantic Ferry (aka Sons of the Sea) 1942: Rings on Her Fingers, Breach of Promise 1943: Squadron Leader X 1946: Wanted for Murder 1953: Twice Upon a Time – Pressburger's one solo attempt at directing 1957: Men Against Britannia 1957: Miracle in Soho 1965: Operation Crossbow 1966: They're a Weird Mob – based on the novel by John O'Grady 1972: The Boy Who Turned Yellow (with Michael Powell) Actor The Red Shoes (1948) – Man Waiting on Station Platform (uncredited) Awards, nominations and honours 1943: Oscar winner for 49th Parallel as Best Writing, Original Story. (This Oscar is on display at the Savile Club in London). 1943: Oscar nominated for 49th Parallel as Best Writing, Screenplay. Shared with Rodney Ackland 1943: Oscar nominated for One of Our Aircraft Is Missing for Best Writing, Original Screenplay. Shared with Michael Powell 1948: Won Danish Bodil Award for A Matter of Life and Death as Best European Film. Shared with Michael Powell 1948: Nominated for The Red Shoes for Venice Film Festival Golden Lion. Shared with Michael Powell 1949: Oscar nominated for The Red Shoes as Best Picture. Shared with Michael Powell 1949: Oscar nominated for The Red Shoes as Best Writing, Motion Picture Story 1951: Cannes Film Festival nominated for The Tales of Hoffmann for Grand Prize of the Festival. Shared with Michael Powell 1951: Won Silver Bear from 1st Berlin International Film Festival for The Tales of Hoffmann as Best Musical. Shared with Michael Powell 1957: BAFTA Award nominated for The Battle of the River Plate as Best British Screenplay. Shared with Michael Powell 1981: Made fellow of BAFTA 1983: Made fellow of the British Film Institute (BFI) 2014: An English Heritage Blue plaque to commemorate Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger was unveiled on 17 February 2014 by Martin Scorsese and Thelma Schoonmaker at Dorset House, Gloucester Place, London NW1 5AG where The Archers had their offices from 1942–47. Novels Killing a Mouse on Sunday. London: Collins, 1961. – made into the film Behold a Pale Horse (1964) The Glass Pearls. London: Heinemann, 1966. References Citations Bibliography Christie, Ian. Arrows of Desire: The Films of Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger. London: Waterstone, 1994, First edition 1985. . Christie, Ian. Powell, Pressburger and Others. London: British Film Institute, 1978. . Christie, Ian and Andrew Moor, eds. The Cinema of Michael Powell: International Perspectives on an English Filmmaker. London: BFI, 2005. . Darakhvelidze, George. Landscapes of Dreams: The Cinema of Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger (Part 1-7) (in Russian). Vinnitsa, Ukraine: Globe Press, 2008–2019. . Esteve, Llorenç. Michael Powell y Emeric Pressburger (in Spanish). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Catedra, 2002. . Howard, James. Michael Powell. London: BT Batsford Ltd, 1996. . Lazar, David, ed. Michael Powell: Interviews. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2003. . Macdonald, Kevin. Emeric Pressburger: The Life and Death of a Screenwriter. London: Faber & Faber, 1994. Moor, Andrew. Powell and Pressburger: A Cinema of Magic Spaces. London: I.B. Tauris, 2005. . Powell, Michael. A Life in Movies (Autobiography). London: Heinemann, 1986. , later edition, 1993. (pbk). Powell, Michael. Million Dollar Movie (The second volume of his autobiography). London: Heinemann, 1992. , later edition, 2000. (pbk). Thiéry, Natacha. Photogénie du désir: Michael Powell et Emeric Pressburger 1945–1950 (in French). Rennes, France: Presse Universitaires de Rennes, 2009. . 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202637	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Physics%20of%20Blown%20Sand%20and%20Desert%20Dunes	The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes	The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes (1941) is a science book, written by Ralph A. Bagnold. The book laid the foundations of the scientific investigation of the transport of sand by wind. It also discusses the formation and movement of sand dunes in the Libyan Desert. During his expeditions into the Libyan Desert, Bagnold had been fascinated by the shapes of the sand dunes, and after returning to England he built a wind tunnel and conducted the experiments which are the basis of the book. The book is still a main reference in the field, and was used by NASA, for instance, for studying sand dunes on Mars. It was recently reissued by Dover. See also Aeolian processes Bagnold formula Bagnold number Barchan Bibliography of Aeolian Research References External links A short film containing an interview with R.A. 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202639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Taiwan%20University	National Taiwan University	National Taiwan University (NTU; ; colloquially, ; / ) is a national university located in Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan). NTU has been considered the most comprehensive university on the island. It consists of 11 colleges, 56 departments, 133 graduate institutes, over 60 research centers and a school of professional education and continuing studies. The university was founded in 1928 during Japanese rule as the seventh of the Imperial Universities, Taihoku Imperial University to serve under the purpose of Japanese colonization. After World War II, the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) government assumed the administration of the university. The Ministry of Education reorganized and renamed the university to its current name on November 15, 1945, with its roots of liberal tradition from Peking University in Beijing by former NTU President Fu Ssu-nien. Notable alumni include Tsai Ing-Wen, current President of the Republic of China, former presidents Lee Teng-hui, Chen Shui-bian and Ma Ying-jeou, Turing Award laureate Andrew Yao, and Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate Yuan T. Lee. NTU is affiliated with National Taiwan Normal University and National Taiwan University of Science and Technology as part of the NTU System. History Imperial University National Taiwan University has its origins in 臺北帝國大學 Taihoku Imperial University (Taihoku Teikoku Daigaku), founded in 1928 during Japanese rule as a member of the imperial university system administered by the Empire of Japan. The school's first president was . Taihoku Imperial University began with the faculty of Liberal Arts and Law and the Faculty of Science and Agriculture serving 60 students. The university was intended mainly for Japanese nationals; few Taiwanese students were admitted. The Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Engineering were added in 1935 and 1943, respectively. National University After World War II, the Republic of China (Taiwan) government reorganized the school as an institution for Chinese-speaking students. The school was renamed National Taiwan University on 15 November 1945 and Lo Tsung-lo was appointed as its president. The Literature and Politics division was divided into the College of Liberal Arts and the College of Law. Additionally, colleges of Science, Medicine, Engineering, and Agriculture were established. Initially, there were six colleges with 22 departments. In 1945, student enrollment was 585. In 1960, the night school was initiated on a trial basis, and in 1967 a new night school was established. In 1987, the College of Management was established, followed by the College of Public Health in 1993 and the College of Electrical Engineering in 1997. The College of Electrical Engineering was later reorganized as the College of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering. In 1999, the College of Law has renamed the College of Social Sciences, and the Night Division and the Center for Continuing Education were combined to form the School for Professional and Continuing Studies. In 2002, the College of Agriculture has renamed the College of Bio-resources and Agriculture, and in 2002 a College of Life Sciences was added. NTU selected as the national seven universities in research in 2002. Kuan Chung-ming Controversy Kuan Chung-ming, an economist who previously served in the Ma Administration, was named university president-elect in January 2018 but soon became embroiled in allegations related to plagiarism, academic misconduct, and violations of civil code which stipulated that Taiwanese public servants were not permitted to deliver lectures or to be involved in any mainland China-related academic activities due to national security concerns. During the election and the subsequent investigation, Tei-Wei Kuo served as the interim president of the university while the president-elect underwent multiple legal investigations from the ruling DPP government. Though Kuan was eventually cleared of all accusations and officially named as the university president in January 2019 (see ), this prolonged investigation raised suspicion regarding the intervention from the ruling DPP government. Three Ministers of Education stepped down as a result of this event. Campuses NTU has a main campus in Daan District, Taipei City and has additional campuses in Taipei, New Taipei City, Hsinchu County, Yunlin County, and Nantou County. The main campus is home to most college department buildings and administrative buildings. The university governs farms, forests, and hospitals for education and research purposes. The five campuses are: Main Campus (113 hectares, located in Daan District, Taipei) Shuiyuan Campus (7.7 hectares, located in Zhongzheng District, Taipei) College of Medicine Campus (located in Zhongzheng District) Yunlin Campus (54 hectares, located in Yunlin County) Zhubei Campus (22 hectares, located in Hsinchu County) Other university property Visiting professor residences (34 hectares, located on Yangmingshan, Taipei) University Farm (19.5 hectares, located in Xindian District, New Taipei City) Wenshan Botanical Garden (5 hectares, located in Shiding District, New Taipei City) Highland Experimental Farm (1,019 hectares, located in Nantou County) Experimental Forest Office (25.9 hectares, located in Nantou County) Experimental Forest (33,310 hectares, located in Nantou County) Academics The university comprises 11 colleges: Liberal Arts, Engineering, Science, Social Sciences, Law, Bio-Resources & Agriculture, Management, Public Health, Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, Medicine, and Life Science. NTU offers bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctorate degrees in many disciplines. NTU requires most of its undergraduate students to take a mandatory core curriculum, comprising Chinese, freshman English, physical education, and public service. The medical school in addition dictates each of its students to take philosophy and sociology classes as well as seminars in ethics and thanatology. Military training is no longer an obligatory course for male students, but it is a prerequisite if they plan to apply to become officers during their compulsory military service. NTU's programs cover a wide array of disciplines across science, arts, and the humanities, with up to 8,000 courses made available for selection each semester. Students are able to select courses offered by any of the colleges; however, compulsory subjects designated for each major needs to be completed to be awarded a degree. A student must declare a major during college application, some majors are more competitive than others and require a higher national examination score. In recent years, medicine, electrical engineering, law, and finance have been the most selective majors. Most majors take four years to complete while both the dental and the medical degrees take six years to finish. The International Chinese Language Program (ICLP), founded by Stanford University, is located at National Taiwan University. NTU is a member of the Association of Pacific Rim Universities, Washington University in St. Louis's McDonnell International Scholars Academy, and the Association of East Asian Research Universities. NTU also participates in several programs of the Taiwan International Graduate Program of Academia Sinica, Taiwan's most preeminent academic research institution. University rankings National Taiwan University is widely considered to be the best university in Taiwan. The QS World University Rankings (2020) placed it at 69th worldwide and 22nd in Asia. According to Times Higher Education (2021), NTU ranks 97th in the World University Rankings. The CWTS Leiden Ranking (2016) ranked NTU as the 43rd best university in the world. Meanwhile, NTU ranked 120th in the world (2020) and 25th in Asia (2020) in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. CWUR placed NTU 75th in the world and 1st in Taiwan in 2019. U.S. News & World Report, in its 2017 ranking of Best Global Universities, ranked NTU 144th (tied) in the world and 14th in Asia. With other peering references of academic ranking, NTU also releases NTU World Universities ranking annually on the Double Ten Day, the National Holiday of the Republic of China. The individual subject rankings from QS rankings in 2018 were: 19th in Engineering & Technology, 25th in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, 31st in Natural Sciences, 34th in Physics and Astronomy, 37th in Chemical Engineering, 38th in Social Policy & Administration, 43rd in Computer Science and Information Systems and 48th in Accounting and Finance. University presidents The president heads the university. Each college is headed by a dean and each department by a chairman. Students elect their own representatives each year to attend administrative meetings. National Taiwan University Kuan Chung-ming: since 8 January 2019 (interim): October 2017 – January 2019 : June 2013 – June 2017 Lee Si-chen : August 2005 – June 2013 Chen Wei-jao: 22 June 1993 – June 2005 : March 1993 – June 1993 : August 1984 – February 1993 : August 1981 – July 1984 Yen Cheng-hsing: June 1970 – July 1981 Chien Szu-liang: January 1951 – May 1970 : December 1950 – January 1951 Fu Szu-nien: January 1949 – December 1950 : June 1948 – December 1948 Lu Chih-houng: August 1946 – May 1948 Lo Tsung-lo: August 1945 – July 1946 Taihoku Imperial University Kazuo Ando (安藤一雄): March 1945 – August 1945 : April 1941 – March 1945 : September 1937 – April 1941 : March 1928 – September 1937 Alumni NTU has produced many notable alumni. Tsai Ing-Wen, the current President of the Republic of China (Taiwan), as well as former presidents Lee Teng-hui, Chen Shui-bian and Ma Ying-jeou, all graduated from NTU. Both Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate Yuan T. Lee and Turing Award laureate Andrew Yao received their Bachelor of Science from the university. Many NTU electrical engineering graduates have gone on to build global companies, including Quanta Computer's Barry Lam, Mediatek's Tsai Ming-kai and Garmin's Min Kao. Notes See also National Taiwan University Hospital List of universities in Taiwan Education in Taiwan Alliance EUTW university alliance References External links Official website in English Educational institutions established in 1928 Universities and colleges in Taipei 1928 establishments in Taiwan Comprehensive universities in Taiwan	[ 0.2447185218334198, -0.1990862935781479, 0.267233669757843, 0.003238486358895898, 0.268481582403183, 0.06933797895908356, -0.06852460652589798, 0.8109408617019653, -0.32927316427230835, -0.19166231155395508, -0.26686355471611023, 0.04590502008795738, 0.5163768529891968, 0.3332171142101288, -0.11846564710140228, -0.2630561292171478, 0.5979730486869812, 0.12022014707326889, -0.24772131443023682, -0.29267972707748413, -0.732914388179779, -0.41316983103752136, 0.2391885668039322, -0.0510086715221405, -0.034287188202142715, 0.2560884356498718, 0.6794147491455078, 0.12055928260087967, 0.18218402564525604, 0.22548089921474457, 0.25118428468704224, 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202640	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%20Wolpe	Stefan Wolpe	Stefan Wolpe (25 August 1902 (Berlin) – 4 April 1972 (New York City)) was a German-Jewish-American composer. He was associated with interdisciplinary modernism, with affiliations ranging from the Bauhaus, Berlin agitprop theater and the kibbutz movement to the Eighth Street Artists' Club, Black Mountain College, and the Darmstadt Summer Courses for New Music. He lived and worked in Berlin (1902-1933) until the Nazi seizure of power forced him to move first to Vienna (1933-34) and Jerusalem (1934-38) before settling in New York City (1938-72). In works such as Battle Piece (1942/1947) and "In a State of Flight" in Enactments for Three Pianos (1953), he responded self-consciously to the circumstances of his uprooted life, a theme he also explored extensively in voluminous diaries, correspondence, and lectures. His densely eclectic music absorbed ideas and idioms from diverse artistic milieus, including post-tonality, bebop, and Arab classical musics. Life Wolpe was born in Berlin. He attended the Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory from the age of fourteen, and the Berlin Hochschule für Musik in 1920–21. He studied composition under Franz Schreker and was also a pupil of Ferruccio Busoni. He also studied at the Bauhaus circa 1923, and met some of the dadaists, setting Kurt Schwitters's poem An Anna Blume to music. In 1928, Wolpe's first opera, Zeus und Elida, premiered in Berlin. This soon was followed by two more operas in 1929, Schöne Geschichten and Anna Blume. In 1927, he married the artist Ola Okuniewska from Czechoslavakia and their daughter, Katharina Wolpe was born in 1931 but the couple had separated. His wife escaped to London in 1938, but his daughter was a de facto orphan in Berne during the war. The music Wolpe was writing between 1929 and 1933 was dissonant, using Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. However, possibly influenced by Paul Hindemith's concept of Gebrauchsmusik (music that serves a social function), and as an avid socialist, he wrote a number of pieces for workers' unions and communist theatre groups. For these, he made his style more accessible, incorporating elements of jazz and popular music. When the Nazis came to power in Germany, Wolpe, a Jew and a communist, fled the country, passing through Romania and Russia en route to Austria in 1933–34, where he met and studied with Anton Webern. He had left Germany with a Romanian pianist and he married Irma Schoenberg in Vienna. He later moved to Palestine in 1934–38, where he wrote simple songs for the kibbutzim. The music he was writing for concert performance, however, remained complex and atonal. Partly because of this, his teaching contract with the Palestine Conservatoire was not renewed for the 1938–39 school year. In 1938, Wolpe moved to New York City. He briefly met his daughter in London in 1946. There, during the fifties, he associated with the abstract expressionist painters. He was introduced to them by his third wife, the poet Hilda Morley. From 1952 to 1956 he was director of music at Black Mountain College. On January 24, 1956, he was appointed to the faculty at the C.W. Post College of Long Island University in Brookville, New York. He also lectured at the summer schools in Darmstadt in Germany. His pupils included Jack Behrens, Herbert Brün, Morton Feldman, David Tudor, Matthew Greenbaum, John Carisi, M. William Karlins, Gil Evans, George Russell, Robert D. Levin, Boyd McDonald, Ralph Shapey, Netty Simons, and Beatrice Witkin. His works from this time sometimes used the twelve-tone technique, were sometimes diatonic, were sometimes based on the Arabic scales (such as maqam saba) he had heard in Palestine and sometimes employed some other method of tonal organisation. Wolpe developed Parkinson's disease in 1964, and died in New York City in 1972. Music Elliott Carter has said of Wolpe's music that, "he does everything wrong and it comes out right." For a complete list of works, see Wolpe.org Works List. Chamber works Blues, large mixed ensemble Chamber Piece No. 1, chamber orchestra Chamber Piece No. 2, chamber orchestra Duo fur Zwei Geigen, violin duo From Here On Farther, mixed quartet Musik zu Hamlet, flute, clarinet and violoncello Piece For Oboe, Cello, Percussion, and PianoPiece for Two Instrumental Units, large mixed ensemblePiece in Three Parts for piano and sixteen instruments Quartet for Trumpet, Tenor Saxophone, Percussion and Piano Seven Pieces for Three Pianos String QuartetThree Short Canons, viola and violoncello Three Studies from Music for Any Instruments, large mixed ensembleTrio in Two Parts, flute, violoncello and piano Orchestral works Passacaglia for Large Orchestra Symphony No. 1Zwei Studien fur Grosses OrchesterVocal worksAn Anna Blume von Kurt Schwitters for piano and musical clown, high voiceCantata, medium voice and ensembleDecret No. 2 'An die Armee der Kunstler' , high voiceDrei Lieder nach Bertolt Brecht, medium voiceDrei Lieder nach Heinrich von Kleist, high voice Four Pieces for Mixed ChorusFünf Lieder nach Friedrich Holderlin, medium or low voiceFünf Vertonungen aus "Gitanjali" von Rabindranath Tagore, medium voiceLieder mit Klavierbegleitung, various vocal ranges in one collectionMusic for the Theater, medium voicePsalm 64 and Isaiah Chapter 35, high voiceQuintet with Voice, low voice Songs (1955–61), medium voiceStreet Music, low voice and ensembleTwo Chinese Epitaphs, op. 25, mixed chorusYigdal Cantata, low voice/mixed chorus and ensembleZwei Lieder aus Gedichte von Berthold Viertel, medium voice Piano worksBattle Piece (1942–1943, 1947)Enactments for Three PianosForm (1959)Klaviermusik 1920–1929Leichte Klaviermusik aus Aller Welt: IsraelMarch and Variations for Two PianosMusic for a DancerMusic for Any Instruments, Vol. IPiano Music 1939 – 1942Sechs Klavierstucke (1920–1929), Vol. 1Sechs MarcheSonate Nr. 1 "Stehende Musik"Toccata in Three Parts for PianoWaltz for MerleOperaSchoene GeschichtenZeus und Elida: A Musical GrotesqueReferences Further reading Stefan Wolpe: Das Ganze überdenken. Vorträge über Musik 1935–1962, edited by Thomas Phleps (Quellentexte zur Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts 7.1). Saarbrücken: PFAU-Verlag, 2002. Thomas Phleps: "'An Anna Blume' – Ein vollchromatisiertes Liebesgedicht von Kurt Schwitters und Stefan Wolpe". In: Zwischen Aufklärung & Kulturindustrie. Festschrift für Georg Knepler zum 85. Geburtstag. Vol. I: Musik/Geschichte, edited by Hanns-Werner Heister, Karin Heister-Grech, and Gerhart Scheit, 157–77. Hamburg: von Bockel 1993. Thomas Phleps: "Stefan Wolpe – Von Dada, Anna & anderem". Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 155 (1994) no. 3: . Thomas Phleps: "Stefan Wolpes 'Stehende Musik'". Dissonanz/Dissonance no. 41 (August 1994), pp. 9–14. Thomas Phleps: "Stefan Wolpe – Drei kleinere Canons in der Umkehrung zweier 12tönig correspondierender Hexachorde für Viola und Violoncello op. 24a". In: Klassizistische Moderne. Eine Begleitpublikation zur Konzertreihe im Rahmen der Veranstaltungen "10 Jahre Paul Sacher Stiftung", edited by Felix Meyer. pp. 143–44. Winterthur: Amadeus, 1996. Thomas Phleps: "Wo es der Musik die Sprache verschlägt... – "Zeus und Elida" und "Schöne Geschichten" von Stefan Wolpe". Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 158 (1997) no. 6, pp. 48–51. Thomas Phleps: "'Outsider im besten Sinne des Wortes': Stefan Wolpes Einblicke ins Komponieren in Darmstadt und anderswo". In Stefan Wolpe: Das Ganze überdenken. Vorträge über Musik 1935–1962, edited by Thomas Phleps, . (Quellentexte zur Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts Bd. 7.1). Saarbrücken: PFAU-Verlag, 2002. Thomas Phleps: "Music Contents and Speech Contents in the Political Compositions of Eisler, Wolpe, and Vladimir Vogel". In: On the Music of Stefan Wolpe: Essays and Recollections, edited by Austin Clarkson, . (Dimension & Diversity Series 6). Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2003. Brigid Cohen: Stefan Wolpe and the Avant-Garde Diaspora. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Nora Born: Stefan Wolpe, in the Lexikon verfolgter Musiker und Musikerinnen der NS-Zeit'', Claudia Maurer Zenck, Peter Petersen (ed.), Hamburg: Universität Hamburg, 2012 (https://www.lexm.uni-hamburg.de/object/lexm_lexmperson_00002691). External links The Stefan Wolpe Society Peermusic Classical: Stefan Wolpe Composer's Publisher and Biography Discography Thomas Phleps: Stefan Wolpe – Eine Einführung Thomas Phleps: Stefan Wolpes politische Musik Thomas Phleps: Schöne Geschichten und Zeus und Elida – Zwei Opern von Stefan Wolpe Stefan Wolpe Recollections of Stefan Wolpe by former students and friends, Edited by Austin Clarkson Carol Baron research files on Stefan Wolpe, 1933–1976, 2009 Music Division, The New York Public Library. Recollections of Stefan Wolpe by M. William Karlins, August 17, 1992 Listening Starr Auditorium, Tate Modern: The Music of Stefan Wolpe (The evening's performers were pianist Nicolas Hodges and violinist Mieko Kanno. Leading Wolpe scholar Austin Clarkson and concert pianist Katharina Wolpe, the composer's daughter, took part in the discussion) Art of the States: Stefan Wolpe three works by the composer 1902 births 1972 deaths 20th-century classical composers Musicians from Berlin Bauhaus alumni Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine Jewish American classical composers German opera composers Male opera composers American opera composers Pupils of Paul Juon Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Pupils of Franz Schreker Pupils of Ferruccio Busoni Pupils of Anton Webern Twelve-tone and serial composers Deaths from Parkinson's disease Neurological disease deaths in New York (state) Black Mountain College faculty German male classical composers American male classical composers American classical composers 20th-century German composers Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory alumni 20th-century American composers Burials at Green River Cemetery 20th-century American male 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202642	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation%20%28Bunny%20Wailer%20album%29	Liberation (Bunny Wailer album)	Liberation is a reggae album by Bunny Wailer, released in 1989 (see 1989 in music) under the Gallo record label. Wailer was one third of The Wailers, with Peter Tosh and Bob Marley. Liberation was widely praised and considered a landmark album. Track listing All tracks written by Neville "Bunny" Livingston. "Rise and Shine" "Liberation" "Botha the Mosquito" "Want to Come Home" "Ready When You Ready" "Didn't You Know" "Dash Wey the Vial" "Bald Head Jesus" "Food" "Serious Thing" Personnel Bunny Wailer - Percussion, Arranger, Director, Vocals, Producer, Cover Art Concept The Psalms - Background vocals Tony "Asher" Brissett - Keyboards Barry Barrington Bailey - Horn Headley Bennett - Horn Errol Carter - Bass Steven "Cat" Coore - Guitar Carlton "Santa" Davis - drums Sly Dunbar - Drums Bobby Ellis - Horn Harry T. Powell - Percussion Eric "Bingy Bunny" Lamont - Rhythm guitar Sugar Minott - Drums Johnny "Dizzy" Moore - Horn Sylvan Morris - Engineer Karl Pitterson - Mixing Dwight Pinkney - Guitar Robbie Shakespeare - Bass Earl "Chinna" Smith - Bass Keith Sterling - Keyboards Daniel "Danny Axeman" Thompson - Bass Neville Garrick - Graphic Design, Art Direction, Cover Art Concept Owen "Red Fox" Stewart - Keyboards References Bunny Wailer albums Shanachie Records albums 1989 albums	[ -0.12465416640043259, 0.1000017300248146, -0.7310397028923035, -0.27976465225219727, -0.7124508023262024, 0.6839105486869812, 0.27405256032943726, -0.48928287625312805, -0.48059946298599243, 0.06037596985697746, 0.48821136355400085, 0.4708995521068573, -0.4552370607852936, -0.009614750742912292, -0.4361495077610016, 0.30697745084762573, 0.4501955211162567, -0.13471688330173492, -0.3313448429107666, -0.7424803972244263, 0.14185382425785065, -0.16708584129810333, -0.10280902683734894, 0.42018136382102966, 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202643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes%20Moorehead	Agnes Moorehead	Agnes Robertson Moorehead (December 6, 1900April 30, 1974) was an American actress. In a career spanning four decades, her credits included work in radio, stage, film, and television. Moorehead was the recipient of such accolades as a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globe Awards, in addition to nominations for four Academy Awards. She is best known for her role as Endora on the television series Bewitched, but she also had notable roles in films, including Citizen Kane, Dark Passage, All That Heaven Allows, and Show Boat. She is also known for the radioplay Sorry, Wrong Number (1943) and its several subsequent re-recordings for Suspense. Moorehead garnered four nominations for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, for her performances in: The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), Mrs. Parkington (1944), Johnny Belinda (1948), and Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964). Early life Agnes Robertson Moorehead was born on December 6, 1900, in Clinton, Massachusetts, the daughter of former singer Mary (née McCauley), who was 17 when she was born, and Presbyterian clergyman John Henderson Moorehead. She was of English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh ancestry. Moorehead later claimed that she was born in 1906 to appear younger for acting parts. She recalled that she made her first public performance at the age of three, when she recited the Lord's Prayer in her father's church. The family moved to St. Louis, Missouri, and her ambition to become an actress grew "very strong". Her mother indulged her active imagination, often asking, "Who are you today, Agnes?" while Moorehead and her younger sister Peggy (born Margaret Ann) engaged in mimicry. This involved coming to the dinner table and imitating their father's parishioners; they were further encouraged by his amused reactions. Moorehead rarely spoke of her sister after her suicide at age 23. As a young woman, Moorehead joined the chorus of the St. Louis Municipal Opera Company, known as "The Muny". In addition to her interest in acting, she developed a lifelong interest in religion; in later years, actors such as Dick Sargent recalled Moorehead's arriving on the set with "the Bible in one hand and the script in the other". Moorehead always said that she graduated from Central High School in St. Louis in 1918. Moorehead earned a bachelor's degree in 1923, majoring in biology at Muskingum College in New Concord, Ohio. While there, she also appeared in college stage plays. She received an honorary doctorate in literature from Muskingum in 1947, and served for a year on its board of trustees. When her family moved to Reedsburg, Wisconsin, she taught public school for five years in Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin, while she also earned a master's degree in English and public speaking at the University of Wisconsin (now the University of Wisconsin–Madison). She then pursued postgraduate studies at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, from which she graduated with honors in 1929. Moorehead also received an honorary doctoral degree from Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois. Career Moorehead's early acting career was unsteady, and although she was able to find stage work, she was often unemployed. She later recalled going four days without food, and said that it had taught her "the value of a dollar". She found work in radio and was soon in demand, often working on several programs in a single day. She believed that it offered her excellent training and allowed her to develop her voice to create a variety of characterizations. Moorehead met actress Helen Hayes, who encouraged her to enter films, but her first attempts were met with failure. When she was rejected as not being "the right type", Moorehead returned to radio. Mercury Theatre By 1937, Moorehead had joined Orson Welles' Mercury Players, as one of his principal performers along with Joseph Cotten. (In an appearance on The Dick Cavett Show on February 19, 1973, she revealed that, in 1922, she had by chance met Welles (15 years her junior) when he was a mere seven years old at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City.) She performed in his The Mercury Theatre on the Air radio adaptations, and had a regular role opposite Welles in the serial The Shadow as Margo Lane. In 1939, Welles moved the Mercury Theatre to Hollywood, where he started working for RKO Pictures. Several of his radio performers joined him, and Moorehead made her film debut as the mother of his own character, Charles Foster Kane, in Citizen Kane (1941), considered by most film critics as one of the best films ever made. Moorehead was featured in Welles' second film, The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), and received the New York Film Critics Award and an Academy Award nomination for her performance. She also appeared in Journey Into Fear (1943), a Mercury film production. Moorehead received positive reviews for her performance in Mrs. Parkington (1944), and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and an Academy Award nomination. Moorehead played another strong role in The Big Street (1942) with Henry Fonda and Lucille Ball, and then appeared in two films that failed to find an audience, Government Girl (1943) with Olivia de Havilland and The Youngest Profession (1944) with adolescent Virginia Weidler. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer By the mid-1940s, Moorehead became a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract player, negotiating a $6,000-a-week contract, which also allowed her to perform on radio, an unusual clause at the time. Moorehead explained that MGM usually refused to allow their actors to appear on radio, as "the actors didn't have the knowledge or the taste or the judgment to appear on the right sort of show." In 1943–1944, Moorehead portrayed "matronly housekeeper Mrs. Mullet", who was constantly offering her "candied opinion", in the Mutual Broadcasting System's The Adventures of Leonidas Witherall; she inaugurated the role on CBS Radio. Throughout her career, Moorehead skillfully portrayed puritanical matrons, neurotic spinsters, possessive mothers, and comical secretaries. She had supporting roles in The Youngest Profession (1943), Since You Went Away (1944), and the crime drama Dark Passage (1947), starring Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. She then played Aggie McDonald in the 1948 film, Johnny Belinda. She played Parthy Hawks, wife of Cap'n Andy and mother of Magnolia, in MGM's hit 1951 remake of Show Boat. Moorehead was in Broadway productions of Don Juan in Hell in 1951–1952, and Lord Pengo in 1962–1963. Radio In her first radio role, Moorehead appeared as a replacement for Dorothy Denvir's role as Min Gump in The Gumps. During the 1940s and 1950s, Moorehead was one of the most in-demand actresses for radio dramas, especially on the CBS show Suspense. During the 946-episode run of Suspense, Moorehead was cast in more episodes than any other actor or actress. She was often introduced on the show as the "first lady of Suspense". Moorehead's most successful appearance on Suspense was in the play Sorry, Wrong Number, written by Lucille Fletcher, broadcast on May 18, 1943. Moorehead played a selfish, neurotic woman who overhears a murder being plotted via crossed phone wires and eventually realizes she is the intended victim. She recreated the performance six times for Suspense and several times on other radio shows, always using her original, dog-eared script. The May 25, 1943 airing was made part of the National Sound Registry by the Library of Congress in 2014. In 1952, she recorded an album of the drama, and performed scenes from the story in her one-woman show in the 1950s. Barbara Stanwyck played the role in the 1948 film version. In 1941, Moorehead played Maggie in the short-lived Bringing Up Father program on the Blue Network. From 1942 to 1949, Moorehead played the role of the mayor's housekeeper in the radio version of Mayor of the Town. She also starred in The Amazing Mrs. Danberry, a situation comedy on CBS in 1946. Moorehead's title character was described as "the lively widow of a department store owner who has a tongue as sharp as a hatpin and a heart as warm as summer." Moorehead played one of her last roles on January 6, 1974, as Mrs. Ada Canby in the ironically titled "The Old Ones Are Hard to Kill", the inaugural episode of CBS Radio Mystery Theater. Films of the 1950s–1960s In the 1950s, Moorehead continued to work in films and appeared on stage across the country. Her stage roles included a national tour of Shaw's Don Juan in Hell, co-starring Charles Boyer, Charles Laughton, and Cedric Hardwicke, and the pre-Broadway engagements of the new musical The Pink Jungle. She had a supporting role in the big-budget Howard Hughes film The Conqueror (1956), starring John Wayne and Susan Hayward, a film she later regretted appearing in. She starred in The Bat (1959) with Vincent Price. She appeared as the hypochondriac Mrs. Snow in Disney's hit film Pollyanna (1960). She starred with Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland, Mary Astor, and Joseph Cotten in Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964) as the maid Velma, a role for which she was nominated for a Best Supporting Actress Academy Award. Television In 1959, Moorehead guest-starred on many series, including The Rebel and Alcoa Theatre. Her role in the radio play Sorry, Wrong Number inspired writers of the CBS television series The Twilight Zone to script an episode with Moorehead in mind. In "The Invaders" (broadcast January 27, 1961), Moorehead played a woman whose isolated farm is plagued by mysterious intruders. Moorehead found the script odd, because it had only one line of dialogue, at the very end. Her character gasped in terror once or twice, but never spoke. In Sorry, Wrong Number, Moorehead offered a famed, bravura performance using only her voice. Moorehead also had guest roles on Channing, Custer, Rawhide in "Incident at Poco Tiempo" as Sister Frances, and The Rifleman. On February 10, 1967, she portrayed Miss Emma Valentine in "The Night of the Vicious Valentine" on The Wild Wild West, a performance for which she won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Bewitched In 1964, Moorehead accepted the role of Endora, Samantha's (Elizabeth Montgomery) mortal-loathing, quick-witted witch mother in the situation comedy Bewitched. She later commented that she had not expected it to succeed and that she ultimately felt trapped by its success, but she had negotiated to appear in only eight of every 12 episodes made, thus allowing her sufficient time to pursue other projects. She also felt that the television writing was often below standard and dismissed many of the Bewitched scripts as "hack" in a 1965 interview for TV Guide. The role brought her a level of recognition that she had not received before as Bewitched was in the top-10 programs for the first few years it aired. Moorehead received six Emmy Award nominations, but was quick to remind interviewers that she had enjoyed a long and distinguished career. Despite her ambivalence, she remained with Bewitched until its run ended in 1972. She commented to the New York Times in 1974, "I've been in movies and played theater from coast to coast, so I was quite well known before Bewitched, and I don't particularly want to be identified as a witch." Later that year, she said she had enjoyed playing the role enough, but it was not challenging and the show itself was "not breathtaking", although her flamboyant and colorful character appealed to children. She expressed a fondness for the show's star, Elizabeth Montgomery, and said she had enjoyed working with her. Co-star Dick Sargent, who in 1969 replaced the ill Dick York as Samantha's husband Darrin Stephens, had a more difficult relationship with Moorehead, describing her as "a tough old bird." In fall 1964, Moorehead participated in a 5-minute commercial spot featuring casts of both Bonanza and Bewitched, announcing the new 1965 Chevrolet line. Moorehead was featured with Dan Blocker extolling the virtues of the new '65 Chevy II. Later years In the 1970s, Moorehead's life was increasingly affected by declining health. In 1970, Moorehead appeared as a dying woman who haunts her own house in the early Night Gallery episode "Certain Shadows on the Wall". She co-starred with Shelley Winters and Debbie Reynolds in the horror film What's the Matter with Helen? (1971) and had the lead role in the low-budget ax murderer film Dear Dead Delilah (1972) with Will Geer, her last starring role. She also reprised her role in Don Juan in Hell on Broadway and on tour, with an all-star cast that featured Edward Mulhare, Ricardo Montalban, and Paul Henreid. Moorehead supplied the voice of the friendly "Goose" in Hanna-Barbera's 1973 adaptation of E. B. White's children's book Charlotte's Web. For the 1973 Broadway adaptation of Gigi, Moorehead portrayed Aunt Alicia and performed various songs, including "The Contract" for the original cast recording. She fell ill during the production, resulting in Arlene Francis having to replace her. Moorehead died shortly afterward. In January 1974, three months before her death, Moorehead performed in two episodes (including the first) of CBS Radio Mystery Theater, the popular series produced by old-time radio master Himan Brown. Personal life Marriages In 1930, Moorehead married actor John Griffith Lee; they divorced a year after fostering a boy named Sean in 1952. She married actor Robert Gist in 1954, and they divorced in 1958. Sexuality Moorehead's sexuality has been the subject of much speculation and dispute. A number of articles that appeared in periodicals in the alternative press have identified her as a lesbian. Paul Lynde, Moorehead's co-star on Bewitched, stated: "Well, the whole world knows Agnes was a lesbian – I mean classy as hell, but one of the all-time Hollywood dykes". Journalist Boze Hadleigh reported an incident, also sourced to Lynde, in which, when she caught one of her husbands cheating on her, "Agnes screamed at him that if he could have a mistress, so could she." In an interview, Moorehead was reported to have acknowledged her same-sex orientation while she identified a number of other Hollywood actresses who "enjoyed lesbian or bi relationships." Moorehead's close friend Debbie Reynolds stated categorically that Moorehead was not a lesbian. Reynolds's autobiography mentions the rumor and states it was started "maliciously" by one of Moorehead's husbands during their divorce. Moorehead's longtime friend and producer Paul Gregory concurs in the assessment. Quint Benedetti, Moorehead's longtime employee who was homosexual, also stated that Moorehead was not a lesbian and attributed the story to Paul Lynde's frequent gossiping and rumor-mongering. Politics Moorehead rarely spoke publicly about her political beliefs, but she supported both Franklin Delano Roosevelt (she portrayed Eleanor Roosevelt multiple times over the course of her career), and close friend Ronald Reagan for his 1966 run for governor of California. Death Moorehead died of uterine cancer on April 30, 1974, in Rochester, Minnesota, aged 73. Her sole immediate survivor was her mother Mary, who died in 1990, aged 106. It is speculated that Moorehead may have developed cancer from radioactive fallout from atmospheric atomic bomb tests while making The Conqueror with John Wayne in St. George, Utah. Several production members, as well as Wayne himself, Susan Hayward, Pedro Armendáriz (who died by suicide) and its director Dick Powell, later succumbed to cancer and cancer-related illnesses. The cast and crew totaled 220 people. By the end of 1980, as ascertained by People, 91 of them had developed some form of cancer, and 46 had died of the disease. Sandra Gould said Moorehead was specifically concerned about being harmed by radiation from The Conqueror shoot. Brian Dunning, author and host of the science podcast Skeptoid, has called into question the allegations of a connection between the death of Moorehead and others supposedly exposed to radioactive fallout. In a 2010 episode of his podcast, Dunning states that the original source of the claim "was apparently a 1979 article in the tabloid The Star by Peter Brennan, who merely speculated about the coincidence without doing any real research." Moorehead is entombed in a crypt at Dayton Memorial Park in Dayton, Ohio. In 1994, she was posthumously inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. Moorehead bequeathed $25,000 to Muskingum College, with instructions to fund one or more "Agnes Moorehead Scholarships". She also left half of her manuscripts to Muskingum with the other half going to the University of Wisconsin. Her family's Ohio farm went to John Brown University in Siloam Springs, Arkansas, along with her collection of Bibles and biblical scholarship materials. Her mother Mary received all of Moorehead's clothing and jewelry, and Moorehead made provisions to support Mary for the rest of her life. The Beverly Hills home was left to her attorney Franklin Rohner, along with the furnishings and personal property within. Small bequests were made for friends and domestic staff along with some charitable contributions. In her will, she made no provision for Sean (né John Griffith Lee) whom it was alleged she had adopted. In fact, she only fostered Sean until his 18th birthday, and the will stated that she had "no children, natural or adopted, living or deceased". Filmography Radio credits Moorehead appeared on hundreds of individual broadcasts across a radio career that spanned from 1926 to her final two appearances, on CBS Radio Mystery Theatre in 1974. Theater Moorehead began appearing on stage during her training at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. She appeared in seven productions as a student. She continued acting in the theater throughout her career until just a few months before her death. References Sources Lynn Kear, Agnes Moorehead: a Bio-Bibliography. (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1992). Charles Tranberg, I Love the Illusion: The Life And Career of Agnes Moorehead (Albany, Georgia: BearManor Media, 2005) Further reading External links Guide to over 100,000 Moorehead documents spanning 1923–1974 at the Wisconsin Historical Society Georgia Johnstone papers regarding Agnes Moorehead, 1930–1974, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Interview with biographer Charles Tranberg from Harpies Bizarre Listen to – Suspense 1951-02-15 Agnes Moorehead – The Death Parade with new introduction. Listen to – The CBS Radio Mystery Theater 1974-01-06 The Old Ones Are Hard To Kill starring Agnes Moorehead. Agnes Moorehead as a child circa 1904(Wisconsin Historical Society) Agnes Moorehead as a child wearing white dress 1903(Wisconsin Historical Society) 1900 births 1974 deaths 20th-century American actresses Actresses from Massachusetts Actresses from St. Louis American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni American Presbyterians American film actresses American people of English descent American people of Irish descent American people of Scottish descent American people of Welsh descent American radio actresses American stage actresses American television actresses Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners Bewitched Burials in Ohio California Republicans Deaths from cancer in Minnesota Deaths from uterine cancer Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players Muskingum University alumni Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Clinton, Massachusetts People from Greater Los Angeles People from Reedsburg, Wisconsin People from 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202650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind%2C%20Sand%20and%20Stars	Wind, Sand and Stars	Wind, Sand and Stars (French title: Terre des hommes, literally "Land of Men") is a memoir by the French aristocrat aviator-writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, and a winner of several literary awards. It deals with themes such as friendship, death, heroism, and solidarity among colleagues, and illustrates the author's opinions of what makes life worth living. It was first published in France in February 1939, and was then translated by Lewis Galantière and published in English by Reynal and Hitchcock in the United States later the same year. Content In his autobiographical work Saint-Exupéry, an early pioneering aviator, evokes a series of events in his life, principally his work for the airmail carrier Aéropostale. He does so by recounting several episodes from his years flying treacherous mail routes across the African Sahara and the South American Andes. The book's themes deal with friendship, death, heroism, camaraderie and solidarity among colleagues, humanity and the search for meaning in life. The book illustrates the author's view of the world and his opinions of what makes life worth living. The central incident he wrote of detailed his 1935 plane crash in the Sahara Desert between Benghazi and Cairo, which he barely survived along with his mechanic-navigator, André Prévot. Saint-Exupéry and his navigator were left almost completely without water and food, and as the chances of finding an oasis or help from the air gradually decreased, the two men nearly died of thirst before they were saved by a Bedouin on a camel. Wind Sand and Stars also provided storylines for his book "Le Petit Prince" with many of the same themes outlined above, particularly camaraderie and friendship. Publication history The book was first published in France in February 1939, and was then translated by Lewis Galantière and published in English by Reynal and Hitchcock in the United States later the same year. The French and English versions of this book differed significantly; Saint-Exupéry removed sections from the original French version he considered inappropriate for its targeted U.S. audience, and added new material specifically written for them, and Lewis Galantière translated the revised book into English. Although it did not appear in the earliest editions of its English translation, "An Appreciation" was added to later printings, contributed by Anne Morrow Lindbergh and earlier published in The Saturday Review of Literature on 14 October 1939. Saint-Exupéry struggled to find a title for his book; the original working title was: "Etoiles par grand vent" (literally: 'Stars in windy conditions'). He even promised 100 francs to André de Fonscolombe, his cousin, if André could come up with 'the perfect title'. His cousin returned the day after with a list of 30 suggestions, and Saint-Exupéry chose one of them: "Terre des Humains" (literally: 'Land of humans'), which later became 'Terre des hommes' ('Land of men'). Lewis Galantière came up with the English title, which was approved by Saint-Exupéry. Saint-Exupéry dedicated the book to his friend Henri Guillaumet of Aéropostale. Tributes The charity Terre des hommes took its name from this book in 1959. The charitable international federation of humanitarian societies concentrates on children's rights, and is based in Lausanne, Switzerland. The book's title was subsequently used to create the central theme ("Terre des Hommes–Man and His World") of the most successful world's fair of the 20th century, Expo 67, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. In 1963, a group of prominent Canadians met for three days at the Seigneury Club in Montebello, Quebec. In an introduction to the Expo 67 Corporation's book, also entitled "Terre des Hommes/Man and His World", Gabrielle Roy wrote: Pascal Gélinas & Pierre Harel's short film Taire des hommes (meaning to silence men) has a title homophonic to the book's title, but is instead about the censorship and repression at the riot of the national holiday of June 24, 1968, in downtown Montréal, one day before the federal election. Awards and recognitions Winner of the Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française (Grand Prize for Fiction from the French Academy), 1939, one of France's oldest and most prestigious literary awards. Winner of the U.S. National Book Award for 1939 Nonfiction. Saint-Exupéry only received the prize in early 1942, as he had been flying as a reconnaissance pilot during the Battle of France when the award was announced earlier. The National Geographic ADVENTURE voted the novel No. 3 in its all-time list of 100 best adventure-exploration books. Outside magazine voted the novel No. 1 in its all-time list of 25 adventure-explorer books. Notes References External links Outside Magazine, "The 25 (Essential) Books for the Well-Read Explorer". National Geographic ADVENTURE: 100 Best Adventure Books Review by Bobby Matherne. The Expo 67 symbol as it relates to Man and His World Complete text of Terre des hommes (French, public domain in Canada) Works by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry French books Aviation books National Book Award for Nonfiction winning works 1939 non-fiction books French autobiographies	[ -0.019509222358465195, 0.7686110734939575, -0.6804739832878113, 0.23259475827217102, 0.15955080091953278, 0.3351421356201172, -0.1440742313861847, -0.2942098379135132, -0.12151338905096054, -0.46060773730278015, -0.500977098941803, 0.18734999001026154, 0.3440600037574768, 0.5994516015052795, 0.2292470484972, 0.1554117053747177, -0.06960984319448471, 0.3353724181652069, -0.18559935688972473, -0.5632925033569336, 0.08163826912641525, 0.27189841866493225, 0.1609315127134323, -0.6415849924087524, 0.42698749899864197, -0.02085224911570549, 0.01186995767056942, -0.19732923805713654, 0.14186273515224457, 0.5852743983268738, -0.3845319151878357, 0.49407288432121277, -0.5456514358520508, -0.21694129705429077, 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202652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo%20%2B%20Juliet	Romeo + Juliet	William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (often shortened to Romeo + Juliet) is a 1996 romantic crime tragedy film directed, co-produced, and co-written by Baz Luhrmann. It is a modernized adaptation of William Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes in the title roles of two teenagers who fall in love, despite their being members of feuding families. Brian Dennehy, John Leguizamo, Harold Perrineau, Pete Postlethwaite, Paul Sorvino and Diane Venora also star in supporting roles. It is the third major film version of the play, following a 1936 film and a 1968 film. The film was released on November 1, 1996, by 20th Century Fox to commercial success, and was met with generally positive reviews. The film grossed over $51.8 million over a $14.5 million budget. At the 47th Berlin International Film Festival in 1997, DiCaprio won the Silver Bear for Best Actor and Luhrmann won the Alfred Bauer Prize. Luhrmann was also nominated for the Golden Bear Award for Best Picture. At the 69th Academy Awards, Catherine Martin and Brigitte Broch were nominated for Best Art Direction/Set Decoration. In 2005, the film was included on the BFI list of the "50 films you should watch by the age of 14". The film was also re-released in Luhrmann's Red Curtain Trilogy DVD box set in 2002 together with Strictly Ballroom (1992) and Moulin Rouge! (2001). Plot In Verona Beach, the Capulets and Montagues are two rival business empires. The animosity of the older generation—Fulgencio and Gloria Capulet and Ted and Caroline Montague—is felt by their younger relatives. A gunfight between Montagues led by Benvolio, Romeo's cousin, and Capulets led by Tybalt, Juliet's cousin, creates chaos in the city. Being the third civil brawl, the Chief of Police, Captain Prince, reprimands the families, warning them that if such an event occurs again, their lives "shall pay the forfeit of the peace". Benvolio and Romeo learn of a Capulet party that evening which they decide to gate-crash. Romeo agrees on hearing that Rosaline, with whom he is in love, is attending. They meet their friend, Mercutio, who has tickets to the party, and Romeo takes ecstasy as they proceed to the Capulet mansion. The effects of the drug and the party overwhelm Romeo, who goes to the restroom. There he sees Juliet, and the two instantly fall in love, both unaware of who the other is. Tybalt spots Romeo and vows to kill him for invading his family's home. After Romeo leaves the party, he and Juliet each learn that they belong to feuding families, but Romeo returns to see her. Juliet tells him that if he sends word by the following day, they will be betrothed. The next day, Romeo asks Father Laurence to marry them, and he agrees. Romeo passes the word on via Juliet's nurse and they soon get married. Tybalt encounters Mercutio and Romeo at the beach. Romeo attempts to make peace, but Tybalt assaults him. Mercutio intervenes and batters Tybalt, and is about to kill him when Romeo stops him. Tybalt takes the opportunity to fatally wound Mercutio, who curses both houses before dying. Enraged, Romeo chases after the fleeing Tybalt and shoots him dead, avenging Mercutio's death. Captain Prince banishes Romeo from the city, and he goes into hiding with Father Laurence. The nurse arrives and tells him that Juliet is waiting for him. Romeo climbs Juliet's balcony and they consummate their marriage, with Romeo departing soon after. Meanwhile, Fulgencio decides Juliet will marry Dave Paris, the governor's son. The next morning, Gloria informs Juliet that she is to marry Paris, and when Juliet refuses Fulgencio threatens to disown her. Juliet runs away and seeks out Father Laurence, imploring him to help her whilst threatening to commit suicide. Father Laurence gives her a potion that will let her fake her own death, after which she will be placed within the Capulet vault to awaken 24 hours later. Father Laurence vows to inform Romeo of the plot via letter, whereupon the latter will sneak into the vault and, once reunited with Juliet, the two will escape to Mantua. Romeo does not see the delivered letter however and, believing Juliet to be dead, buys a vial of poison from an apothecary. Romeo enters the church where Juliet lies and consumes the poison just as Juliet wakes up. Distraught over Romeo’s death, Juliet picks up his gun and shoots herself in the head, falling down beside his lifeless body. Romeo's body is being taken inside an ambulance with a crowd of spectators and reporters observing the incident from behind the police line, when the parents of both Romeo and Juliet arrive in the scene. Captain Prince approaches their fathers, asking them to see the scourge that has resulted from their feud, including him losing his kinsmen, and that heaven has found means to kill their joys with love. The Captain then shouts on them saying all are punished. Cast The House of Montague Brian Dennehy as Ted Montague, Romeo's father Christina Pickles as Caroline Montague, Romeo's mother Leonardo DiCaprio as Romeo Dash Mihok as Benvolio, Romeo's cousin Jesse Bradford as Balthasar, Romeo's cousin Zak Orth as Gregory, Romeo's cousin Jamie Kennedy as Sampson, Romeo's cousin The House of Capulet Paul Sorvino as Fulgencio Capulet, Juliet's father Diane Venora as Gloria Capulet, Juliet's mother Claire Danes as Juliet John Leguizamo as Tybalt, Juliet's cousin Vincent Laresca as Abra, Juliet's cousin Carlos Martín Manzo Otálora as Petruchio, Juliet's cousin Miriam Margolyes as Nurse, Juliet's nanny Others Harold Perrineau as Mercutio, Romeo's best friend Pete Postlethwaite as Father Laurence, the priest who marries Romeo and Juliet Paul Rudd as Dave Paris, the governor's son and Juliet's fiancé Vondie Curtis-Hall as Captain Prince, the chief of police M. Emmet Walsh as Apothecary Quindon Tarver as Choir Boy, the singer at Romeo and Juliet's wedding Edwina Moore as the Anchorwoman, who assumes the role of the Chorus Natalie Portman had been cast as Juliet but, during rehearsals, it was thought that she looked too young for the part, and the footage looked as though DiCaprio was "molesting" her. Baz Luhrmann has also stated that Portman was too young at the time, and made DiCaprio look older than intended. He was 21 at the time of filming and Portman was only 14. After Sarah Michelle Gellar turned down the role due to scheduling conflicts, DiCaprio proclaimed that Danes should be cast, as he felt she was genuine in her line delivery and did not try to impress him by acting flirtatious. Differences with the film and the original play While it retains the original Shakespearean dialogue, the film represents the Montagues and the Capulets as warring mafia empires (with legitimate business fronts) in contemporary United States, where swords are replaced by guns (with brand names such as "Dagger" and "Sword") and a USPS style delivery service is called "Post Haste". Some characters' names are also changed: Paris, Lord & Lady Montague and Lord & Lady Capulet are given first names (in the original, their first names are never mentioned); Friar Laurence becomes Father Laurence, and Prince Escalus is rewritten as the police chief of Verona Beach, being renamed Captain Prince. The adaptation eliminates the character of Friar John, and some characters change families: in the original, Gregory and Sampson are Capulets, but in the film, they are Montagues; conversely, Abram, as Abra, is shifted from the Montague to the Capulet family. Production After the success of Strictly Ballroom, Luhrmann took some time over deciding what his next project would be: Our philosophy has always been that we think up what we need in our life, choose something creative that will make that life fulfilling, and then follow that road. With Romeo and Juliet what I wanted to do was to look at the way in which Shakespeare might make a movie of one of his plays if he was a director. How would he make it? We don't know a lot about Shakespeare, but we do know he would make a 'movie' movie. He was a player. We know about the Elizabethan stage and that he was playing for 3000 drunken punters, from the street sweeper to the Queen of England – and his competition was bear-baiting and prostitution. So he was a relentless entertainer and a user of incredible devices and theatrical tricks to ultimately create something of meaning and convey a story. That was what we wanted to do. Luhrmann obtained some funds from Fox to do a workshop and shoot some teaser footage in Sydney. Leonardo DiCaprio agreed to pay his own expenses to fly to Sydney and be part of it. Once Fox saw footage of the fight scene, they agreed to support it. All of the development was done in Australia, with pre-production in Australia and Canada and post-production in Australia. While some parts of the film were shot in Miami, most of the film was shot in Mexico City and Boca del Rio, Veracruz. For instance, the Capulet mansion was set at Chapultepec Castle while the ballroom was built on Stage One of Churubusco Studios; and the church is Immaculate Heart of Mary in the Del Valle neighborhood. Reception Box office The film premiered on November 1, 1996, in the United States and Canada, in 1,276 theaters, and grossed $11.1 million its opening weekend. It went on to gross $46.3 million in the United States and Canada, with a worldwide total of USD$151,841,661. Critical response Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rated the film "Fresh", with 73% of 67 critics giving positive reviews with an average rating of 6.8/10 with the consensus that says, "Baz Luhrmann's visual aesthetic is as divisive as it is fresh and inventive". Metacritic gives the film a score of 60 out of 100 based on 20 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale. James Berardinelli gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote, "Ultimately, no matter how many innovative and unconventional flourishes it applies, the success of any adaptation of a Shakespeare play is determined by two factors: the competence of the director and the ability of the main cast members. Luhrmann, Danes, and DiCaprio place this Romeo and Juliet in capable hands." Conversely, Roger Ebert gave the film a mixed review of only 2 stars out of 4, saying, "I've seen King Lear as a samurai drama and Macbeth as a Mafia story, and two different Romeo and Juliets about ethnic difficulties in Manhattan (West Side Story and China Girl), but I have never seen anything remotely approaching the mess that the new punk version of Romeo & Juliet makes of Shakespeare's tragedy." Accolades The film won several awards. Leonardo DiCaprio won Favorite Actor and Claire Danes won Favorite Actress in a Romance at the 1997 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards. At the 1997 MTV Movie Awards, Danes won Best Female Performance. DiCaprio was nominated for Best Male Performance, and DiCaprio and Danes were both nominated for Best Kiss and Best On-Screen Duo. At the 51st BAFTA Film Awards, director Baz Luhrmann won Best Direction, Luhrmann and Mary Haile won the Best Adapted Screenplay, Nellee Hooper, Craig Armstrong and Marius De Vries won the Best Film Music, and Catherine Martin won the Best Production Design. The film was also nominated for Best Cinematography, Best Editing, and Best Sound. At the 47th Berlin International Film Festival in 1997, DiCaprio won the Silver Bear for Best Actor and Luhrmann won the Alfred Bauer Prize. Luhrmann was also nominated for the Golden Bear Award for Best Picture. At the 69th Academy Awards, Catherine Martin and Brigitte Broch were nominated for Best Art Direction/Set Decoration. The film was nominated to appear on the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Passions list in 2002. Home media The film was originally released on DVD on March 19, 2002, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. A 10th anniversary special edition DVD containing extra features and commentary was released on February 6, 2007, and a Blu-ray edition was released on October 19, 2010. Retrospective reviews The film maintains a popular reputation among English teachers, as a means through which to introduce secondary school students to the play. Although not to every critic's taste, the film is now recognised as one of the most influential Shakespeare film adaptations ever made. For the promotion of her memoir titled This Much Is True published by John Murray in 2021, British actress Miriam Margolyes released free-to-quote commercial excerpts including one on her experience shooting Romeo + Juliet. On her co-star Leonardo Dicaprio she wrote:"Leonardo has grown into an extremely fine actor but back then he was just a handsome boy who didn't always wash; he was quite smelly in that very male way some young men are. Sometimes he wore a dress. 'Leonardo, I think you're gay,' I said. He laughed and said, 'No Miriam. I'm really not gay.' But I was wrong. We filmed in Mexico City, paradise for someone like me who loves fossicking around flea markets and antiques shops, and, like me, Leonardo was into bling in a big way, too. We'd spend hours going through the markets together. I don't know that I've ever had such fun."She further commented on the chemistry between the film's two leads:"I liked [Dicaprio] tremendously and admired his work, but luckily I was immune from his groin charms, unlike poor Claire Danes, then only 17. It was obvious to all of us that she really was in love with her Romeo, but Leonardo wasn't in love with her. She wasn't his type at all. He didn't know how to cope with her evident infatuation. He wasn't sensitive to her feelings, was dismissive of her and could be quite nasty in his keenness to get away, while Claire was utterly sincere and so open. It was painful to watch. Many years later, I was in a restaurant and she came up to me and said: 'We worked together on a film once, I don't know if you remember me? My name is Claire Danes.' It was the opposite of the arrogant behaviour of some stars and so typical of her." Soundtrack "#1 Crush" – Garbage "Local God" – Everclear "Angel" – Gavin Friday "Pretty Piece of Flesh" – One Inch Punch "Kissing You (Love Theme from Romeo & Juliet)" – Des'ree "Whatever (I Had a Dream)" – Butthole Surfers "Lovefool" – The Cardigans "Young Hearts Run Free" – Kym Mazelle "Everybody's Free (To Feel Good)" – Quindon Tarver "To You I Bestow" – Mundy "Talk Show Host" – Radiohead "Little Star" – Stina Nordenstam "You and Me Song" – The Wannadies “Exit Music (For a Film)” - Radiohead References Further reading Lehmann, Courtney. "Strictly Shakespeare? Dead Letters, Ghostly Fathers, and the Cultural Pathology of Authorship in Baz Luhrmann's 'William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet'." Shakespeare Quarterly. 52.2 (Summer 2001) pp. 189–221. Malone, Toby. Behind the Red Curtain of Verona Beach: Baz Luhrmann's 'William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet' Shakespeare Survey. 65 (1), 2012. pp 398–412. External links (Archive) Romeo + Juliet at Oz Movies 1996 films 1990s romantic drama films 1990s teen drama films 1990s teen romance films 20th Century Fox films American films American films based on plays American romantic drama films American teen drama films American teen romance films BAFTA winners (films) 1990s English-language films Films based on Romeo and Juliet Films directed by Baz Luhrmann Films scored by Craig Armstrong (composer) Films scored by Marius de Vries Films shot in California Films shot in Mexico City Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award Mafia films Modern adaptations of works by William Shakespeare Teen films based on works by William Shakespeare Poisoning in film Cultural depictions of the Mafia 1996 drama films Films shot in Miami Australian films Australian romantic drama films Australian teen drama films Canadian films Canadian romantic drama films Canadian teen drama films	[ 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202653	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehouse%20Creek	Stonehouse Creek	Stonehouse Creek, in Plymouth (England), is also known as Stonehouse Lake (on many maps). The Creek was dominated by two military buildings, the Royal Naval Hospital and the Stoke Military Hospital, which faced each other. Also located in the creek are the modern shipbuilding sheds occupied by the luxury motor-yacht firm Princess Yachts who employ hundreds of local tradesmen to construct and fit out expensive vessels. The creek now ends at Stonehouse Bridge (for many years a toll bridge) and to the north east the wide river bed which led up past Millbridge to Pennycomequick and beyond to the bottom of Ford Park Cemetery, was reclaimed and infilled in 1973 to provide the playing fields of Victoria Park and rugby pitches for Devonport High School for Boys. 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202654	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20to%20Read%20a%20Book	How to Read a Book	How to Read a Book is a 1940 book by the philosopher Mortimer J. Adler. He co-authored a heavily revised edition in 1972 with the editor Charles Van Doren, which gives guidelines for critically reading good and great books of any tradition. The 1972 revision, in addition to the first edition, treats genres (poetry, history, science, fiction, et cetera), inspectional and syntopical reading. Overview of the 1972 edition How to Read a Book is divided into four parts, each consisting of several chapters. Part 2: The Dimensions of Reading Adler explains for whom the book is intended, defines different classes of reading, and tells which classes will be addressed. He also makes a brief argument favoring the Great Books, and explains his reasons for writing How to Read a Book. There are three types of knowledge: practical, informational, and comprehensive. He discusses the methods of acquiring knowledge, concluding that practical knowledge, though teachable, cannot be truly mastered without experience; that only informational knowledge can be gained by one whose understanding equals the author's; that comprehension (insight) is best learned from who first achieved said understanding — an "original communication". The idea that communication directly from those who first discovered an idea is the best way of gaining understanding is Adler's argument for reading the Great Books; that any book that does not represent original communication is inferior, as a source, to the original, and that any teacher, save those who discovered the subject he or she teaches, is inferior to the Great Books as a source of comprehension. Adler spends a good deal of this first section explaining why he was compelled to write this book. He asserts that very few people can read a book for understanding, but that he believes that most are capable of it, given the right instruction and the will to do so. It is his intent to provide that instruction. He takes time to tell the reader about how he believes that the educational system has failed to teach students the art of reading well, up to and including undergraduate, university-level institutions. He concludes that, due to these shortcomings in formal education, it falls upon individuals to cultivate these abilities in themselves. Throughout this section, he relates anecdotes and summaries of his experience in education as support for these assertions. Part 1: The Third Level of Reading: Analytical Reading Here, Adler sets forth his method for reading a non-fiction book in order to gain understanding. He claims that three distinct approaches, or readings, must all be made in order to get the most possible out of a book, but that performing these three levels of readings does not necessarily mean reading the book three times, as the experienced reader will be able to do all three in the course of reading the book just once. Adler names the readings "structural", "interpretative", and "critical", in that order. Structural Stage: The first stage of analytical reading is concerned with understanding the structure and purpose of the book. It begins with determining the basic topic and type of the book being read, so as to better anticipate the contents and comprehend the book from the very beginning. Adler says that the reader must distinguish between practical and theoretical books, as well as determining the field of study that the book addresses. Further, Adler says that the reader must note any divisions in the book, and that these are not restricted to the divisions laid out in the table of contents. Lastly, the reader must find out what problems the author is trying to solve. Interpretive Stage: The second stage of analytical reading involves constructing the author's arguments. This first requires the reader to note and understand any special phrases and terms that the author uses. Once that is done, Adler says that the reader should find and work to understand each proposition that the author advances, as well as the author's support for those propositions. Critical Stage: In the third stage of analytical reading, Adler directs the reader to critique the book. He asserts that upon understanding the author's propositions and arguments, the reader has been elevated to the author's level of understanding and is now able (and obligated) to judge the book's merit and accuracy. Adler advocates judging books based on the soundness of their arguments. Adler says that one may not disagree with an argument unless one can find fault in its reasoning, facts, or premises, though one is free to dislike it in any case. The method presented is sometimes called the Structure-Proposition-Evaluation (SPE) method, though this term is not used in the book. Part III: Approaches to Different Kinds of Reading Matter In Part III, Adler briefly discusses the differences in approaching various kinds of literature and suggests reading several other books. He explains a method of approaching the Great Books – read the books that influenced a given author prior to reading works by that author – and gives several examples of that method. Part IV: The Ultimate Goals of Reading The last part of the book covers the fourth level of reading: syntopical reading. At this stage, the reader broadens and deepens his or her knowledge on a given subject—e.g., love, war, particle physics, etc.—by reading several books on that subject. In the final pages of this part, the author expounds on the philosophical benefits of reading: "growth of the mind", fuller experience as a conscious being... Reading list (1972 edition) Appendix A in the 1972 edition provided the following recommended reading list: Homer – Iliad, Odyssey The Old Testament Aeschylus – Tragedies Sophocles – Tragedies Herodotus – Histories Euripides – Tragedies Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War Hippocrates – Medical Writings Aristophanes – Comedies Plato – Dialogues Aristotle – Works Epicurus – Letter to Herodotus; Letter to Menoecus Euclid – Elements Archimedes – Works Apollonius of Perga – Conic Sections Cicero – Works Lucretius – On the Nature of Things Virgil – Works Horace – Works Livy – History of Rome Ovid – Works Plutarch – Parallel Lives; Moralia Tacitus – Histories; Annals; Agricola; Germania Nicomachus of Gerasa – Introduction to Arithmetic Epictetus – Discourses; Encheiridion Ptolemy – Almagest Lucian – Works Marcus Aurelius – Meditations Galen – On the Natural Faculties The New Testament Plotinus – The Enneads St. Augustine – On the Teacher; Confessions; City of God; On Christian Doctrine The Song of Roland The Nibelungenlied The Saga of Burnt Njál St. Thomas Aquinas – Summa Theologica Dante Alighieri – The Divine Comedy;The New Life; On Monarchy Geoffrey Chaucer – Troilus and Criseyde; The Canterbury Tales Leonardo da Vinci – Notebooks Niccolò Machiavelli – The Prince; Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy Desiderius Erasmus – The Praise of Folly Nicolaus Copernicus – On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres Thomas More – Utopia Martin Luther – Table Talk; Three Treatises François Rabelais – Gargantua and Pantagruel John Calvin – Institutes of the Christian Religion Michel de Montaigne – Essays William Gilbert – On the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies Miguel de Cervantes – Don Quixote Edmund Spenser – Prothalamion; The Faerie Queene Francis Bacon – Essays; Advancement of Learning; Novum Organum, New Atlantis William Shakespeare – Poetry and Plays Galileo Galilei – Starry Messenger; Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences Johannes Kepler – Epitome of Copernican Astronomy; Concerning the Harmonies of the World William Harvey – On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals; On the Circulation of the Blood; On the Generation of Animals Thomas Hobbes – Leviathan René Descartes – Rules for the Direction of the Mind; Discourse on the Method; Geometry; Meditations on First Philosophy John Milton – Works Molière – Comedies Blaise Pascal – The Provincial Letters; Pensees; Scientific Treatises Christiaan Huygens – Treatise on Light Benedict de Spinoza – Ethics John Locke – Letter Concerning Toleration; Of Civil Government; Essay Concerning Human Understanding; Thoughts Concerning Education Jean Baptiste Racine – Tragedies Isaac Newton – Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy; Optics Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Discourse on Metaphysics; New Essays Concerning Human Understanding; Monadology Daniel Defoe – Robinson Crusoe Jonathan Swift – A Tale of a Tub; Journal to Stella; Gulliver's Travels; A Modest Proposal William Congreve – The Way of the World George Berkeley – Principles of Human Knowledge Alexander Pope – Essay on Criticism; Rape of the Lock; Essay on Man Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu – Persian Letters; Spirit of Laws Voltaire – Letters on the English; Candide; Philosophical Dictionary Henry Fielding – Joseph Andrews; Tom Jones Samuel Johnson – The Vanity of Human Wishes; Dictionary; Rasselas; The Lives of the Poets David Hume – Treatise on Human Nature; Essays Moral and Political; An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding Jean-Jacques Rousseau – On the Origin of Inequality; On the Political Economy; Emile – or, On Education, The Social Contract Laurence Sterne – Tristram Shandy; A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy Adam Smith – The Theory of Moral Sentiments; The Wealth of Nations Immanuel Kant – Critique of Pure Reason; Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals; Critique of Practical Reason; The Science of Right; Critique of Judgment; Perpetual Peace Edward Gibbon – The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Autobiography James Boswell – Journal; Life of Samuel Johnson, Ll.D. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier – Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry) Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison – Federalist Papers Jeremy Bentham – Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation; Theory of Fictions Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Faust; Poetry and Truth Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier – Analytical Theory of Heat Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Phenomenology of Spirit; Philosophy of Right; Lectures on the Philosophy of History William Wordsworth – Poems Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Poems; Biographia Literaria Jane Austen – Pride and Prejudice; Emma Carl von Clausewitz – On War Stendhal – The Red and the Black; The Charterhouse of Parma; On Love Lord Byron – Don Juan Arthur Schopenhauer – Studies in Pessimism Michael Faraday – Chemical History of a Candle; Experimental Researches in Electricity Charles Lyell – Principles of Geology Auguste Comte – The Positive Philosophy Honoré de Balzac – Père Goriot; Eugenie Grandet Ralph Waldo Emerson – Representative Men; Essays; Journal Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter Alexis de Tocqueville – Democracy in America John Stuart Mill – A System of Logic; On Liberty; Representative Government; Utilitarianism; The Subjection of Women; Autobiography Charles Darwin – The Origin of Species; The Descent of Man; Autobiography Charles Dickens – Pickwick Papers; David Copperfield; Hard Times Claude Bernard – Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine Henry David Thoreau – Civil Disobedience; Walden Karl Marx – Capital; Communist Manifesto George Eliot – Adam Bede; Middlemarch Herman Melville – Moby-Dick; Billy Budd Fyodor Dostoevsky – Crime and Punishment; The Idiot; The Brothers Karamazov Gustave Flaubert – Madame Bovary; Three Stories Henrik Ibsen – Plays Leo Tolstoy – War and Peace; Anna Karenina; What is Art?; Twenty-Three Tales Mark Twain – The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; The Mysterious Stranger William James – The Principles of Psychology; The Varieties of Religious Experience; Pragmatism; Essays in Radical Empiricism Henry James – The American; The Ambassadors Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche – Thus Spoke Zarathustra; Beyond Good and Evil; The Genealogy of Morals; The Will to Power Jules Henri Poincaré – Science and Hypothesis; Science and Method Sigmund Freud – The Interpretation of Dreams; Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis; Civilization and Its Discontents; New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis George Bernard Shaw – Plays and Prefaces Max Planck – Origin and Development of the Quantum Theory; Where Is Science Going?; Scientific Autobiography Henri Bergson – Time and Free Will; Matter and Memory; Creative Evolution; The Two Sources of Morality and Religion John Dewey – How We Think; Democracy and Education; Experience and Nature; Logic: the Theory of Inquiry Alfred North Whitehead – An Introduction to Mathematics; Science and the Modern World; The Aims of Education and Other Essays; Adventures of Ideas George Santayana – The Life of Reason; Skepticism and Animal Faith; Persons and Places Vladimir Lenin – The State and Revolution Marcel Proust – Remembrance of Things Past Bertrand Russell – The Problems of Philosophy; The Analysis of Mind; An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth; Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits Thomas Mann – The Magic Mountain; Joseph and His Brothers Albert Einstein – The Meaning of Relativity; On the Method of Theoretical Physics; The Evolution of Physics James Joyce – 'The Dead' in Dubliners; A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man; Ulysses Jacques Maritain – Art and Scholasticism; The Degrees of Knowledge; The Rights of Man and Natural Law; True Humanism Franz Kafka – The Trial; The Castle Arnold J. Toynbee – A Study of History; Civilization on Trial Jean-Paul Sartre – Nausea; No Exit; Being and Nothingness Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn – The First Circle; The Cancer WardPublication data Mortimer Adler, How to Read a Book: The Art of Getting a Liberal Education, (1940) 1967 edition published with subtitle A Guide to Reading the Great Books 1972 revised edition, coauthor Charles Van Doren, New York: Simon and Schuster. See also How to Read Literature Like a Professor'' Reading (process) 1940 non-fiction books Alternative education Books about books Books by Mortimer J. 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202655	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Paterson	Tim Paterson	Tim Paterson (born 1 June 1956) is an American computer programmer, best known for creating 86-DOS, an operating system for the Intel 8086. This system emulated the application programming interface (API) of CP/M, which was created by Gary Kildall. 86-DOS later formed the basis of MS-DOS, the most widely used personal computer operating system in the 1980s. Biography Paterson was educated in the Seattle Public Schools, graduating from Ingraham High School in 1974. He attended the University of Washington, working as a repair technician for The Retail Computer Store in the Green Lake area of Seattle, Washington, and graduated magna cum laude with a degree in Computer Science in June 1978. He went to work for Seattle Computer Products as a designer and engineer. He designed the hardware of Microsoft's Z-80 SoftCard which had a Z80 CPU and ran the CP/M operating system on an Apple II. A month later, Intel released the 8086 CPU, and Paterson went to work designing an S-100 8086 board, which went to market in November 1979. The only commercial software that existed for the board was Microsoft's Standalone Disk BASIC-86. The standard CP/M operating system at the time was not available for this CPU and without a true operating system, sales were slow. Paterson began work on QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) in April 1980 to fill that void, copying the APIs of CP/M from sources including the published CP/M manual so that it would be highly compatible. QDOS was soon renamed as 86-DOS. Version 0.10 was complete by July 1980. By version 1.14 86-DOS had grown to lines of assembly code. In December 1980, Microsoft secured the rights to market 86-DOS to other hardware manufacturers. While acknowledging that he made 86-DOS compatible with CP/M, Paterson has maintained that the 86-DOS program was his original work and has denied allegations that he referred to CP/M code while writing it. When a book appeared in 2004 claiming that 86-DOS was an unoriginal "rip-off" of CP/M, Paterson sued the authors and publishers for defamation. The judge found that Paterson failed to "provide any evidence regarding 'serious doubts' about the accuracy of the Gary Kildall chapter. Instead, a careful review of the Lefer notes ... provides a research picture tellingly close to the substance of the final chapter" and the case was dismissed on the basis that the book's claims were constitutionally protected opinions and not provably false. Paterson left SCP in April 1981 and worked for Microsoft from May 1981 to April 1982. After a brief second stint with SCP, Paterson started his own company, Falcon Technology, a.k.a. Falcon Systems. In 1983, Microsoft contracted Paterson to port MS-DOS to the MSX computers standard they were developing with ASCII. Paterson accepted the contract to help fund his company and completed the work on the MSX-DOS operating system in 1984. Falcon Technology was bought by Microsoft in 1986 to reclaim one out of two issued royalty-free licenses for MS-DOS (the other belonging to SCP), eventually becoming part of Phoenix Technologies. Paterson worked a second stint with Microsoft from 1986 to 1988, and a third stint from 1990 to 1998, during which time he worked on Visual Basic. After leaving Microsoft a third time, Paterson founded another software development company, Paterson Technology, and also made several appearances on the Comedy Central television program BattleBots. Paterson has also raced rally cars in the SCCA Pro Rally series, and even engineered his own trip computer, which he integrated into the axle of a four-wheel-drive Porsche 911. References External links Paterson Technology, a company founded by Tim Paterson Tim Paterson's blog American computer programmers Microsoft employees DOS people MSX-DOS 1956 births Living people University of Washington alumni	[ 0.3014502227306366, 0.5032684206962585, -0.2005506306886673, -0.13235202431678772, 0.6235057711601257, 0.32652947306632996, -0.3297073245048523, 0.037797264754772186, 0.05696926638484001, 0.26992931962013245, -0.052100129425525665, 0.7314946055412292, -0.22248035669326782, -0.010845393873751163, 0.2058933526277542, 0.021853551268577576, -0.007025463972240686, -0.6123915910720825, -0.538399875164032, -0.19695180654525757, -0.5367147326469421, -0.36053207516670227, 0.1323346644639969, 0.24618907272815704, -0.6486560702323914, 0.830416202545166, 0.16574320197105408, -0.27533045411109924, -0.36046987771987915, -0.09270356595516205, 0.36013469099998474, -0.01869990862905979, 0.3984834849834442, -0.791220486164093, -0.4058704078197479, -0.16630525887012482, 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202657	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch%20Hazel%20%28Looney%20Tunes%29	Witch Hazel (Looney Tunes)	Witch Hazel is an animated cartoon character in the Warner Bros. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of cartoons and TV shows. The name is a reference to the plant witch-hazel and folk remedies based on it. Concept and creation Different characters of the same name appeared in several studios' short films throughout the golden age of American animation: the first was in the Disney cartoon Trick or Treat (1952), voiced by June Foray. Inspired by this character, Chuck Jones created his own witch for Warner Bros., reusing the same pun. Jones could do this because the name was already in use in commercial products; Foray said that the characters were also not expected to have any longevity. In her initial appearance, Bewitched Bunny (1954), she is voiced by Bea Benaderet. Starting with Broom-Stick Bunny (1956), Foray took over voicing the character. To differentiate the characters, Foray said that she performed the Disney version with a British accent, but the Warner Bros. version was "all American". Despite their common name, Jones' Witch Hazel is a much different witch from her Disney counterpart. The Looney Tunes character is a highly stylized villainess. Her rotund, green-skinned body is wrapped in a plain, blue dress and supported by twig-like legs. She has wild black hair from which hairpins fly and spin in midair whenever she zooms off on her broom or cackles in glee over her next evil scheme and she wears a crumpled black hat. Her nose and chin jut bulbously from her face and her mouth sports a single tooth. She has two pets: tarantula named Paul, and a black cat. She also has two magic brooms: one for sweeping the floor and one for flying. Appearances Golden age Bewitched Bunny retells the fairy tale about Hansel and Gretel. Witch Hazel plays the witch who attempts to cook and eat the children. Bugs Bunny witnesses her coax the children inside and saves the youths from Witch Hazel's clutches because the Masked Avenger is not around. Once the witch realizes that Bugs is a rabbit, she chases him to put him into her witch's brew. Upon putting Bugs into a sleeping spell, he is awoken by a kiss from Prince Charming; Bugs then tells him that he is in the wrong story. Bugs eventually uses Hazel's own magic against her and transforms her into a sexy female rabbit, to whom he is instantly attracted. He walks away with her while he breaks the fourth wall and comments, "Ah sure, I know. But aren't they all witches inside?" In Broom-Stick Bunny, Witch Hazel takes great pride in her status as the ugliest witch. While trick-or-treating on Halloween as a witch, Bugs Bunny visits Witch Hazel's house and she mistakes him for an actual witch. So does her magic mirror, which warns, "You're an ugly one, 'tis true; but that creep is uglier far than you!" Jealous that this newcomer is uglier than herself, Hazel attempts to trick the "witch" into drinking a "Pretty Potion" disguised as tea. Bugs removes his mask to drink it and she becomes obsessed with using the rabbit in her witch's brew. Hazel captures him by tricking him with a carrot. Hazel is about to kill Bugs, but becomes distraught when his sad eyes remind her of Paul, her pet tarantula. Bugs calms her down with a beverage which turns out to be the Pretty Potion. Transformed into a beautiful young woman, Hazel asks her magic mirror if she is still ugly. The genie in her mirror instantly falls in love with her and Hazel flies off into the night on her flying broomstick and the genie chases after her on his magic carpet. Bugs calls Air Raid headquarters to ask them about a "Flying Socceress chased by a Genie with light brown hair." Bugs Bunny was pitted against Witch Hazel for the last time in A Witch's Tangled Hare (1959), a parody of Macbeth. This short was directed by Abe Levitow. Rabbit is once again the missing ingredient to Witch Hazel's brew and Bugs happens to be in the area. Meanwhile, a William Shakespeare look-alike observes the action in search of inspiration. Bugs finds out that the man is not William Shakespeare, but is actually a man named Sam Crubish. Witch Hazel hears this and it appears that the two know each other but have not seen each other in a while because Crubish had the wrong apartment number, "2B". The poet and Witch Hazel leave talking about who made the mistake. Bugs Bunny quotes the famous line from Hamlet – "To be, or not to be, that is the question." The Bugs Bunny short Transylvania 6-5000 (1963) features a brief, silent cameo appearance from Witch Hazel (or a character very similar to her) as Bugs briefly transforms Count Bloodcount, the cartoon's vampire antagonist, into her through the use of a magic spell. Once production shifted to DePatie–Freleng Enterprises, Witch Hazel appeared in the cartoon A-Haunting We Will Go (1966), which also starred Daffy Duck and Speedy Gonzales. After the golden age Witch Hazel has appeared in cameos in various Warner Bros. productions, such as the movie Space Jam (1996) and its stand-alone sequel Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021), the video games The Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle 2 (in which she is the primary antagonist), Bugs Bunny: Lost in Time (in which she appears as a boss and also appears on the cover of the game) and Looney Tunes Collector: Alert! (2000), and one episode each of Animaniacs (in a Rita and Runt episode), The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries, Pinky and the Brain, Tiny Toon Adventures and Duck Dodgers (which references Broom-Stick Bunny and where June Foray returns to do her voice). She was also featured as the lead antagonist in DC Comics' three-issue Bugs Bunny miniseries from 1990 (though at the ending of the storyline, her appearance there is actually revealed to be a disguised Wile E. Coyote). She was used as an enemy in Scott Lowenstein's Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle 4 and her silhouette can be seen on the cover of the game. Witch Hazel has a cameo in the video game adaptation of Looney Tunes: Back in Action as a painting parodying the Mona Lisa in the Louvre Museum. Witch Hazel was also spotted in a MetLife commercial in 2012. Witch Hazel makes a cameo appearance in the deleted scene "Pig Head" of the film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. She is seen flying around on Beelzebub before getting struck by lightning. Witch Hazel also makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the film Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run. Witch Hazel also starred in the New Looney Tunes segments "Finders Keepers, Losers Sweepers", "Hiccups and Downs" and "It's Snout or Never". Witch Lezah The 2011 animated series The Looney Tunes Show introduces Witch Hazel renamed to Witch Lezah. Lezah ("Hazel" spelled backwards) is voiced by Roz Ryan, who gives the character a pronounced African American patois. In the series, she is Gossamer's mother. Unlike the other characters and her original character, she is always serious and gives advice that is not nonsensical and is more calm. She has a contradictory relationship with Daffy; she once threatened him into helping Gossamer make friends. Once Gossamer has friends she asks Daffy to stay away despite all his hard work. She has been a hypnotherapist by trade, as seen in "Point, Laser Point", where she provided Sylvester with services when he was in denial about his relationship with his mother. In "It's a Handbag", she helped Daffy recall who took his handbag. In "Best Friends Redux", Witch Lezah has a time portal in her home, which Daffy uses to jealously ensure that Bugs Bunny and Rodney Rabbit never meet. When nobody knows Daffy, Witch Lezah, who is unaffected by the time change, sends Daffy back in time to correct it, as it's ultimately because of Rodney that Bugs and Daffy met and became friends. Daffy uses Witch Lezah's time portal again to make sure he and Porky Pig meet. References External links All about Witch Hazel on Chuck Jones Official Website. 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202659	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehouse%2C%20Plymouth	Stonehouse, Plymouth	East Stonehouse was one of three towns that were amalgamated into modern-day Plymouth. West Stonehouse was a village that is within the current Mount Edgcumbe Country Park in Cornwall. It was destroyed by the French in 1350. The terminology used in this article refers to the settlement of East Stonehouse which is on the Devon side of the mouth of the Tamar estuary, and will be referred to as Stonehouse. History Settlement in the area goes back to Roman times and a house made of stone was believed to have stood near to Stonehouse Creek. However other stories relate to land owned in the 13th century by Robert the Bastard. This land subsequently passed from the Durnford family, through marriage, to the Edgecombe family in the 14th and 15th centuries. The site of the original settlement of Stonehouse is now mostly occupied by the complex of Princess Yachts. During the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries the areas of Emma Place and Caroline Place were home to many of the west country's top-ranking admirals, doctors and clergy. Those streets together with Millbay Road used to form Plymouth's red light district. Union Street, originally built across marshland, was for almost a century the centre of the city's night life with about a hundred pubs, a music hall and many other attractions. Much of it was destroyed by bombing in World War II. After the war the area between Union Street and the dock has been used by small factories, storage, car dealers and repairers. It remains underdeveloped compared with other parts of Plymouth. Notable buildings Significant buildings include the Royal William Victualling Yard, the Royal Marine Barracks, Stonehouse and the Royal Naval Hospital, Stonehouse. Of these three defence complexes only the Barracks remain in Naval possession. During the reign of Henry VII defences at the mouth of the Tamar were strengthened by the building of cannon-bearing towers. One of these, the Artillery Tower at the sea end of Durnford Street, has been preserved and is now a restaurant. Two of the surviving buildings close to the dock at Millbay are the red brick Portland stone-faced Georgian assembly room that is still called the Long Room, and the exquisite late Georgian or early Victorian Globe Theatre 300 metres north within the barracks. On the higher ground towards North Road are two major churches. Firstly the Anglican St Peter's with its tall spire in the centre of Georgian style Wyndham Square. A few hundred metres east is the mid Victorian Roman Catholic cathedral of St Mary and St Boniface (1858). During 1882, Arthur Conan Doyle worked as a newly qualified physician at 1 Durnford Street, East Stonehouse. Plaques bearing passages from his works featuring Sherlock Holmes have since been set into the pavement in Durnford Street. Regeneration Between 1993 and 1998 the part of Stonehouse to the west of Durnford Street (including the Royal William Victualling Yard) was designated as one of the three areas of the city under control of Plymouth Development Corporation. Gradually affluent residents are moving back into the district which has been comparatively poor since the Great War. Durnford Street is being regentrified. The former Naval Hospital (adjacent to the Millfields – formerly part of Stonehouse Creek) is a gated community with security guards. However, Royal William Yard, also a walled site, welcomes the public freely (apart from car parking charges) to its increasing number of food outlets, and has part of the South West Coast Path running through it, using a staircase specially constructed in 2013. In 2013 a marina was opened within Millbay Docks. On Stonehouse Creek, a branch of the Tamar, off the estuary known as the Hamoaze are the modern shipbuilding sheds occupied by the luxury motor-yacht firm Princess Yachts who employ hundreds of local tradesmen to construct and fit out expensive vessels. The creek now ends at Stonehouse Bridge (for many years a toll bridge) and to the north east the wide river bed which led up past Millbridge to Pennycomequick and beyond to the bottom of Ford Park Cemetery, was reclaimed and infilled in 1973 to provide the playing fields of Victoria Park and rugby pitches for Devonport High School for Boys. Stonehouse is the site of Plymouth's international ferry port at Millbay with at least daily sailings to Roscoff in Brittany (except in winter) and frequent ferries to Santander in northern Spain. There is a regular passenger ferry from the tidal landing Admiral's Hard to Cremyll in Cornwall which is used by visitors to the Mount Edgcumbe Country Park, and commuters to Plymouth. Notable people Alexander Copland Hutchison FRSE surgeon and medical author John Eastman Palmer – photographer William Eastman Palmer – 19th-century photographer Caroline Ganley – member of parliament References Plymouth, Devon Former towns in Devon	[ -0.5648311972618103, 0.6070833206176758, 0.07370035350322723, -0.5663133263587952, -0.19905298948287964, 0.4930954575538635, 0.1595252901315689, -0.1028021052479744, -0.08139589428901672, -0.26206910610198975, -0.03832731395959854, -0.18374523520469666, 0.04134920984506607, 0.792377769947052, -0.7444742321968079, 0.49638327956199646, 0.1979982852935791, 0.27742353081703186, -0.0533100888133049, -0.36555105447769165, -0.13391761481761932, 0.3260403871536255, -0.35347145795822144, 0.09951144456863403, -0.055325206369161606, 0.18796436488628387, 0.7230448722839355, -0.13729003071784973, -0.03364608436822891, -0.1651606559753418, 0.047304343432188034, 0.42451968789100647, -0.42663052678108215, -0.6136020421981812, 0.5484384298324585, 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202661	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20parallax	Stellar parallax	Stellar parallax is the apparent shift of position of any nearby star (or other object) against the background of distant objects. Created by the different orbital positions of Earth, the extremely small observed shift is largest at time intervals of about six months, when Earth arrives at opposite sides of the Sun in its orbit, giving a baseline distance of about two astronomical units between observations. The parallax itself is considered to be half of this maximum, about equivalent to the observational shift that would occur due to the different positions of Earth and the Sun, a baseline of one astronomical unit (AU). Stellar parallax is so difficult to detect that its existence was the subject of much debate in astronomy for hundreds of years. Friedrich Bessel made the first successful parallax measurement in 1838, for the star 61 Cygni, using a Fraunhofer heliometer at Königsberg Observatory. Parallax method Throughout the year the position of a star S is noted in relation to other stars in its apparent neighborhood: Stars that did not seem to move in relation to each other are used as reference points to determine the path of S. The observed path is an ellipse: the projection of Earth’s orbit around the Sun through S onto the distant background of non-moving stars. The farther S is removed from Earth’s orbital axis, the greater the eccentricity of the path of S. The center of the ellipse corresponds to the point where S would be seen from the Sun: The plane of Earth’s orbit is at an angle to a line from the Sun through S. The vertices v and v' of the elliptical projection of the path of S are projections of positions of Earth E and E’ such that a line E-E’ intersects the line Sun-S at a right angle; the triangle created by points E, E’ and S is an isosceles triangle with the line Sun-S as its symmetry axis. Any stars that did not move between observations are, for the purpose of the accuracy of the measurement, infinitely far away. This means that the distance of the movement of the Earth compared to the distance to these infinitely far away stars is, within the accuracy of the measurement, 0. Thus a line of sight from Earth's first position E to vertex v will be essentially the same as a line of sight from the Earth's second position E' to the same vertex v, and will therefore run parallel to it - impossible to depict convincingly in an image of limited size: Since line E'-v' is a transversal in the same (approximately Euclidean) plane as parallel lines E-v and E'-v, it follows that the corresponding angles of intersection of these parallel lines with this transversal are congruent: the angle θ between lines of sight E-v and E'-v' is equal to the angle θ between E'-v and E'-v', which is the angle θ between observed positions of S in relation to its apparently unmoving stellar surroundings. The distance d from the Sun to S now follows from simple trigonometry: tan(½θ) = E-Sun / d, so that d = E-Sun / tan(½θ), where E-Sun is 1 AU. The more distant an object is, the smaller its parallax. Stellar parallax measures are given in the tiny units of arcseconds, or even in thousandths of arcseconds (milliarcseconds). The distance unit parsec is defined as the length of the leg of a right triangle adjacent to the angle of one arcsecond at one vertex, where the other leg is 1 AU long. Because stellar parallaxes and distances all involve such skinny right triangles, a convenient trigonometric approximation can be used to convert parallaxes (in arcseconds) to distance (in parsecs). The approximate distance is simply the reciprocal of the parallax: For example, Proxima Centauri (the nearest star to Earth other than the Sun), whose parallax is 0.7685, is 1 / 0.7685 parsecs = distant. Early theory and attempts Stellar parallax is so small that it was unobservable until the 19th century, and its apparent absence was used as a scientific argument against heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far enough away, but for various reasons, such gigantic distances involved seemed entirely implausible: it was one of Tycho Brahe's principal objections to Copernican heliocentrism that for it to be compatible with the lack of observable stellar parallax, there would have to be an enormous and unlikely void between the orbit of Saturn and the eighth sphere (the fixed stars). James Bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope, but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of Earth's axis, and catalogued 3,222 stars. 19th and 20th centuries Stellar parallax is most often measured using annual parallax, defined as the difference in position of a star as seen from Earth and Sun, i.e. the angle subtended at a star by the mean radius of Earth's orbit around the Sun. The parsec (3.26 light-years) is defined as the distance for which the annual parallax is 1 arcsecond. Annual parallax is normally measured by observing the position of a star at different times of the year as Earth moves through its orbit. The angles involved in these calculations are very small and thus difficult to measure. The nearest star to the Sun (and also the star with the largest parallax), Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of 0.7685 ± 0.0002 arcsec. This angle is approximately that subtended by an object 2 centimeters in diameter located 5.3 kilometers away. Measurement of annual parallax was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closest stars. The first successful measurements of stellar parallax were made by Friedrich Bessel in 1838 for the star 61 Cygni using a heliometer. A large heliometer was installed at Kuffner Observatory (In Vienna) in 1896, and was used for measuring the distance to other stars by trigonometric parallax. By 1910 it had computed 16 parallax distances to other stars, out of only 108 total known to science at that time. Being very difficult to measure, only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century, mostly by use of the filar micrometer. Astrographs using astronomical photographic plates sped the process in the early 20th century. Automated plate-measuring machines and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of star catalogues. In the 1980s, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond. Stellar parallax remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods (see Cosmic distance ladder). Accurate calculations of distance based on stellar parallax require a measurement of the distance from Earth to the Sun, now known to exquisite accuracy based on radar reflection off the surfaces of planets. Space astrometry for parallax In 1989 the satellite Hipparcos was launched primarily for obtaining parallaxes and proper motions of nearby stars, increasing the number of stellar parallaxes measured to milliarcsecond accuracy a thousandfold. Even so, Hipparcos is only able to measure parallax angles for stars up to about 1,600 light-years away, a little more than one percent of the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy. The Hubble telescope WFC3 now has a precision of 20 to 40 microarcseconds, enabling reliable distance measurements up to for a small number of stars. This gives more accuracy to the cosmic distance ladder and improves the knowledge of distances in the Universe, based on the dimensions of the Earth's orbit. As distances between the two points of observation are increased, the visual effect of the parallax is likewise rendered more visible. NASA's New Horizons spacecraft performed the first interstellar parallax measurement on 22 April 2020, taking images of Proxima Centauri and Wolf 359 in conjunction with earth-based observatories. The relative proximity of the two stars combined with the 6.5 billion kilometer (about 43 AU) distance of the spacecraft from Earth yielded a discernible parallax of arcminutes, allowing the parallax to be seen visually without instrumentation. The European Space Agency's Gaia mission, launched 19 December 2013, is expected to measure parallax angles to an accuracy of 10 microarcseconds for all moderately bright stars, thus mapping nearby stars (and potentially planets) up to a distance of tens of thousands of light-years from Earth. Data Release 2 in 2018 claims mean errors for the parallaxes of 15th magnitude and brighter stars of 20–40 microarcseconds. Radio astrometry for parallax Very long baseline interferometry in the radio band can produce images with angular resolutions of about 1 milliarcsecond, and hence, for bright radio sources, the precision of parallax measurements made in the radio can easily exceed those of optical telescopes like Gaia. These measurements tend to be sensitivity limited, and need to be made one at a time, so the work is generally done only for sources like pulsars and X-ray binaries, where the radio emission is strong relative to the optical emission. Other baselines Statistical parallax Two related techniques can determine the mean distances of stars by modelling the motions of stars. Both are referred to as statistical parallaxes, or individually called secular parallaxes and classical statistical parallaxes. Secular parallax The motion of the Sun through space provides a longer baseline that will increase the accuracy of parallax measurements, known as secular parallax. For stars in the Milky Way disk, this corresponds to a mean baseline of 4 AU per year, whereas for halo stars the baseline is 40 AU per year. After several decades, the baseline can be orders of magnitude greater than the Earth–Sun baseline used for traditional parallax. However, secular parallax introduces a higher level of uncertainty because the relative velocity of other stars is an additional unknown. When applied to samples of multiple stars, the uncertainty can be reduced; the precision is inversely proportional to the square root of the sample size. Classical statistical parallax The mean parallaxes and distances of a large group of stars can be estimated from their radial velocities and proper motions. This is known as a classical statistical parallax. The motions of the stars are modelled to statistically reproduce the velocity dispersion based on their distance. Other parallax in astronomy Other uses of the term parallax in astronomy (to mean a method of estimating distance), none of which actually utilise a geometric parallax, are the photometric parallax method, spectroscopic parallax, and dynamical parallax (used on visual binaries). See also Apparent place TAU (spacecraft) (an abandoned space mission project that would have used parallax) References . . 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202664	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane%20Keaton	Diane Keaton	Diane Hall Keaton (born Diane Hall; January 5, 1946) is an American actress. Known for her idiosyncratic personality and fashion style, she has received various accolades throughout her career spanning over six decades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award, two Golden Globe Awards, and the AFI Life Achievement Award. Keaton began her career on stage appearing in the original 1968 Broadway production of the musical Hair. The next year, she received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play nomination for her performance in Woody Allen's comic play Play it Again, Sam. She then made her screen debut in a small role in Lovers and Other Strangers (1970). She rose to prominence with her first major film role as Kay Adams-Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather (1972), a role she reprised in its sequels The Godfather Part II (1974) and The Godfather Part III (1990). The films that most shaped her career were those with director and co-star Woody Allen, beginning with the film adaptation of Play It Again, Sam (1972). Her next two films with Allen, Sleeper (1973) and Love and Death (1975), established her as a comic actor. Her fourth, the romantic comedy Annie Hall (1977), won her the Academy Award for Best Actress. To avoid being typecast as her Annie Hall persona, Keaton appeared in several dramatic films, starring in Looking for Mr. Goodbar (1977) and Allen's Interiors (1978), and received three more Academy Award nominations for playing feminist activist Louise Bryant in Reds (1981), a woman with leukemia in Marvin's Room (1996), and a dramatist in Something's Gotta Give (2003). Keaton's other popular films include Manhattan (1979), Baby Boom (1987), Father of the Bride (1991), Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993), Father of the Bride Part II (1995), The First Wives Club (1996), The Family Stone (2005), Morning Glory (2010), Finding Dory (2016) and Book Club (2018). Early life and education Diane Keaton was born Diane Hall in Los Angeles, California. Her mother, Dorothy Deanne (née Keaton), was a homemaker and amateur photographer; her father, John Newton Ignatius "Jack" Hall, was a real estate broker and civil engineer. Keaton was raised a Free Methodist by her mother. Her mother won the "Mrs. Los Angeles" pageant for homemakers; Keaton has said that the theatricality of the event inspired her first impulse to be an actress, and led to her wanting to work on stage. She has also credited Katharine Hepburn, whom she admires for playing strong and independent women, as one of her inspirations. Keaton is a 1964 graduate of Santa Ana High School in Santa Ana, California. During her time there, she participated in singing and acting clubs at school, and starred as Blanche DuBois in a school production of A Streetcar Named Desire. After graduation, she attended Santa Ana College, and later Orange Coast College as an acting student, but dropped out after a year to pursue an entertainment career in Manhattan. Upon joining the Actors' Equity Association, she changed her surname to Keaton, her mother's maiden name, as there was already an actress registered under the name of Diane Hall. For a brief time she also moonlighted at nightclubs with a singing act. She revisited her nightclub act in Annie Hall (1977), And So It Goes (2014), and a cameo in Radio Days (1987). Keaton began studying acting at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City. She initially studied acting under the Meisner technique, an ensemble acting technique first evolved in the 1930s by Sanford Meisner, a New York stage actor/acting coach/director who had been a member of The Group Theater (1931–1940). She has described her acting technique as, "[being] only as good as the person you're acting with ... As opposed to going it on my own and forging my path to create a wonderful performance without the help of anyone. I always need the help of everyone!" According to Jack Nicholson, "She approaches a script sort of like a play in that she has the entire script memorized before you start doing the movie, which I don't know any other actors doing that." Career 1970s In 1968, Keaton became a member of the "Tribe" and understudy to Sheila in the original Broadway production of Hair. She gained some notoriety for her refusal to disrobe at the end of Act I when the cast performs nude, even though nudity in the production was optional for actors (Those who performed nude received a $50 bonus). After acting in Hair for nine months, she auditioned for a part in Woody Allen's production of Play It Again, Sam. After nearly being passed over for being too tall (at , she is taller than Allen), she won the part. She went on to receive a Tony Award nomination for a Best Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in Play It Again, Sam. The next year, Keaton made her film debut in Lovers and Other Strangers. She followed with guest roles on the television series Love, American Style, Night Gallery, and Mannix. Between films, Keaton appeared in a series of deodorant commercials. Keaton's breakthrough role came two years later when she was cast as Kay Adams, the girlfriend and eventual wife of Michael Corleone (played by Al Pacino) in Francis Ford Coppola's 1972 film The Godfather. Coppola noted that he first noticed Keaton in Lovers and Other Strangers, and cast her because of her reputation for eccentricity that he wanted her to bring to the role (Keaton claims that at the time she was commonly referred to as "the kooky actress" of the film industry). Her performance in the film was loosely based on her real-life experience of making the film, both of which she has described as being "the woman in a world of men." The Godfather was an unparalleled critical and financial success, becoming the highest-grossing film of the year and winning the Best Picture Oscar of 1972. Two years later she reprised her role as Kay Adams in The Godfather Part II. She was initially reluctant, saying, "At first, I was skeptical about playing Kay again in the Godfather sequel. But when I read the script, the character seemed much more substantial than in the first movie." In Part II her character changed dramatically, becoming more embittered about her husband's criminal empire. Even though Keaton received widespread exposure from the films, her character's importance was minimal. Time wrote that she was "invisible in The Godfather and pallid in The Godfather, Part II, but according to Empire magazine, Keaton "proves the quiet lynchpin which is no mean feat in [the] necessarily male dominated films." Keaton's other notable films of the 1970s included many collaborations with Woody Allen; although by the time they made films together, their romantic involvement had ended. She played many eccentric characters in several of his comic and dramatic films, including Sleeper, Love and Death, Interiors, Manhattan, Manhattan Murder Mystery and the film version of Play It Again, Sam, directed by Herbert Ross. Allen has credited Keaton as his muse during his early film career. In 1977 Keaton won the Academy Award for Best Actress in Allen's romantic comedy Annie Hall, one of her most famous roles. Annie Hall, written by Allen and Marshall Brickman and directed by Allen, was believed by many to be an autobiographical exploration of his relationship with Keaton. Allen based the character of Annie Hall loosely on Keaton ("Annie" is a nickname of hers, and "Hall" is her original surname). Many of Keaton's mannerisms and her self-deprecating sense of humor were added into the role by Allen. (Director Nancy Meyers has claimed: "Diane's the most self-deprecating person alive.") Keaton has also said that Allen wrote the character as an "idealized version" of herself. The two starred as a frequently on-again, off-again couple living in New York City. Her acting was later summed up by CNN as "awkward, self-deprecating, speaking in endearing little whirlwinds of semi-logic", and by Allen as a "nervous breakdown in slow motion." The film was both a major financial and critical success and won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Of Keaton's performance, feminist film critic Molly Haskell wrote, "Keaton took me by surprise in Annie Hall. Here she blossomed into something more than just another kooky dame—she put the finishing touches on a type, the anti-goddess, the golden shiksa from the provinces who looks cool and together, who looks as if she must have a date on Saturday night, but has only to open her mouth or gulp or dart spastically sideways to reveal herself as the insecure bungler she is, as complete a social disaster in her own way as Allen's horny West Side intellectual is in his." In 2006 Premiere magazine ranked Keaton in Annie Hall 60th on its list of the "100 Greatest Performances of All Time", and noted: It's hard to play ditzy. ... The genius of Annie is that despite her loopy backhand, awful driving, and nervous tics, she's also a complicated, intelligent woman. Keaton brilliantly displays this dichotomy of her character, especially when she yammers away on a first date with Alvy (Woody Allen), while the subtitle reads, 'He probably thinks I'm a yoyo.' Yo-yo? Hardly. Keaton's eccentric wardrobe in Annie Hall, which consisted mainly of vintage men's clothing, including neckties, vests, baggy pants, and fedora hats, made her an unlikely fashion icon of the late 1970s. A small amount of the clothing seen in the film came from Keaton herself, who was already known for her tomboyish clothing style years before Annie Hall, and Ruth Morley designed the movie's costumes. Soon after the film's release, men's clothing and pantsuits became popular attire for women. She is known to favor men's vintage clothing, and usually appears in public wearing gloves and conservative attire. (A 2005 profile in the San Francisco Chronicle described her as "easy to find. Look for the only woman in sight dressed in a turtleneck on a 90-degree afternoon in Pasadena.") Her photo by Douglas Kirkland appeared on the cover of the September 26, 1977, issue of Time magazine, with the story dubbing her "the funniest woman now working in films." Later that year she departed from her usual lighthearted comic roles when she won the highly coveted lead role in the drama Looking for Mr. Goodbar, based on the novel by Judith Rossner. In the film she played a Catholic schoolteacher for deaf children who lives a double life, spending nights frequenting singles bars and engaging in promiscuous sex. Keaton became interested in the role after seeing it as a "psychological case history." The same issue of Time commended her role choice and criticized the restricted roles available for female actors in American films: A male actor can fly a plane, fight a war, shoot a badman, pull off a sting, impersonate a big cheese in business or politics. Men are presumed to be interesting. A female can play a wife, play a whore, get pregnant, lose her baby, and, um, let's see ... Women are presumed to be dull. ... Now a determined trend spotter can point to a handful of new films whose makers think that women can bear the dramatic weight of a production alone, or virtually so. Then there is Diane Keaton in Looking for Mr. Goodbar. As Theresa Dunn, Keaton dominates this raunchy, risky, violent dramatization of Judith Rossner's 1975 novel about a schoolteacher who cruises singles bars. In addition to acting, Keaton has said she "had a lifelong ambition to be a singer." She had a brief, unrealized career as a recording artist in the 1970s. Her first record was an original cast recording of Hair, in 1971. In 1977 she began recording tracks for a solo album, but the finished record never materialized. Keaton met with more success in the medium of still photography. Like her character in Annie Hall, Keaton had long relished photography as a favorite hobby, an interest she picked up as a teenager from her mother. While traveling in the late 1970s, she began exploring her avocation more seriously. "Rolling Stone had asked me to take photographs for them, and I thought, 'Wait a minute, what I'm really interested in is these lobbies, and these strange ballrooms in these old hotels.' So I began shooting them", she recalled in 2003. "These places were deserted, and I could just sneak in anytime and nobody cared. It was so easy and I could do it myself. It was an adventure for me." Reservations, her collection of photos of hotel interiors, was published in book form in 1980. 1980s With Manhattan (1979), Keaton and Woody Allen ended their long working relationship; it was their last major collaboration until 1993. In 1978 she became romantically involved with Warren Beatty, and two years later he cast her opposite him in the epic historical drama Reds. In the film, she played Louise Bryant, a journalist and feminist, who flees her husband to work with radical journalist John Reed (Beatty) and later enters Russia to find him as he chronicles the Russian Civil War. Beatty cast Keaton after seeing her in Annie Hall, as he wanted to bring her natural nervousness and insecure attitude to the role. The production of Reds was delayed several times following its conception in 1977, and Keaton almost left the project when she believed it would never be produced. Filming finally began two years later. In a 2006 Vanity Fair story, Keaton described her role as "the everyman of that piece, as someone who wanted to be extraordinary but was probably more ordinary ... I knew what it felt like to be extremely insecure." Assistant director Simon Relph later stated that Louise Bryant was one of Keaton's most difficult roles, and that "[she] almost got broken." Reds opened to critical acclaim, and Keaton's performance was particularly praised. The New York Times wrote that Keaton was "nothing less than splendid as Louise Bryant– beautiful, selfish, funny and driven. It's the best work she has done to date." Roger Ebert called Keaton "a particular surprise. I had somehow gotten into the habit of expecting her to be a touchy New Yorker, sweet, scared, and intellectual. Here, she is just what she needs to be: plucky, healthy, exasperated, loyal, and funny." Keaton received her second Academy Award nomination for her performance. The following year, Keaton starred in the domestic drama Shoot the Moon opposite Albert Finney. The film follows George (Finney) and Faith Dunlap (Keaton), whose deteriorating marriage, separation, and love affairs devastate their four children. Shoot the Moon received mostly positive reviews from critics and Keaton's performance was again praised. In The New Yorker, Pauline Kael wrote that the film was "perhaps the most revealing American movie of the era", saying of Keaton: Diane Keaton may be a star without vanity: she's so completely challenged by the role of Faith that all she cares about is getting the character right. Very few young American movie actresses have the strength and the instinct for the toughest dramatic roles — intelligent, sophisticated heroines. Jane Fonda did, around the time that she appeared in Klute and They Shoot Horses, Don't They?, but that was more than ten years ago. There hasn't been anybody else until now. Diane Keaton acts on a different plane from that of her previous film roles; she brings the character a full measure of dread and awareness and does it in a special, intuitive way that's right for screen acting. David Denby of New York magazine called Keaton "perfectly relaxed and self-assured", adding, "Keaton has always found it easy enough to bring out the anger that lies beneath the soft hesitancy of her surface manner, but she's never dug down and found this much pain before. Keaton's performance garnered her a second Golden Globe nomination in a row for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, following Reds. 1984 brought The Little Drummer Girl, Keaton's first excursion into the thriller and action genre. The Little Drummer Girl was both a financial and critical failure, with critics claiming that Keaton was miscast for the genre, such as one review from The New Republic claiming that "the title role, the pivotal role, is played by Diane Keaton, and around her the picture collapses in tatters. She is so feeble, so inappropriate." But the same year she received positive reviews for her performance in Mrs. Soffel, a film based on the true story of a repressed prison warden's wife who falls in love with a convicted murderer and arranges for his escape. Two years later she starred with Jessica Lange and Sissy Spacek in Crimes of the Heart, adapted from Beth Henley's Pulitzer Prize-winning play into a moderately successful screen comedy. Keaton's performance was well received by critics, and Rita Kempley of The Washington Post wrote, "As the frumpy Lenny, Keaton eases smoothly from New York neurotic to southern eccentric, a reluctant wallflower stymied by, of all things, her shriveled ovary." In 1987 Keaton starred in Baby Boom, her first of four collaborations with writer-producer Nancy Meyers. She played a Manhattan career woman who is suddenly forced to care for a toddler. A modest box-office success, Keaton's performance was singled out by Kael, who described it as "a glorious comedy performance that rides over many of the inanities in this picture. Keaton is smashing: the Tiger Lady's having all this drive is played for farce and Keaton keeps you alert to every shade of pride and panic the character feels. She's an ultra-feminine executive, a wide-eyed charmer, with a breathless ditziness that may remind you of Jean Arthur in The More The Merrier." That same year Keaton made a cameo in Allen's film Radio Days as a nightclub singer. 1988's The Good Mother was a financial disappointment (according to Keaton, the film was "a Big Failure. Like, BIG failure"), and some critics panned her performance; according to The Washington Post, "her acting degenerates into hype—as if she's trying to sell an idea she can't fully believe in." In 1987 Keaton directed and edited her first feature film, Heaven, a documentary about the possibility of an afterlife. It met with mixed critical reaction, with The New York Times likening it to "a conceit imposed on its subjects." Over the next four years Keaton directed music videos for artists such as Belinda Carlisle, including the video for Carlisle's chart-topping hit "Heaven Is a Place on Earth," two television films starring Patricia Arquette, and episodes of the series China Beach and Twin Peaks. 1990s By the 1990s Keaton had established herself as one of the most popular and versatile actors in Hollywood. She shifted to more mature roles, frequently playing matriarchs of middle-class families. Of her role choices and avoidance of becoming typecast, she said: "Most often a particular role does you some good and Bang! You have loads of offers, all of them for similar roles ... I have tried to break away from the usual roles and have tried my hand at several things." Keaton began the decade with The Lemon Sisters, a poorly received comedy/drama that she starred in and produced, which was shelved for a year after its completion. In 1991 she starred with Steve Martin in the family comedy Father of the Bride. She was almost not cast in the film, as The Good Mother's commercial failure had strained her relationship with Walt Disney Pictures, the studio of both films. Father of the Bride was Keaton's first major hit after four years of commercial disappointments. She reprised her role four years later in the sequel, as a woman who becomes pregnant in middle age at the same time as her daughter. A San Francisco Examiner review of the film was one of many in which Keaton was once again compared to Katharine Hepburn: "No longer relying on that stuttering uncertainty that seeped into all her characterizations of the 1970s, she has somehow become Katharine Hepburn with a deep maternal instinct, that is, she is a fine and intelligent actress who doesn't need to be tough and edgy in order to prove her feminism." Keaton reprised her role of Kay Adams in 1990's The Godfather Part III, set 20 years after the end of The Godfather, Part II. Keaton's character was now Michael Corleone's estranged ex-wife. Criticism of the film and Keaton again centered on her character's unimportance in the film. The Washington Post wrote, "Even though she is authoritative in the role, Keaton suffers tremendously from having no real function except to nag Michael for his past sins." In 1993 Keaton starred in Manhattan Murder Mystery, her first major film role in a Woody Allen film since 1979. Her part was originally intended for Mia Farrow, but Farrow dropped out of the project after breaking up with Allen. Todd McCarthy of Variety commended her performance, writing that she "nicely handles her sometimes buffoonish central comedic role". David Ansen of Newsweek wrote, "On screen, Keaton and Allen have always been made for each other: they still strike wonderfully ditsy sparks". For her performance, Keaton was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical. In 1995 Keaton directed Unstrung Heroes, her first theatrically released narrative film. The movie, adapted from Franz Lidz's memoir, starred Nathan Watt as a boy in the 1960s whose mother (Andie MacDowell) is diagnosed with cancer. As her sickness advances and his inventor father (John Turturro) grows increasingly distant, the boy is sent to live with his two eccentric uncles (Maury Chaykin and Michael Richards). Keaton switched the story's setting from the New York of Lidz's book to the Southern California of her own childhood, and the four mad uncles were reduced to a whimsical odd couple. In an essay for The New York Times, Lidz said that the cinematic Selma had died not of cancer, but of "Old Movie Disease". "Someday somebody may find a cure for cancer, but the terminal sappiness of cancer movies is probably beyond remedy." Unstrung Heroes played in a relatively limited release and made little impression at the box office, but the film and its direction were generally well-received critically. Keaton's most successful film of the decade was the 1996 comedy The First Wives Club. She starred with Goldie Hawn and Bette Midler as a trio of "first wives": middle-aged women who had been divorced by their husbands in favor of younger women. Keaton claimed that making the film "saved [her] life." The film was a major success, grossing US$105million at the North American box office, and it developed a cult following among middle-aged women. Its reviews were generally positive for Keaton and her co-stars, and The San Francisco Chronicle called her "probably [one of] the best comic film actresses alive." In 1997 Keaton, Hawn and Midler received the Women in Film Crystal Award, which honors "outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry." Also in 1996 Keaton starred as Bessie, a woman with leukemia, in Marvin's Room, an adaptation of the play by Scott McPherson. Meryl Streep played her estranged sister, Lee, and had also initially been considered for the role of Bessie. The film also starred Leonardo DiCaprio as Lee's rebellious son. Roger Ebert wrote, "Streep and Keaton, in their different styles, find ways to make Lee and Bessie into much more than the expression of their problems." Keaton earned a third Academy Award nomination for the film, which was critically acclaimed. She said the role's biggest challenge was understanding the mentality of a person with a terminal illness. Keaton next starred in The Only Thrill (1997) opposite her Baby Boom co-star Sam Shephard, and had a supporting role in The Other Sister (1999). In 1999 Keaton narrated the one-hour public radio documentary "If I Get Out Alive", the first to focus on the conditions and brutality young people face in the adult correctional system. The program, produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media, aired on public radio stations across the country and was honored with a First Place National Headliner Award and a Casey Medal for Meritorious Journalism. 2000s Keaton's first film of 2000 was Hanging Up, with Meg Ryan and Lisa Kudrow. She directed the film, despite claiming in a 1996 interview that she would never direct herself in a film, saying "as a director, you automatically have different goals. I can't think about directing when I'm acting." A drama about three sisters coping with the senility and eventual death of their elderly father (Walter Matthau), Hanging Up rated poorly with critics and grossed a modest US$36million at the North American box office. In 2001 Keaton co-starred with Warren Beatty in Town & Country, a critical and financial fiasco. Budgeted at an estimated US$90million, the film opened to little notice and grossed only US$7million in its North American theatrical run. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that Town & Country was "less deserving of a review than it is an obituary....The corpse took with it the reputations of its starry cast, including Warren Beatty and Diane Keaton." In 2001 and 2002 Keaton starred in four low-budget television films. She played a fanatical nun in the religious drama Sister Mary Explains It All, an impoverished mother in the drama On Thin Ice, and a bookkeeper in the mob comedy Plan B. In Crossed Over, she played Beverly Lowry, a woman who forms an unusual friendship with the only woman executed while on death row in Texas, Karla Faye Tucker. Keaton's first major hit since 1996 came in 2003's Something's Gotta Give, directed by Nancy Meyers and co-starring Jack Nicholson. Nicholson and Keaton, aged 65 and 56 respectively, were seen as bold casting choices for leads in a romantic comedy. Twentieth Century Fox, the film's original studio, reportedly declined to produce the film, fearing that the lead characters were too old to be bankable. Keaton told Ladies' Home Journal, "Let's face it, people my age and Jack's age are much deeper, much more soulful, because they've seen a lot of life. They have a great deal of passion and hope—why shouldn't they fall in love? Why shouldn't movies show that?" Keaton played a middle-aged playwright who falls in love with her daughter's much older boyfriend. The film was a major success at the box office, grossing US$125million in North America. Roger Ebert wrote, "Nicholson and Keaton bring so much experience, knowledge and humor to their characters that the film works in ways the screenplay might not have even hoped for." Keaton received her fourth Academy Award nomination for her performance. Keaton's only film between 2004 and 2006 was the comedy The Family Stone (2005), starring an ensemble cast that also included Sarah Jessica Parker, Claire Danes, Rachel McAdams, and Craig T. Nelson. In the film, scripted and directed by Thomas Bezucha, Keaton played a breast cancer survivor and matriarch of a big New England family that reunites at the parents' home for its annual Christmas holidays. The film was released to moderate critical and commercial success, and earned US$92.2million worldwide. Keaton received her second Satellite Award nomination for her portrayal, of which Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote, "Keaton, a sorceress at blending humor and heartbreak, honors the film with a grace that makes it stick in the memory." In 2007 Keaton starred in both Because I Said So and Mama's Boy. In the romantic comedy Because I Said So, directed by Michael Lehmann, Keaton played a long-divorced mother of three daughters, determined to pair off her only single daughter, Milly (Mandy Moore). Also starring Stephen Collins and Gabriel Macht, the project opened to overwhelmingly negative reviews, with Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe calling it "a sloppily made bowl of reheated chick-flick cliches", and was ranked among the worst-reviewed films of the year. The following year Keaton received her first and only Golden Raspberry Award nomination to date for the film. In Mama's Boy, director Tim Hamilton's feature film debut, Keaton starred as the mother of a self-absorbed 29-year-old (Jon Heder) whose world turns upside down when she starts dating and considers kicking him out of the house. Distributed for a limited release to certain parts of the United States only, the independent comedy garnered largely negative reviews. In 2008 Keaton starred alongside Dax Shepard and Liv Tyler in Vince Di Meglio's dramedy Smother, playing the overbearing mother of an unemployed therapist, who decides to move in with him and his girlfriend after breaking up with her husband (Ken Howard). As with Mama's Boy, the film received a limited release only, resulting in a gross of US$1.8million worldwide. Critical reaction to the film was generally unfavorable, and once again Keaton was dismissed for her role choices, with Sandra Hall of the New York Post writing, "Diane's career is dyin' [...] this time, sadly, she's gone too far. She's turned herself into a mother-in-law joke." Also in 2008 Keaton appeared alongside Katie Holmes and Queen Latifah in the crime-comedy film Mad Money, directed by Callie Khouri. Based on the British television drama Hot Money (2001), the film revolves around three female employees of the Federal Reserve who scheme to steal money that is about to be destroyed. As with Keaton's previous projects, the film bombed at the box offices with a gross total of US$26.4million, and was universally panned, ranking third in the New York Post Top 10 Worst Movies of 2008. 2010s In 2010 Keaton starred alongside Rachel McAdams and Harrison Ford in Roger Michell's comedy Morning Glory, playing the veteran TV host of a fictional morning talk show that desperately needs to boost its lagging ratings. Portraying a narcissistic character who will do anything to please the audience, Keaton described her role as "the kind of woman you love to hate." Inspired by Neil Simon's 1972 Broadway play The Sunshine Boys, the film was a moderate success at the box office, taking a worldwide total of almost US$59million. Some critics felt that Keaton was underused in the film, but she was generally praised for her performance, with James Berardinelli of ReelViews writing, "Diane Keaton is so good at her part that one can see her sliding effortlessly into an anchor's chair on a real morning show." In fall 2010 Keaton joined the production of the comedy drama Darling Companion by Lawrence Kasdan, which was released in 2012. Co-starring Kevin Kline and Dianne Wiest and set in Telluride, Colorado, the film follows a woman, played by Keaton, whose husband loses her much-beloved dog at a wedding held at their vacation home in the Rocky Mountains, resulting in a search party to find the pet. Kasdan's first film in nine years, the film bombed at the US box office, where it scored about US$790,000 throughout its entire theatrical run. Critics dismissed the film as "an overwritten, underplotted vanity project" but applauded Keaton's performance. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe wrote that the film "would be instantly forgettable if not for Keaton, who imbues [her role] with a sorrow, warmth, wisdom, and rage that feel earned [...] Her performance here is an extension of worn, resilient grace." Also in 2011 Keaton began production on Justin Zackham's 2013 ensemble comedy The Big Wedding, a remake of the 2006 French film Mon frère se marie in which she, along with Robert De Niro, played a long-divorced couple who, for the sake of their adopted son's wedding and his very religious biological mother, pretend they are still married. The film received largely negative reviews. In his New York Post review Lou Lumenick wrote, "the brutally unfunny, cringe-worthy The Big Wedding provides ample opportunities for Robert De Niro, Diane Keaton, Susan Sarandon, and Robin Williams to embarrass themselves". In 2014 Keaton starred in And So It Goes and 5 Flights Up. In Rob Reiner's romantic dramedy And So It Goes, Keaton portrayed a widowed lounge singer who finds autumnal love with a bad boy (Michael Douglas). The film received largely negative reviews. One critic wrote that "And So It Goes aims for comedy, but with two talented actors stuck in a half-hearted effort from a once-mighty filmmaker, it ends in unintentional tragedy." Keaton co-starred with Morgan Freeman in Richard Loncraine's comedy film 5 Flights Up, based on Jill Ciment's novel Heroic Measures. They play a long-married couple who have an eventful weekend after they are forced to contemplate selling their beloved Brooklyn apartment. Shot in New York, the film premiered, under its former name Ruth & Alex, at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival. The same year Keaton became the first woman to receive the Golden Lion Award at the Zurich Film Festival. Keaton's only film of 2015 was Love the Coopers, an ensemble comedy about a troubled family getting together for Christmas, for which she reunited with Because I Said So writer Jessie Nelson. Also starring John Goodman, Ed Helms, and Marisa Tomei, Keaton was attached for several years before the film went into production. Her cast was instrumental in financing and recruiting most other actors, which led her to an executive producer credit in the film. Love the Coopers received largely negative reviews from critics, who called it a "bittersweet blend of holiday cheer", and became a moderate commercial success at a worldwide total of US$41.1million against a budget of US$17million. Also in 2015 Netflix announced the comedy Divanation, for which Keaton was expected to reunite with her First Wives Club co-stars Midler and Hawn to portray a former singing group, but the project failed to materialize. Keaton voiced amnesiac fish Dory's mother in Disney and Pixar's Finding Dory (2016), the sequel to the 2003 Pixar computer-animated film Finding Nemo. The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing over US$1billion worldwide, the second Pixar film to cross this mark after Toy Story 3 (2010). It also set numerous records, including the biggest animated opening of all time in North America, emerging as the biggest animated film of all time in the US. Keaton's other project of 2016 was the HBO eight-part series The Young Pope, in which she plays a nun who raised the newly elected Pope (Jude Law) and helped him reach the papacy. The miniseries received two nominations for the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, becoming the first Italian TV series to be nominated for Primetime Emmy Awards. In 2017 Keaton appeared opposite Brendan Gleeson in the British dramedy film Hampstead. Based on the life of Harry Hallowes, it depicts an American widow (Keaton) who helps a local man defending his ramshackle hut and the life he has been leading on Hampstead Heath for 17 years. The specialty release had a mixed reception from critics, who were unimpressed by the film's "deeply mediocre story", but became a minor commercial success. Keaton's only project of 2018 was Book Club, in which she, Jane Fonda, Candice Bergen, and Mary Steenburgen play four friends who read Fifty Shades of Grey as part of their monthly book club and subsequently begin to change how they view their personal relationships. The romantic comedy received mixed reviews from critics, who felt that Book Club only "intermittently rises to the level of its impressive veteran cast," but with a worldwide gross of over $91 million, became Keaton's biggest commercial success in a non-voice role since 2003's Something's Gotta Give. In 2019, Keaton starred in the comedy Poms as a woman dying of cancer who starts a cheerleading squad with other female residents of a retirement home. The film was a box office disappointment and was negatively received by critics. Personal life Relationships and family Woody Allen Keaton has had several romantic associations with noted entertainment industry personalities, starting with director Woody Allen during her role in the 1969 Broadway production of Play It Again, Sam. Their relationship became romantic after they had dinner after a late-night rehearsal. It was her sense of humor that attracted Allen. They briefly lived together during the production, but by the time of the film release of the same name in 1972, their living arrangements became informal. They worked together on eight films between 1971 and 1993, and Keaton has said that Allen remains one of her closest friends. Warren Beatty Keaton was already dating Warren Beatty in 1979 when they co-starred in the film Reds. Beatty was a regular subject in tabloid magazines and media coverage, and Keaton became included, much to her bewilderment. In 1985 Vanity Fair called her "the most reclusive star since Garbo." This relationship ended shortly after Reds wrapped. Troubles with the production are thought to have strained the relationship, including numerous financial and scheduling problems. Keaton remains friends with Beatty. Al Pacino Keaton also had a relationship with her The Godfather Trilogy costar Al Pacino. Their on-again, off-again relationship ended after the filming of The Godfather Part III. Keaton said of Pacino, "Al was simply the most entertaining man... To me, that's, that is the most beautiful face. I think Warren was gorgeous, very pretty, but Al's face is like whoa. Killer, killer face." Later thoughts on marriage In July 2001, Keaton said of being older and unmarried, "I don't think that because I'm not married it's made my life any less. That old maid myth is garbage." Keaton has two adopted children, daughter Dexter (adopted 1996) and son Duke (2001). Her father's death made mortality more apparent to her, and she decided to become a mother at age 50. She later said of having children, "Motherhood has completely changed me. It's just about the most completely humbling experience that I've ever had." Religious beliefs Keaton said she produced her 1987 documentary Heaven because "I was always pretty religious as a kid ... I was primarily interested in religion because I wanted to go to heaven." When she grew up, she became agnostic. Other activities Keaton opposes plastic surgery. She told More magazine in 2004, "I'm stuck in this idea that I need to be authentic ... My face needs to look the way I feel." Keaton is active in campaigns with the Los Angeles Conservancy to save and restore historic buildings, particularly in the Los Angeles area. Among the buildings she has been active in restoring is the Ennis House in the Hollywood Hills, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Keaton was also active in the failed campaign to save the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles (a hotel featured in Reservations), where Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated. She is an enthusiast of Spanish Colonial Revival architecture. Since 2005 Keaton has been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post. Since 2006 she has been the face of L'Oréal. Keaton has served as a producer on films and television series. She produced the Fox series Pasadena, which was canceled after airing only four episodes in 2001 but completed its run on cable in 2005. In 2003 she produced the Gus Van Sant drama Elephant, about a school shooting. Of why she produced the film, she said, "It really makes me think about my responsibilities as an adult to try and understand what's going on with young people." Keaton has continued to pursue her interest in photography. In 1987 she told Vanity Fair, "I have amassed a huge library of images—kissing scenes from movies, pictures I like. Visual things are really key for me." She has published several more collections of her own photographs and served as an editor of collections of vintage photography. Works she has edited in the last decade include a book of photographs by paparazzo Ron Galella; an anthology of reproductions of clown paintings; and a collection of photos of California's Spanish-Colonial-style houses. Keaton has also established herself as a real estate developer. She has resold several mansions in Southern California after renovating and redesigning them. One of her clients was Madonna, who purchased a US$6.5million Beverly Hills mansion from Keaton in 2003. She received the Film Society of Lincoln Center's Gala Tribute in 2007. Keaton wrote her first memoir, Then Again, for Random House in November 2011. Much of the autobiography relies on her mother's private journals, which include the line "Diane...is a mystery...At times, she's so basic, at others so wise it frightens me." In 2012 Keaton's audiobook recording of Joan Didion's Slouching Towards Bethlehem was released on Audible.com. Her performance was nominated for a 2013 Audie Award in the Short Stories/Collections category. Acting style and legacy Keaton has been called "one of the great American actresses from the heyday of the 1970s", a style icon and a "treasure" with a personal and professional style that is "difficult to explicate and impossible to duplicate." Many critics have pointed to her versatility in starring in both light comedies and acclaimed dramas. The New York Times described Keaton as "remarkably skilled" at portraying Woody Allen's "darling flustered muse" in his comedies, as well as "shy, self-conscious women overcome by the power of their own awakened eroticism" in dramatic films like Looking for Mr. Goodbar, Reds, Shoot the Moon and Mrs. Soffel. It also noted Keaton's ability to consistently reinvent and challenge herself on screen, having transitioned from "Allen's ditzy foil" to a "gifted and erotically nuanced character actress" and later "an appealing maternal figure... a woman's woman with a sexy edge." Literary critic Daphne Merkin argued that Keaton remained more popular with audiences than her contemporaries because of her "friendly accessibility" and "charmingly self-effacing" persona, calling Keaton's most "steadfastly glamorous" asset her "megawatt personality, bursting out of her like an uncontrollable force of nature, a geyser of quirkily entertaining traits that fall on the air and lend everything around her a momentary sparkle." In New York magazine, Peter Rainer wrote, "In her Annie Hall days, [Keaton] was famed for her thrown-together fashion sense, and her approach to acting is, in the best way, thrown-together, too. Audiences love her because they identify with the women she plays, who are never all of a piece. Nobody can be grave and goofy all at once like Diane Keaton. In these fractious times, it's the perfect combo for a modern heroine." Famously self-deprecating, Keaton has been noted for her "wry sense of humor" and "eccentric gender-bending style." Analyzing her on-screen persona, Deborah C. Mitchell wrote that Keaton often played "a complex, modern American woman, a paradox of self-doubt and assurance", which became her trademark. Mitchell suggests that Keaton made Annie Hall a "critical juncture for women in American culture. In this ism-infected age, Keaton became not just a star but an icon. Annie Hall, and with her Diane Keaton, presented all of the uncertainty and ambivalence of the new breed of women." Likewise, Bruce Weber felt Keaton's eccentricity—"an amalgam of caginess and insecurity" and a "note of comic desperation... her round-cheeked Annie Hall dewiness"—was her gift as a screen comedian. Keaton's Annie Hall is often cited among the greatest Oscar-winning performances in history: Entertainment Weekly ranked it 7th on its "25 greatest Best Actress Winners" list, praising her "loopy mannerisms, jazz-club serenades, and endlessly imitated fashion sense." After seeing her performance in Looking for Mr. Goodbar, Andrew Sarris remarked, "Keaton is clearly the most dynamic woman star in pictures. And any actress who can bring wit and humor to sex in an American movie has to be blessed with the most winning magic." When asked what made Keaton funny, Allen said: "My opinion is that with the exception of Judy Holliday, she's the finest screen comedienne we've ever seen. It's in her intonation; you can't quantify it easily. When Groucho Marx or W.C. Fields or Holliday would say something, it's in the ring of their voices, and she has that. It's never line comedy with her. It's all character comedy." Charles Shyer, who directed her in Baby Boom, said Keaton was "in the mold of the iconic comedic actresses Carole Lombard, Irene Dunne and Rosalind Russell." In 2017 Keaton was chosen by the board of directors of the American Film Institute to receive the AFI Life Achievement Award, which Woody Allen presented. Filmography Film Television Music Video Awards and honors Keaton has received various awards, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award and a Golden Globe Award for her performance in Woody Allen's Annie Hall (1977). She also received three more Academy Award nominations, for Reds (1981), Marvin's Room (1996), and Something's Gotta Give (2003). Keaton received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Amelia Earhart: The Final Flight (1994) and a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for CBS Schoolbreak Special in 1990. Keaton has received 12 Golden Globe Award nominations, winning for Annie Hall (1977) and Something's Gotta Give (2003). She has received four Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for her work in film and television. Over the years Keaton has been received various honors for her work as an actress and fashion icon. In 1991, she received the Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year award from Harvard's Hasty Pudding Theatricals, which is given to performers who give a lasting and impressive contribution to the world of entertainment. In 1995, she was honored by the New York Women in Film & Television association along with Angela Bassett, Cokie Roberts, Gena Rowlands and Thelma Schoonmaker. In 1996 she won the Golden Apple Award as the Female Star of the Year, sharing it with her First Wives Club co-stars Goldie Hawn and Bette Midler. She also received the 1997 Crystal Award at the Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards in 1997, and the Elle Women in Hollywood Awards the Icon Award in 1998 along with Sigourney Weaver, Lucy Fisher and Gillian Armstrong. Keaton won the 2004 AFI Star Award during the US Comedy Arts Festival. In 2005, she received a Lifetime Achievement award from the Hollywood Film Awards. She was honored with the Film Society of Lincoln Center Gala Tribute in 2007. In 2014 she received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Manaki Brothers Film Festival. That year she also received the Golden Icon Award at the Zurich Film Festival. In 2017 she was honored by the American Film Institute and was given a Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented to her by her close friend and frequent collaborator Woody Allen. Other who paid tribute to her included Steve Martin, Martin Short, Meryl Streep, Reese Witherspoon, Emma Stone, Rachel McAdams, Morgan Freeman, and Al Pacino. In 2018 she received a Special David at the David di Donatello Awards. Bibliography As writer Then Again, New York: Random House, 2011, Let's Just Say It Wasn't Pretty, New York: Random House, 2014, Brother & Sister, New York: Random House, 2020 As photographer Reservations, New York: Knopf, 1980, As editor Still Life (with Marvin Heiferman), New York: Callaway, 1983, Mr. Salesman, Santa Fe: Twin Palms Publishers, 1993, Local News (with Marvin Heiferman), New York: D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc., 1999, Clown Paintings, New York: powerHouse Books, 2002, California Romantica, New York: Rizzoli, 2007, House, New York: Rizzoli, 2012, References Further reading Lax, Eric. Woody Allen: A Biography (Paperback). . Da Capo Press; Updated edition (December 2000). External links 1946 births Living people 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians 21st-century American women writers American bloggers American women bloggers American women comedians American film actresses American television actresses American voice actresses American photographers American feminist writers 21st-century American memoirists American women film producers Actresses from Los Angeles American agnostics AFI Life Achievement Award recipients Best Actress Academy Award winners Best Actress BAFTA Award winners Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners David di Donatello winners American music video directors American television directors American women film directors American women photographers Comedians from California Female music video directors Feminist filmmakers Film directors from California Film producers from California Neighborhood Playhouse School of the 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202668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Princeton%20%28CV-37%29	USS Princeton (CV-37)	USS Princeton (CV/CVA/CVS-37, LPH-5) was one of 24 s built during and shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the fifth US Navy ship to bear the name, and was named for the Revolutionary War Battle of Princeton. Princeton was commissioned in November 1945, too late to serve in World War II, but saw extensive service in the Korean War, in which she earned eight battle stars, and the Vietnam War. She was reclassified in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA), then as an Antisubmarine Aircraft Carrier (CVS), and finally as an amphibious assault ship (LPH), carrying helicopters and marines. One of her last missions was to serve as the prime recovery ship for the Apollo 10 space mission. Although she was extensively modified internally as part of her conversion to an LPH, external modifications were minor, so throughout her career Princeton retained the classic appearance of a World War II Essex-class ship. She was decommissioned in 1970, and sold for scrap in 1971. Construction and commissioning The ship was laid down as Valley Forge – one of the "long-hull" Essex class – on 14 September 1943 at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was renamed Princeton on 21 November 1944 to commemorate the light carrier , which was lost at the Battle of Leyte Gulf on 24 October 1944. The new Princeton was launched on 8 July 1945, sponsored by Mrs. Harold Dodds, and commissioned on 18 November 1945, Captain John M. Hoskins in command. Attack carrier (1945–1954) Following shakedown off Cuba, Princeton — with Air Group 81 embarked – remained in the Atlantic and operated with the 8th Fleet until June 1946. Then transferred to the Pacific Fleet, she arrived at San Diego, departing again on 3 July 1946 to carry the body of Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon back to Manila for burial. From Manila, Princeton joined the 7th Fleet in the Marianas, becoming flagship of Task Force 77 (TF 77). In September and October 1946, she operated in Japanese and Chinese waters, then returned to the Mariana Islands where she remained until February 1947. In 1947 she had Carrier Air Group 13 on board, and in October 1948 evacuated dependents from Tsingtao, returned to San Diego Dec 1948 and unloaded CAG13 Maneuvers in Hawaiian waters preceded her return to San Diego until 15 March. She cruised the West Coast, Hawaiian waters, and the Western Pacific (1 October – 23 December) in 1948. She then prepared for inactivation, and on 20 June decommissioned and joined other capital ships in the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Korean War Reactivated with the outbreak of hostilities in Korea 15 months later, Princeton recommissioned on 28 August 1950. Intensive training refreshed her Reservist crew, and on 5 December she joined TF 77 off the Korean coast, her planes and pilots (Air Group 19) making possible the reinstitution of jet combat air patrols over the battle zone. She launched 248 sorties against targets in the Hagaru area to announce her arrival, and for the next six days continued the pace to support Marines fighting their way down the long, cold road from the Chosin Reservoir to Hungnam. By the 11th, all units had reached the staging area on the coast. Princetons planes, with other Navy, Marine, and Air Force squadrons, then covered the evacuation from Hungnam through its completion on the 24th. Interdiction missions followed, and by 4 April Princetons planes had rendered 54 rail and 37 highway bridges inoperable and damaged 44 more. In May, they flew against the railroad bridges connecting Pyongyang with Sunchon, Sinanju, Kachon, and the trans-peninsula line. Next, they combined close air support with raids on power sources in the Hwachon Reservoir area and, with the stabilization of the front there, resumed interdiction. For much of the summer they pounded supply arteries, concentrating on highways, and in August Princeton got underway for the U.S., arriving at San Diego on the 29th, after collecting Destroyer Division 51 at Pearl Harbor. On 30 April 1952, Princeton rejoined TF 77 in the combat zone. For 138 days, her planes flew against the enemy. They sank small craft to prevent the recapture of offshore islands; blasted concentrations of supplies, facilities, and equipment behind enemy lines, participated in air-gun strikes on coastal cities, pounded the enemy's hydroelectric complex at Suiho on the Yalu River to turn off power on both sides of that river, destroyed gun positions and supply areas in Pyongyang; and closed mineral processing plants and munitions factories at Sindok, Musan, Aoji, and Najin. Reclassified CVA-37 (1 October 1952), Princeton returned to California on 3 November for a two-month respite from the western Pacific. In February 1953, she was back off the Korean coast and until the end of the conflict launched planes for close air support, "Cherokee" strikes against supply, artillery, and troop concentrations in enemy territory, and against road traffic. She remained in the area after the truce on 27 July, and on 7 September got underway for San Diego. Anti-submarine carrier (1954–1959) In January 1954, Princeton was reclassified CVS-37 and, after conversion at Bremerton, Washington, took up antisubmarine/ Hunter-Killer (HUK) training operations in the eastern Pacific. For the next five years she alternated HUK exercises off the West Coast with similar operations in the western Pacific and, in late 1957-early 1958, in the Indian Ocean–Persian Gulf area. Amphibious assault carrier (1959–1970) Reclassified again, 2 March 1959, she emerged from conversion as an amphibious assault carrier, LPH-5. Capable of transporting a battalion landing team and carrying helicopters in place of planes, Princetons mission became that of vertical envelopment—the landing of Marines behind enemy beach fortifications and providing logistics and medical support as they attack from the rear to seize critical points, cut enemy supplies, sever communications, and link up with assault forces landed on the beaches. Since this was a Marine Corps mission, Marines made up a major portion of the ship's company in the Air, Operations, and Supply Departments. From May 1959 – January 1960, Princeton trained with Marine units from Camp Pendleton, then deployed to WestPac to train in Okinawan waters. For the next three years, she followed a similar schedule, gaining experience in her primary mission. Interruptions came in October 1961 when she rescued 74 survivors of two merchantmen Pioneer Muse and Sheik grounded on Kita Daito Shima and in April 1962 when she delivered Marine Corps advisors and helicopters to Sóc Trăng in the Mekong Delta area of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). From September–November 1962, Princeton served as flagship of Joint Task Force 8 during the nuclear weapons test series, Operation Dominic. Vietnam War In October 1964, Princeton exchanged WestPac training for the real thing as she returned to Vietnam and joined the Pacific Fleet's Ready Group in operations against North Vietnamese and Viet Cong (VC) forces. Combat operations, interrupted in November for flood relief work, continued into the new year, 1965, and culminated in May off Chu Lai as she carried out her primary mission, vertical envelopment, for the first time in combat. Returning to her homeport, Long Beach, California, Princeton visited San Francisco, Puget Sound, and Hawaii as part of the 1965 Pacific Midshipman Training Squadron. She then transported Marine Aircraft Group 36 to Vietnam in August, and in February 1966 got underway for another tour in the combat zone. Relieving as flagship for the Amphibious Ready Group, she engaged the enemy in operations Jackstay, 26 March – 6 April, to clear the Rung Sat Special Zone of Viet Cong guerrillas, and Osage, 27 April – 4 May, to protect Vietnamese in the Phu Loc area from VC harassment. Search and destroy missions against Viet Cong and People's Army of Vietnam units followed as Princeton provided transportation, medical evacuation, logistics and communication support for the amphibious operation Deckhouse I, 18 – 27 June, in the Song Cau district and the Song Cai river valley, then supported 1st Cavalry and 101st Airborne units engaged in Operation Nathan Hale to the south of the Deckhouse I area. Operation Deckhouse II and support for Operation Hastings followed as Navy, Marine, and Army units again combined, this time to impede enemy infiltration from the DMZ. After Operation Hastings, Princeton sailed for home, arriving on 2 September. She deployed again to Vietnam from 30 January – 19 June 1967, and again ranged along the coast. In March, she assisted in countering an enemy threat to the Marine artillery base at Gio Linh and evacuated wounded from Con Thien. In April, she participated in Operation Beacon Star, in the Khe Sanh area, and supported search and destroy operations in conjunction with Operation Shawnee. In May, her helicopters lifted Marines to the DMZ to block enemy forces withdrawing across the Bến Hải River. A much-needed overhaul followed Princetons return to the west coast, and in May 1968 she again sailed west to Vietnam. There, as flagship for Amphibious Ready Group Alpha, she provided amphibious assault carrier services for operations Fortress Attack III and IV, Proud Hunter, Swift Pursuit, and Eager Hunter. In December, she returned to the United States and in April 1969 she was designated the prime recovery ship for Apollo 10, the lunar mission which paved the way for Apollo 11 and the first manned landing on the Moon. Apollo 10 was recovered in the South Pacific on 26 May. Decommissioning On 30 January 1970, Princeton was decommissioned and struck from the Naval Vessel Register, and sold for scrapping to Zidell Explorations Inc., Portland in September 1972 by Defense Reutilization and Marketing Service. Miscellaneous The flag of USS Princeton is now in Princeton University in the University Chapel. USS Princeton was used during the filming of the 1952 Monogram Pictures feature Flat Top. After the ship was sold for scrapping, some of the steel deck plate was acquired by Fermilab in 1972 for use in its experimental areas. In 1978, Robert R. Wilson used portions of that steel to create the Broken Symmetry sculpture that stands over one of the laboratory's gates. Awards Combat Action Ribbon (25 Mar 1967) Navy Unit Commendation Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation (2) China Service Medal (extended) American Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal Navy Occupation Service Medal (with Asia clasp) National Defense Service Medal (2) Korean Service Medal (8 battle stars) Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (3) Vietnam Service Medal (6 battle stars) Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm) United Nations Korean Medal Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal Republic of Korea War Service Medal (retroactive) Gallery References External links Navy photographs of Princeton (CV-37) Ticonderoga-class aircraft carriers United States Navy New Jersey-related ships Amphibious assault ships (Boxer-class conversions) Ships built in Philadelphia 1945 ships Apollo 10 World War II aircraft carriers of the United States Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States Vietnam War amphibious 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202669	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1892%20in%20literature	1892 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1892. Events January – The Schauspielhaus Zürich opens as the Volkstheater am Pfauen, a music hall. January 18 – Rudyard Kipling marries Caroline Starr Balestier. February 22 – Oscar Wilde's comedy Lady Windermere's Fan is premièred at St James's Theatre in London, starring Winifred Emery and Marion Terry. April 27 – The magazine Isis is established by students at the University of Oxford. June – Rehearsals for the première of Oscar Wilde's play Salome for inclusion in Sarah Bernhardt's London season (in French) are halted when the British Lord Chamberlain's licensor of plays prohibits it for including Biblical characters. July 15 – The Bibliographical Society is established in London. September 12 – The 11-year-old Virginia Stephen, the later novelist Virginia Woolf, takes a boat trip to Godrevy Lighthouse on a family holiday in Cornwall. October 14 – The first collection of Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories from The Strand Magazine (June 1891–June 1892), The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, is published by George Newnes in London; it includes Doyle's favourite, "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", which was originally published in February. October 20 (O. S.: October 8) – Constantin Dobrescu-Argeș inaugurates Romania's first rural printing press, at Mușătești. November – The Sewanee Review is established by William Peterfield Trent; it will become the oldest continuously published literary quarterly in the United States. December 9 – George Bernard Shaw's first play Widowers' Houses has its first performance, at the Royalty Theatre in London under the auspices of the Independent Theatre Society. The author is booed. December 21 – Brandon Thomas' farce Charley's Aunt begins a record-breaking London run at the Royalty Theatre (following a pre-London opening at Bury St Edmunds on February 29). The Irish Literary Society is founded by W. B. Yeats, T. W. Rolleston and Charles Gavan Duffy in London, and the National Literary Society by Yeats in Dublin with scholar Douglas Hyde as its first president. unknown dates Carlo Collodi's The Adventures of Pinocchio is translated into English for the first time, by Mary Alice Murray. Shadows Uplifted by Frances Ellen Watkins Harper becomes the second novel by an African-American woman published in the United States. New books Fiction C. R. Ashbee – From Whitechapel to Camelot Mary Elizabeth Braddon – The Venetians Rhoda Broughton – Mrs. Bligh Gabriele D'Annunzio – L'innocente Arthur Conan Doyle – The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes Theodor Fontane – Frau Jenny Treibel Ludwig Ganghofer - The Monastery's Hunter (Der Klosterjäger) Hamlin Garland - Jason Edwards: An Average Man Charlotte Perkins Gilman – The Yellow Wallpaper George Gissing – Born in Exile George and Weedon Grossmith – The Diary of a Nobody (book publication) Thomas Hardy – The Well-Beloved (serialization) Frances Ellen Watkins Harper – Shadows Uplifted Herman Heijermans – Trinette Emily Lawless – Grania: The Story of an Island J. McCullough – Golf in the Year 2000 William Hurrell Mallock – A Human Document Helen Mathers, Arthur Conan Doyle, Bram Stoker and 21 others – The Fate of Fenella Karl May – Durch Wüste und Harem Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne – The Wrecker Mark Twain – The American Claimant Jules Verne – Mistress Branican Mary Augusta Ward – The History of David Grieve Israel Zangwill The Big Bow Mystery (book publication) Children of the Ghetto Émile Zola – La Débâcle Children and young people H. Irving Hancock – His One Ambition; or, The Boy Reporter Drama R.C. Carton – Liberty Hall Arthur Symons – The Minister's Call José Echegaray – Mariana Georges Feydeau – Champignol malgré lui Jacob Mikhailovich Gordin Der Pogrom in Rusland (The Pogrom in Russia) Tsvey veltn, oder Der groyser sotsialist (Two Worlds, or The Great Socialist) Der yidisher kenig lir (The Yiddish King Lear) Gerhart Hauptmann – The Weavers (Die Weber) Mykhailo Starytsky – Oi Ne Khody, Hrytsiu Brandon Thomas – Charley's Aunt Oscar Wilde – Lady Windermere's Fan (premiere February 22, St James's Theatre, in London) Poetry Rudyard Kipling – Barrack-Room Ballads (including "Gunga Din") W. B. Yeats – The Countess Kathleen and Various Legends and Lyrics Non-fiction Anna J. Cooper – A Voice from the South: By a Black Woman of the South Peter Kropotkin – The Conquest of Bread (La Conquête du pain) Papus – La Kabbale Ferdinand Praeger (died 1891) – Wagner As I Knew Him Constantin Sion – Arhondologia Moldovei (Moldavia's Peerage; posthumous) Rudolph Sohm – Kirchenrecht Joseph Wright – A Grammar of the Dialect of Windhill in the West Riding of Yorkshire Ella Hepworth Dixon (as Margaret Wynman) – My Flirtations (biographical sketches) Births January 3 – J. R. R. Tolkien, South African-born English novelist and scholar (died 1973) February 8 – Ralph Chubb, English poet, printer and artist (died 1960) February 22 – Edna St. Vincent Millay, American poet (died 1950) February 23 – Agnes Smedley, American journalist and writer (died 1950) March 1 – Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Japanese short story writer and poet (suicide 1927) March 8 – Juana de Ibarbourou, Uruguayan poet (died 1979) March 9 David Garnett, English novelist (died 1981) Vita Sackville-West, English poet, novelist and gardener (died 1962) March 18 – Robert P. T. Coffin, American poet, essayist, novelist and academic (died 1955) March 22 – Karel Poláček, Czech writer, humorist and journalist (died 1944) May 26 – Maxwell Bodenheim, American poet and novelist (murdered 1954) May 29 – Max Brand, born Frederick Schiller Faust, American Western, pulp fiction and screenwriter (died 1944) June 12 – Djuna Barnes, American writer (died 1982) June 26 – Pearl S. Buck, born Pearl Sydenstricker, American novelist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature (died 1973) July 1 – James M. Cain, American author and journalist (died 1977) July 12 – Bruno Schulz, Polish writer and artist (killed 1942) August 5 – Margery Fish, English gardening writer (died 1969) October 8 (September 26 O.S.) – Marina Tsvetaeva, Russian poet (suicide 1941) October 9 – Ivo Andrić, Serbo-Croatian novelist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature (died 1975) October 27 – Victor E. van Vriesland, Dutch writer (died 1974) December 10 – Lucy M. Boston, born Lucy Maria Wood, English children's novelist (died 1990) December 21 Amy Clarke, English mystical poet, author and academic (died 1980) Rebecca West, born Cicily Fairfield, English writer (died 1983) unknown dates Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică, Romanian Romani writer and activist (year of death unknown) Sheila Stuart (born Gladys May Baker), Scottish author and children's writer (died 1974) Deaths January 20 – Christopher Pearse Cranch, American poet and magazine editor (born 1813) January 28 – Gustav Zerffi, Hungarian journalist and rationalist (born 1820) March 16 – Edward Augustus Freeman, English historian and politician (born 1823) March 26 – Walt Whitman, American poet (born 1819) April 15 – Amelia Edwards, English fiction writer and Egyptologist (born 1831) July 10 – Rudolf Westphal, German classical scholar (born 1826) July 15 – Thomas Cooper, English Chartist poet (born 1805) July 18 – Rose Terry Cooke, American poet and novelist (born 1827) August 25 – Richard Lewis Nettleship, English philosopher (born 1846) September 7 – John Greenleaf Whittier, American Quaker poet (born 1807) September 17 – Ignaz Vincenz Zingerle, Austrian poet (born 1825) September 23 – George Grub, Scottish church historian (born 1812) October 2 – Teréz Karacs, Hungarian novelist, poet and memoirist (born 1808) October 12 – Xavier Marmier, French writer and translator (born 1808) October 17 – David Edelstadt, Russian-born American poet in Yiddish (born 1866) October 21 – Anne Charlotte Leffler, Swedish novelist and dramatist (born 1849) October 24 – Anton Gindely, Bohemian historian (born 1829) December 3 (November 21 O.S.) – Afanasy Fet, Russian lyric poet, essayist and short-story writer (born 1820) December 27 – Orange Judd, American editor and publisher (born 1822) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ 0.04141763597726822, 0.3486194908618927, -0.8619556427001953, -0.22178232669830322, -0.7106790542602539, -0.07108822464942932, 0.8332906365394592, 0.42055845260620117, -0.5170032382011414, -0.6650068163871765, 0.1637098491191864, -0.22969011962413788, 0.09113126993179321, 0.2798399329185486, 0.0461779423058033, -0.16161414980888367, 0.16619178652763367, -0.26420754194259644, 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202671	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo%20%28D%27Angelo%20album%29	Voodoo (D'Angelo album)	Voodoo is the second studio album by American singer, songwriter, and multi-instrumentalist D'Angelo, released on January 25, 2000, through Virgin Records. D'Angelo recorded the album during 1998 and 1999 at Electric Lady Studios in New York City, with an extensive line-up of musicians associated with the Soulquarians musical collective. Produced primarily by the singer, Voodoo features a loose, groove-based funk sound and serves as a departure from the more conventional song structure of his debut album, Brown Sugar (1995). Its lyrics explore themes of spirituality, love, sexuality, maturation, and fatherhood. Following heavy promotion and public anticipation, the album was met with commercial and critical success. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling 320,000 copies in its first week, and spent 33 weeks on the chart. It was promoted with five singles, including the hit single "Untitled (How Does It Feel)", whose music video garnered D'Angelo mainstream attention and controversy. Upon its release, Voodoo received general acclaim from music critics and earned D'Angelo several accolades. It was named one of the year's best albums by numerous publications. D'Angelo promoted Voodoo with an international supporting tour in late 2000. While successful early on, the tour became plagued by concert cancellations and D'Angelo's personal frustrations. Voodoo has since been regarded by music writers as a creative milestone of the neo soul genre during its apex. It has sold over 1.7 million copies in the United States and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Background Following the success of his debut album Brown Sugar (1995), D'Angelo went into a four and a half year absence from the music scene and releasing solo work. His debut album presented a musical fusion of traditional soul and R&B influences with hip hop vocal and production elements, serving as fundamental elements for the neo soul sound. With its single-oriented success, Brown Sugar earned considerable sales success and defied the contemporary, producer-driven sound of the time, while earning popularity among mature R&B audiences and the growing hip hop generation. Prior to its release, neo soul itself was undefined by a major artist or musical work, and was developing during the early 1990s through the work of artists such as Tony! Toni! Toné!, Me'Shell NdegéOcello, and Omar. The album also earned D'Angelo recognition for producing a commercial breakthrough for the genre and giving notice to other neo soul artists, including Erykah Badu, Lauryn Hill, and Maxwell. After spending two years on tour promoting Brown Sugar, D'Angelo found himself stuck with writer's block. On the setback, D'Angelo later stated "The thing about writer's block is that you want to write so fucking bad, [but] the songs don't come out that way. They come from life. So you've got to live to write." During this time, he generally released cover versions and remakes, including a cover-collaboration with Erykah Badu of the Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell duet song "Your Precious Love" for the soundtrack to High School High (1996). D'Angelo also covered Prince's "She's Always in My Hair" for the Scream 2 soundtrack (1997), as well as the Ohio Players' "Heaven Must Be Like This" for the Down in the Delta soundtrack (1998). He also appeared on a duet, "Nothing Even Matters", with Lauryn Hill for her debut solo album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (1998). He also spent the time lifting weights, smoking marijuana, and making music. Inspiration In 1998, he was inspired to write music again after the birth of his first child, Michael, with fellow R&B singer and then-girlfriend Angie Stone. He also traveled back to the South, spending time in South Carolina and in his hometown of Richmond, Virginia, while reconnecting himself with the African-American musical history that had originally inspired him. Shortly after his son's birth and the release of his first live album Live at the Jazz Cafe (1998) through EMI Records, he began preparation for the recording of songs for Voodoo. In several interviews after its release, he cited his son's birth as an inspirational source and creative muse for him. A dedication to his son Michael and daughter Imani was included in the album's liner notes, which were co-written by D'Angelo and writer/musician Saul Williams. In a press video accompanying the release of Voodoo, D'Angelo suggested that he was attempting to create a new sound for him that was in transition. In a February 1999 interview with music journalist Touré, D'Angelo discussed the album and elaborated on the events that had preceded its release, explaining how he had no initial plan for a follow-up. He also discussed his attempt to focus on his original inspiration to produce music, stating "The sound and feel of my music are going to be affected by what motivates me to do it". On his visit to South Carolina, D'Angelo stated that he "went through this runnel, through gospel, blues, and a lot of old soul, old James Brown, early, early Sly and the Family Stone, and a lot of Jimi Hendrix", and "I learned a lot about music, myself, and where I want to go musically". In the same interview, he cited the deaths of rappers Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G. as having a great effect on him during the period. In another interview with Touré, D'Angelo said that he had lost his enthusiasm after Brown Sugars reception and "was gettin' jaded, lookin' at what go on in the business". On his purpose for returning, D'Angelo stated "I had to reiterate why I was doin' that in the first place, and the reason was the love for the music". Concept D'Angelo was dissatisfied with the direction of R&B and soul music when conceiving the album. In an interview for Jet, he said that "the term R&B doesn't mean what it used to mean. R&B is pop, that's the new word for R&B." He also found contemporary R&B to be "a joke", adding that "the funny thing about it is that the people making this shit are dead serious about the stuff they're making. It's sad—they've turned black music into a club thing." In the liner notes for Voodoo, Saul Williams examined the album's concept and echoes D'Angelo's dissatisfaction with the mainstream direction of contemporary R&B/soul and hip hop, noting a lack of artistic integrity in the two music genres. In an interview for Ebony, D'Angelo said of his role and influences for Voodoo, "I consider myself very respectful of the masters who came before. In some ways, I feel a responsibility to continue and take the cue from what they were doing musically and vibe on it. That's what I want to do. But I want to do it for this time and this generation". In the album's EPK, D'Angelo said that Voodoo is "like a funk album. The natural progression of soul, the next step to soul is funk". Producer and drummer Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson issued an essay in 1999 that discussed the album's creation and analyzed its songs. He described the project as a "vicarious fantasy", a "new direction of soul for 2000", and "the litmus test that will reveal the most for your personality". He addressed the inspiration behind Voodoo, saying "It was a love for the dead state of black music, a love to show our idols how much they taught us [...] I hope you enjoy it. Just have an open mind to new shit. Just give us that." Questlove discussed his expectations of a reaction from music listeners to the concept, saying in an interview for Entertainment Weekly upon the album's release, "We knew this album would be a hard pill to swallow. People may want D to play into their R&B love-god fantasies—wearing Armani suits, singing something sweet in your ear—but he made a conscious effort to shake people up, to take a chance. It's not a middle-ground record—you're either going to love it or hate it." In an interview for USA Today, D'Angelo said of the album's title and its meaning, "the myriad influences found on it can be traced through the blues and back deeper in history through songs sung–in religious [voodoo] ceremonies." In an interview for Jet magazine, he stated that his intentions for recording the album were to express the power of music and artistic respect for it. The theme is illustrated in Voodoos liner photography by Thierry LesGoudes, which depicts D'Angelo participating in a voodoo ceremony. Voodoos press release discussed D'Angelo's concept, stating "Lyrically, D'Angelo offers that much of Voodoo is personal reflection: touching on subjects like spirituality, sexuality, growth, and in particular, becoming a father. Musically, as he puts it, Voodoo is 'definitely groove-based'". D'Angelo also said that "My inspiration was just to go farther. To get to that next level. To push it even further. To work against the floss and the grain and to get even deeper into the sound that I'm hearing ... and the thing is, I'm just looking at Voodoo as just the beginning. I'm still developing and growing and still listening to that sound I hear inside my head ... So this is the first step". Recording and production Beginning in 1996, Voodoo evolved from nearly four years of sessions and featured an extensive roster of R&B, hip hop, and jazz musicians and recording technicians. Drummer and producer Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson of The Roots was D'Angelo's "co-pilot" during the session. He and his crew studied bootleg videotapes of classic R&B artists such as Marvin Gaye, James Brown, and Jimi Hendrix, along with reruns of Soul Train, at Electric Lady Studios, the Manhattan-based recording studio built by Jimi Hendrix. After watching a tape, they played a certain artist's album or catalog, jam, and recorded for inspiration. Touré of Rolling Stone observed, "One night they played Prince's Parade until they flowed into a new groove that became 'Africa'". On several occasions, D'Angelo listened to Sly & the Family Stone's There's a Riot Goin' On (1971), which had an influential production. The crew recorded numerous hours of unreleased, original material, as well as covers of their influencers' material. Collectively referred to by D'Angelo as "yoda", these influencers included soul artist Al Green, funk artist George Clinton, and Afrobeat artist Fela Kuti. During the initial recording sessions, D'Angelo also worked with personal trainer Mark Jenkins, who was hired to help him get into shape. As Questlove recounted, "Money was definitely overweight by '96, so they got him a drill sergeant physical trainer Mark Jenkins. This guy didn't take no shit. I cannot see D running in Central Park, but he did [...] Push-ups, weight room, sparring every day for three hours. He wouldn't take no shit." Following the birth of his son, D'Angelo composed the album's first song "Send It On" in 1998 at a recording studio in Virginia. Shortly afterwards, he felt ready to begin the recording for Voodoo. D'Angelo wrote most of Voodoos material at Electric Lady Studios, as opposed to his method of composing outside the studio as he did for Brown Sugar. Recording sessions for what ended up on the album began in 1998 and continued through to 1999. On the sessions' environment, Touré wrote "What started as the follow-up to D'Angelo's 1995 platinum debut, Brown Sugar, became five years of study at Soul University, complete with classes, pranks, gossip and equal amounts of discipline and laziness." D'Angelo and Questlove have compared the environment to school. Music writer Trevor Schoonmaker examined D'Angelo's and Questlove's initial recording approach, stating "In the endless sessions for the record, the two spent hours trying to conjure the elusive 'vibe' necessary to provoke the album's creation, which included listening to hours of black music that escaped strict classification. Some of that found itself played out in ghostly ways on Voodoo." Soulquarians and guests Production for the album was conducted in a generally informal manner and took place at Electric Lady Studios simultaneously with recording for Erykah Badu's Mama's Gun (2000) and Common's Like Water for Chocolate (2000). This led to impromptu collaborations and a distinctive sound that is featured on the three albums. Frequent visits to the studio were made by fellow neo soul and hip hop recording artists associated with the Soulquarians collective such as Erykah Badu, Q-Tip, Talib Kweli, James Poyser, and Mos Def. Voodoos sessions also had visitors not associated with the project, including record producer Rick Rubin, comedian Chris Rock, and rock musician Eric Clapton. D'Angelo previewed songs for them, which they found impressive. D'Angelo produced songs on Common's Like Water for Chocolate. Q-Tip was originally intended to contribute a verse to the song "Left & Right", but was replaced by rappers Method Man & Redman during recording due to creative differences. Questlove has stated that "general opinion was that the song was cool but nobody was feeling Tip's verse". According to former A&R-man Gary Harris, D'Angelo's manager Dominique Trenier "thought that Tip’s verse was wack". Members of The Roots, including Black Thought, Kamal Gray, and Rahzel, also visited the recording sessions in 1997 to 1999; the band was recording their album Things Fall Apart (1999) at Electric Lady Studios. That album featured contributions by D'Angelo, Badu, Mos Def, and Common. Questlove was the "musical powerhouse" behind several of the Soulquarians' projects during the late 1990s and early 2000s, including Voodoo and Things Fall Apart. In a 2002 interview, he told critic Jim DeRogatis about his role in recording Voodoo and being a part of the Soulquarians, stating "I tried to do all in my power that I could to bring people together – to bring Common to Electric Lady, have him record here whenever so that he could record with some of these other artists. You'd just come into [the studio's] A Room, you don't even know who has a session, but you call me: 'Who's down there?' 'Common's in there today'. So you come down, you order some food, sit down and bulls—, watch a movie, and then it's, 'Let's play something'. And I say, 'Who wants this [track]?' And it would be, 'I want it!' 'No, I want it!'". Questlove has referred to the recording experience at the studio as a "left-of-center black music renaissance". Engineering Audio engineer Russell Elevado, who recorded and mixed Voodoo, along with Erykah Badu's Mama's Gun and Common's Like Water for Chocolate, used old school recording techniques and vintage mixing gear for the albums in order to achieve the distinct sounds found in classic recorded works. While mainstream recording techniques at the time often involved the use of hi-tech digital equipment, Elevado employed the use of analog equipment, enhancement plug-ins, and a blend of live instrumentation. Notable from the production was that most of it, with the exception of "Untitled (How Does It Feel)", was recorded live with no overdubbing of its instrumentation, in contrast to contemporary R&B production at the time. For Voodoos sessions, D'Angelo appropriated most of the instruments on the album's songs, contributing with drums, electric guitar, keyboards, and percussion. During its recording, he employed amplifiers, microphones, a Fender Rhodes keyboards and organ originally used by musician Stevie Wonder for Talking Book (1972), and a recording board originally used by Jimi Hendrix. On Voodoos recording atmosphere, D'Angelo stated "I believe Jimi was there. Jimi, Marvin Gaye, all the folks we were gravitating to. I believe they blessed the project". D'Angelo composed all of the bass lines for Voodoo and sequenced them for Welsh bassist Pino Palladino, whom he had met after being asked to do a duet with B.B. King at the time of Voodoos earlier sessions. Palladino was asked by D'Angelo to learn and improvise the bass arrangements on his 1961 model P bass. For "The Root", "Greatdayndamornin'", and "Spanish Joint", guitarist Charlie Hunter simultaneously played guitar and bass sections with a custom eight-string guitar/bass combo, which had three lower bass and five upper guitar strings. It also had separate pickups for each set of strings, as well separate outputs for each pickup. In order to adjust production-wise to Hunter's intricate playing, Elevado had separate outputs from Hunter's guitar connected to a separate bass and guitar amplifier. He has said that there was enough separation to manage an adequate sound on both amplifiers, in spite of slight "bleeding into each other" from the pickups in close proximity to each other. Grooves and beats D'Angelo and his supporting personnel constructed several of the songs' grooves for the album to sit far behind time, directly on top of time, or pressing on the time, making them cluttered and loose in style. Questlove helped design the sparse funk, soul and hip hop beats on the generally groove-based record. In later interviews, Questlove discussed that he and D'Angelo incorporated much of the distinctive percussive rhythms of Detroit hip hop producer, Slum Village-member and The Ummah-affiliate J Dilla, also known as Jay Dee. A part of the musical collective Soulquarians, Dilla served as a frequent collaborator of theirs. Although album tracks such as "Left & Right" and "Devil's Pie" help to bring this claim to light, J Dilla himself was not officially credited for production. However, he contributed significantly to Voodoos overall sound, specifically the rhythm and percussion. One of the characteristics of the drumming style implemented in recording the album is human timing, complete with imperfections. The drum tracks were mostly programmed mechanically during recording, but minimal loop and quantizing (using digital software to "smooth out" or "correct" imperfections) was used. This resulted in the album's intentional sloppiness. In a later interview, Questlove discussed the intention and purpose of including imperfection in the album's sound, stating "we wanted to play as perfectly as we could, but then deliberately insert the little glitch that makes it sound messed up. The idea was to sound disciplined, but with a total human feel." Questlove also acknowledged J Dilla's influence over the recording sessions for Voodoo. He said of Dilla's unique programming method during the sessions, "He makes programmed stuff so real, you really can’t tell it’s programmed. He might program 128 bars, with absolutely no looping or quantizing ... When Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest first played me some of his stuff, I said, 'The drums are messed up! The time is wrong!' And when we did a song for D'Angelo's record that Lenny Kravitz was supposed to play on, Lenny said, 'I can’t play with this — there’s a discrepancy in the drum pattern.' And we’re like, 'It's supposed to be this way!' Scrapped tracks According to Questlove, a duet track by D'Angelo and Lauryn Hill, "Feel Like Makin' Love", was planned. Although tapes were sent via FedEx between the two, the collaboration was aborted and the song was instead recorded by D'Angelo. Questlove later said that the duet failed to materialize due to "too many middle men [...] I don't think Lauryn and D ever talked face-to-face." Mistakenly, some critics who reviewed the final track assumed that Hill's vocals are present in the recording. During the final days of recording Voodoo, Questlove spent time recording a version of Fela Kuti's "Water No Get Enemy", a melodic protest song from Kuti's 1975 album Expensive Shit. He and D'Angelo had intended to revamp the composition into a minimalist soul ballad for Lauryn Hill to contribute vocals for. However, Hill declined and the track ended up as a place-holder for the rough mix of the album. A reconceptualized version of the song was recorded by D'Angelo and guest artists on the charity album Red Hot + Riot (2002). Musical style Voodoo incorporates musical elements of jazz, funk, hip hop, blues, and soul, as well as ambient music with a musical layer shaped by guitar-based funk. It features vintage influences and a looser, more improvisational structure, which contrasts the more conventional song structure of Brown Sugar. Music writer Greg Kot has considered the album a production of the Soulquarians, calling it "the most radical of the many fine records" conceived by the collective's members. In an interview with the New Orleans Times-Picayunes Shawn Rhea, D'Angelo attributed the album's experimental and jam-like atmosphere to the fact that most of Voodoo was recorded "live and its first take". On its eclectic and conceptual style, Rhea commented "[D'Angelo] seems to have channeled the brilliance of his musical forefathers, living and dead, during the crafting of this album. It is a complex, intricate collection of songs that, like voodoo, is simultaneously secular and spiritual, sensual and sacred, earthbound and ethereal". Recording engineer Russell Elevado's analog mixing and old school production techniques contributed to the album's jazz element and vintage sound. On its jazz influence, D'Angelo stated "because a lot of the album was cut live and has free playing on it, it was hard not to go in a jazz direction". While most musical compositions rely on tension and release, which can be produced by factors such as soft verses and loud choruses, gradual buildup, subtle tension within verses or over the course of the bridge, or harmonic tension in chords that provides space for improvisation, D'Angelo's arrangements for Voodoo subdivide the tension into each of the songs' moments. According to music critic Steve McPherson, the concept results in "no linear way to measure how far off things slide before they pull themselves back ... can't be measured in beats or fractions of beats in a meaningful way. For lack of a less clichéd word, it's entirely 'feel'". This type of syncopation serves as the center for Voodoo, rather than the more conventional method of using it as flavoring or departure from the center. According to New York Daily News music journalist Jim Farber, "In order to counter the slickness of modern R&B, D'Angelo's album reconfigured – and updated – the adventurous song structures and lowdown grooves of early-'70s works like Curtis Mayfield's 'Move On Up', Isaac Hayes' 'Hot Buttered Soul' and Marvin Gaye's 'Let's Get It On'." The album features aggressive multi-tracking of D'Angelo's voice, a technique similar to the production of Sly & the Family Stone's There's a Riot Goin' On (1971) and Marvin Gaye's Let's Get It On (1973). The multi-tracking on Voodoo significantly affected the clarity of D'Angelo's vocals. In Voodoos liner notes, Saul Williams wrote of its heavy use of multi-tracking, stating "You might respond, 'Lyrics? Yo, I can't even understand half the shit that D'Angelo be saying. That nigga sounds like Bobby McFerrin on opium'. And I'd say, 'You're right. Neither can I. But I am drawn to figure out what it is that he's saying. His vocal collaging intrigues me'". "Between every staccato, breathy, slack-jaw-smooth lyric", wrote Spins Julianne Shephard, "was an implied syllable of psychedelic soul sex". Music writers have also noted the production style and sound of Voodoo as reminiscent of the sound of the P-Funk opus Mothership Connection (1975), Gaye's downtempo disco-soul record I Want You (1976), and Miles Davis's jazz fusion works In a Silent Way (1969) and Bitches Brew (1970). D'Angelo and his crew also utilized a hip hop production style, which often subordinates song structure to a stable foundation for a rapper's delivery and flow. This was familiar to D'Angelo, as his first original recordings were rap demos. Subsequently, most of the songs were performed without a definitive structure, settling into a mid-tempo groove with minimal verse-chorus-bridge progression. This also resulted in an emphasis on texture over both structure and hooks. New York writer Ethan Smith noted this occurrence, stating "most of the songs aren't really songs at all – at least, not in the traditional sense". While not predominant on the album, some tracks incorporate sampling. Most of its production was influenced by hip hop producer J Dilla's input. On J Dilla's influence, Questlove stated "He's the zenith of hip-hop to us. Jay Dee helped to bring out the album's dirty sound and encouraged the false starts and the nonquantized sound of the record". Songs The opening track "Playa Playa" features basketball metaphors and gospel overtones, which accompany the track's slow funk and jazz vibe. On his bass playing in the song, Pino Palladino recalled "I was thinking about Stevie Wonder in the choruses and P-Funk in the verses". Rob Evanoff of All About Jazz called the song "an uplifting soul ride", and stated that it evokes an image of "a musical train seen far off in the distance, slowly getting bigger as it gets closer". Evanoff also compared the track's style to the jam-sound of Pink Floyd, and wrote "it surrounds you with a deep thick infectious groove that, at first, shadows and then envelopes your senses in such a way that is equal bits liberating, intoxicating and hypnotic…you close your eyes and are transported into another dimension". On the song's lyrics, one critic wrote that "D'Angelo disses all neo-soul wannabes by calmly singing 'Bring the drama playa/Give me all U got'". "Devil's Pie" is a funk and hip hop diatribe with a lyrical theme concerning hip hop excess, and it is accompanied by P-Funk style harmonies and low-key singing by D'Angelo. It is a bass-driven track produced by DJ Premier, who contributes to its hip hop texture. The song's theme also incorporates religious imagery into its message of social strife. Questlove has stated that "Devil's Pie" was written to address the issues of "the money hungry jiggafied state of the world we're in". "Left & Right" is a funky party jam featuring rappers Method Man and Redman, who exchange verses as D'Angelo sings the song's verses and chorus. Entertainment Weeklys Matt Diehl calls Method Man's and Redman's lyrics "misogynistic", adding that it upsets Voodoos "organically sensual vibe". The introspective track "The Line" has a downtempo, spiritual sound with lyrics about dealing with some unnamed adversity. According to one critic, it "could be about his MIA status ('Will I hang or get left hangin?/Will I fall off or is it bangin?/I say it's up to God'), or about anyone facing doubters with a revolver loaded with talent and self-confidence ('I'm gonna put my finger on the trigger/I'm gonna pull it, and then we gon' see/What the deal/I'm for real')". Music critic Robert Christgau interpreted the lyrics to be "unjudgmental, unsentimental ... in which a young black man lays out the reasons he's ready to die-leaving the listener to wonder why the fuck he should have to think about it". Andy Peterson of The GW Hatchet viewed that the adversity is "the price of fame" or "lamenting a lost lover". The sparse funk song "Chicken Grease" has lyrics advising against acting "uptight", and it features D'Angelo referencing the line "I know you got soul" from Eric B. & Rakim's song of the same name (1987). It contains an ambiguous harmony and bass by Pino Palladino, who evokes the playing style of James Jamerson, with spontaneously improvised variations-on-a-theme parts that sit back "in the pocket". The track was originally intended for Common's Like Water for Chocolate, but D'Angelo offered Common the song "Geto Heaven Part Two" as a trade. "Chicken Grease" is named after a technical term that musician Prince used for his guitarist to play a 9th minor chord while playing 16th notes. The song contains background voices, which one writer described as "omnipresent party people channeled in from 'What's Going On' and 'Voodoo Chile', laughin and carryin on all over". Co-written by D'Angelo's former girlfriend, singer Angie Stone, "Send It On" contains lyrics concerning themes of honesty and faith in love, and features jazz trumpeter Roy Hargrove on flugel horn. Titled after a southern colloquial conflation of the terms "One More Time" and "Again", the mid-tempo ballad "One Mo'Gin" has its narrator reminiscing about a former lover. Its introductory sound consisting of soft organ work and dim percussion evokes the sound of D'Angelo's "Sh★t, Damn, Motherf★cker" (1995). "One Mo'Gin" contains strong jazz overtones and a prominent rocksteady drum rhythm played by Questlove. It incorporates Delta blues-style bass and keyboard-driven verses with a melodic hook. The song is introduced with lead-in bass licks by Pino Palladino, who adds musical texture to its sparse composition by using 10th notes and other arpeggio shapes. According to Seattle Weeklys Tricia Romano, the song's music actualizes "new skool sensibility with old school soul". According to Questlove, "The Root", "Spanish Joint", and "Greatdayndamornin' / Booty'" serve as the "virtuoso part of the record", featuring intricate technical arrangements, no overdubbing, and Charlie Hunter playing both electric and bass guitar. "The Root" is a mid-tempo heartbreak song with the bass line and guitar solo played simultaneously by Hunter on an eight-string guitar. It is about a vengeful woman's effect on the narrator: "In the name of love and hope she took my shield and sword ... From the pit of the bottom that knows no floor/Like the rain to the dirt, from the vine to the wine/From the alpha of creation, to the end of all time". Miles Marshall Lewis writes of the song's subject matter, "[it] can actually be digested and emotionally felt, sadly rare for Hot 97 R&B." Co-written by Roy Hargrove, "Spanish Joint" is a salsa-infused, high tempo track about karma. It incorporates rhythmic Brazilian guitar licks by Hunter, funky horn arrangements by Hargrove, and Latin grooves and fusion instrumentation similar to Stevie Wonder's "Don't You Worry 'bout a Thing" (1973). "Feel Like Makin' Love" is a cover of Roberta Flack's 1974 hit of the same name with a low-key, quiet storm sound. "Greatdayndamornin' / Booty'" features double rimshots placed behind the beat by Questlove. Co-written by Raphael Saadiq, "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" is a tribute to one of D'Angelo's primary influences, Prince, and evokes his early Controversy period. The similarity of D'Angelo's music on Voodoo to Prince was addressed in Saul Williams's liner notes, as he stated "I'd pay to see Prince's face as he listens to this album." Questlove described the song as "finding the line between parody and honesty [...] In an era of 'the cover song', redoing a Prince song was taboo. This is the second best thing". It follows a six eight signature and features electric guitar interplay throughout, which is reminiscent of the Jimi Hendrix guitar style and "Maggot Brain" sound. The song contains a drum pattern with a uniform dynamic. D'Angelo's vocals were overdubbed several times to produce the sound of a choir singing harmonies during choruses, all of which were sung by D'Angelo. The song's sexually explicit lyrics describe the narrator's plea to his lover for sex, as exemplified in the second verse: "Love to make you wet/In between your thighs, cause/I love when it comes inside of you/I get so excited when I'm around you, baby" It has been cited by critics as the album's best song. The philosophical album closer "Africa" celebrates D'Angelo's heritage, while reaffirming his contemporary mission in life. It has been cited by Questlove as his favorite song on the album. The theme of "Africa" concerns the finding of a spiritual home amid geographical displacement, and of passing that sense of belonging on to one's children. "Africa" was originally written in honor of D'Angelo's son, Michael Archer, Jr., and ended up as a dedication to history, Africa, and God. Opening with a shimmery rustle of chimes, the song contains a drum interpretation of Prince's "I Wonder U" from his Parade (1986), which was also utilized for the Ursula Rucker and The Roots track "The Return to Innocence Lost" from Things Fall Apart. Questlove discussed producing the opening chime sounds for "Africa", stating "we took the cover off the rhodes and mic'd 'em". One critic described C. Edward Alford's guitar work for "Africa" as "backward guitar solos (at least they sound backward)". Another critic described the song as a "lullaby" and "a gorgeous, opalescent closer ... a prayer of sorts". Voodoos coda, which consists of chopped-up track snippets run backwards, plays at the song's conclusion. Marketing The album's release was preceded by several delays, which were primarily caused by the folding of D'Angelo's former label EMI Records and legal troubles with his management. Originally scheduled for release on November 23, 1999, Voodoo was released the following year on January 25 by the Virgin-imprint label Cheeba Sound in the United States, January 18 in Canada and February 14 in the United Kingdom on EMI, awaiting eager anticipation from fans and critics. Voodoo was issued with a parental advisory label, due to profanities and sexually explicit lyrics present on the tracks "Devil's Pie" and "Left & Right", and also as a "clean" edited version with an alternate cover. A double LP release was made available in the UK through EMI. When Voodoo was originally presented to Virgin Records executives prior to its release, mixed opinions formulated on whether or not it would be favored commercially, as the project had been heavily financed by the label. In return for the production budget, Virgin executives expected a record with potential for radio-oriented success. However, Voodoos unconventional sound proved difficult to translate into singles suited for contemporary radio success, in contrast to the more accessible Brown Sugar. By the album's release date, three singles had been released, "Devil's Pie", "Left & Right", and "Untitled (How Does It Feel)", with only the latter making a significant commercial impact. The limited success with singles and lukewarm opinions from label executives led to more promotional efforts and a public response made by D'Angelo's management through issuing a statement, which cited Voodoo as the R&B musical equivalent of art rock band Radiohead's acclaimed studio album OK Computer (1997). While both records feature an experimental edge, in terms of sound and lyrical themes, the English indie rock scene to which the latter had belonged was album-oriented, as opposed to the contemporary R&B scene in the United States, which was more single-oriented at the time. Prior to its release, Virgin launched an extensive, multi-layered campaign for the album, which setup several promotional performances by D'Angelo in 1999, including a guest performance on the season premiere of The Chris Rock Show on September 17, New York's Key Club, the National Black Programmers Coalition meeting in New Orleans on November 20, KMEL San Francisco's House of Soul show on December 10, and KKBT L.A.'s Holiday Cooldown on December 11. Following commitments made by the label for the album's distribution in the UK, continental Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, D'Angelo appeared at London's Music of Black Origin Awards on October 6. Other promotional events included signings and in-store appearances by D'Angelo at shopping venues such as Macy's, Virgin Megastore, and Fulton Mall in New York City, which attracted a considerable number of D'Angelo's female fans. A remix album, Voodoo DJ Soul Essentials (2000), was also issued by Virgin. A press release for Voodoo was issued in January, discussing the album's experimental edge and the anticipation for its release. It called Voodoo "the CD that D'Angelo was put on this earth to create" and "quite literally the record that much of the universal soul nation has been feenin for." A video for "Send It On" included footage from Voodoos supporting tour. A music video for "Left & Right", created by director Malik Hassan Sayeed and producer Rich Ford, Jr., was anticipated by fans and MTV network executives that had planned special promotions and a world premiere for the clip. However, Sayeed's concept of a concert video that paid tribute to funk shows of the past expended Virgin's budget and resulted in a missed deadline for the MTV premiere. As punishment, the network refused to put the final edit of music video in rotation. It was eventually world-premiered by BET on Thanksgiving Day. The release of the controversial "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" music video prior to the album's release has often been cited as having the greatest promotional impact. Directed by Paul Hunter, the video features D'Angelo, filmed from the waist-up, lip-synching in the nude. According to writer Keith M. Harris, it portrayed D'Angelo's "discursive play with masculinity and blackness". The video gained a significant amount of airplay on the BET and MTV networks, and increased mainstream notice of D'Angelo upon Voodoos release, while exposing him as a sex icon to a newer generation of fans. It also proved to contribute significantly to the album's commercial success. The music video for "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" was also viewed at a promotional party thrown in celebration of the album's release, which took place in January 2000 at the Centro-Fly nightclub in Chelsea, Manhattan. Douglas Century of The New York Times wrote of the club's appearance as "packed and sweaty, with decor and soul music out of a 1970's time warp: multiple video screens playing images of Curtis Mayfield and vintage Soul Train episodes, replete with dancers in Day-Glo bell-bottoms". Sales The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart, selling 320,000 copies in its first week. It entered the Billboard 200 on February 12, 2000, and remained on the chart for 33 consecutive weeks. Its debut replaced Carlos Santana's Supernatural (1999) at the number-one spot on the chart. It had sold over 500,000 copies within its first two months of release. The album charted for 33 weeks on the Billboard 200. Voodoo charted on several international album charts, including the United Kingdom, Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and New Zealand. On February 24, 2000, it was certified gold in sales by the Canadian Recording Industry Association, following sales in excess of 50,000 copies in Canada. Two months after its US release, Voodoo was certified platinum on March 1, 2000, by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album's platinum certification had coincided with the commencement of Voodoos supporting tour. By mid-2000, the album had reached sales of 1.3 million copies in the United States. As of 2005, the album has sold over 1.7 million copies in the US, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Despite its success, Voodoo did not achieve his debut album's sales performance nor generate the single-oriented success D'Angelo's label had envisioned. Its first two singles, "Devil's Pie" and "Left & Right", peaked at number 69 and number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The latter was commercially aimed at R&B and hip hop-oriented radio stations due to the prominence of rappers Redman and Method Man on the track. According to Rich Ford, Jr., producer of the "Left & Right" music video, both the single and the video went commercially unnoticed due to MTV's refusal to place the song's video in rotation, serving as punishment for missing the deadline for its initial premiere. The fifth single "Feel Like Makin' Love" was less successful, reaching number 109 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. "Send It On", the album's fourth single, achieved moderate chart success, peaking at number 33 on Billboards Pop Singles chart. The album's third single, "Untitled (How Does It Feel)", became its greatest chart success, peaking at number 25 on the Hot 100 Singles and at number two on the R&B Singles chart. The infamous music video for "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" helped in boosting the song's appeal, as well as D'Angelo's. Billboard wrote of the video, "it's pure sexuality. D'Angelo, muscularly cut and glistening, is shot from the hips up, naked, with just enough shown to prompt a slow burning desire in most any woman who sees it. The video alone could make the song one of the biggest of the coming year". It earned three nominations for the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, including Video of the Year, Best R&B Video, and Best Male Video. Critical reception Voodoo received rave reviews from contemporary music critics, who dubbed it a "masterpiece" and D'Angelo's greatest work. In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau called it a "deeply brave and pretentious record ... signifies like a cross between lesser Tricky and Sly's Riot Goin' On", and wrote of D'Angelo, "he leads from strength" rather than "tune-and-hook", "a feel for bass more disquieting than bootalicious." NME praised its diverse sound and commented that the album "represents nothing less than African American music at a crossroads ... To simply call D'Angelo's work neo-classic soul, as per corporate diktat, would be reductive, for that would be to ignore the elements of vaudeville jazz, Memphis horns, ragtime blues, funk and bass grooves, not to mention hip-hop, that slip out of every pore of these 13 haunted songs." Christopher John Farley of Time called it a "richly imagined CD". Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters called it "the working blueprint for 'post-Soul' black pop". Joshua Klein of The A.V. Club commented that the album "often recalls the muddier bits of Sly Stone's later works [...] and the much-missed balladry of prime Prince" and stated, "D'Angelo's mellow strategy frequently pays off [...] a brave antidote to current pop and hip-hop trends." Despite perceiving a "heavy-handed emphasis on groove over melody" and "self-indulgent" song durations, Miles Marshall Lewis of The Village Voice viewed the album as a progression for D'Angelo and compared it to Prince's acclaimed Sign o' the Times (1987), noting that the latter album was initially perceived by most critics as "uneven". Greg Tate of Vibe dubbed it "the most daring song-oriented album by a mainstream R&B artist of his generation." Steve Jones of USA Today wrote that "no other R&B artist today seems to have as acute an understanding of where he comes from as D'Angelo, and none seems as willing to take risks in exploring where he should be heading". The Austin Chronicles Christopher Gray commented that "Voodoo unlocks the brain's inner freak like an especially nimble Harry Whodini". Rob Evanoff of All About Jazz gave it five out of five stars and called it "a record you put on and let it seep in, soaking your essence and one that evolves over subsequent listens... an aural aphrodisiac". He found it to be in the tradition of classic jazz albums and wrote of its musical significance, stating: However, some critics found it inconsistent. Music journalist Peter Shapiro criticized its "loose playing and bohemian self-indulgence", stating "Voodoo drifted all over the map in a blunted haze". Rolling Stones James Hunter disapproved of the experimental and loose-sounding structure, and viewed that it does not attain its potential, stating "long stretches of it are unfocused and unabsorbing [...] Voodoo flatters the real at the expense of the thing. The result is superb smoke, but smoke nonetheless". Jon Caramanica wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), "D'Angelo achieves through nuance what some singers with decades of experience and training never achieve: a throbbing, vital presence, that demands attention, even as it shuns it". Accolades In 2001, Voodoo won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Album at the 43rd Grammy Awards, which was awarded to D'Angelo and recording engineer Russell Elevado. The song "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" won for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance and was also nominated for Best R&B Song. The song was also ranked number 12 on The Village Voices Pazz & Jop critics' poll of 2000, as well as number 4 on Rolling Stone magazine's "End of Year Critics & Readers Poll" of the top singles of the year. Voodoo proved to be one of the most critically praised and awarded albums of the year, topping several critics' and publications' "end of year" lists, including the number 6 spot on The Village Voices 2000 Pazz & Jop critics' poll. Rolling Stone and Spin magazine both ranked it number 4 on their "albums of the year" lists, while Time magazine named Voodoo as the number 1 album of 2000. Voodoo was named one of the top ten albums of 2000 by several New York Times staff writers, including Ben Ratliff (number 2), Neil Strauss (number 3), Ann Powers (number 2), and Jon Pareles (number 1). In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked the album number 488 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and at number 481 in a revised list in 2012. In the 2020, the album was re-ranked at 28, calling it "an album heavy on bass and drenched in a post-coital haze". In 2009, Pitchfork ranked Voodoo number 44 on its list of the Top 200 Albums of the 2000s decade, calling it "a triumph of hands-on, real-time, old-school soul minimalism" and citing D'Angelo's vocals as "maybe the most erotically tactile singing put to disc this decade". Rolling Stone placed the album at number 23 on its list of the 100 Best Albums of the Decade, stating "The decade's most magnificent R&B record was also its most inventive — so far ahead of its time that it still sounds radical". AllMusic editor Andy Kellman has cited Brown Sugar and Voodoo as "two of the most excellent and singular R&B albums of the past 15 years". Tour and aftermath Following Voodoos release, D'Angelo embarked on his second international tour in support of the album, The Voodoo Tour. The tour was sponsored by the clothing company Levi Strauss & Co., and it featured D'Angelo promoting an end to gun violence. After signing an initiative on June 7, 2000, at Hamilton High School in West Los Angeles to collect a million signatures by November 7 in support of "common-sense solutions" to end gun violence, the anti-gun violence organization PAX agreed to sponsor the tour. The tour was also set to feature a wall composed of denim by Levi's, made available for fans to sign in support of anti-gun violence. D'Angelo was backed by a group of session personnel and other musicians, assembled and directed by Questlove, called the Soultronics. J Dilla's group Slum Village opened on several dates, while R&B singer Anthony Hamilton sang backup within the Soultronics on occasion. D'Angelo's wardrobe during the tour included tank tops, black leather pants, and boots. Rolling Stones Touré commented on one of the outings, "The Soultronics begin each show in all black, but beyond that one requirement, each looks completely distinct. One man is in a deacon's robe, another in a long cape with a knit ski cap that says FBI. There’s a feather boa, a few badass leather coats, and Questlove's mighty Afro. There's a P-Funkish freaky flair to the Soultronics' look." In contrast to D'Angelo's performing behind his keyboard when promoting Brown Sugar, his performances were more lively for Voodoo. Tour manager Alan Leeds, who headed James Brown's late 1960s and early 1970s outings, as well as Prince's Purple Rain tour in the mid-1980s, cited The Voodoo Tour as his most memorable gig. With ticket prices ranging from $49 to $79, the tour became one of the most attended shows of 2000. By July, the tour's first half had sold out in each city. The tour lasted nearly eight months, while performances went for up to three hours a night. The tour began on March 1, 2000, at the House of Blues in Los Angeles,. The Voodoo Tour was taken internationally to venues including Paris Olympia, Trump Taj Mahal, Brixton Academy, the Montreux Jazz Festival, the North Sea Jazz Festival and the Free Jazz Festival in Brazil. The music video for "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" portrayed D'Angelo as a sex symbol to mainstream music audiences, which had repercussions on The Voodoo Tours second half. During the tour, female fans yelled out for him to take his clothes off, while others tossed clothes onto the stage. As trumpeter Roy Hargrove recounted, "We couldn't get through one song before women would start to scream for him to take off something [...] It wasn't about the music. All they wanted him to do was take off his clothes." This led to frustration and both onstage and offstage outbursts by D'Angelo, with him breaking stage equipment. Questlove later said, "He'd get angry and start breaking shit. The audience thinking, 'Fuck your art, I wanna see your ass!', made him angry." Although some were cancelled due to D'Angelo's throat infection during the tour's mid-March dates, many shows were cancelled due to his personal and emotional problems. D'Angelo chose on several occasions to not perform on scheduled dates, and delayed others to do physical workouts like stomach crunches. According to Questlove, three weeks worth of concert dates were cancelled, including two weeks worth of shows in Japan. He elaborated on the experience in a 2003 interview for The Believer, saying that: In the same interview, Questlove also said that he had not been fully compensated for his work on Voodoo, stating "I didn’t get the rest of my check." Several of D'Angelo's peers and affiliates have noted the commercial impact of the "Untitled (How Does It Feel)" music video and The Voodoo Tour as contributing factors to D'Angelo's extended period of absence from the music scene after Voodoo. Track listing Personnel Credits adapted from album booklet liner notes. Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also List of number-one albums of 2000 (U.S.) Progressive soul References Bibliography External links Songs in the Key of Black Life: Some Otha Shit – Mark Anthony Neal "D'Angelo's Grassroots Network of Soul" – PopMatters "Black Pop Kool-Aid: D’Angelo's 'Left & Right'" – Michael A. 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202672	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral%20density	Spectral density	The power spectrum of a time series describes the distribution of power into frequency components composing that signal. According to Fourier analysis, any physical signal can be decomposed into a number of discrete frequencies, or a spectrum of frequencies over a continuous range. The statistical average of a certain signal or sort of signal (including noise) as analyzed in terms of its frequency content, is called its spectrum. When the energy of the signal is concentrated around a finite time interval, especially if its total energy is finite, one may compute the energy spectral density. More commonly used is the power spectral density (or simply power spectrum), which applies to signals existing over all time, or over a time period large enough (especially in relation to the duration of a measurement) that it could as well have been over an infinite time interval. The power spectral density (PSD) then refers to the spectral energy distribution that would be found per unit time, since the total energy of such a signal over all time would generally be infinite. Summation or integration of the spectral components yields the total power (for a physical process) or variance (in a statistical process), identical to what would be obtained by integrating over the time domain, as dictated by Parseval's theorem. The spectrum of a physical process often contains essential information about the nature of . For instance, the pitch and timbre of a musical instrument are immediately determined from a spectral analysis. The color of a light source is determined by the spectrum of the electromagnetic wave's electric field as it fluctuates at an extremely high frequency. Obtaining a spectrum from time series such as these involves the Fourier transform, and generalizations based on Fourier analysis. In many cases the time domain is not specifically employed in practice, such as when a dispersive prism is used to obtain a spectrum of light in a spectrograph, or when a sound is perceived through its effect on the auditory receptors of the inner ear, each of which is sensitive to a particular frequency. However this article concentrates on situations in which the time series is known (at least in a statistical sense) or directly measured (such as by a microphone sampled by a computer). The power spectrum is important in statistical signal processing and in the statistical study of stochastic processes, as well as in many other branches of physics and engineering. Typically the process is a function of time, but one can similarly discuss data in the spatial domain being decomposed in terms of spatial frequency. Explanation Any signal that can be represented as a variable that varies in time has a corresponding frequency spectrum. This includes familiar entities such as visible light (perceived as color), musical notes (perceived as pitch), radio/TV (specified by their frequency, or sometimes wavelength) and even the regular rotation of the earth. When these signals are viewed in the form of a frequency spectrum, certain aspects of the received signals or the underlying processes producing them are revealed. In some cases the frequency spectrum may include a distinct peak corresponding to a sine wave component. And additionally there may be peaks corresponding to harmonics of a fundamental peak, indicating a periodic signal which is not simply sinusoidal. Or a continuous spectrum may show narrow frequency intervals which are strongly enhanced corresponding to resonances, or frequency intervals containing almost zero power as would be produced by a notch filter. In physics, the signal might be a wave, such as an electromagnetic wave, an acoustic wave, or the vibration of a mechanism. The power spectral density (PSD) of the signal describes the power present in the signal as a function of frequency, per unit frequency. Power spectral density is commonly expressed in watts per hertz (W/Hz). When a signal is defined in terms only of a voltage, for instance, there is no unique power associated with the stated amplitude. In this case "power" is simply reckoned in terms of the square of the signal, as this would always be proportional to the actual power delivered by that signal into a given impedance. So one might use units of V2 Hz−1 for the PSD. Energy spectral density (ESD) would have units would be V2 s Hz−1, since energy has units of power multiplied by time (e.g., watt-hour). Sometimes one encounters an amplitude spectral density (ASD), which is the square root of the PSD; the ASD of a voltage signal has units of V Hz−1/2. This is useful when the shape of the spectrum is rather constant, since variations in the ASD will then be proportional to variations in the signal's voltage level itself. But it is mathematically preferred to use the PSD, since only in that case is the area under the curve meaningful in terms of actual power over all frequency or over a specified bandwidth. In the general case, the units of PSD will be the ratio of units of variance per unit of frequency; so, for example, a series of displacement values (in meters) over time (in seconds) will have PSD in units of meters squared per hertz, m2/Hz. In the analysis of random vibrations, units of g2 Hz−1 are frequently used for the PSD of acceleration, where g denotes the g-force. Mathematically, it is not necessary to assign physical dimensions to the signal or to the independent variable. In the following discussion the meaning of x(t) will remain unspecified, but the independent variable will be assumed to be that of time. Definition Energy spectral density Energy spectral density describes how the energy of a signal or a time series is distributed with frequency. Here, the term energy is used in the generalized sense of signal processing; that is, the energy of a signal is: The energy spectral density is most suitable for transients—that is, pulse-like signals—having a finite total energy. Finite or not, Parseval's theorem (or Plancherel's theorem) gives us an alternate expression for the energy of the signal: where: is the value of the Fourier transform of at frequency (in Hz). The theorem also holds true in the discrete-time cases. Since the integral on the right-hand side is the energy of the signal, the integrand can be interpreted as a density function describing the energy contained in the signal at the frequency . Therefore, the energy spectral density of is defined as: The function and the autocorrelation of form a Fourier transform pair, a result is known as Wiener–Khinchin theorem (see also Periodogram). As a physical example of how one might measure the energy spectral density of a signal, suppose represents the potential (in volts) of an electrical pulse propagating along a transmission line of impedance , and suppose the line is terminated with a matched resistor (so that all of the pulse energy is delivered to the resistor and none is reflected back). By Ohm's law, the power delivered to the resistor at time is equal to , so the total energy is found by integrating with respect to time over the duration of the pulse. To find the value of the energy spectral density at frequency , one could insert between the transmission line and the resistor a bandpass filter which passes only a narrow range of frequencies (, say) near the frequency of interest and then measure the total energy dissipated across the resistor. The value of the energy spectral density at is then estimated to be . In this example, since the power has units of V2 Ω−1, the energy has units of V2 s Ω−1 = J, and hence the estimate of the energy spectral density has units of J Hz−1, as required. In many situations, it is common to forget the step of dividing by so that the energy spectral density instead has units of V2 Hz−1. This definition generalizes in a straightforward manner to a discrete signal with a countably infinite number of values such as a signal sampled at discrete times : where is the discrete-time Fourier transform of The sampling interval is needed to keep the correct physical units and to ensure that we recover the continuous case in the limit But in the mathematical sciences the interval is often set to 1, which simplifies the results at the expense of generality. (also see normalized frequency) Power spectral density The above definition of energy spectral density is suitable for transients (pulse-like signals) whose energy is concentrated around one time window; then the Fourier transforms of the signals generally exist. For continuous signals over all time, one must rather define the power spectral density (PSD) which exists for stationary processes; this describes how power of a signal or time series is distributed over frequency, as in the simple example given previously. Here, power can be the actual physical power, or more often, for convenience with abstract signals, is simply identified with the squared value of the signal. For example, statisticians study the variance of a function over time (or over another independent variable), and using an analogy with electrical signals (among other physical processes), it is customary to refer to it as the power spectrum even when there is no physical power involved. If one were to create a physical voltage source which followed and applied it to the terminals of a 1 ohm resistor, then indeed the instantaneous power dissipated in that resistor would be given by watts. The average power of a signal over all time is therefore given by the following time average, where the period is centered about some arbitrary time : However, for the sake of dealing with the math that follows, it is more convenient to deal with time limits in the signal itself rather than time limits in the bounds of the integral. As such, we have an alternative representation of the average power, where and is unity within the arbitrary period and zero elsewhere. Clearly in cases where the above expression for P is non-zero (even as T grows without bound) the integral itself must also grow without bound. That is the reason that we cannot use the energy spectral density itself, which is that diverging integral, in such cases. In analyzing the frequency content of the signal , one might like to compute the ordinary Fourier transform ; however, for many signals of interest the Fourier transform does not formally exist. Regardless, Parseval's theorem tells us that we can re-write the average power as follows. Then the power spectral density is simply defined as the integrand above. From here, we can also view as the Fourier transform of the time convolution of and Now, if we divide the time convolution above by the period and take the limit as , it becomes the autocorrelation function of the non-windowed signal , which is denoted as , provided that is ergodic, which is true in most, but not all, practical cases.. From here we see, again assuming the ergodicity of , that the power spectral density can be found as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function (Wiener–Khinchin theorem). Many authors use this equality to actually define the power spectral density. The power of the signal in a given frequency band , where , can be calculated by integrating over frequency. Since , an equal amount of power can be attributed to positive and negative frequency bands, which accounts for the factor of 2 in the following form (such trivial factors depend on the conventions used): More generally, similar techniques may be used to estimate a time-varying spectral density. In this case the time interval is finite rather than approaching infinity. This results in decreased spectral coverage and resolution since frequencies of less than are not sampled, and results at frequencies which are not an integer multiple of are not independent. Just using a single such time series, the estimated power spectrum will be very "noisy"; however this can be alleviated if it is possible to evaluate the expected value (in the above equation) using a large (or infinite) number of short-term spectra corresponding to statistical ensembles of realizations of evaluated over the specified time window. Just as with the energy spectral density, the definition of the power spectral density can be generalized to discrete time variables . As before, we can consider a window of with the signal sampled at discrete times for a total measurement period . Note that a single estimate of the PSD can be obtained through a finite number of samplings. As before, the actual PSD is achieved when (and thus ) approaches infinity and the expected value is formally applied. In a real-world application, one would typically average a finite-measurement PSD over many trials to obtain a more accurate estimate of the theoretical PSD of the physical process underlying the individual measurements. This computed PSD is sometimes called a periodogram. This periodogram converges to the true PSD as the number of estimates as well as the averaging time interval approach infinity (Brown & Hwang). If two signals both possess power spectral densities, then the cross-spectral density can similarly be calculated; as the PSD is related to the autocorrelation, so is the cross-spectral density related to the cross-correlation. Properties of the power spectral density Some properties of the PSD include: Cross power spectral density Given two signals and , each of which possess power spectral densities and , it is possible to define a cross power spectral density (CPSD) or cross spectral density (CSD). To begin, let us consider the average power of such a combined signal. Using the same notation and methods as used for the power spectral density derivation, we exploit Parseval's theorem and obtain where, again, the contributions of and are already understood. Note that , so the full contribution to the cross power is, generally, from twice the real part of either individual CPSD. Just as before, from here we recast these products as the Fourier transform of a time convolution, which when divided by the period and taken to the limit becomes the Fourier transform of a cross-correlation function. where is the cross-correlation of with and is the cross-correlation of with . In light of this, the PSD is seen to be a special case of the CSD for . For the case that and are voltage or current signals, their associated amplitude spectral densities and are strictly positive by convention. Therefore, in typical signal processing, the full CPSD is just one of the CPSDs scaled by a factor of two. For discrete signals xn and yn, the relationship between the cross-spectral density and the cross-covariance is Estimation The goal of spectral density estimation is to estimate the spectral density of a random signal from a sequence of time samples. Depending on what is known about the signal, estimation techniques can involve parametric or non-parametric approaches, and may be based on time-domain or frequency-domain analysis. For example, a common parametric technique involves fitting the observations to an autoregressive model. A common non-parametric technique is the periodogram. The spectral density is usually estimated using Fourier transform methods (such as the Welch method), but other techniques such as the maximum entropy method can also be used. Related concepts The spectral centroid of a signal is the midpoint of its spectral density function, i.e. the frequency that divides the distribution into two equal parts. The spectral edge frequency of a signal is an extension of the previous concept to any proportion instead of two equal parts. The spectral density is a function of frequency, not a function of time. However, the spectral density of a small window of a longer signal may be calculated, and plotted versus time associated with the window. Such a graph is called a spectrogram. This is the basis of a number of spectral analysis techniques such as the short-time Fourier transform and wavelets. A "spectrum" generally means the power spectral density, as discussed above, which depicts the distribution of signal content over frequency. This is not to be confused with the frequency response of a transfer function which also includes a phase (or equivalently, a real and imaginary part as a function of frequency). For transfer functions, (e.g., Bode plot, chirp) the complete frequency response may be graphed in two parts, amplitude versus frequency and phase versus frequency—the phase spectral density, phase spectrum, or spectral phase (or less commonly, as real and imaginary parts of the transfer function). The impulse response (in the time domain) , cannot generally be uniquely recovered from the amplitude spectral density part alone without the phase function. Although these are also Fourier transform pairs, there is no symmetry (as there is for the autocorrelation) forcing the Fourier transform to be real-valued. See Ultrashort pulse#Spectral phase, phase noise, group delay. Applications Electrical engineering The concept and use of the power spectrum of a signal is fundamental in electrical engineering, especially in electronic communication systems, including radio communications, radars, and related systems, plus passive remote sensing technology. Electronic instruments called spectrum analyzers are used to observe and measure the power spectra of signals. The spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) of an input signal. If the signal being analyzed can be considered a stationary process, the STFT is a good smoothed estimate of its power spectral density. Cosmology Primordial fluctuations, density variations in the early universe, are quantified by a power spectrum which gives the power of the variations as a function of spatial scale. See also Bispectrum Brightness temperature Colors of noise Least-squares spectral analysis Noise spectral density Spectral density estimation Spectral efficiency Spectral leakage Spectral power distribution Whittle likelihood Window function Notes References External links Power Spectral Density Matlab scripts Frequency-domain analysis Signal processing Waves Spectroscopy Scattering Fourier analysis Radio spectrum	[ 0.16707931458950043, -0.5663329362869263, 0.2815486490726471, 0.05613693222403526, -0.18917018175125122, -0.13870209455490112, -0.1477806121110916, -0.465501070022583, 0.07854676991701126, -0.9650439620018005, -0.2496485710144043, 0.44512274861335754, -0.2539982497692108, 0.47014233469963074, 0.038501426577568054, 0.5242415070533752, 0.44235703349113464, 0.3168082535266876, -0.24309900403022766, -0.48492708802223206, -0.13736402988433838, 0.21608251333236694, 0.30450937151908875, -0.25368303060531616, 0.2101559340953827, -0.5595769882202148, -0.32132187485694885, 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202674	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1891%20in%20literature	1891 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1891. Events January – The Strand Magazine is first published in London. On June 25 Arthur Conan Doyle's private consulting detective Sherlock Holmes appears in it for the first time, in the story "A Scandal in Bohemia" (issue dated July). January 31 – Henrik Ibsen's play Hedda Gabler published in 1890 is first performed, at the Königliches Residenz-Theater in Munich, the city where it was written. The lead is played by Clara Heese (1861–1921), but Ibsen is displeased with her performance. The first British performance is on April 20 at the recently reopened Vaudeville Theatre, London, with Elizabeth Robins as Hedda and co-directing. March 13 – Henrik Ibsen's play Ghosts (published in 1881) achieves a single London performance, its English-language stage première (at the Royalty Theatre). To evade the Lord Chamberlain's Office's censorship, it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, but still attracts strong criticism on moral grounds. April – Oscar Wilde's novel The Picture of Dorian Gray is first published in book format by Ward and Lock in London with the aphoristic preface originally published in the March 1 issue of The Fortnightly Review. May – William Morris establishes the Kelmscott Press as a private press at Hammersmith (London) and produces its first book, the first edition in book format of his fantasy novel The Story of the Glittering Plain. May 21 – Maurice Maeterlinck's play Intruder (L'Intruse) is premièred at Paul Fort's Théâtre d'Art in Paris. c. Late June – In a meeting of decadent poets in London, Oscar Wilde is first introduced to Lord Alfred Douglas by Lionel Johnson at Wilde's Tite Street home. July 1 – The International Copyright Act of 1891 comes into effect in the United States, permitting foreign authors to register their works for copyright. On July 3, the first such work, the play Saints and Sinners by English author Henry Arthur Jones, is registered. July 4 – December 26 – Thomas Hardy's novel Tess of the d'Urbervilles is serialized in expurgated form in the weekly illustrated newspaper The Graphic (London); in November the first (unexpurgated) book edition is published in London. August 22 – Israel Zangwill's The Big Bow Mystery, the first classic full-length locked room mystery, begins serialization in The Star (London). October 9 – Émile Zola's stage adaptation of his novel Thérèse Raquin (first performed in 1873) achieves a single London performance, its English stage première (at the Royalty Theatre). To evade the Lord Chamberlain's Office's censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, but still attracts criticism on moral grounds. September 4 – Ambrose Bierce dates the preface of Tales of Soldiers and Civilians for this day, although it will not actually be issued (in San Francisco) until 1892. It includes "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge", one of his best known works. October – Tristan Bernard has his first work published in La Revue Blanche, which returns to Parisian publication in October, and adopts his pseudonym. December – Thomas Hardy writes "The Son's Veto", which he regards as his best short story. December 7 – Maurice Maeterlinck's play The Blind (Les aveugles) is premièred. unknown dates Sophia Alice Callahan's Wynema, a Child of the Forest is published, the first work of fiction by a Native American woman in English. Publication of the first complete one-volume popular German translation of Shakespeare's plays probable – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, G. K. Chesterton and fellow pupils of St Paul's School, London, compose the first pseudo-biographical comic verses which become known as clerihews. New books Fiction Grant Allen – The Great Taboo Hall Caine – The Scapegoat J. M. Barrie – The Little Minister Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Gerard; or, The World, the Flesh and the Devil ("by the author of Lady Audley's Secret") Gabriele D'Annunzio – Giovanni Episcopo Machado de Assis – Quincas Borba (translated as Philosopher or Dog?) Arthur Conan Doyle – The White Company George du Maurier – Peter Ibbetson Helen H. Gardener – Is This Your Son, My Lord? (in The Arena) André Gide – Les Cahiers d'André Walter George Gissing – New Grub Street Thomas Hardy A Group of Noble Dames (collected short stories) Tess of the d'Urbervilles J.-K. Huysmans – Là-bas Henry James – "The Pupil" (short story in Longman's Magazine) Jerome K. Jerome – Diary of a Pilgrimage Jean Lorrain – Sonyeuse (novella) Lucas Malet (Mary St Leger Kingsley) – The Wages of Sin Herman Melville – Timoleon Georges Ohnet – Dernier Amour Daniel Owen – Enoc Huws Howard Pyle – Men of Iron José Rizal – El filibusterismo Jules Verne – Mistress Branican Joseph Jeffrey Walters – Guanya Pau: A Story of an African Princess Oscar Wilde – Lord Arthur Savile's Crime and Other Stories Margaret L. Woods – Esther Vanhomrigh Charlotte M. Yonge Two Penniless Princesses Unknown to History Émile Zola – L'Argent Children and young people Hedda Anderson – Rolfs sommarferier (Rolf's Summer Holiday) Selma Lagerlöf – Gösta Berlings Saga (The Story of Gosta Berling) Laura E. Richards – Captain January Molly Elliot Seawell – Midshipman Paulding William Gordon Stables – The Cruise of the Crystal Boat Drama Carlo Favetti – (The Fusilier and the Grenadier: A Satirical Play) Jacob Mikhailovich Gordin – Siberia Maurice Maeterlinck – Intruder (first production) Victorien Sardou – Thermidor Rosario de Acuña – El padre Juan Frank Wedekind – Spring Awakening (Frühlings Erwachen) Oscar Wilde The Duchess of Padua (first production) Salome (written, in French) Poetry William Morris – Poems by the Way Non-fiction Marie Bashkirtseff – Lettres Black's Law Dictionary, 1st edition John Churton Collins – The Study of English Literature: a plea for its recognition and organization at the Universities John Gibson – The Emancipation of Women Edmond de Goncourt – Utamaro George Holyoake – The Co-operative Movement of To-day Frederic G. Kenyon (ed.) Aristotelous Ἀθηναιων Πολιτεια: Aristotle on the Constitution of Athens Classical Texts from Papyri in the British Museum; including the newly discovered poems of Herodas, with autotype facsimiles of MSS Errico Malatesta – Anarchy (L'anarchia) George W. E. Russell – The Right Honourable William Ewart Gladstone George Bernard Shaw – Quintessence of Ibsenism Grigore Sturdza – Lois fondamentales de l'univers (Fundamental Laws of the Universe) A. E. Waite – The Occult Sciences Oscar Wilde – Intentions Births January 7 – Zora Neale Hurston, American Harlem Renaissance novelist (died 1960) January 8 – (Margaret) Storm Jameson, English novelist (died 1986) January 9 – August Gailit, Estonian journalist and author (died 1960) January 15 – Osip Mandelstam, Russian poet and essayist (died 1938) January 22 – Antonio Gramsci, Italian Communist writer and politician (died 1937) January 23 – Pavlo Tychyna, Ukrainian poet (died 1967) February 10 – Elliot Paul, American writer (died 1958) February 13 – Kate Roberts, Welsh writer (died 1985) March 13 – Felix Aderca, Romanian novelist, critic, poet and journalist (died 1962) March 27 – Lajos Zilahy, Hungarian novelist and dramatist (died 1974) April 29 – Bharathidasan, Tamil poet and rationalist (died 1964) May 15 - Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian novelist and playwright (died 1940) June 14 – Alexander Melentyevich Volkov, Russian novelist (died 1977) July 5 – Tin Ujević, Croatian poet (died 1955) August 1 – Edward Streeter, American humorist (died 1976) August 12 – C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and broadcaster (died 1953) August 25 – David Shimoni, Russian-born Israeli poet and writer (died 1956) September 23 – Arthur Graeme West, English military writer and poet (killed in action 1917) October 6 – John Metcalfe, English writer (died 1965) November 14 – Josef Magnus Wehner, German poet and playwright (died 1973) November 17 – Sigurd Christiansen, Norwegian novelist and dramatist (died 1947) November 23 – Masao Kume, Japanese playwright, novelist and haiku poet (died 1952) December 9 – Maksim Bahdanovič, Belarusian poet (died 1917) December 10 – Nelly Sachs, German-Swedish poet, dramatist and Nobel Prize winner (died 1970) December 17 – Hu Shih (胡適), Chinese Nobel Prize winning philosopher and language reformer (died 1962) December 26 – Henry Miller, American novelist (died 1980) Deaths February 3 – Élie Berthet, French novelist (born 1815) February 7 – Marie Louise Andrews, American editor (born 1849) February 13 – Mary Spear Nicholas Tiernan, American writer (born 1835) March 13 – Théodore de Banville, French writer (born 1823) April 24 – Rebecca Agatha Armour, Canadian novelist (born 1845) April 27 – Joachim Oppenheim, Czech rabbi and author (born 1832) July 17 – Jean Lombard, French novelist (born 1854) July 19 – Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, Spanish novelist (born 1833) August 12 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and essayist (born 1819) August 22 – Jan Neruda, Czech writer (born 1834) September 15 – Ivan Goncharov, Russian writer (born 1812) September 28 – Herman Melville, American novelist (born 1819) October 15 – Gilbert Arthur à Beckett, English writer (born 1837) November 10 – Arthur Rimbaud, French poet (cancer, born 1854) Unknown date – Teodor Boldur-Lățescu, Romanian journalist and publisher (born 1837) Awards Newdigate Prize – Laurence Binyon References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ 0.05227421224117279, 0.2755105197429657, -0.9928621053695679, -0.190362349152565, -0.6428740620613098, 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202677	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Saddam%20Hussein%27s%20Iraq	Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq	Iraq under Saddam Hussein saw severe violations of human rights, which were considered to be among the worst in the world. Secret police, state terrorism, torture, mass murder, genocide, ethnic cleansing, rape, deportations, extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances, assassinations, chemical warfare, and the destruction of the Mesopotamian marshes were some of the methods Saddam and the country's Ba'athist government used to maintain control. The total number of deaths and disappearances related to repression during this period is unknown, but is estimated to be at least 250,000 to 290,000 according to Human Rights Watch, with the great majority of those occurring as a result of the Anfal genocide in 1988 and the suppression of the uprisings in Iraq in 1991. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International issued regular reports of widespread imprisonment and torture. Documented human rights violations 1979–2003 Human rights organizations have documented government-approved executions, acts of torture and rape for decades since Saddam Hussein came to power in 1979 until his fall in 2003. In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the European Union was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq. The statement condemned President Saddam Hussein's government for its "systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law" and called on Iraq to cease "summary and arbitrary executions ... the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances". Full political participation at the national level was restricted only to members of the Ba'ath Party, which constituted only 8% of the population. Iraqi citizens were not legally allowed to assemble unless it was to express support for the government. The Iraqi government controlled the establishment of political parties, regulated their internal affairs and monitored their activities. Police checkpoints on Iraq's roads and highways prevented ordinary citizens from traveling across country without government permission and expensive exit visas prevented Iraqi citizens from traveling abroad. Before traveling, an Iraqi citizen had to post collateral. Iraqi females could not travel outside of the country without the escort of a male relative. The Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein, also known as the Feyli Kurdish genocide, was a systematic persecution of Feylis by Saddam Hussein between 1970 and 2003. The persecution campaigns led to the expulsion, flight and effective exile of the Feyli Kurds from their ancestral lands in Iraq. The persecution began when a large number of Feyli Kurds were exposed to a big campaign by the regime that began by the dissolved RCCR issuance for 666 decision, which deprived Feyli Kurds of Iraqi nationality and considered them as Iranians. The systematic executions started in Baghdad and Khanaqin in 1979 and later spread to other Iraqi and Kurdish areas. It is estimated that around 25,000 Feyli Kurds died due to captivity and torture. Halabja poison gas attack:The Halabja poison gas attack occurred in the period 15–19 March 1988 during the Iran–Iraq War when chemical weapons were used by the Iraqi government forces and thousands of civilians in the Iraqi Kurdish town of Halabja were killed. Anfal campaign: In 1988, the Hussein regime began a campaign of extermination against the Kurdish people living in Northern Iraq. This is known as the Anfal campaign. A team of Human Rights Watch investigators determined, after analyzing eighteen tons of captured Iraqi documents, testing soil samples and carrying out interviews with more than 350 witnesses, that the attacks on the Kurdish people were characterized by gross violations of human rights, including mass executions and disappearances of many tens of thousands of noncombatants, widespread use of chemical weapons including Sarin, mustard gas and nerve agents that killed thousands, the arbitrary imprisoning of tens of thousands of women, children, and elderly people for months in conditions of extreme deprivation, forced displacement of hundreds of thousands of villagers after the demolition of their homes, and the wholesale destruction of nearly two thousand villages along with their schools, mosques, farms and power stations. 50,000 to 70,000 Shi`a were arrested in the 1980s and never heard from again 8,000 Kurds from the Barzani clan were disappeared and likely killed 50,000 dissidents, party members, Kurds, and other minorities were disappeared and presumed killed in the 1980s through 1990s In April 1991, after Saddam lost control of Kuwait in the Persian Gulf War, he cracked down ruthlessly against several uprisings in the Kurdish north and the Shia south. His forces committed full-scale massacres and other gross human rights violations against both groups similar to the violations mentioned before. In June 1994, the Hussein regime in Iraq established severe penalties, including amputation, branding and the death penalty for criminal offenses such as theft, corruption, currency speculation and military desertion, some of which are part of Islamic Sharia law, while government members and Saddam's family members were immune from punishments ranging around these crimes. In 2001, the Iraqi government amended the Constitution to make sodomy a capital offense. On March 23, 2003, during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Iraqi television presented and interviewed prisoners of war on TV, violating the Geneva Convention. Also in April 2003, CNN revealed that it had withheld information about Iraq torturing journalists and Iraqi citizens in the 1990s. According to CNN's chief news executive, the channel had been concerned for the safety not only of its own staff, but also of Iraqi sources and informants, who could expect punishment for speaking freely to reporters. Also according to the executive, "other news organizations were in the same bind." After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, several mass graves were found in Iraq containing several thousand bodies total and more are being uncovered to this day. While most of the dead in the graves were believed to have died in the 1991 uprising against Saddam Hussein, some of them appeared to have died due to executions or died at times other than the 1991 rebellion. Also after the invasion, numerous torture centers were found in security offices and police stations throughout Iraq. The equipment found at these centers typically included hooks for hanging people by the hands for beatings, devices for electric shock and other equipment often found in nations with harsh security services and other authoritarian nations. 'Saddam's Dirty Dozen' According to officials of the United States State Department, many human rights abuses in Saddam Hussein's Iraq were largely carried out in person or by the orders of Saddam Hussein and eleven other people. The term "Saddam's Dirty Dozen" was coined in October 2002 (from a novel by E.M. Nathanson, later adapted as a film directed by Robert Aldrich) and used by US officials to describe this group. Most members of the group held high positions in the Iraqi government and membership went all the way from Saddam's personal guard to Saddam's sons. The list was used by the Bush Administration to help argue that the 2003 Iraq war was against Saddam Hussein and the Baath Party leadership, rather than against the Iraqi people. The members are: Saddam Hussein (1937–2006), Iraqi President, responsible for many torturings, killings and of ordering the 1988 cleansing of Kurds in Northern Iraq. Qusay Hussein (1966–2003), son of the president, head of the elite Republican Guard, believed to have been chosen by Saddam as his successor. Uday Hussein (1964–2003), son of the president, had a private torture chamber, and was responsible for the rapes and killings of many women. He was partially paralyzed after a 1996 attempt on his life, and was leader of the paramilitary group Fedayeen Saddam and of the Iraqi media. Taha Yassin Ramadan (1938–2007), Vice-President, born in Iraqi Kurdistan. He oversaw the mass killings of a Shi'a revolt in 1991. Tariq Aziz (1936–2015), Foreign Minister of Iraq, backed up the executions by hanging of political opponents after the revolution of 1968. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1951–2007), Hussein's brother, leader of the Iraqi secret service, Mukhabarat. He was Iraq's representative to the United Nations in Geneva. Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1947–2013), Saddam's half brother, he was the leader of the Mukhabarat during the 1991 Gulf War. Director of Iraq's general security from 1991 to 1996. He was involved in the 1991 suppression of Kurds. Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1952–2015), Saddam's half brother, former senior Interior Minister who was also Saddam's presidential adviser. Shot in the leg by Uday Hussein in 1995. He has ordered tortures, rapes, murders and deportations. Ali Hassan al-Majid (1941–2010), Chemical Ali, mastermind behind Saddam's lethal gassing of rebel Kurds in 1988; a first cousin of Saddam Hussein. Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri (1942–2020), military commander, vice-president of the Revolutionary Command Council and deputy commander in chief of the armed forces during various military campaigns. Aziz Saleh Nuhmah (b. ?), appointed governor of Kuwait from November 1990 to February 1991, ordered looting of stores and rapes of Kuwaiti women during his tenure. Also ordered the destruction of Shi'a holy sites during the 1970s and 1980s as governor of two Iraqi provinces. Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi (1938–2005), alias Saddam's thug, Prime Minister of Iraq from 1991 to 1993 – to have ordered many executions. Other atrocities The destruction of Shi'ite religious shrines by the former government has been compared "to the leveling of cities in the Second World War, and the damage to the shrines [of Hussein and Abbas] was more serious than that which had been done to many European cathedrals." After the 1983-88 genocide, some 1 million Kurds were allowed to resettle in "model villages". According to a U.S. Senate staff report, these villages "were poorly constructed, had minimal sanitation and water, and provided few employment opportunities for the residents. Some, if not most, were surrounded by barbed wire, and Kurds could enter or leave only with difficulty." After the establishment of republican rule in Iraq, enormous numbers of Iraqis fled the country to escape political repression by Abd al-Karim Qasim and his successors, including Saddam Hussein; by 2001, it was estimated that "Iraqi emigrants number more than 3 million (leaving a population of 23 million inside the country)." Nicholas Kristof of The New York Times commented: "Police in other countries use torture, after all, but there are credible reports that Saddam's police cut out tongues and use electric drills. Other countries gouge out the eyes of dissidents; Saddam's interrogators gouged out the eyes of hundreds of children to get their parents to talk." Number of victims In November 2004, Human Rights Watch estimated 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis were killed or disappeared by the regime of Saddam Hussein including: The estimate of 290,000 "disappeared" and presumed killed includes the following: more than 100,000 Kurds killed during the 1987-88 Anfal campaign and lead-up to it; between 50,000 and 70,000 Shi`a arrested in the 1980s and held indefinitely without charge, who remain unaccounted for today; an estimated 8,000 males of the Barzani clan removed from resettlement camps in Iraqi Kurdistan in 1983; 10,000 or more males separated from Feyli Kurdish families deported to Iran in the 1980s; an estimated 50,000 opposition activists, including Communists and other leftists, Kurds and other minorities, and out-of-favor Ba`thists, arrested and "disappeared" in the 1980s and 1990s; some 30,000 Iraqi Shi`a men rounded up after the abortive March 1991 uprising and not heard from since; hundreds of Shi`a clerics and their students arrested and "disappeared" after 1991; several thousand marsh Arabs who disappeared after being taken into custody during military operations in the southern marshlands; and those executed in detention-in some years several thousand-in so-called "prison cleansing" campaigns A January 2003 The New York Times article by John Fisher Burns similarly states that "the number of those 'disappeared' into the hands of the secret police, never to be heard from again, could be 200,000" and compared Saddam to Joseph Stalin, while acknowledging that "Even on a proportional basis, [Stalin's] crimes far surpass Mr. Hussein's." The 1988 Al-Anfal campaign resulted in the death of 50,000-100,000 Kurds (although Kurdish sources have cited a higher figure of 182,000), while 25,000-100,000 civilians and rebels were killed during the suppression of the 1991 uprisings. In addition, 4,000 prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison were reportedly executed in a particularly large 1984 purge. Far fewer Iraqis are known to have been executed during other years of Saddam's rule. For example, "Amnesty International reported that in 1981 over 350 people were officially executed in Iraq ... the Committee Against Repression in Iraq gives biographic particulars on 798 executions (along with 264 killings of unknown persons, and 428 biographies of unsentenced detainees and disappeared persons)." Kanan Makiya cautions that a focus on the death toll obscures the full extent of "the terror inside Iraq," which was largely the product of the pervasive secret police and systematic use of torture. See also 1969 Baghdad hangings Human rights Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq Human rights in post-Saddam Hussein Iraq Iraq sanctions Mass graves in Iraq Remembering Saddam State Terrorism Trial of Saddam Hussein References Further reading Kadhim, Abbas. "The Hawza Under Siege A Study in the Ba‘th Party Archive." (Archive) Boston University Institute for Iraqi Studies (IISBU) Occasional Paper. No. 1. June 2013. External links Amnesty International report on torture in Iraq (2001) INDICT – campaign to prosecute human rights abusers from the Hussein regime Iraq's dirty dozen Human Rights Archive 1999–2001 The Iraq Foundation UN condemns Iraq on human rights, BBC April 2002 Iraq 1984–1992, Human Rights Watch Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor Human Rights Watch: Background on the Crisis in Iraq (a contents page for the organization's various reports on Iraq, mostly after Saddam's regime fell) Human rights abuses in Iraq Saddam Hussein Causes and prelude of the Iraq War	[ 0.09388522803783417, 0.7876682281494141, -0.8634127974510193, -0.08905819803476334, -0.6393393278121948, 0.0477975495159626, -0.09581532329320908, -0.009965670295059681, -0.5018337368965149, -0.07029212266206741, -0.239949569106102, 0.2555762231349945, -0.6499658823013306, 0.44722601771354675, -0.3503445088863373, 0.6790922284126282, -0.19934901595115662, 0.39540907740592957, 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202680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egon%20Petri	Egon Petri	Egon Petri (23 March 188127 May 1962) was a Dutch pianist. Life and career Petri's family was Dutch. He was born a Dutch citizen but in Hanover, Germany, and grew up in Dresden, where he attended the Kreuzschule. His father, a professional violinist, taught him to play the violin. While still a teen, Petri played with the Dresden Court Orchestra and with his father's string quartet. He studied composition and theory with Hermann Kretzschmar and Felix Draeseke at the Dresden Conservatory. From an early age Petri had also taken piano lessons and eventually, with strong encouragement from Ignacy Jan Paderewski and Ferruccio Busoni, he concentrated on piano. He studied with Busoni, who greatly influenced him, and Petri considered himself more a disciple than a student of his. Following his example, Petri focused on the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and Franz Liszt, who, along with Busoni himself, were at the centre of his repertoire. During World War I, Petri moved with Busoni to Switzerland, where he assisted him in editing Bach's keyboard works. In the 1920s, Petri taught in Berlin; his students included Victor Borge, Stanley Gardner, Jan Hoffman, Gunnar Johansen, Hazel Harrison, Dimitar Nenov, and Vitya Vronsky. In 1923 he became the first non-Soviet soloist to play in the Soviet Union. In 1927 he moved to Zakopane, Poland, where, until the outbreak of World War II in 1939, he conducted summer and early-fall sessions and piano master classes. Beginning with 1929 he made recordings for several labels, including Columbia Records. Petri escaped from Poland the day before the German invasion in September 1939, but he had to leave behind all his books, music and letters, including his correspondence with Busoni (these papers survived and were recovered). He moved to the United States, working first at Cornell University and later at Mills College in Oakland, California. He refused ever to play in Germany again. In 1955 he became a naturalised American citizen. Though a Dutch citizen until he was 74, he never lived in the Netherlands and was not at ease with the Dutch language. On one occasion when he performed for Queen Wilhelmina, they spoke German. He was fluent in German, English, French, Italian, Polish, and Russian. Petri's students included Earl Wild, Ozan Marsh, John Ogdon, Dimitar Nenov and Xenia Boodberg Lee. Petri had a superb technique and a powerful sonority and was a superlative exponent of the larger works of Beethoven, Liszt and Brahms. Petri died on 27 May 1962 in Berkeley, California. Students References 1881 births 1962 deaths Dutch classical pianists American classical pianists Male classical pianists American male pianists Hochschule für Musik Carl Maria von Weber alumni People who emigrated to escape Nazism People educated at the Kreuzschule Pupils of Ferruccio Busoni Musicians from Hanover 20th-century classical pianists 20th-century American male musicians Dutch emigrants to the United States	[ -0.7702629566192627, 0.7570636868476868, -0.1933300942182541, -0.275820791721344, -0.6874502301216125, 0.974227786064148, 0.9371089935302734, 0.12656432390213013, -0.4418160915374756, -0.16405989229679108, 0.5148836970329285, -0.054166264832019806, -0.1750892996788025, 0.4277993142604828, -0.059786006808280945, -0.07592565566301346, 0.39665547013282776, -0.0077687473967671394, -0.8088536858558655, -0.3887586295604706, -0.13781335949897766, -0.46037906408309937, 0.7010294795036316, -0.02435547113418579, -0.5370275378227234, 0.2965380549430847, -0.17259691655635834, 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202682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid%20Caesar	Sid Caesar	Isaac Sidney Caesar (September 8, 1922 – February 12, 2014) was an American comic actor and writer. With a career spanning 60 years, he was best known for two pioneering 1950s live television series: Your Show of Shows (1950–1954), which was a 90-minute weekly show watched by 60 million people and its successor, Caesar's Hour (1954–1957), both of which influenced later generations of comedians Your Show of Shows and its cast received seven Emmy nominations between the years 1953 and 1954 and tallied two wins. He also acted in movies; he played Coach Calhoun in Grease (1978) and its sequel Grease 2 (1982) and appeared in the films It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), Silent Movie (1976), History of the World, Part I (1981), Cannonball Run II (1984), and Vegas Vacation (1997). Caesar was considered a "sketch comic" and actor, as opposed to a stand-up comedian. He also relied more on body language, accents, and facial contortions than simply dialogue. Unlike the slapstick comedy which was standard on TV, his style was considered "avant garde" in the 1950s. He conjured up ideas and scene and used writers to flesh out the concept and create the dialogue. Among the writers who wrote for Caesar early in their careers were Mel Brooks, Neil Simon, Larry Gelbart, Carl Reiner, Michael Stewart, Mel Tolkin, Selma Diamond, and Woody Allen. "Sid's was the show to which all comedy writers aspired. It was the place to be," said Steve Allen. His TV shows' subjects included satires of real life events and people, and parodies of popular film genres, theater, television shows, and opera. But unlike other comedy shows at the time, the dialogue was considered sharper, funnier, and more adult-oriented. He was "best known as one of the most intelligent and provocative innovators of television comedy," who some critics called "television's Charlie Chaplin" and The New York Times refers to as the "comedian of comedians from TV's early days." Honored in numerous ways over 60 years, he was nominated for 11 Emmy Awards, winning twice. He was also a saxophonist and author of several books, including two autobiographies in which he described his career and later struggle to overcome years of alcoholism and addiction to barbiturates. Early life Caesar was the youngest of three sons. He was Jewish. He was born in Yonkers, New York. His father was Max Ziser (1874–1946) and his mother was Ida (née Raphael) (1887–1975). They likely were from Dąbrowa Tarnowska, Poland. Reports state that the surname "Caesar" was given to Max, as a child, by an immigration official at Ellis Island. According to Marian L. Smith, senior historian of the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service, there is no known case of a name changed at Ellis Island. Max and Ida Caesar ran a restaurant, a 24-hour luncheonette. By waiting on tables, their son learned to mimic the patois, rhythm and accents of the diverse clientele, a technique he termed double-talk, which he used throughout his career. He first tried double-talk with a group of Italians, his head barely reaching above the table. They enjoyed it so much that they sent him over to a group of Poles to repeat his native-sounding patter in Polish, and so on with Russians, Hungarians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Lithuanians, and Bulgarians. Sid Caesar's older brother, David, was his comic mentor and "one-man cheering section." They created their earliest family sketches from movies of the day like Test Pilot and the 1927 silent film Wings. At 14, Caesar went to the Catskill Mountains as a saxophonist in the Swingtime Six band with Mike Cifichello and Andrew Galos and occasionally performed in sketches in the Borscht Belt. Career Stage and film After graduating from Yonkers High School in 1939, Caesar left home, intent on a musical career. He arrived in Manhattan and worked as an usher and then a doorman at the Capitol Theater there. He was ineligible to join the musicians' union in New York City until he established residency, but he found work as a saxophonist at the Vacationland Hotel, a resort located in the Catskill Mountains of Sullivan County, New York. Mentored by Don Appel, the resort's social director, Caesar played in the dance band and learned to perform comedy, doing three shows a week. He audited classes in clarinet and saxophone at the Juilliard School of Music. In 1939, he enlisted in the United States Coast Guard, and was stationed in Brooklyn, New York, where he played in military revues and shows. Caesar was discharged from the service in 1945. Vernon Duke, the composer of Autumn in New York, April in Paris, and Taking a Chance on Love, was at the same base and collaborated with Caesar on musical revues. During the summer of 1942, Caesar met his future wife, Florence Levy, at the Avon Lodge in the Catskills village of Woodridge, New York. They were married on July 17, 1943, and had three children: Michele, Rick and Karen. After joining the musicians' union, he briefly played with Shep Fields, Claude Thornhill, Charlie Spivak, Art Mooney and Benny Goodman. Later in his career, he performed "Sing, Sing, Sing" with Goodman for a TV performance. Still in the military, Caesar was ordered to Palm Beach, Florida, where Vernon Duke and Howard Dietz were putting together a service revue called Tars and Spars. There he met the civilian director of the show, Max Liebman. When Caesar's comedy got bigger applause than the musical numbers, Liebman asked him to do stand-up bits between the songs. Tars and Spars toured nationally, and became Caesar's first major gig as a comedian. Liebman later produced Caesar's first television series. After finishing his military service in 1945, the Caesars moved to Hollywood. In 1946, Columbia Pictures produced a film version of Tars and Spars in which Caesar reprised his role. The next year, he acted in The Guilt of Janet Ames. He turned down the lead of The Jolson Story as he did not want to be known as an impersonator, and turned down several other offers to play sidekick roles. He soon returned to New York, where he became the opening act for Joe E. Lewis at the Copacabana nightclub. He reunited with Liebman, who guided his stage material and presentation. That job led to a contract with the William Morris Agency and a nationwide tour. Caesar also performed in a Broadway revue, Make Mine Manhattan, which featured The Five Dollar Date—one of his first original pieces, in which he sang, acted, double-talked, pantomimed, and wrote the music. He won a 1948 Donaldson Award for his contributions to the musical. Television Caesar's television career began with an appearance on Milton Berle's Texaco Star Theater in the fall of 1948. In early 1949, Caesar and Liebman met with Pat Weaver, vice president of television at NBC, which led to Caesar's first series, Admiral Broadway Revue with Imogene Coca. The Friday show was simultaneously broadcast on NBC and the DuMont network, and was an immediate success. However, its sponsor, Admiral, an appliance company, could not keep up with the demand for its new television sets, so the show was cancelled after 26 weeks—ironically, on account of its runaway success. On February 25, 1950, Caesar appeared in the first episode of Your Show of Shows, initially the second half of the two-hour umbrella show, Saturday Night Review; at the end of the 1950–51 season, Your Show of Shows became its own, 90-minute program from the International Theatre at 5 Columbus Circle and later The Center Theatre at Sixth Avenue and 49th Street. Burgess Meredith hosted the first two shows, and the premiere featured musical guests Gertrude Lawrence, Lily Pons and Robert Merrill. The show was a mix of sketch comedy, movie and television satires, Caesar's monologues, musical guests, and large production numbers. Guests included: Jackie Cooper, Robert Preston, Rex Harrison, Eddie Albert, Michael Redgrave, Basil Rathbone, Charlton Heston, Geraldine Page, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., Pearl Bailey, Fred Allen, Benny Goodman, Lena Horne and many other stars of the time. It was also responsible for bringing together the comedy team of Caesar, Coca, Carl Reiner, and Howard Morris. Many writers also got their break creating the show's sketches, including Lucille Kallen, Mel Brooks, Neil Simon, Michael Stewart, Mel Tolkin and Sheldon Keller. Sid Caesar won his first Emmy in 1952. In 1951 and 1952, he was voted the United States' Best Comedian in Motion Picture Dailys TV poll. The show ended after almost 160 episodes on June 5, 1954. A few months later, Caesar returned with Caesar's Hour, a one-hour sketch/variety show with Morris, Reiner, Bea Arthur and other members of his former crew. Nanette Fabray replaced Coca, who had left to star in her own short-lived series. Ultimate creative and technical control was now in Caesar's hands, originating from the Center Theater and the weekly budget doubled to $125,000. The premiere on September 27, 1954, featured Gina Lollobrigida. Everything was performed live, including the commercials. Caesar's Hour was followed by ABC's short-lived Sid Caesar Invites You from January 26 to May 25, 1958. It briefly reunited Caesar, Coca, and Reiner, with Simon and Brooks among the writers. In 1963, Caesar appeared on television, on stage, and in the movies. Several As Caesar Sees It specials evolved into the 1963–64 Sid Caesar Show (which alternated with Edie Adams in Here's Edie). He starred with Virginia Martin in the Broadway musical Little Me, with book by Simon, choreography by Bob Fosse, and music by Cy Coleman. Playing eight parts with 32 costume changes, he was nominated in 1963 for a Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical. On film, Caesar and Adams played a husband and wife drawn into a mad race to find buried loot in Stanley Kramer's comedy ensemble It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) which became a box office success and earned six Academy Award nominations. Style and technique Caesar was not a stand-up comedian but a "sketch comic, and actor," wrote one historian. "He conjured up ideas and enhanced scenes, but never wrote a word," and thereby depended on his writers for dialogue. Caesar was skilled at pantomime, dialects, monologues, foreign language double-talk and general comic acting. His sketches were often long, sometimes 10 or 15 minutes, with numerous close-ups showing the expressions on the faces of Caesar and other actors. Caesar relied more on body language, accents, and facial contortions than simply spoken dialogue. Unlike the slapstick comedy, which was standard on TV, his style was considered avant garde. Caesar "...was born with the ability to write physical poetry," notes comedian Steve Allen, a technique like that used for a silent film comedian. An example of this "silent film" style is a live sketch with Nanette Fabray, where they both pantomime an argument choreographed to the music of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Writer Mel Tolkin stated that Caesar "didn't like one-line jokes in sketches because he felt that if the joke was a good one, anybody could do it. One-liners would take him away from what drove his personal approach to comedy." Larry Gelbart called Caesar's style theatrical, and called him "...a pure TV comedian." In describing his control during the live performances, actress Nanette Fabray recalled that unlike most comedians, such as Red Skelton, Bob Hope or Milton Berle, Caesar always stayed in character: "He was so totally into the scene he never lost it." Caesar was able to pantomime a wide variety of things: a tire, a gumball machine, a lion, a dog, a punching bag, a telephone, an infant, an elevator, a railroad train, a herd of horses, a piano, a rattlesnake and a bottle of seltzer. On the Dick Clark show in 1978, he played a chewing gum machine and a slot machine. He was also able to create imaginary characters. Alfred Hitchcock compared him to Charlie Chaplin, and critic John Crosby felt "he could wrench laughter out of you with the violence of his great eyes and the sheer immensity of his parody." In an article in The Saturday Evening Post in 1953, show business biographer Maurice Zolotow noted that "Caesar relies upon grunts and grimaces to express a vast range of emotions." Of his double-talk routines, Carl Reiner said, "His ability to doubletalk every language known to man was impeccable," and during one performance Caesar imitated four different languages but with almost no real words. Despite his apparent fluency in many languages, Caesar could actually speak only English and Yiddish. In 2008, Caesar told a USA Today reporter, "Every language has its own music ... If you listen to a language for 15 minutes, you know the rhythm and song." Having developed this mimicry skill, he could create entire monologues using gibberish in numerous languages, as he did in a skit in which he played a German general. Subjects Among his primary subjects were parodies and spoofs of various film genres, including gangster films, westerns, newspaper dramas, spy movies and other TV shows. Unlike other comedy shows at the time, the dialogue on his shows were considered sharper, funnier and more adult oriented. In his sketches for Your Show of Shows and Caesar's Hour, he would also typically "skewer the minutiae of domestic life" along with lampooning popular or classic movies. Contemporary movies, foreign movies, theater, television shows and opera were targets of satire by the writing team. Often the publicity generated by the sketches boosted the box office of the original productions. Some notable sketches included: "From Here to Obscurity" (From Here to Eternity), "Aggravation Boulevard" (Sunset Boulevard), "Hat Basterson" (Bat Masterson), and "No West for the Wicked" (Stagecoach). They also performed some recurring sketches. "The Hickenloopers", television's first bickering-couple sketch, predated The Honeymooners. As "The Professor", Caesar was the daffy expert who bluffed his way through his interviews with earnest roving reporter Carl Reiner. In its various incarnations, "The Professor" could be Gut von Fraidykat (mountain-climbing expert), Ludwig von Spacebrain (space expert), or Ludwig von Henpecked (marriage expert). Later, "The Professor" was inspiration for Mel Brooks' "The Two Thousand Year Old Man". The most prominent recurring sketch on the show was "The Commuters", which featured Caesar, Reiner, and Morris involved with everyday working and suburban life situations. Years later, the sketch "Sneaking through the Sound Barrier", a parody of the British film The Sound Barrier, ran continuously as part of a display on supersonic flight at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Working with writers Steve Allen claimed, "Sid's was the show to which all comedy writers aspired. It was the place to be." While Caesar did not write his dialogue, he made all final decisions. His writers, such as Mel Brooks, felt they "had a great instrument in Caesar that we could all play, and we played it very well." As for Caesar, Nachman describes him basically as an "inspired idea man who allowed the writers to take more risks" than other TV shows. Woody Allen remembers that "...you wrote situations," instead of jokes, as in "This Is Your Story" with Carl Reiner, a parody of the popular TV show This is Your Life. It was said to be "Caesar's personal favorite" sketch. In many cases, sketch dialogue was not even written down, but simply indicated by describing a scene, as in, "Sid does man coming home from business mad." Sometimes, said Larry Gelbart, it was "organized chaos," and when watching the writers create from offstage, felt, "...it was a religious experience." To Mel Brooks, "it was a zoo. Everyone pitched lines at Sid. Jokes would be changed fifty times." Naturally there were some explosive episodes: "Mr. Caesar once dangled a terrified Mr. Brooks from an 18th-story window until colleagues restrained him. With one punch, he knocked out a horse that had thrown his wife off its back, a scene that Mr. Brooks replayed in his movie Blazing Saddles." Neil Simon recalled that after writing out a sketch and giving it to Caesar, "Sid would make it ten times funnier than what we wrote. Sid acted everything out, so the sketches we did were like little plays." Simon also remembered the impact that working for Caesar had on him: "The first time I saw Caesar it was like seeing a new country. All other comics were basically doing situations with farcical characters. Caesar was doing life." Some of his writers, like Woody Allen, initially didn't like being among the large team of writers coming up with routines for Caesar, feeling it was too competitive and contributed to hostility among writers. An Allen biographer wrote that Allen "...chafed under the atmosphere of inspired spontaneity", although Allen did say that, "Writing for Caesar was the highest thing you could aspire to—at least as a TV comedy writer. Only the presidency was above that." Neil Simon noted that "we were competitive the way a family is competitive to get dad's attention. We all wanted to be Sid's favorite." As part of the competitive atmosphere in The Writer's Room, as it was called, friendship was also critical. Larry Gelbart explained: Impact on television Nachman concludes that "the Caesar shows were the crème de la crème of fifties television," as they were "studded with satire, and their sketches sharper, edgier, more sophisticated than the other variety shows." Likewise, historian Susan Murray notes that Caesar was "...best known as one of the most intelligent and provocative innovators of television comedy." According to actress Nanette Fabray, who acted alongside Caesar, "He was the first original TV comedy creation." His early shows were the "...gold standard for TV sketch comedy." In 1951, Newsweek noted that according to "the opinion of lots of smart people, Caesar is the best that TV has to offer," while Zolotow, in his 1953 profile for The Saturday Evening Post, wrote that "in temperament, physique, and technique of operation, Caesar represents a new species of comedian." However, his positive impact on television became a negative one for Broadway. Caesar fans preferred to stay home on Saturday nights to watch his show instead of seeing live plays. "The Caesar show became such a Saturday-night must-see habit—the Saturday Night Live of its day," states Nachman, that "...Broadway producers begged NBC to switch the show to midweek." Comedy star Carol Burnett, who later had her own hit TV show, remembers winning tickets to see My Fair Lady on Broadway: "I gave the tickets to my roommate because I said, Fair Lady's gonna be running for a hundred years, but Sid Caesar is live and I'll never see that again." Faded success and personal problems After nearly 10 years as a prime-time star of television comedy with Your Show of Shows followed by Caesar's Hour, his stardom ended rapidly and he nearly disappeared from the spotlight. Nachman describes this period: Caesar himself felt, "It had all come too fast, was too easy, and he didn't deserve the acclaim." Writer Mel Brooks, who also became his close friend, said, "I know of no other comedian, including Chaplin, who could have done nearly ten years of live television. Nobody's talent was ever more used up than Sid's. He was one of the greatest artists ever born. But over a period of years, television ground him into sausages." In 1977, after blacking out during a stage performance of Neil Simon's The Last of the Red Hot Lovers in Regina, Saskatchewan, Caesar gave up alcohol "cold turkey". In his 1982 autobiography, Where Have I Been?, and his second book, Caesar's Hours, he chronicled his struggle to overcome his alcoholism and addiction to sleeping pills. Later years Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Caesar continued to make occasional television and theatrical appearances and starred in several movies including Silent Movie and History of the World, Part I (both reuniting him with Mel Brooks), Airport 1975, and as Coach Calhoun in Grease and its sequel Grease 2 in 1982. In 1971, he starred opposite Carol Channing and a young Tommy Lee Jones in the Broadway show Four on a Garden. In 1973, Caesar reunited with Imogene Coca for the stage play, The Prisoner of Second Avenue, written in 1971 by Neil Simon. Their play opened in Chicago in August 1973. That same year, Caesar and Max Liebman mined their own personal kinescopes from Your Show of Shows (NBC had lost the studio copies) and they produced a feature film Ten From Your Show of Shows, a compilation of some of their best sketches. In 1974, Caesar said, "I'd like to be back every week" on TV and appeared in the NBC skit-based comedy television pilot called Hamburgers. In 1980, he appeared as a double-talking Japanese father for Mei and Kei's Pink Lady and opposite Jeff Altman in the Pink Lady and Jeff show. In 1983, Caesar hosted an episode of Saturday Night Live, where he received a standing ovation at the start of the show and was awarded a plaque at the conclusion of the show declaring him an honorary cast member. He released an exercise video, Sid Caesar's Shape Up!, in 1985. In 1987–89, Caesar appeared as Frosch the Jailer in Die Fledermaus at the Metropolitan Opera in New York. In 1987, Caesar starred in the David Irving film The Emperor's New Clothes with Robert Morse as the Tailor. Caesar remained active by appearing in movies, television and award shows, including the movie The Great Mom Swap in 1995. In 1996, the Writers Guild of America, West reunited Caesar with nine of his writers from Your Show of Shows and Caesar's Hour for a two-hour panel discussion featuring head writer Mel Tolkin, Caesar, Carl Reiner, Aaron Ruben, Larry Gelbart, Mel Brooks, Neil Simon, Danny Simon, Sheldon Keller, and Gary Belkin. The event was taped, broadcast on PBS in the United States and the BBC in the UK, and later released as a DVD titled Caesar's Writers. In 1997, he made a guest appearance in Vegas Vacation and, the following year, in The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit in 1998 based on a Ray Bradbury novel. Also that year, Caesar joined fellow television icons Bob Hope and Milton Berle at the 50th anniversary of the Primetime Emmy Awards. Billy Crystal also paid tribute to Caesar that night when he won an Emmy for hosting that year's Oscar telecast, recalling seeing Caesar doing a parody of Yul Brynner in The King & I on Your Show of Shows. Caesar performed his double-talk in a "foreign dub" skit on the November 21, 2001 episode of Whose Line Is It Anyway? On September 7, 2001, Caesar, Carl Reiner and Nanette Fabray appeared on CNN's live interview program Larry King Live along with actor, comedian and improvisationist Drew Carey. In 2003, he joined Edie Adams and Marvin Kaplan at a 40th anniversary celebration for It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. In 2004, Caesar's second autobiography, Caesar's Hours, was published, and in 2006, Billy Crystal presented Caesar with the TV Land Awards' Pioneer Award. In what TV Land called "...a hilarious, heartfelt, multilingual, uncut acceptance speech," Caesar performed his double-talk for over five minutes. In a November 2009 article in the Toluca Lake, California, Tolucan Times, columnist Greg Crosby described a visit with Caesar and his wife Florence at their home. Of the couple's meeting, Florence said, "Well, I thought he was nice for the summer ... I thought he would be just a nice boyfriend for the summer. He was cute-looking and tall, over six feet.... I was in my last year at Hunter College; we were still dating when Sid went into the service, the Coast Guard. Luckily he was stationed in New York so we were able to continue seeing each other, even though my parents weren't too happy about it. They never thought he would amount to anything, that he'd never have a real career or make any money. But we were married one year after we met, in July of 1943." She also pointed out, "You know, he's not funny all the time. He can be very serious." At the time of the interview, the couple had been married for 66 years. Florence Caesar died on March 3, 2010, aged 88. Personal life Caesar was married to Florence Levy for 67 years until her death in 2010. Caesar asserted that he was "proud to be Jewish" and that "Jews have a good sense of humour. Jews appreciate humour because in their life it's not too funny. We've been trodden down for a long time, thousands of years. So we've had to turn that around because if you take it all too seriously you're going to eat yourself. And we're very good at being self-deprecating. Either we do it or somebody's going to do it for us. We might as well do it first." Death Caesar died on February 12, 2014, at his home in Beverly Hills, California, at the age of 91, after a short illness. On Caesar's death, Carl Reiner said, "He was the ultimate, he was the very best sketch artist and comedian that ever existed." Mel Brooks commented, "Sid Caesar was a giant, maybe the best comedian who ever practiced the trade. And I was privileged to be one of his writers and one of his friends." Jon Stewart and The Daily Show paid tribute to Caesar at the show's close on February 12, 2014. Vanity Fair republished a brief tribute written by Billy Crystal in August 2005, in which he said of Caesar and his contemporaries: His interment was at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery. He was predeceased by his wife, Florence (2010) and survived by his children Karen, Michelle, and Rick, and two grandsons. His son, Dr Richard (Rick) Caesar died several months after his father on July 16, 2014. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Honors 1960: Caesar was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame 1985: Caesar was inducted into the Television Academy Hall of Fame In 2005, The Humane Society of the United States honored Caesar by establishing the "Sid Caesar Award for Television Comedy" among the Genesis Awards given annually to individuals in major news and entertainment media who produce outstanding works that raise public awareness of animal issues. In announcing the 2014 Genesis Award winners on February 14, 2014, the Society paid special homage to Caesar, whom the Society credited as one of its most dedicated supporters. References Further reading Sid Caesar and Eddy Friedfeld: Caesar's Hours: My Life in Comedy, with Love and Laughter, January 30, 2005. External links Sid Caesar at the Comedy Hall of Fame 1922 births 2014 deaths People from Yonkers, New York People from Beverly Hills, California Male actors from New York City American autobiographers American humorists American male comedians American male film actors American male musical theatre actors American people of Polish-Jewish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent American male television actors American saxophonists American male saxophonists Donaldson Award winners Jewish American male actors Jewish male comedians Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners United States Coast Guard enlisted 20th-century American male actors United States Coast Guard Band musicians Comedians from New York City Jewish American comedians Comedians from California 20th-century American comedians American comics writers Mad (magazine) people United States Coast Guard personnel of World War II 21st-century American Jews Members of The Lambs Club Burials at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery	[ -0.0679369792342186, 0.09771516919136047, -1.0789587497711182, -0.13163074851036072, 0.35020652413368225, 0.7344357371330261, 0.12087207287549973, 0.34640422463417053, -0.4624257981777191, -0.14062292873859406, -0.13308709859848022, 0.43443819880485535, -0.38300207257270813, 0.3494636118412018, 0.12407997995615005, 0.4879789352416992, -0.3907968997955322, -0.1653197854757309, -0.401790052652359, -0.07482349127531052, -0.40052276849746704, -0.05210830271244049, 0.03935527428984642, -0.02247917465865612, -0.9149015545845032, 0.12329047918319702, 0.015837397426366806, 0.12157513201236725, 0.3154480755329132, 0.37002483010292053, 0.05831224471330643, -0.21108777821063995, 0.2657233476638794, -0.14734506607055664, -0.8304425477981567, -0.4864237904548645, -0.8151574730873108, 0.12071970850229263, -0.058876797556877136, 0.11021497845649719, -0.49938178062438965, -0.2479514628648758, 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202685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your%20Show%20of%20Shows	Your Show of Shows	Your Show of Shows is a live 90-minute variety show that was broadcast weekly in the United States on NBC from February 25, 1950, through June 5, 1954, featuring Sid Caesar and Imogene Coca. Other featured performers were Carl Reiner, Howard Morris, Bill Hayes, baritone singer Jack Russell, Judy Johnson, The Hamilton Trio and the soprano Marguerite Piazza. José Ferrer made several guest appearances on the series. In 2002, Your Show of Shows was ranked #30 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, it was ranked #37 on TV Guides 60 Best Series of All Time. In 2007, Time placed Your Show of Shows on its unranked list of "100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME.” In 2013, Your Show of Shows was ranked #10 on Entertainment Weekly’s Top 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked Your Show of Shows #41 on its list of the "101 Best Written TV Series of All Time.” Production The 90-minute live series was produced by Sylvester "Pat" Weaver and directed by Max Liebman, who had been producing musical revues at the Tamiment resort in the Pocono Mountains for many years prior. Caesar, Coca, and Liebman had worked on Admiral Broadway Revue from January to June 1949. The series originated as the second half of a two-hour umbrella show, Saturday Night Review, with the first portion hosted by comedian Jack Carter in Chicago, Illinois, and the remainder telecast from the since-demolished International Theatre (also known as the Park Theatre) at 5 Columbus Circle and the Center Theatre in Manhattan, New York City. The Chicago portion was dropped at the end of the 1950–51 season, and the series became the 90-minute Your Show of Shows. Writers for the series included Mel Brooks, Neil Simon, Danny Simon, Mel Tolkin, Lucille Kallen, Selma Diamond, Joseph Stein, Michael Stewart, Tony Webster (the only Gentile among the show's writers), and Carl Reiner who, though a cast member, also worked with the writers. (Larry Gelbart and Woody Allen joined the writing staff for later Caesar ventures.) The series is historically significant for the evolution of the variety genre by incorporating situation comedies (sitcoms) such as the running sketch "The Hickenloopers"; this added a narrative element to the traditional multi-act structure. As author Ted Sennett described, stars Caesar, Coca, Carl Reiner, and Howard Morris Coca recalled, {{quote\|There was a special chemistry to Your Show of Shows, I think, because [producer-director] Max [Liebman] wasn't afraid to throw out material at the last minute. And I think when you do live television — well, we stopped for nothing. We had no cue cards, no TelePrompTers, and no ad-libbing on the air, because Max would have died if anybody had ad-libbed. It would have been utter disgrace, and you would have been drummed right out of the corps. ... Nobody ever forgot a line, and that was the amazing part of it.<ref>Coca, Imogene, "Coca on Coca, as told to Linda Gutstein, in Fireman, p. 172.</ref>}} A common misconception is that Larry Gelbart wrote for Your Show of Shows; in fact, he wrote for its successor program, Caesar's Hour, which was broadcast from 1954 to 1957. Likewise, Woody Allen did not write for Your Show of Shows, as he only worked on several Sid Caesar TV series and specials from 1958 forward. Carl Reiner has stated that the time he spent on Your Show of Shows was the inspiration for The Dick Van Dyke Show. Your Show of Shows also inspired the 1982 movie My Favorite Year, produced by Mel Brooks, and the 1993 play Laughter on the 23rd Floor written by Neil Simon. By the 1953–1954 season, although the ratings had slipped a little, "Your Show of Shows" remained extremely popular with viewers. However, in the spring of 1954, it was decided to break up the comedy team of Caesar and Coca and, beginning in the fall of 1954, sign them to star in their own individual variety series on NBC. As a result, "Your Show Of Shows' ended its network run on June 5, 1954. At the end of that episode, NBC president "Pat" Weaver came out at the curtain call to congratulate the cast on their four-year-four-month run and personally to wish Caesar and Coca great success in their future endeavors. Ratings 1950-1951: #4 1951-1952: #8 1952-1953: #19 Episode status The kinescopes of the series were retained by Max Liebman; from those shows, a 1973 theatrical film titled Ten from Your Show of Shows was compiled which featured ten sketches. In 1976, this was followed by a half-hour syndicated series. The Paley Center for Media in Manhattan and Beverly Hills, California, holds an almost complete set of the series, and a set of master tapes of the 1976 syndicated series. In 2000, a cache of original scripts from the show were found in a closet of producer Max Liebman, in the City Center building in New York City. The find made the front page of The New York Times. A former employee of Liebman, Barry Jacobsen, told The New York Times he had left the scripts in the closet and was holding onto the key, planning to come back and retrieve them once City Center decided what to do with the papers; he was never contacted by City Center, and the scripts stayed in the closet until being found in 2000. After the program ended Imogene Coca starred in her own one-year NBC comedy and variety show, The Imogene Coca Show. Thereafter, Sid Caesar changed his format and initiated Caesar's Hour. Syndication and DVD release Reruns of the 1976 syndicated "best of" series were aired on Comedy Central during the early 1990s. Skits from the series which are from Sid Caesar's personal collection are available on The Sid Caesar Collection'' DVD set. Sketches The show featured several regular musical sketches, such as the mock rock group The Haircuts which achieved a surprise novelty hit with "Going Crazy" in 1955. References External links Ten From Your Show of Shows (1973) at IMDB The Sid Caesar Collection George Bonnell collection of Your Show of Shows scripts, 1950, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts 1950 American television series debuts 1954 American television series endings 1950s American sketch comedy television series 1950s American variety television series Black-and-white American television shows English-language television shows American live television series NBC original programming Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series winners Television shows filmed in New York City	[ 0.22313141822814941, -0.05907522886991501, -0.0718853697180748, 0.41574227809906006, 0.16142700612545013, -0.14459019899368286, 0.03767457976937294, 0.3517424762248993, -0.918325662612915, -0.05311334878206253, 0.35082659125328064, 0.5972945094108582, -0.3560498356819153, 0.14712509512901306, -0.2628936171531677, 0.12027815729379654, 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202687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arista%20Records	Arista Records	Arista Records, Inc. () is an American record label owned by Sony Music Entertainment, a subsidiary of Sony Corporation of America, the North American division of the Japanese conglomerate Sony. The label was previously handled by Bertelsmann Music Group. Though the label was founded in November 1974 by Clive Davis, Artista in its current form was re-established in 2018. Along with Epic Records, RCA Records, and Columbia Records, Arista is one of Sony Music's four flagship record labels. History Background After being fired from CBS Records, Clive Davis was recruited by Alan Hirschfield, CEO of Columbia Pictures, in June 1974 to be a consultant for the company's record and music operations. Shortly after his hiring by CPI, Davis became president of Bell Records, replacing the departing Larry Uttal. Davis's real goal was to reorganize and revitalize Columbia Pictures' music division. With a $10 million investment by CPI, and a reorganization of the various Columbia Pictures legacy labels (Colpix, Colgems, and Bell), Davis introduced Columbia Pictures' new record division, Arista Records, in November 1974, ultimately owning 20 percent of the company. The label was named after Arista, New York City's public secondary school honor society (of which Davis was a member at Erasmus Hall High School). In early 1975, most of the artists who had been signed to Bell were let go, except David Cassidy (who left for RCA Records), Tony Orlando and Dawn (who left for Elektra Records), and the 5th Dimension (which departed for ABC Records). Others, such as Suzi Quatro and Hot Chocolate, were farmed out to the Bell/Arista-distributed label, Big Tree. Several Bell acts, such as Barry Manilow, the Bay City Rollers, and Melissa Manchester continued with Arista. The British Bell label kept that name for a couple of years before changing its name to Arista. The label was mentioned in the 1978 Nick Lowe song "They Called It Rock," in the lyric, "Arista says they love you/But the kids can't dance to this." Arista signed the Grateful Dead in 1976, and the group released their only Top 40 pop hit, "Touch of Grey", on the label in 1987. In addition to Outlaws, Patti Smith, Eric Carmen, Air Supply, The Kinks, Lou Reed, Alan Parsons and Dionne Warwick, Arista signed Aretha Franklin in 1980, after her long relationship with Atlantic Records ended. The label's most significant acquisition came in 1983 when Davis signed Whitney Houston. Houston would become Arista's biggest-selling recording act and one of the best-selling acts in music history with sales of over 200 million records worldwide, according to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Subsidiary imprint labels Arista had an imprint label in the 1970s called Arista Novus, which focused on contemporary jazz artists. It distributed two other jazz labels, Arista Freedom, which specialized in avant-garde jazz and, until 1982, GRP Records, which specialized in contemporary jazz and what came to be known as smooth jazz. A country music division, Career Records, was merged into the Arista Nashville division in 1997. Arista Austin was used in the late 1990s as a country label. Additionally, Arista was the North American distributor of Jive Records from 1981 until 1987. During the 1990s, Arista also distributed Logic, Rowdy and Heavenly Recordings. Acquisitions, sell-offs Looking to stave off bankruptcy, Columbia Pictures sold Arista to German-based Ariola Records, a unit of Bertelsmann, in 1979. But after Arista lost $12 million in 1982, Bertelsmann sold a 50% interest in the company to RCA Records in 1983. In 1985, RCA and Bertelsmann merged their music operations to form RCA/Ariola International; RCA owned 75% and Bertelsmann owned the remainder. After General Electric absorbed the RCA Corporation in 1986, GE sold off various RCA assets, including all of its interest in RCA/Ariola to Bertelsmann, and it was renamed Bertelsmann Music Group, though Arista's U.S. releases would not note BMG until 1987. Into the 1980s, Arista continued its success, including major UK act Secret Affair. Over the years it acquired Northwestside Records, deConstruction Records, First Avenue Records, and Dedicated Records in the UK. In 1989, Arista entered into a joint venture with Antonio "L.A." Reid and Babyface in the creation of LaFace Records, record company of Toni Braxton, Usher, and TLC, which it acquired in 1999. In 1993, Arista also entered into a joint-venture with Sean "Puffy" Combs to form Bad Boy Records. In 1997 Arista acquired Profile Records, the home of Run-D.M.C. and Poor Righteous Teachers. Milli Vanilli controversy In 1989, Arista Records signed Milli Vanilli, a contemporary R&B duo consisting of Rob Pilatus and Fab Morvan that was based in Germany. The label released its debut album, Girl You Know It's True, which was a remixed and re-edited version of All or Nothing, which had been out in Europe the previous year. The album was certified sextuple platinum in the U.S., and charted five top-ten singles, three of them reaching the number one position. In 1990, Milli Vanilli won two American Music Awards and a Grammy Award for Best New Artist. Carol Decker, lead singer of the band T'Pau, was interviewed after their performance on MTV and said that Milli Vanilli had used a Synclavier and were not singing. Later that year, Frank Farian, Milli Vanilli's producer, confirmed that the duo hadn't performed a single note on their album. This revelation caused a huge firestorm in the music industry, as recording artists, particularly bubble-gum pop acts that heavily relied on electronic processing and over-dubbing (what they referred to as "studio magic"), were now under scrutiny and subsequently forced to cut back on lip-synching to show that they were authentic. Milli Vanilli's Grammy Award was subsequently revoked. Clive Davis promptly released the duo from its contract and deleted the album and its masters from their catalogue—making Girl You Know It's True the largest-selling album to be deleted. A court ruling in the U.S. allowed anyone who had bought the album to get a refund. In response to the scandal, Arista's position was that the company had been completely unaware of Morvan and Pilatus having not themselves recorded their album. In a post-debacle interview, Morvan defended himself for his part in the deception by saying, "[Before Milli Vanilli] I was working at a McDonald's. What would you have done?" Reconstructing Arista At the end of the year 2000, following its 25th anniversary, BMG pushed Davis out as president and CEO. Although Davis was still one of the most successful record heads in the entire music industry, BMG had an age restriction policy. Davis was replaced by L.A. Reid as the company's president and CEO. Under Reid, the label had success with newer acts such as Avril Lavigne, Pink, and Kelis, but struggled with newer releases by more established acts already on the label. Reid seemed to lose focus and have many miscalculations when it came to promoting Arista's established acts such as TLC, Toni Braxton, Whitney Houston (Houston being BMG's biggest selling act out of all BMG labels), and several other acts. Reid seemed to put more money in promoting newer acts and less money into promoting established acts. Reid's extravagant spending, meanwhile, and lower sales of big-name established acts under his tenure, caused the company to lose money. After the merger of BMG and Sony Music Entertainment in 2004, Reid was fired. Arista, always an independently managed front line label at BMG, was merged with J Records in August 2005; J Records being the successful label that Clive Davis started after being let go by BMG due to age restrictions. The merged Arista and J record labels began operating under the newly formed RCA Music Group—of which Davis was re-instated as CEO after the merger of BMG and Sony, thus Davis once again became in control of Arista and several other labels from the very company that previously had let him go. The Arista label continued to be used for new releases, although heavily scaled back, while its reissues are released through Sony Music's Legacy Recordings. Also, as a result of the Sony-BMG merger, Arista once again became related to Columbia Pictures, which is fully owned by the Sony Corporation of America (through Sony Pictures Entertainment) - who would buy out BMG's share in 2008. Dissolution and revival After the Sony-BMG merger, LaFace Records was eventually revived; the label was now fully owned by Sony-BMG and began operating under the JIVE Label Group. During the summer of 2011, the RCA Music Group underwent a restructuring that saw the elimination of the Arista name later on that year, along with sister labels J Records and Jive. RCA Records started releasing all RCA Music Group releases under RCA Records. Arista Nashville continued to operate through Sony Music Nashville and was not affected by the closing of Arista Records. Arista Records France was founded in September 2012, making it initially the last active remnant of the label. In July 2018, it was announced that Arista would be revived as a frontline label, making it now the fourth flagship record label under Sony Music alongside Columbia, RCA, and Epic. The company has hired former Island Records president/CEO David Massey to lead Arista. Arista Nashville In 1989, Arista Records launched Arista Nashville, which specializes in country music artists. Alan Jackson was the first act signed label. In 1995, Arista Nashville launched a subsidiary label known as Career Records, the roster of which at the time included Brett James, Tammy Graham, and Lee Roy Parnell. Currently, Arista Nashville falls under the wing of Sony Music Nashville, hosting such artists as Carrie Underwood, Brad Paisley, Ronnie Dunn and Jerrod Niemann. Artists See also Arista Records artists Arista Nashville List of record labels References Record labels established in 1974 Record labels disestablished in 2011 Re-established companies American record labels RCA Records Music Group Sony subsidiaries Sony Music Jazz record labels Pop record labels Soundtrack record labels	[ 0.022273268550634384, 0.4264664649963379, -0.44689831137657166, 0.1211414784193039, -0.11850269138813019, 0.2187047153711319, 0.10382012277841568, 0.42644715309143066, -0.0851321741938591, 0.09401702880859375, 0.23311808705329895, 0.3488500416278839, -0.2226763665676117, 0.9752541780471802, -0.1858195960521698, -0.0678599402308464, -0.2812753915786743, 0.832451343536377, -0.15740284323692322, -0.6882902383804321, -0.4978092312812805, -0.36873751878738403, 0.476472944021225, -0.46174290776252747, -0.04447680339217186, -0.16703055799007416, -0.12280779331922531, -0.2832712233066559, -0.49674782156944275, 0.07976925373077393, 0.26661205291748047, 0.5994626879692078, 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202690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20of%20Names	School of Names	The School of Names (), sometimes called the School of Forms and Names (), was a school of Chinese philosophy that grew out of Mohism during the Warring States period in 479–221 BCE. The followers of the School of Names were sometimes called the Logicians or Disputers. Overview The philosophy of the Logicians is often considered to be akin to those of the sophists or of the dialecticians. Joseph Needham notes that their works have been lost, except for the partially preserved Gongsun Longzi, and the paradoxes of Chapter 33 of the Zhuangzi. Needham considers the disappearance of the greater part of Gongsun Longzi one of the worst losses in the ancient Chinese books, as what remains is said to reach the highest point of ancient Chinese philosophical writing. One of the few surviving lines from the school, "a one-foot stick, every day take away half of it, in a myriad ages it will not be exhausted," resembles Zeno's paradoxes. However, some of their other aphorisms seem contradictory or unclear when taken out of context, for example, "Dogs are not hounds." They were opposed by the Later Mohists for their paradoxes. History Warring States era philosophers Deng Xi, Yin Wen, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long were all associated with the School of Names. See also History of logic Mozi References Citations Sources External links Classical Chinese philosophy History of logic Mohism Movements in ancient Chinese philosophy	[ 0.2928483188152313, 0.30147671699523926, -0.6620575189590454, -0.09407205134630203, -0.4077279269695282, 0.6000953912734985, 0.2653886675834656, 0.17556099593639374, 0.38781678676605225, -0.6712333559989929, -0.15782947838306427, 0.16744129359722137, -0.09440760314464569, 0.3661407232284546, -0.37744462490081787, -0.5167856216430664, 0.8634395003318787, 0.07003618031740189, -0.18304185569286346, 0.16770228743553162, -0.5714315176010132, 0.2525978088378906, 0.04393308237195015, -0.6294351816177368, 0.33503949642181396, 0.10052502900362015, 0.13709284365177155, 0.10740117728710175, 0.10571705549955368, 0.04882536828517914, 0.07933631539344788, 0.567348837852478, 0.0021996372379362583, -0.15418393909931183, -0.4143577218055725, -0.3482672870159149, -0.3235757350921631, 0.24660418927669525, -0.24360795319080353, 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202693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongsun%20Long	Gongsun Long	Gongsun Long (, BC), courtesy name Zibing (子秉), was a Chinese philosopher and writer who was a member of the School of Names (Logicians) of ancient Chinese philosophy. He also ran a school and enjoyed the support of rulers, and advocated peaceful means of resolving disputes in contrast to the wars which were common in the Warring States period. However, little is known about the particulars of his life, and furthermore many of his writings have been lost. All of his essays — fourteen originally but only six extant — are included in the anthology the Gongsun Longzi (). In Book 17 of the Zhuangzi anthology, Gongsun thus speaks of himself: When young, I studied the way of the former kings. When I grew up, I understood the practice of kindness and duty. I united the same and different, separated hard from white, made so the not-so and admissible the inadmissible. I confounded the wits of the hundred schools and exhausted the eloquence of countless speakers. I took myself to have reached the ultimate. He is best known for a series of paradoxes in the tradition of Hui Shi, including "White horses are not horses," "When no thing is not the pointed-out, to point out is not to point out," and "There is no 1 in 2." These paradoxes seem to suggest a similarity to the discovery in Greek philosophy that pure logic may lead to apparently absurd conclusions. White Horse Dialogue In the White Horse Dialogue (), one interlocutor (sometimes called the "sophist") defends the truth of the statement "White horses are not horses," while the other interlocutor (sometimes called the "objector") disputes the truth of this statement. This has been interpreted in a number of ways. Possibly the simplest interpretation is to see it as based on a confusion of class and identity. The argument, by this interpretation, plays upon an ambiguity in Chinese that doesn't exist in English. The expression "X is not Y" (X非Y) can mean either "X is not a member (or subset) of set Y" "X is not identical to Y" The sentence "White horses are not horses" would normally be taken to assert the obviously false claim that white horses are not part of the group of horses. However, the "sophist" in the dialogue defends the statement under the interpretation, "Not all horses are white horses". The latter statement is actually true, since — as the "sophist" explains — "horses" includes horses that are white, yellow, brown, etc., while "white horses" includes only white horses, and excludes the others. A.C. Graham proposed this interpretation and illustrated it with an analogy. The "Objector" assumes that "a white horse is not a horse" is parallel to "a sword is not a weapon," but the "Sophist" is treating the statement as parallel to "a sword is not a blade." Other interpretations have been put forward by Fung Yu-lan and Chad Hansen among others. This work has been viewed by some as a serious logical discourse, by others as a facetious work of sophistry, and finally by some as a combination of the two. Other works He was also responsible for several other essays (), as short as 300 characters. “On Pointing at Things” (): An enigmatic discussion on reference and the referent, or designation and the designated. “On Understanding Change” () “On Hardness and Whiteness” (): based on the example of a stone that is both hard and white. “On Name and Substance” () “Storehouse of Traces” () Popular culture He appeared in Kingdom as a Zhao general. Notes References Graham, Angus C. (1989). 'The Sharpening of Rational Debate: The Sophists.' Pp. 75–95 in Graham, Disputers of the Tao. Chicago: Open Court Press. Liu, Jianguo (2004). Distinguishing and Correcting the pre-Qin Forged Classics. Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Press. . Zhou, Yunzhi, "Gongsun Long". Encyclopedia of China (Philosophy Edition), 1st ed. External links Full text of the Gongsun Longzi at the Chinese Text Project (text in Chinese mostly; except the White Horse Discourse, which has English glosses). . Translation of the Gong Sun Long Zi by Nuño Valenzuela 320s BC births 250 BC deaths 3rd-century BC Chinese philosophers Ancient linguists Chinese logicians Mohism People from North China Philosophers of language School of Names Zhou dynasty essayists Zhou dynasty philosophers	[ -0.2630440592765808, 0.48693740367889404, -0.8306024670600891, -0.298757404088974, -0.3409230411052704, 0.6817326545715332, 0.43441715836524963, -0.04835909605026245, -0.0067416648380458355, -0.3714946210384369, -0.19951461255550385, 0.15655115246772766, -0.27990394830703735, -0.09176857024431229, -0.5752965211868286, -0.01127500832080841, 1.2104301452636719, -0.3589574992656708, -0.4586651027202606, -0.3624606728553772, -0.12036058306694031, -0.06403700262308121, 0.11592074483633041, -0.16702532768249512, 0.18133999407291412, 0.3556288182735443, -0.003597392700612545, 0.11189679056406021, 0.03275001421570778, -0.21797457337379456, -0.0490240715444088, 0.3041875660419464, -0.2465977668762207, 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202696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina	Marina	A marina (from Spanish , Portuguese and Italian : marina, "coast" or "shore") is a dock or basin with moorings and supplies for yachts and small boats. A marina differs from a port in that a marina does not handle large passenger ships or cargo from freighters. The word marina may also refer to an inland wharf on a river or canal that is used exclusively by non-industrial pleasure craft such as canal narrowboats. Emplacement Marinas may be located along the banks of rivers connecting to lakes or seas and may be inland. They are also located on coastal harbors (natural or man made) or coastal lagoons, either as stand alone facilities or within a port complex. History In the 19th century, the few existing pleasure craft shared the same facilities as trading and fishing vessels. The marina appeared in the 20th century with the popularization of yachting. Facilities and services A marina may have refuelling, washing and repair facilities, marine and boat chandlers, stores and restaurants. A marina may include ground facilities such as parking lots for vehicles and boat trailers. Slipways (or boat ramps) transfer a trailered boat into the water. A marina may have a travel lift, a specialised crane used for lifting heavier boats out of the water and transporting them around the hard stand. A marina may provide in- or out-of-water boat storage. Fee-based services such as parking, use of picnic areas, pubs, and clubhouses for showers are usually included in long-term rental agreements. Visiting yachtsmen usually have the option of buying each amenity from a fixed schedule of fees; arrangements can be as wide as a single use, such as a shower, or several weeks of temporary berthing. The right to use the facilities is frequently extended at overnight or period rates to visiting yachtsmen. Since marinas are often limited by available space, it may take years on a waiting list to get a permanent berth. Moorings and access Boats are moored on buoys, on fixed or floating walkways tied to an anchoring piling by a roller or ring mechanism (floating docks, pontoons). Buoys are cheaper to rent but less convenient than being able to walk from land to boat. Harbor shuttles (water taxis), may transfer people between the shore and boats moored on buoys. The alternative is a tender such as an inflatable boat. Facilities offering fuel, boat ramps and stores will normally have a common-use dock set aside for such short term parking needs. Where the tidal range is large, marinas may use locks to maintain the water level for several hours before and after low water. Economic organisation Marinas may be owned and operated by a private club, especially yacht clubs — but also as private enterprises or municipal facilities. Marinas may be standalone private businesses, components of a resort, or owned and operated by public entities. 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202698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran%20province	Tehran province	Tehran Province ( Ostān-e Tehrān) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It covers an area of and is located to the north of the central plateau of Iran. The province was put as part of the First Region with its secretariat located in its capital city, Tehran, upon the division of the provinces into 5 regions solely for coordination and development purposes on June 22, 2014. Tehran Province borders Mazandaran Province in the north, Qom Province in the south, Semnan Province in the east, and Alborz Province in the west. The metropolis of Tehran is the capital city of the province and of Iran. , this province includes 13 townships, 43 municipalities, and 1358 villages. Tehran Province is the richest province of Iran as it contributes approximately 29% of the country's GDP. Furthermore, it houses approximately 18% of the country's population. Tehran Province is the most industrialized province in Iran; 86.5% of its population resides in urban areas and 13.5% of its population resides in rural areas. The province gained importance when Tehran was claimed the capital by the Qajar dynasty in 1778. Today, Tehran, with a population of 8 million, is ranked amongst the 40 most populous metropolitan cities of the world. Geography The province of Tehran has over 12 million inhabitants and is Iran's most densely populated region. Approximately 86.5 percent reside in urban areas and 13.5 percent in rural areas of the province. The largest rivers of this province are Karaj River and Jajrood River. Mountain ranges such as The Alborz span the north; Savad Kooh and Firooz Kooh are located in the north east; Lavasanat, Qarah Daq, Shemiranat, Hassan Abad and Namak Mountains are in the southern areas; Bibi Shahr Banoo and Alqadr are situated in the south east and the heights of Qasr-e-Firoozeh being located to the east of the province. Environmentally, the climate of Tehran province is stable and has 4 seasons, in winter it's cold and snowy, in spring & autumn it's mild and fresh and rainy, and in summer it's warm to hot and dry. but in the mountains it is cold & and semi-humid all year round, and in the higher regions is cold with long winters. The hottest months of the year are from mid-July to mid-September when temperatures range from to and the coldest months experience around January–February, but at certain times in winter it can reach . Tehran city has cold winters and warm to hot summers. Average annual rainfall is approximately , the maximum being during the winter season mostly in the form of snow. On the whole, the province has a cold semi-arid, steppe climate in the south and an alpine climate in the north. History Tehran Province has several archeological sites indicating settlements dating back several thousand years. Until 300 years ago, Rey was the most prominent of the cities of the province. However, the city of Tehran rose to become the larger city and capital of Iran by 1778, and since then has been the political, cultural, economic, and commercial nucleus of Iran. Tehran has over 1,500 historical sites of cultural significance registered with the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran. The oldest of these in Tehran province are the remains of two sites in Firuzkuh County that date back to the 4th millennium BCE. Cities The following table shows the ten largest cities of Tehran Province: Divisions Tehran Province is sub-divided into sixteen Counties (shahrestan), listed below with their populations at the 2016 Census: Tehran County – 8,737,510 Damavand County – 125,480 Ray County – 349,700 Shemiranat County – 47,279 Varamin County – 283,742 Shahriar County – 744,210 Eslamshahr County – 548,620 Robat Karim County – 291,516 Pakdasht County – 350,966 Firuzkuh County – 33,558 Qods County – 316,636 Malard County – 377,292 Pishva County – 86,601 Baharestan County – 536,329 Pardis County - 169,060 Qarchak County – 269,138 Tehran province today Tehran is the commercial heart of Iran. Tehran province has over 17,000 industrial units employing 390,000 people, 26% of all units in Iran. The province contains 30% of Iran's economy, and comprises 40% of Iran's consumer market. The province has three hydro dams namely Latiyan, Lar, and Amir Kabir as well as two natural lakes, providing the water supply of Tehran and the province. The province contains 170 mines, over 330 square kilometres of forests, and over 12800 square kilometres of pasture. Generally speaking, year round, regions such as the southern slopes of the Alborz Mountains, especially in the mountains, valleys, and rivers and artificial lakes formed behind the great dams of Amir Kabir, Latiyan and Lar along with natural lakes of Jaban and Tarr provide considerable recreation for the province. Moreover, due to excessive snowfall in the northern areas of the province during the winter season, the Alborz mountains form an excellent environment for winter sports such as skiing. Dizin, Shemshak, and Tochal are the most popular skiing resorts. Transportation Road transport Tehran Province is covered with and connected to other provinces with a big Freeway and Expressway network: Freeway 2 (Tehran–Karaj Freeway): This freeway connects Tehran to the capital city of neighboring province of Alborz, Karaj and continues towards Tabriz and Europe. Freeway 5 (Tehran–Saveh Freeway): This Freeway connects city of Tehran to its southern suburbs such as Sabashahr, Robat Karim and Parand and continues towards Markazi Province to Saveh and Salafchegan. There are plans to continue the freeway towards Khuzestan. Freeway 7 (Tehran–Qom Freeway/Khalij-e-Fars (Persian Gulf) Freeway): This Freeway connects Tehran City to its airport, Imam Khomeini International Airport and continues towards Qom and Isfahan. Tehran–Pardis Freeway: This freeway connects Tehran City to its northeastern suburbs such as Pardis, Bumehen and Rudehen and joins Haraz Road and Firuzkuh Road. Tehran–Shomal Freeway: This under construction freeway will connect Tehran to Chalus and the touristic areas in Shomal. Makhsus Road: This road is the old road from Tehran to Karaj. Because trucks are not allowed on the freeway this road has a high congestion of trucks. Road 38: This road connects Tehran to Shahriar and Malard in southwestern Tehran and continues towards Buin-Zahra in Qazvin Province. Road 44: This Expressway connects Tehran to Mashhad. Road 65 (Saidi Expressway/Saveh Road): This road connects Tehran to its southern suburbs such as Chahardangeh, Eslamshahr and Golestan. It continues towards Saveh and further south towards Isfahan, Abadeh, Shiraz and finally the Persian Gulf coastal industrial city of Asaluyeh. Road 71 (Qom old Road): This road is the road that connected Tehran to Qom as a main road before the opening of the freeway in 1980. It is still an important transit road because trucks are not allowed in the freeway. (Damavand Road/Haraz Road): This road connects Tehran to cities like Rudehen, Abali and Damavand and continues towards Amol in Mazandaran province in Shomal. It is the most congested road from Tehran to Shomal after Chalous Road. Road 79 (Firuzkuh Road): This road connects Tehran to Firuzkuh and Qaemshahr and therefore Sari. Greater Tehran Expressway Network: Rail network National Rail Network The city of Tehran is connected to the North, South, West and East with railway. It has weekly trains for Istanbul. Tehran is the headquarters of RAJA (Iran national railway). There maybe plans to build high speed railway lines from Tehran to Mashhad and Isfahan. Tehran Metro Tehran is served by a system of metro of 3 urban lines (1, 2, 4) and one suburban line (5) serving Karaj and Tehran western suburbs. There are plans to extend the system to 8 urban lines and 4 express suburban lines. Airports Tehran Province has two main passenger airports: Mehrabad Airport Imam Khomeini Airport It also has numbers of air force bases. Parks, recreation and other attractions Darband (hiking trail) Chitgar Park Mellat Park Laleh Park Jamshidieh Park Niavaran Park Sa'ei Park Shatranj Park Tangeh Savashi Police Park Darabad hiking trail Darakeh hiking trail Jahan-e Kudak Park Azadi Sports complex Enghelab Sports Complex and Golf course Eram Amusement Park Several caves, springs, and waterfalls outside Tehran Latyan Lake Lavizan Forest Park Vard-Avard Forest Park Khojir National Park Kavir National Park Tar Lake Amir Kabir Lake Lar Protected Natural Habitat Varjeen Protected Natural Habitat Religious centers Mosques, shrines, mausoleums, and tombs Soltani Mosque, built by Fath Ali Shah Atiq Mosque, built in 1663. Mo'ezz o-dowleh mosque, built by Fath Ali Shah Haj Seyd Azizollah mosque, built by Fath Ali Shah Al-javad mosque, Iran's first modernist design mosque. The Old Sepahsalar mosque, another prominent Qajar era mosque. The new Sepahsalar Mosque (Madreseh e Motahari) Filsuf o-dowleh Mosque, Qajar era Moshir ol-Saltaneh Mosque, Qajar era Mo'ayyer ol-Mamalik Mosque, Qajar era Shahr Banu Mausopleum Javan-mard Qassab Mausoleum, a pre-Islamic semi-mythical hero Dozens of Imam-zadeh shrines, hundreds of years old, including that of Imam Zadeh Saleh. Dozens of Saqa Khanehs: traditional places of prayer Several Tekyehs: traditional places for mourning Muharram ceremonies for Husayn ibn Ali. Ebn-e Babooyeh cemetery, where numerous Iranian figures, such as Takhti and Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, are buried. Zahir o-dowleh cemetery, housing the tombs of art and cultural figures such as Iraj Mirza, Mohammad Taghi Bahar, Forough Farrokhzad, Abolhasan Saba, Ruhollah Khaleghi, and Darvish-khan are buried. Kordan Tomb, Seljuqi era, Karaj. Maydanak Tomb, 13th century, Karaj The Polish cemetery north of Tehran, where numerous Western Allied soldiers of World War II are buried Churches Surep Georg Church, 1790 Thaddeus Bartoqimus Church, 1808 Enjili Church, 1867 Assyrian Church Colleges and universities Tehran province's major universities are: Shariaty Technical College Allameh Tabatabaii University Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic) Alzahra University Shamsipour Technical College Baqiyatallah Medical Sciences University Farabi Institute of Virtual Higher Education Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) Imam Hossein University Imam Sadeq University (ISU) Iran University of Medical Sciences K.N.Toosi University of Technology Shahed University Shahid Beheshti University Sharif University of Technology Tarbiat Modarres University (Professor Training University) Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tarbiat Moaalem University University of The Arts University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences University of Tehran Islamic Azad University of Tehran-Science and Research Islamic Azad University of Pishva Islamic Azad University of Islamshahr Islamic Azad University of Damavand Islamic Azad University of Roodehen Islamic Azad University of Tehran-Medical Sciences Islamic Azad University North Tehran Branch Islamic Azad University of Tehran-South Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics (IPM) Hadith College of Tehran Imam Ali University for Army Officers Comprehensive University of Technology Tehran University of Applied Science and Technology Bagher Aloloum University Iran College of Tele-communications Medical University for the Islamic Republic of Iran's Army NAJA University of Police School of Economic Affairs (SEA) School of International Relations Shahed University of Medical Sciences Shahid Sattari University of Aeronautical Engineering University of Islamic Sects The Research Institute of The Petroleum Industry Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute Power and Water Institute of Technology(PWIT) Payame Noor University See also Tehran (city) Architecture of Tehran List of tourist attractions in Tehran Province References External links Official website of Tehran Governorship Tehran Province's Cultural Heritage Organization Provinces of Iran Geography of Tehran	[ -0.124139703810215, 0.1211087703704834, -0.08901102840900421, 0.06057112291455269, -0.6205851435661316, -0.38764688372612, 0.27385979890823364, 0.23092399537563324, -0.271617591381073, -0.6368231177330017, -0.26742640137672424, -0.2335766851902008, -0.7732132077217102, 0.17787626385688782, -0.39475181698799133, 0.5820230841636658, 0.7779632210731506, 0.11055083572864532, 0.16067171096801758, -0.8522463440895081, -0.1247115209698677, -0.2769709825515747, 0.6415593028068542, -0.02353806421160698, 0.19558310508728027, -0.12196068465709686, 0.35213014483451843, 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202702	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%2C%20Iran	Ray, Iran	Shahr-e Rey (, "City of Ray") or simply Ray (Rey; ) is the capital of Ray County in Tehran Province, Iran. Formerly a distinct city, it has now been absorbed into the metropolitan area of Greater Tehran as the 20th district of municipal Tehran, the capital city of the country. Historically known as Rhages (), Rhagae and Arsacia, Ray is the oldest existing city in Tehran Province. In the classical era, it was a prominent city belonging to Media, the political and cultural base of the Medes. Ancient Persian inscriptions and the Avesta (Zoroastrian scriptures), among other sources, attest to the importance of ancient Ray. Ray is mentioned several times in the Apocrypha. It is also shown on the 4th-century Peutinger Map. The city was subject to severe destruction during the medieval invasions by the Arabs, Turks, and Mongols. Its position as a capital city was revived during the reigns of the Buyid Daylamites and the Seljuk Turks. Ray is richer than many other ancient cities in the number of its historical monuments. The Neolithic site of Cheshme-Ali, the reconstructed Median-era Rey Castle, the Parthian-era Rashkan Castle, the Sasanian-era Zoroastrian Fire Temple of Bahram, and the once Zoroastrian and now Islamic Shrine of Bibi Shahrbanu are among the many archaeological sites in Ray. Ray has been home to many historical figures, including royalty, merchants, scholars and poets. Medieval Persian scholar Rhazes, one of the most important figures in medical science, was from Ray. One of the etymologies proposed for the name of the Radhanites—a group of merchants, some of Jewish origin, who kept open the Eurasian trade routes in the early Middle Ages—links them to Ray. Ray today has many industries and factories in operation. It is connected via the rapid transit system of Tehran Metro to the rest of Greater Tehran. Name Shahr-e Rey (, ) is Persian for "City of Ray". Ray or () derives from Old Persian (). It is recorded in Ancient Greek as () and () and in Latin as and . It was once renamed () under the Seleucid Empire. The name is spelled in various forms, including Ray, Rey, Rayy and Rhay. Encyclopædia Iranica uses Ray. The nisba of this place of origin is Al-Razi or Râzi (). History Agricultural settlements were long established as part of the Central Plateau Culture on local foothills such as that of Cheshme-Ali in northern Ray, which dates back to around 6,000 BC. The establishment of Ray has been attributed to ancient mythological monarchs, and it is also believed that Ray was the seat of a dynasty of Zoroastrian leadership. Classical era The Achaemenid Behistun Inscription mentions Ray (, ; , ; , ) as a part of Media, which was the political and cultural base of the ancient Medes, one of the ancient Iranian peoples. Ray was one of the main strongholds of the Seleucid Empire. During the Seleucid period, Alexander the Great's general Seleucus I Nicator renamed the city as Europos (), honoring his home city in Macedonia. In , Ray was conquered by the Parthian king Mithridates I (). Following the Parthian conquest of Ray, the city was renamed Arsacia. The city remained an important site under the Parthians, as demonstrated by its many coin mints, under the name of (the Greek form of Ragā/Raγā). Ray was used as one of the shifting capitals of the Parthian Empire, according to Athenaeus. According to Isidore of Charax, under the Parthian and Seleucid eras, Ray was surrounded by the province of Rhagiana together with four other cities. Ray was amongst the bases used by the Parthians to thwart nomadic attacks and to occasionally invade the Central Asian steppe. Under the Sasanian Empire, Ray () was located near the center of the empire. It was the base of the powerful House of Mehran and the House of Spandiyad, two of the Seven Great Houses of Iran during the Sasanian period. Middle Ages Siyavash, the son of Mehran and the last King of Ray in the Sasanian Empire, was defeated fighting the Muslim invasion in 643. Ray was then used as a camp site under Arab military occupation. By the time of the Abbasid Caliphate, Ray was considerably restored and expanded into a new city named Mohammadiya. During the early Islamic period, the language spoken in Ray was the Razi dialect, which was most likely a continuation of the Median language. The Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine, a shrine containing the tomb of Abd al-Aziz al-Hasani, a fifth generation descendant of Hasan ibn Ali and a companion of Muhammad al-Taqi, was built in the 9th century. It remains as the main Islamic sanctuary of the city to date. A Tower of Silence, where Zoroastrians of after the Muslim conquest had come to put the bodies of the dead in the open, was built by a wealthy inhabitant of Ray on a hill in the 10th century. The tower, today in ruins and designated as Gabri (a term denoting "Zoroastrian", adopted after the Muslim conquest), was reportedly soon taken by the Muslims. Also dating to the 10th century is the Bibi Shahrbanu Shrine, which is the site of a former Zoroastrian temple dedicated to Anahita, the ancient Iranian goddess of the waters. The temple has been converted into a Muslim shrine claimed to be the burial of Shahrbanu, a legendary Sasanian princess who was captured by the Muslims and married Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, the founder of Islam. It is likely that the name shahrbanu, meaning "lady of the land", is in fact an attribution to Anahita, who bore the title banu ("lady"). Ray was one of the capital cities of the Buyid dynasty. It was one of the cities that were equipped with rapid postal service, which was predominantly used for transferring official mails. Ray was also a capital city of the Seljuk Empire in the 11th century. During this time, the city of Ray was at its greatest expanse. It had developed a great urban market that also benefited its neighboring regions, including the once small town of Tehran, and had become a remarkable center for silk weaving. Commercial goods imported by traders via the Silk Road were brought into the bazaar of Ray. One of the monuments that survives from this period is the 12th-century Tughrul Tower, a brick tower built in 1140 that is attributed to Tughrul I, the founder of the Seljuk Empire. Ray was home to a Shia Muslim community and some of the earliest Shia madrasas in Iran already in the 12th century, at least one established by Shia scholar Qazvini Razi, prior to the later Safavid official adoption of Shiism as the state religion. In the early 13th century, following the Mongol invasion of Iran, Ray was severely destructed. It was abandoned and eventually lost its importance in the presence of the nearby growing town of Tehran. Ray remained abandoned throughout the time of the Timurid Empire. Early modern times Amin Razi, a Persian geographer from Ray who lived by the time of the Safavid dynasty, attests to the "incomparable abundance" of the gardens and canals of his hometown. In 1618, Italian author Pietro Della Valle described Ray as a large city with large gardens that was administrated by a provincial governor but was not urbanized and didn't seem to be inhabited. The shrines of Shah Abdol-Azim and Bibi Shahrbanu, among other religious shrines throughout Iran, were notably reconstructed during the early modern period, using architectural techniques that were developed since the time of the Safavid dynasty to the time of the Qajar dynasty. There is a relief located at Cheshme-Ali from the time of Fath-Ali Shah of the Qajar dynasty, who often used to explore the city, which shows the Qajar ruler in a hunting scene, replacing a former Sasanian relief that depicted an ancient Persian emperor in the same manner. It was engraved in 1831, and its surrounding was decorated with tablets covered with poetry. Contemporary era In the middle of the 19th century, Ray was described as a place of ruins, the only settlement being around the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine. Being the only important pilgrimage site in vicinity to the royal court in the new capital Tehran brought more people to visit the shrine and a major restoration was sponsored by the court. Thus, between the years 1886 and 1888, under the reign of Qajar ruler Naser al-Din Shah, Ray became the first place in Iran to be connected to the capital by a railway. The railway had a short single line and transported a few steam locomotives that were colloquially called ("smoky machine"), between terminals that were called (from French ). Excavations in the old city began in the late 19th century, and many of the findings were traded. Between 1933 and 1936, the Cheshme-Ali hill was excavated by archaeologists from the Boston Fine Arts Museum and the University Museum at the University of Pennsylvania headed by Erich Schmidt, which resulted in the discovery of a number of 7,000-year-old artifacts. Some of the discovered objects are displayed at museums in Iran, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Due to real estate expansions in the 1980s and 1990s, the hill is now mostly leveled out. Further excavations began in 1997, in a collaboration between the Iranian Ministry of Cultural Heritage, the Department of Archaeological Sciences of the University of Bradford and the Department of Archaeology of the University of Tehran. In 1951, Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty, the second last shah of the Imperial State of Iran, was buried by the order of his son and successor Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in a mausoleum dedicated to him in Ray. The mausoleum was built near the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine. Following the 1979 Revolution, the Mausoleum of Reza Shah was destroyed under the direction of Sadegh Khalkhali, an infamous cleric who was appointed by Ruhollah Khomeini as the head of the newly established Revolutionary Courts. Notable people Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist Abu Hatim al-Razi, Major Sunni Hadith scholar Abu Zur’ah Ar-Razi, Major Sunni Hadith Scholar Amin Razi Harun al-Rashid, Abbasid caliph Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ash'ari Theologian and Qur'an Exegete Najmeddin Razi Morteza Avini Mohammad Reza Heydari Javad Nekounam Farzad Ashoubi Hadi Saei Alireza Dabir Hamid Sourian Mehdi Kamrani Ruhollah Zam Gallery See also Behesht-e Zahra Cemetery Ibn Babawayh Cemetery Javan Mard-e Ghassab Tomb References Sources External links Daily Life Ornamented: The Medieval Persian City Of Rayy Special Exhibition at Chicago Oriental Institute (May 15-October 14, 2007). 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202704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20chess%20historians	List of chess historians	This is a list of chess historians. Chess historians Yuri Averbakh Peter Banaschak Henry Bird Andreas Bock-Raming Øystein Brekke Neil Brennen Ricardo Calvo (October 22, 1943 – September 26, 2002) Adolivio Capece Jean-Louis Cazaux Hiram Cox Henry Davidson G. H. Diggle David Vincent Hooper Richard Eales Juan Escourido Gianfelice Ferlito Vlastimil Fiala Willard Fiske Professor Duncan Forbes Richard Forster Jeremy Gaige José Antonio Garzón Roger Ann Gunter Tim Harding (chess player) John Samuel Hilbert H. F. W. Holt Thomas Hyde (29 June 1636 – 18 February 1703) Sir William Jones (September 28, 1746 – April 27, 1794) Gerhard Josten Jan Kalendovský Garry Kasparov Taylor T. Kingston Baron von der Lasa Mario Leoncini Dennis Leventhal Jean-Marie Lhôte David H. Li Antonius van der Linde Isaac M. Linder A. A. Macdonell Egbert Meissenburg D.J. [David James] Morgan H. J. R. Murray (June 24, 1868 – May 16, 1955) Sonja Musser Golladay Joseph Needham A. v. Oefele Antonio Panaino Jean-Michel Péchiné Hans Renette Alessandro Sanvito M. E. V. Savenkof F. Strohmeyer Renate Syed John Townsend Olimpiu G. Urcan Bo Utas Govert Westerveld John Griswold White Ken Whyld (6 March 1926 – 11 July 2003) William Henry Wilkinson Edward Winter Fabrizio Zavatarelli Notes External links Initiative Group Königstein Edward Winter's Chess History Column History of chess Historians	[ -0.3211127519607544, 0.6157212853431702, -0.936626672744751, -0.23660019040107727, -0.7591924667358398, -0.0873558446764946, 0.8679950833320618, 0.5756126046180725, -0.8987244367599487, -0.24906381964683533, -0.29388073086738586, 0.013478098437190056, 0.09254349023103714, 0.48078015446662903, 0.016843684017658234, 0.42487427592277527, -0.45147061347961426, 0.2883109450340271, -0.03781800717115402, -0.5441128015518188, -0.12499292194843292, 0.04370388388633728, 0.47353559732437134, -0.3422790467739105, -0.6055269837379456, 0.25533950328826904, -0.11639469116926193, -0.5992201566696167, -0.3168114423751831, 0.21660581231117249, -0.3735262155532837, 0.6043850779533386, 0.1743236780166626, 0.10524258762598038, 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202711	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaganova%20method	Vaganova method	The Vaganova method is a ballet technique and training system devised by the Russian dancer and pedagogue Agrippina Vaganova (1879–1951). It was derived from the teachings of the Premier Maitre de Ballet Marius Petipa, throughout the late 19th century. It was Agrippa Vaganova who perfected and cultivated this form of teaching classical ballet and turned it into a viable syllabus. The method fuses elements of traditional French style from the romantic era with the athleticism and virtuosity of Italian Cecchetti technique. The training system is designed to involve the whole body in every movement, with equal attention paid to the upper body, legs and feet. Vaganova believed that this approach increases consciousness of the body, thus creating a harmony of movement and greater expressive range. History Upon graduating from the Imperial Ballet School in Saint Petersburg in 1897, Agrippina Vaganova began dancing with the school's associated professional company, the Imperial Russian Ballet. She retired from dancing in 1916 to pursue a teaching career and in 1921 returned as a teacher at the school, which had been renamed the Leningrad Choreographic School. During the 30 years she spent teaching at the Leningrad Choreographic School, Vaganova developed a ballet technique that combined elements of French, Italian, and earlier Russian technique, and a training method to teach the technique. Tenets of the training method included development of lower back strength and arm plasticity, and the strength, flexibility and endurance required for ballet, and it incorporated a detailed instruction process that specified when to teach each topic and how long to teach it. In 1934, Vaganova wrote Fundamentals of the Classical Dance, which remains a standard textbook for the instruction of ballet technique. In 1948, Vaganova authored a book titled The Foundation For Dance (more commonly known as Basic Principles of Russian Classical Dance) that outlined her training method and ballet technique. Following Vaganova's death in 1951, her teaching method was preserved by instructors such as Vera Kostrovitskaya and Vera Volkova. Today the Vaganova method is the most widely used ballet teaching method in Russia, and it is also used in Europe and North America. Characteristics The Vaganova training method relies on the following principle: That all training can be encompassed and displayed in the course of one grand pas de deux. Students are trained to prove this principle upon graduation, thus the reason for graduation performances in which the most talented students are given a grand pas de deux to perform. The steps in Vaganova's syllabus builds on a carefully developed progression in which the "basic" or "preparatory" forms are mastered before the dancer moves on to more difficult forms. This can be understood as a codified technical approach when taught by qualified teachers following the syllabus closely. The syllabus is founded upon the idea that when a dancer is introduced to a step, he or she will have developed the correct strength in foundation in order for their steps and movements to be successful. It is understood that this strength-building requires time and consistent hard work. Students at Vaganova-based schools are expected to take daily courses in ballet as well as character dance, modern dance, calisthenics/strengthening, and study dance history, music, and language. Ballet demands versatility and ballet students cannot rely solely on the study of classical ballet. Terminology used in the Vaganova method often differs from other methods, and may also vary by locale. For example, the Vaganova "grand pas de chat" is commonly called "saut de chat" in the United States, and Vaganova's "battement jeté" is often called "dégagé" in other methods. Students at Vaganova-based pre-professional schools are expected to also take courses in choreography and pedagogy. These two subjects allow students of all abilities to go on to become both choreographers and well trained teachers. Frequently, students who do not pass exams for their grade in ballet are redirected into training as choreographers and teachers. This is unique to Vaganova training, as other schools focus solely on a future in dancing. References External links About the Vaganova Syllabus Ballet training methods	[ -0.1969505250453949, -0.1370258778333664, -0.22188712656497955, -0.2581930458545685, -0.3678894340991974, 0.7716331481933594, 1.1378867626190186, -0.6352280378341675, -0.46001774072647095, -0.2663209140300751, 0.05025863274931908, -0.12432633340358734, -0.4167127311229706, 0.3176703155040741, -0.22024177014827728, -0.1217096820473671, 0.6108554601669312, -0.32840827107429504, 0.15801317989826202, -0.16598419845104218, -0.19177652895450592, -0.06034363806247711, 0.29062145948410034, 0.053581658750772476, -0.37089821696281433, -0.2966230809688568, 0.10240327566862106, 0.16994993388652802, 0.07354603707790375, 0.03863326460123062, -0.29200276732444763, 0.5976767539978027, 0.4610770344734192, -0.4382660388946533, -0.08747635781764984, 0.12014670670032501, 0.12145435810089111, -0.16946808993816376, -0.29880377650260925, -0.6740344762802124, -0.4069724380970001, 0.21757479012012482, 0.46580496430397034, 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202712	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittenburg	Wittenburg	Wittenburg () is a town in the district Ludwigslust-Parchim in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Population 6,092, area 80.0 km². Wittenburg has been the seat of the Amt of Wittenburg since January 2004. It is in the west of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and lies on the little river Motel. The settlements of Helm, Klein Wolde, Wölzow, Lehsen, Körchow and Ziggelmark are part of Wittenburg. At the beginning of the 12th century, Wittenburg belonged to the territory of the Polaben Obotrites. Wittenburg was first mentioned in 1154 and gained town privileges in 1230. Number of inhabitants Notable people Harald Ringstorff (born 1939), politician (SPD) Gallery References External links Official website (German) Cities and towns in Mecklenburg Ludwigslust-Parchim Populated places established in the 13th century 1230s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 1230 establishments in Europe Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Bezirk Schwerin	[ 0.006448809523135424, 0.48080307245254517, 0.8771660327911377, -0.4043027460575104, -0.1755918562412262, 0.7224650979042053, 1.0924134254455566, 0.09774399548768997, -0.2021723985671997, -0.19100196659564972, -0.014741591177880764, -0.02357383817434311, 0.16466586291790009, 0.8111730217933655, 0.3462378978729248, 0.2886721193790436, 0.4677211046218872, 0.27593785524368286, -0.057862844318151474, -0.7318379282951355, 0.3814345896244049, -0.4111899137496948, 0.657566249370575, 0.3830648362636566, -0.04589806869626045, -0.06066756322979927, 0.23716279864311218, 0.07084768265485764, 0.15783867239952087, 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202713	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized%20moment	Standardized moment	In probability theory and statistics, a standardized moment of a probability distribution is a moment (normally a higher degree central moment) that is normalized. The normalization is typically a division by an expression of the standard deviation which renders the moment scale invariant. This has the advantage that such normalized moments differ only in other properties than variability, facilitating e.g. comparison of shape of different probability distributions. Standard normalization Let X be a random variable with a probability distribution P and mean value (i.e. the first raw moment or moment about zero), the operator E denoting the expected value of X. Then the standardized moment of degree k is that is, the ratio of the kth moment about the mean to the kth power of the standard deviation, The power of k is because moments scale as meaning that they are homogeneous functions of degree k, thus the standardized moment is scale invariant. This can also be understood as being because moments have dimension; in the above ratio defining standardized moments, the dimensions cancel, so they are dimensionless numbers. The first four standardized moments can be written as: For skewness and kurtosis, alternative definitions exist, which are based on the third and fourth cumulant respectively. Other normalizations Another scale invariant, dimensionless measure for characteristics of a distribution is the coefficient of variation, . However, this is not a standardized moment, firstly because it is a reciprocal, and secondly because is the first moment about zero (the mean), not the first moment about the mean (which is zero). See Normalization (statistics) for further normalizing ratios. See also Coefficient of variation Moment (mathematics) Central moment References Statistical deviation and dispersion Statistical ratios Moment (mathematics)	[ -0.2212664932012558, -0.8710178732872009, -0.3607434928417206, 0.35124725103378296, -0.1441209614276886, -0.0028705119621008635, -0.11434979736804962, 0.2101832926273346, 0.2128876894712448, -0.8793875575065613, -0.22512933611869812, 0.12477000802755356, -0.06374300271272659, 0.4298892915248871, 0.022108856588602066, 0.428152471780777, 0.07412400096654892, 0.10054376721382141, 0.16973353922367096, -0.48210814595222473, -0.009042742662131786, -0.0888592004776001, 0.0935836061835289, -0.4777292013168335, 0.16220635175704956, -0.29649877548217773, 0.0030205463990569115, -0.20094536244869232, 0.09578783810138702, 0.3304908573627472, -0.4158813953399658, 1.2927016019821167, -0.5605788826942444, 0.17830462753772736, -0.05976007506251335, 0.16479523479938507, 0.1578739434480667, -0.3292188048362732, 0.44915279746055603, 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202719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu%20Hui	Liu Hui	Liu Hui () was a Chinese mathematician and writer who lived in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. In 263, he edited and published a book with solutions to mathematical problems presented in the famous Chinese book of mathematics known as The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, in which he was possibly the first mathematician to discover, understand and use negative numbers. He was a descendant of the Marquis of Zi District () of the Eastern Han dynasty, whose marquisate is in present-day Zichuan District, Zibo, Shandong. He completed his commentary to the Nine Chapters in the year 263. He probably visited Luoyang, where he measured the sun's shadow. Mathematical work Along with Zu Chongzhi (429–500 CE), Liu Hui was known as one of the greatest mathematicians of ancient China. Liu Hui expressed all of his mathematical results in the form of decimal fractions (using metrological units), yet the later Yang Hui (c. 1238-1298 CE) expressed his mathematical results in full decimal expressions. Liu provided commentary on a mathematical proof of a theorem identical to the Pythagorean theorem. Liu called the figure of the drawn diagram for the theorem the "diagram giving the relations between the hypotenuse and the sum and difference of the other two sides whereby one can find the unknown from the known". In the field of plane areas and solid figures, Liu Hui was one of the greatest contributors to empirical solid geometry. For example, he found that a wedge with rectangular base and both sides sloping could be broken down into a pyramid and a tetrahedral wedge. He also found that a wedge with trapezoid base and both sides sloping could be made to give two tetrahedral wedges separated by a pyramid. In his commentaries on the Nine Chapters, he presented: An algorithm for calculation of pi () in the comments to chapter 1. He calculated pi to with a 192 (= 64 × 3) sided polygon. Archimedes used a circumscribed 96-gon to obtain the inequality , and then used an inscribed 96-gon to obtain the inequality . Liu Hui used only one inscribed 96-gon to obtain his inequality, and his results were a bit more accurate than Archimedes'. But he commented that 3.142074 was too large, and picked the first three digits of = 3.141024 ~3.14 and put it in fraction form . He later invented a quick method and obtained , which he checked with a 3072-gon (= 512 × 6). Nine Chapters had used the value 3 for , but Zhang Heng (78-139 CE) had previously estimated pi to the square root of 10. Gaussian elimination. Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a cylinder and the intersection of two perpendicular cylinders although this work was only finished by Zu Chongzhi and Zu Gengzhi. Liu's commentaries often include explanations why some methods work and why others do not. Although his commentary was a great contribution, some answers had slight errors which was later corrected by the Tang mathematician and Taoist believer Li Chunfeng. Through his work in the Nine Chapters, he could have been the first mathematician to discover and compute with negative numbers; definitely before Ancient Indian mathematician Brahmagupta started using negative numbers. Surveying Liu Hui also presented, in a separate appendix of 263 AD called Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, several problems related to surveying. This book contained many practical problems of geometry, including the measurement of the heights of Chinese pagoda towers. This smaller work outlined instructions on how to measure distances and heights with "tall surveyor's poles and horizontal bars fixed at right angles to them". With this, the following cases are considered in his work: The measurement of the height of an island opposed to its sea level and viewed from the sea The height of a tree on a hill The size of a city wall viewed at a long distance The depth of a ravine (using hence-forward cross-bars) The height of a tower on a plain seen from a hill The breadth of a river-mouth seen from a distance on land The width of a valley seen from a cliff The depth of a transparent pool The width of a river as seen from a hill The size of a city seen from a mountain. Liu Hui's information about surveying was known to his contemporaries as well. The cartographer and state minister Pei Xiu (224–271) outlined the advancements of cartography, surveying, and mathematics up until his time. This included the first use of a rectangular grid and graduated scale for accurate measurement of distances on representative terrain maps. Liu Hui provided commentary on the Nine Chapter's problems involving building canal and river dykes, giving results for total amount of materials used, the amount of labor needed, the amount of time needed for construction, etc. Although translated into English long beforehand, Liu's work was translated into French by Guo Shuchun, a professor from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, who began in 1985 and took twenty years to complete his translation. See also Chinese mathematics Fangcheng (mathematics) Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms Liu Hui's π algorithm Haidao Suanjing History of geometry Notes References Chen, Stephen. "Changing Faces: Unveiling a Masterpiece of Ancient Logical Thinking." South China Morning Post, Sunday, January 28, 2007. Crossley, J.M et al. The Logic of Liu Hui and Euclid, Philosophy and History of Science, vol 3, No 1, 1994 Guo, Shuchun. "Liu Hui". Encyclopedia of China (Mathematics Edition), 1st ed. Ho Peng Yoke. "Liu Hui." Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 8. Ed. Charles C. Gillipsie. New York: Scribners, 1973, 418–425. Hsu, Mei-ling. "The Qin Maps: A Clue to Later Chinese Cartographic Development." Imago Mundi (Volume 45, 1993): 90-100. Lee, Chun-yue & C. M.-Y. Tang (2012). "A Comparative Study on Finding Volume of Spheres by Liu Hui (劉徽) and Archimedes: An Educational Perspective to Secondary School Students." Mikami, Yoshio (1974). Development of Mathematics in China and Japan. Needham, Joseph & C. Cullen (Eds.) (1959). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume III, section 19. Cambridge University Press. . Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Siu, Man-Keung. Proof and Pedagogy in Ancient China: Examples from Liu Hui's Commentary On Jiu Zhang Suan Shu, 1993 External links Liu Hui and the first Golden Age of Chinese Mathematics, by Philip D. 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202720	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matinkyl%C3%A4	Matinkylä	Matinkylä (Finnish) or Mattby (Swedish) is one of the major districts of Espoo, a city on the southern coast of Finland. Matinkylä sits between the Länsiväylä highway and the coast of the Gulf of Finland, between the areas of Haukilahti and Iivisniemi. About 30,000 people live in the Greater Matinkylä area, consisting of Matinkylä itself and the neighbouring areas of Olari and Henttaa. Iso Omena, one of Finland's biggest shopping malls, is situated in Matinkylä. Matinkylä is, for the time being, the final stop of the Länsimetro, until the extension to Kivenlahti is finished. See also Matinkylä metro station Ring II Districts of Espoo References External links Districts of Espoo	[ -0.16809695959091187, -0.15857093036174774, 0.5296283960342407, 0.1836676448583603, 0.043013811111450195, 0.4843672513961792, 0.8784623742103577, 0.2547645568847656, -0.7119554281234741, -0.440909743309021, -0.19034595787525177, -0.11509594321250916, -0.1230110228061676, 0.5089817047119141, -0.8667776584625244, 0.34489405155181885, 0.6380358338356018, 0.553127646446228, 0.21330022811889648, -0.17557252943515778, 0.03676693141460419, -0.11848469078540802, 0.4920106828212738, 0.44697514176368713, 0.32446134090423584, -0.13269835710525513, 0.6815731525421143, 0.5596073269844055, 0.36934274435043335, 0.3099209666252136, -0.31083470582962036, 0.53268963098526, 0.13526295125484467, -0.22412769496440887, 0.35469141602516174, 0.03915095329284668, 0.06238246709108353, -0.251845121383667, -0.2186063528060913, -0.1790950894355774, -0.3233172595500946, 0.24992603063583374, -0.147092804312706, 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202722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor%20contraction	Tensor contraction	In multilinear algebra, a tensor contraction is an operation on a tensor that arises from the natural pairing of a finite-dimensional vector space and its dual. In components, it is expressed as a sum of products of scalar components of the tensor(s) caused by applying the summation convention to a pair of dummy indices that are bound to each other in an expression. The contraction of a single mixed tensor occurs when a pair of literal indices (one a subscript, the other a superscript) of the tensor are set equal to each other and summed over. In Einstein notation this summation is built into the notation. The result is another tensor with order reduced by 2. Tensor contraction can be seen as a generalization of the trace. Abstract formulation Let V be a vector space over a field k. The core of the contraction operation, and the simplest case, is the natural pairing of V with its dual vector space V∗. The pairing is the linear transformation from the tensor product of these two spaces to the field k: corresponding to the bilinear form where f is in V∗ and v is in V. The map C defines the contraction operation on a tensor of type , which is an element of . Note that the result is a scalar (an element of k). Using the natural isomorphism between and the space of linear transformations from V to V, one obtains a basis-free definition of the trace. In general, a tensor of type (with and ) is an element of the vector space (where there are m factors V and n factors V∗). Applying the natural pairing to the kth V factor and the lth V∗ factor, and using the identity on all other factors, defines the (k, l) contraction operation, which is a linear map which yields a tensor of type . By analogy with the case, the general contraction operation is sometimes called the trace. Contraction in index notation In tensor index notation, the basic contraction of a vector and a dual vector is denoted by which is shorthand for the explicit coordinate summation (where are the components of in a particular basis and are the components of in the corresponding dual basis). Since a general mixed dyadic tensor is a linear combination of decomposable tensors of the form , the explicit formula for the dyadic case follows: let be a mixed dyadic tensor. Then its contraction is . A general contraction is denoted by labeling one covariant index and one contravariant index with the same letter, summation over that index being implied by the summation convention. The resulting contracted tensor inherits the remaining indices of the original tensor. For example, contracting a tensor T of type (2,2) on the second and third indices to create a new tensor U of type (1,1) is written as By contrast, let be an unmixed dyadic tensor. This tensor does not contract; if its base vectors are dotted, the result is the contravariant metric tensor, , whose rank is 2. Metric contraction As in the previous example, contraction on a pair of indices that are either both contravariant or both covariant is not possible in general. However, in the presence of an inner product (also known as a metric) g, such contractions are possible. One uses the metric to raise or lower one of the indices, as needed, and then one uses the usual operation of contraction. The combined operation is known as metric contraction. Application to tensor fields Contraction is often applied to tensor fields over spaces (e.g. Euclidean space, manifolds, or schemes). Since contraction is a purely algebraic operation, it can be applied pointwise to a tensor field, e.g. if T is a (1,1) tensor field on Euclidean space, then in any coordinates, its contraction (a scalar field) U at a point x is given by Since the role of x is not complicated here, it is often suppressed, and the notation for tensor fields becomes identical to that for purely algebraic tensors. Over a Riemannian manifold, a metric (field of inner products) is available, and both metric and non-metric contractions are crucial to the theory. For example, the Ricci tensor is a non-metric contraction of the Riemann curvature tensor, and the scalar curvature is the unique metric contraction of the Ricci tensor. One can also view contraction of a tensor field in the context of modules over an appropriate ring of functions on the manifold or the context of sheaves of modules over the structure sheaf; see the discussion at the end of this article. Tensor divergence As an application of the contraction of a tensor field, let V be a vector field on a Riemannian manifold (for example, Euclidean space). Let be the covariant derivative of V (in some choice of coordinates). In the case of Cartesian coordinates in Euclidean space, one can write Then changing index β to α causes the pair of indices to become bound to each other, so that the derivative contracts with itself to obtain the following sum: which is the divergence div V. Then is a continuity equation for V. In general, one can define various divergence operations on higher-rank tensor fields, as follows. If T is a tensor field with at least one contravariant index, taking the covariant differential and contracting the chosen contravariant index with the new covariant index corresponding to the differential results in a new tensor of rank one lower than that of T. Contraction of a pair of tensors One can generalize the core contraction operation (vector with dual vector) in a slightly different way, by considering a pair of tensors T and U. The tensor product is a new tensor, which, if it has at least one covariant and one contravariant index, can be contracted. The case where T is a vector and U is a dual vector is exactly the core operation introduced first in this article. In tensor index notation, to contract two tensors with each other, one places them side by side (juxtaposed) as factors of the same term. This implements the tensor product, yielding a composite tensor. Contracting two indices in this composite tensor implements the desired contraction of the two tensors. For example, matrices can be represented as tensors of type (1,1) with the first index being contravariant and the second index being covariant. Let be the components of one matrix and let be the components of a second matrix. Then their multiplication is given by the following contraction, an example of the contraction of a pair of tensors: . Also, the interior product of a vector with a differential form is a special case of the contraction of two tensors with each other. More general algebraic contexts Let R be a commutative ring and let M be a finite free module over R. Then contraction operates on the full (mixed) tensor algebra of M in exactly the same way as it does in the case of vector spaces over a field. (The key fact is that the natural pairing is still perfect in this case.) More generally, let OX be a sheaf of commutative rings over a topological space X, e.g. OX could be the structure sheaf of a complex manifold, analytic space, or scheme. Let M be a locally free sheaf of modules over OX of finite rank. Then the dual of M is still well-behaved and contraction operations make sense in this context. See also Tensor product Partial trace Interior product Raising and lowering indices Musical isomorphism Ricci calculus Notes References Tensors	[ -0.33462685346603394, -0.44319674372673035, 0.03204038366675377, -0.21127237379550934, -0.4998236298561096, 0.32958531379699707, -0.16686509549617767, -0.06283234059810638, -0.20071914792060852, -0.48627346754074097, -0.6714088320732117, 0.6622623801231384, -0.467867910861969, 0.23089274764060974, -0.21550610661506653, 0.5685649514198303, 0.2130187600851059, 0.022644050419330597, -0.26562735438346863, -0.4173692464828491, 0.2438889890909195, 0.07288331538438797, 0.07655803114175797, 0.17450127005577087, 0.11460597813129425, -0.2489200234413147, 0.21270738542079926, 0.16658927500247955, 0.36017847061157227, 0.6006930470466614, 0.016335805878043175, 0.6641043424606323, -0.2890058159828186, 0.11314205080270767, -0.03555821254849434, 0.0361592173576355, 0.29277274012565613, -0.2272985726594925, 0.12509220838546753, -0.34114208817481995, 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202725	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oruro%2C%20Bolivia	Oruro, Bolivia	Oruro (Hispanicized spelling) or Uru Uru is a city in Bolivia with a population of 264,683 (2012 calculation), about halfway between La Paz and Sucre in the Altiplano, approximately above sea level. It is Bolivia's fifth-largest city by population, after Santa Cruz de la Sierra, El Alto, La Paz, and Cochabamba. It is the capital of the Department of Oruro and the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oruro. Oruro has been subject to cycles of boom and bust owing to its dependence on the mining industry, notably tin, tungsten (wolfram), silver and copper. History The city was founded on November 1, 1606, by Don Manuel Castro de Padilla as a silver-mining center in the Urus region. At the time it was named Real Villa de San Felipe de Austria, after the Spanish monarch Philip III. It thrived for a while, but it was eventually abandoned as the silver mines became exhausted. Oruro was reestablished by European Bolivians in the late nineteenth century as a tin mining center. It was named after the native tribe Uru-Uru. For a time, the La Salvadora tin mine was the most important source of tin in the world. Gradually, as this resource became less plentiful, Oruro again went into a decline. Its economy is still based on the mining industry. Economy While traditionally based upon mining, Oruro has become increasingly popular for tourism since the late 20th century. In the early 21st century, Oruro's economy grew through trade and economic connections with Chile, especially for exporting products to Pacific markets. It transported products by road through Chile to the Pacific port of Iquique to open new connections to external markets; it also used the rail connection through Uyuni to the port at Antofagasta for exports. Thanks to increased road building, Oruro has become important as a waystation on the overland route of goods from the Atlantic port of Santos, Brazil, through Puerto Suárez and Santa Cruz to the capital, La Paz. The city is served by the Oruro Airport. Culture and education Despite its economic decline, the city attracts numerous tourists to its Carnaval de Oruro, considered one of the great folkloric events in South America for its masked "diablada" and Anata. The Oruru Carnival was discovered in 1559, when the Augustinian priest were on the land, the festival is in honor of the Virgin of Candlemas. The Oruro Symphony Orchestra is based in the city. Aymara painter and printmaker Alejandro Mario Yllanes (1913–1960) was born here. The Universidad Técnica de Oruro, noted for its engineering school, is located in Oruro. Climate Oruro lies north of the salty lakes Uru Uru and Poopó. It is three hours (by bus) from La Paz. Located at an altitude of 3709 meters above sea level, Oruro is well known for its cold weather. Warmer temperatures generally take place during August, September and October, after the worst of the winter chills and before the summer rains. From May to early July, night time temperatures combined with cool wind can bring the temperature down to about -20 °C. Summers are warmer, and, although it is an arid area, it has considerable rainfall between November and March. The Köppen climate classification describes the climate as a cold subtropical highland climate, bordering on a cold semi-arid climate, abbreviated Cwb and Bsk. Due to the warm days and dry winters, snow is not a frequent occurrence as much as the bitter cold (especially at night); however, flurries can fall usually once every few years, most recently July 4, 2015. The other three most recent snowfalls were those of 13 June 2013, 1 September 2010 (with accumulation), as well as one in 2008. Main attractions Museo Patiño, former residence of "tin baron" Simón Iturri Patiño Museo Mineralógico (Mineralogical Museum): has exhibits of precious stones, minerals, and fossils Museo Etnográfico Minero (Ethnographical Mining Museum): housed in a mine tunnel, depicts methods of Bolivian mining Museo Nacional Antropológico Eduardo López Rivas (National Anthropological Museum): displays tools and information on the Chipaya and Uru tribes, and about Carnaval de Oruro. Churches: Catedral Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Santuario de la Virgen del Socavón, Iglesia de Cunchupata Inti Raymi, a mine Education Because of a high proportion of German-speaking residents, many of whom came as immigrants to work in the mines, the area once had a German school, Deutsche Schule Oruro. Gallery Twin towns – sister cities Lima, Peru Iquique, Chile Calama, Chile Notable people from Oruro Elsa Cladera de Bravo (1922—2005) Trade union leader Alfonso Gamarra Durana Historian and writer, member of RAE Hilda Mundy (1912-1980), Bolivian writer, poet, journalist See also Jach'a Ch'ankha Qala Qala Huari Pilsener References External links Oruro's full information about hotels, history, carnival, tourism, pictures, videos, and news Weather in Oruro Carnaval de Oruro Oruro's Carnival] Oruro's Carnival Oruro Populated places in Oruro Department Tin mines in Bolivia Populated places established in 1606 1606 establishments in the Spanish Empire Populated places in the Altiplano eo:Oruro	[ -0.570939302444458, 0.6809163093566895, -0.10887700319290161, -0.3398953080177307, -0.33269014954566956, 1.1047251224517822, 0.43224236369132996, 1.086595892906189, -0.7014429569244385, -0.1579575091600418, -0.0461207777261734, 0.1774456799030304, -0.09101684391498566, 0.38974517583847046, 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202735	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex%20Argenteus	Codex Argenteus	The Codex Argenteus (Latin for "Silver Book/Codex") is a 6th-century illuminated manuscript, originally containing part of the 4th-century translation of the Christian Bible into the Gothic language. Traditionally ascribed to the Arian bishop Wulfila, it is now established that the Gothic translation was performed by several scholars, possibly under Wulfila's supervision. Of the original 336 folios, 188—including the Speyer fragment discovered in 1970—have been preserved, containing the translation of the greater part of the four canonical gospels. A part of it is on permanent display at the Carolina Rediviva building in Uppsala, Sweden, under the name "Silverbibeln" (i.e. "The Silver Bible"). History Origin The Codex Argenteus (literally: "Silver Book") was probably written for the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great, either at his royal seat in Ravenna, or in the Po valley or at Brescia; it was made as a special and impressive book written with gold and silver ink on high-quality thin vellum stained a regal purple, with an ornate treasure binding. Under Theodoric's reign, manuscripts of the Gothic Bible were recopied. After Theodoric's death in 526, the "Silver Bible" is not mentioned in inventories or book lists for a thousand years. Discovery Parts of the Codex Argenteus, 187 of the original 336 parchment folia, were preserved at the former Benedictine abbey of Werden (near Essen, Rhineland). The abbots at Werden were imperial princes and had a seat in the Imperial Diet. While the precise date of the "Silver Bible" is unknown, it was discovered at Werden in the 16th century. The codex, or the remaining part of it, came to rest in the library of Holy Roman emperor Rudolph II at his imperial seat in Prague. At the end of the Thirty Years' War, in 1648, after the Battle of Prague, it was taken as war booty to Stockholm, Sweden, to the library of Queen Christina of Sweden. After her conversion to Catholicism and her abdication, the book went to the Netherlands among the property of Isaac Vossius, her former librarian, in 1654. In the 1660s, it was bought and taken to Uppsala University by Count Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, who also provided its present lavishly decorated binding. The codex remains at the Uppsala University Library in the Carolina Rediviva building. On 5 April 1995, parts of the codex that were on public display in Carolina Rediviva were stolen. The stolen parts were recovered one month later, in a storage box at the Stockholm Central Railway Station. The details of the codex's wanderings for a thousand years remain a mystery; it is unknown whether the other half of the book may have survived. In 1998 the codex was subjected to carbon-14 analysis and was dated to the 5th century. It was also determined that the manuscript had been bound at least once during the 16th century. The Speyer fragment The final leaf of the codex, fol. 336, was discovered in October 1970 in Speyer, Germany, 321 km south-east of Werden. It was found at the restoration of the Saint Afra chapel, rolled around a thin wooden staff, contained in a small reliquary originating in Aschaffenburg. The leaf contains the final verses of the Gospel of Mark. Publications First publication mentioning Gothic manuscript appeared in 1569 by Goropius Becanus in his book Origines Antwerpianae: In 1597, Bonaventura Vulcanius, Leiden professor of Greek, published his book De literis et lingua Getarum sive Gothorum. It was the first publication of a Gothic text altogether, calling the manuscript "Codex Argenteus": But he was not only the first who enabled the learned world to make the acquaintance of the Gothic translation of the Gospels in Gothic script, but also the first who connected this version with the name of Ulfilas: In his book Vulcanius published two chapters about the Gothic language which contained four fragments of the Gothic New Testament: the Ave Maria (Luke I.28 and 42), the Lord's Prayer (Matt. VI.9-13), the Magnificat (Luke I.46-55) and the Song of Simeon (Luke II.29-32), and consistently gave first the Latin translation, then the Gothic in Gothic characters, and then a transliteration of the Gothic in Latin characters. In 1737, Lars Roberg, a physician of Uppsala, made a woodcut of one page of the manuscript; it was included in Benzelius' edition of 1750, and the woodcut is preserved in the Linköping Diocesan and Regional Library. Another edition of 1854–7 by Anders Uppström contained an artist's rendition of another page. In 1927, a facsimile edition of the Codex was published. The standard edition is that published by Wilhelm Streitberg in 1910 as Die Gotische Bibel (The Gothic Bible). Script and illumination The manuscript is written in an uncial script in the Gothic alphabet, reportedly created by Ulfilas. The script is very uniform, so much so that it has been suggested that it was made with stamps. However, two hands have been identified: one hand in the Gospels of Matthew and John and another in the Gospels of Mark and Luke. The illumination is limited to a few large, framed initials and, at the bottom of each page, a silver arcade which encloses the monograms of the four evangelists. In the 1920s, German conservator Hugo Ibscher worked on the conservation of the Codex. Contents Gospel of Matthew: Matthew 5:15-48; 6:1-32; 7:12-29; 8:1-34; 9:1-38; 10:1,23-42; 11:1-25; 26:70-75; 27:1-19,42-66. Gospel of John: 5:45-47; 6:1-71; 7:1-53; 8:12-59; 9:1-41; 10:1-42; 11:1-47; 12:1-49; 13:11-38; 14:1-31; 15:1-27; 16:1-33; 17:1-26; 18:1-40; 19:1-13. Gospel of Luke 1:1-80; 2:2-52; 3:1-38; 4:1-44; 5:1-39; 6:1-49; 7:1-50; 8:1-56; 9:1-62; 10:1-30; 14:9-35; 15:1-32; 16:1-24; 17:3-37; 18:1-43; 19:1-48; 20:1-47. Gospel of Mark: 1:1-45; 2:1-28; 3:1-35; 4:1-41; 5:1-5; 5-43; 6:1-56; 7:1-37; 8:1-38; 9:1-50; 10:1-52; 11:1-33; 12:1-38; 13:16-29; 14:4-72; 15:1-47; 16:1-12 (+ 16:13-20). See also Gothic Bible Gothic language Purple parchment Codex Carolinus References Further reading External links Homepage of the Codex Argenteus (Uppsala University Library) Digital copy of the Codex Argenteus in the Swedish portal for cultural heritage collections, alvin-record:60279 Wulfila Project digital library dedicated to the study of Gothic Lars Munkhammar, Uppsala University Library, "Codex Argenteus" Codex Argenteus Bibliography The Gothic Bible on Wikisource, Streitberg's edition Gothic Bible in Gothic script on Wikisource the Gothic New Testament on wikisource, Patrologia Latina edition 6th-century biblical manuscripts 6th-century illuminated manuscripts Illuminated biblical manuscripts Purple parchment Gothic Bible Ostrogothic Kingdom History of Uppsala Uppsala University	[ -0.2902187407016754, 0.561724841594696, 0.05015575513243675, -0.08976420760154724, 0.025175509974360466, 0.39585593342781067, 0.11160057783126831, -0.033510513603687286, -0.7374072074890137, 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202741	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin%20Concerto%20%28Beethoven%29	Violin Concerto (Beethoven)	The Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61, was written by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1806. Its first performance by Franz Clement was unsuccessful and for some decades the work languished in obscurity, until revived in 1844 by the then 12-year-old violinist Joseph Joachim with the orchestra of the London Philharmonic Society conducted by Felix Mendelssohn. Since then it has become one of the best-known violin concertos, considered by Joachim himself to be the "greatest" German violin concerto. Genesis Beethoven had previously written a number of pieces for violin and orchestra. At some point in 1790–2, before his musical maturity, he began a Violin Concerto in C, of which only a fragment of the first movement survives. Whether the work, or even the first movement, had ever been completed is not known. In any event, it was neither performed nor published. Later in the 1790s, Beethoven had completed two Romances for violin – first the Romance in F and later the Romance in G. These works show a strong influence from the French school of violin playing, exemplified by violinists such as Giovanni Battista Viotti, Pierre Rode and Rodolphe Kreutzer. The two Romances, for instance, are in a similar style to slow movements of concerti by Viotti. This influence can also be seen in the D major Concerto; the 'martial' opening with the beat of the timpani follows the style of French music at the time, while the prevalence of figures in broken sixths and broken octaves closely resembles elements of compositions by Kreutzer and Viotti. Performance history Beethoven wrote the concerto for his colleague Franz Clement, a leading violinist of the day, who had earlier given him helpful advice on his opera Fidelio. The work was premiered on 23 December 1806 in the Theater an der Wien in Vienna, the occasion being a benefit concert for Clement. The first printed edition (1808) was dedicated to Stephan von Breuning. It is believed that Beethoven finished the solo part so late that Clement had to sight-read part of his performance. Perhaps to express his annoyance, or to show what he could do when he had time to prepare, Clement is said to have interrupted the concerto between the first and second movements with a solo composition of his own, played on one string of the violin held upside down; however, other sources claim that he did play such a piece but only at the end of the performance. The premiere was not a success, and the concerto was little performed in the following decades. The work was revived in 1844, well after Beethoven's death, with a performance by the then 12-year-old violinist Joseph Joachim with the orchestra of the London Philharmonic Society conducted by Felix Mendelssohn. Ever since, it has been one of the most important works of the violin concerto repertoire, and is frequently performed and recorded today. Performance practice It has been said that not only in this piece, but generally, "Recordings demonstrate that ... it was the practice in the early twentieth century to vary the tempo considerably within a movement," and that in the concerto, there is "often one big trough (slowing?) in the central G major passage." Structure The work is in three movements: It is scored, in addition to the solo violin, for flute, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, timpani, and strings. 1. Allegro ma non troppo The movement starts with four beats on the timpani and leads into a theme played by oboe and bassoon. The strings enter with a non-diatonic D# that leads into a V7 chord. The clarinets and bassoons play another theme. This is suddenly interrupted by a louder section in B-flat major. This leads into a theme in D major and later in the parallel minor. The soloist enters with a V7 chord in octaves. This movement is about 25 minutes long. 2. Larghetto This movement is in G major. It is about 10 minutes long. 3. Rondo. Allegro This movement starts without pause from the second movement. It begins with the famous "hunting horn" theme. There is a section in G minor. After the cadenza, it ends with a typical V-I cadence. This movement is about 10 minutes long. Cadenzas Cadenzas for the work have been written by several notable violinists, including Joachim. The cadenzas by Fritz Kreisler are probably most often employed. More recently, composer Alfred Schnittke provided controversial cadenzas with a characteristically 20th-century style; violinist Gidon Kremer has recorded the concerto with the Schnittke cadenzas. New klezmer-inspired cadenzas written by Montreal-based klezmer clarinetist and composer Airat Ichmouratov for Alexandre Da Costa in 2011 have been recorded by the Taipei Symphony Orchestra for Warner Classics. The following violinists and composers have written cadenzas: Leopold Auer Joshua Bell Ferruccio Busoni Stephanie Chase Ferdinand David Jakob Dont Isaak Dunayevsky Mischa Elman Carl Flesch Joseph Hellmesberger Sr. Jenő Hubay Joseph Joachim Patricia Kopatchinskaja Fritz Kreisler Christiaan Kriens Airat Ichmouratov Ferdinand Laub Hubert Léonard Nathan Milstein Bernhard Molique Miron Polyakin Manuel Quiroga Camille Saint-Saëns Wolfgang Schneiderhan Alfred Schnittke Sayaka Shoji Ödön Singer Louis Spohr Maxim Vengerov Henri Vieuxtemps Henryk Wieniawski August Wilhelmj Eugène Ysaÿe Alternative versions Perhaps due to the Violin Concerto's lack of success at its premiere, and at the request of Muzio Clementi, Beethoven revised it in a version for piano and orchestra, which was later published as Op. 61a. For this version, which is present as a sketch in the Violin Concerto's autograph alongside revisions to the solo part, Beethoven wrote a lengthy first movement cadenza which features the orchestra's timpanist along with the solo pianist. More recently, it has been arranged as a concerto for clarinet and orchestra by Mikhail Pletnev. Robert Bockmühl (1820/21–1881) arranged the solo violin part for cello & played it as a Cello Concerto; Gary Karr played Bockmühl's arrangement on a double-bass tuned in fifths as a double bass concerto. Recordings The first known recording of Beethoven's violin concerto was made in 1925 for Polydor by violinist Josef Wolfsthal, with Hans Thierfelder conducting the Berlin Staatsoper Orchestra. Hundreds of recordings have been made since, among which the following have received awards and outstanding reviews: 1947: Yehudi Menuhin/Lucerne Festival Orchestra/Wilhelm Furtwängler 1953: Wolfgang Schneiderhan, Berlin Philharmonic, Eugen Jochum, Deutsche Grammophon – "Rosette" by the Penguin Guide 1954: David Oistrakh with Sixten Ehrling cond. the Stockholm Festival Orchestra in Stockholm over 10–11 June 1954. Testament CD: "David Oistrakh Beethoven & Sibelius", 1994. 1955: Jascha Heifetz, Boston Symphony Orchestra, Charles Munch, RCA Victor – "Mid-price choice" by BBC Radio 3 Building a Library, September 2003 1957: Ida Haendel, Czech Philharmonic, Karel Ančerl, Suraphon – 14 May 2010. 1959: Isaac Stern, New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, Sony "Unique cadenza in last movement" 1974: Arthur Grumiaux, Concertgebouw Orchestra, Colin Davis, Philips – "4 star" by the Penguin Guide 1980: Itzhak Perlman, Philharmonia Orchestra, Carlo Maria Giulini, EMI – Gramophone Award, 1981 1997: Thomas Zehetmair, Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century, Frans Brüggen, Philips – "First choice" by BBC Radio 3 Building a Library, September 2003 1999: Hilary Hahn, Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, David Zinman, Sony Classical 2006: Isabelle Faust, Prague Philharmonia, Jiří Bělohlávek, Harmonia Mundi – "First choice" by BBC Radio 3 Building a Library, April 2011; Diapason d'Or by Diapason, April 2011 2009: Patricia Kopatchinskaja, Orchestre des Champs-Elysées, Philippe Herreweghe, Naive 5174 (only available as download) - BBC Music Magazine Award 2010 (orchestral category) 2010: Guido Rimonda (violin and conductor), Orchestra Camerata Ducale, DELOS project 2011: Isabelle Faust, Orchestra Mozart, Claudio Abbado, Harmonia Mundi – "Disc of the Month" by Gramophone, March 2012; "Disc of the Month" by BBC Music Magazine, April 2012; "Diapason d'Or Arte" by Diapason d'Or and Arte; Gramophone Award, 2012; Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik; Echo Klassik 2012 2020: Daniel Lozakovich, Münchner Philharmoniker, Valery Gergiev, Deutsche Grammophon - Cadenza Kleisler, 2020 References Footnotes Bibliography Beethoven, Ludwig van: Konzert für Violine & Orchester D-dur Opus 61. (Facsimile edition of autograph full score) Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Wien, Mus. Hs. 17.538. Edited, with commentary (in German) by Franz Grasberger. Graz, 1979. (ten essays by various authors) External links Complete performances from the Internet Archive Violin concertos by Ludwig van Beethoven 1806 compositions Compositions in D major Music dedicated to ensembles or performers	[ -1.3492828607559204, 0.411670982837677, 0.7318633198738098, -0.1990361213684082, -0.30183807015419006, 0.24296307563781738, 0.4006466567516327, -0.2883768379688263, -0.8050631284713745, -0.6916473507881165, 0.058223262429237366, -0.3375638425350189, -0.08474960923194885, 0.6196762323379517, 0.6329913139343262, 0.2394212782382965, 0.34979870915412903, -0.22864249348640442, 0.006460807751864195, -1.226516604423523, 0.6026515960693359, 0.11879785358905792, 0.3775857985019684, -0.09527447819709778, -0.6573436260223389, -0.21885067224502563, -0.19262447953224182, 0.36863434314727783, 0.28444913029670715, 0.12048542499542236, -0.34209519624710083, 0.3567037880420685, 0.4818652868270874, 0.0741967260837555, -0.18967731297016144, -0.05376172065734863, 0.45511892437934875, 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202746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20in%20My%20Darkness	Light in My Darkness	Light in My Darkness is a book, originally published in 1927 as My Religion, written by Helen Keller when she was 47 years old. The book was written as a tribute to Emanuel Swedenborg whom Helen regarded as "one of the noblest champions true Christianity has ever known". This book is regarded as Keller's spiritual autobiography in which she openly told that "the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg have been my light, and a staff in my hand and by his vision splendid I am attended on my way". The original publication was loosely put together and hastily printed by Doubleday, Page & Company. Nevertheless, it sold well in 1927 and has remained in print ever since. In 1994, Ray Silverman, a Swedenborgian minister and literary scholar, thoroughly revised and edited My Religion, organizing the eight unwieldy sections of the first edition into twelve distinct chapters with subheadings to clarify their contents. Furthermore, important materials not present in the first edition were added to elucidate and expand the original text. Other revisions included modernization of several words and phrases, substitution of inclusive language where appropriate, correction of spelling and typographical errors, alteration of punctuation to conform to modern standards, and emendation of a few historical inaccuracies. Extra paragraph breaks were added and a very few passages that distracted from the main messages were delicately pruned. In 2000 a second edition of Light in My Darkness was published which included an article that was originally published in Guideposts magazine in 1956, when Keller was 76 years old. The article, which was reprinted by Guideposts in 1995, is significant in that it establishes the fact that Keller was indeed a lifelong Swedenborgian. It is in this article that she writes, Also included in the 2000 edition is a quote from Keller's last published book, Teacher (1955). In it she speaks of her undimmed enthusiasm for Swedenborg's teachings. She does this by first quoting the American poet, Walt Whitman who wrote: "O Spirit, as a runner strips/ Upon a windy afternoon/ Be unencumbered of what troubles you--/ Arise with grace / And greatly go, with the wind upon your face." Keller then adds, "In that state of exhilaration I had accepted the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg, had drunk in his interpretation of the Bible, fearless, reverent, yet as unconfined as the sun, the clouds, the sea." The change in title from My Religion to Light in My Darkness is significant. The new title is taken from one of Keller's poetic statements in which she declares, "I know that life is given us so that we may grow in love. And I believe that God is in me as the sun is in the color and fragrance of the flower, the Light in my darkness, the Voice in my silence." Reception Readers were divided by those impressed by her faith and those disappointed that the famous deafblind activist advocated Swedenborgianism rather than a more "mainstream" religion. 1927 non-fiction books Alabama culture American autobiographies Doubleday, Page & Company books Religious autobiographies Swedenborgianism	[ 0.2056344598531723, 0.4206206798553467, -0.026533953845500946, -0.4193475842475891, -0.034291915595531464, 0.02573069930076599, 0.7488877177238464, -0.32667675614356995, 0.04929938167333603, -0.3892708122730255, -0.04215044155716896, -0.07021255046129227, -0.15460097789764404, 0.5317622423171997, -0.36341822147369385, 0.31534919142723083, 0.246500626206398, 0.31310969591140747, -0.30840009450912476, -0.45381733775138855, -0.04606509953737259, -0.13434962928295135, 0.0751728042960167, -0.24930457770824432, 0.27212855219841003, 0.3013320565223694, 0.3926430642604828, -0.11659219861030579, 0.06253734230995178, 0.24135221540927887, 0.35937899351119995, 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202748	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20Flight	High Flight	High Flight is a 1941 sonnet written by John Gillespie Magee Jr. and inspired by his experiences as a fighter pilot of the Royal Canadian Air Force in World War II. Magee began writing "High Flight" on 18 August, while stationed at No. 53 OTU outside London, and mailed a completed manuscript to his family on 3 September—just a few months before his death in a training accident. Originally published in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, it was widely distributed when Magee became one of the first post-Pearl Harbor American casualties of the war on 11 December. The poem's gleeful and ethereal portrayal of aviation (along with its allegorical interpretation of death and transcendence) made it a fitting memorial for its author, and it was exhibited at the American Library of Congress in 1942. Since then, it has been featured prominently in aviation memorials across the world, including that of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Creation At one point in his seventh flight piloting a Spitfire Mk I, Magee reached . As he climbed, he was struck by words he had read in another poem — "To touch the face of God." He completed his verse soon after landing. The first person to read Magee's poem later that same day in the officers' mess was fellow Pilot Officer Michael Henry Le Bas (later Air Vice-Marshal M. H. Le Bas, , Air Officer Commanding No. 1 Group RAF), with whom Magee had trained. Magee enclosed the poem in a letter to his parents, dated 3 September 1941. His father, then curate of Saint John's Episcopal Church in Washington, DC, reprinted it in church publications. The poem became more widely known through the efforts of Archibald MacLeish, then Librarian of Congress, who included it in an exhibition of poems called "Faith and Freedom" at the Library of Congress in February 1942. The manuscript copy of the poem remains at the Library of Congress. Inspirational sources The last words of "High Flight" — "...and touched the face of God" — can also be found in a poem by Cuthbert Hicks published three years earlier in Icarus: An Anthology of the Poetry of Flight. The last two lines in Hicks' poem The Blind Man Flies read: The anthology includes the poem "New World" by G. W. M. Dunn, which contains the phrase "on laughter-silvered wings". Dunn wrote of "the lifting mind", another phrase that Magee used in "High Flight", and refers to "the shouting of the air", in comparison to Magee's line, "chased the shouting wind." Another line by Magee, "The high untrespassed sanctity of space", closely resembles "Across the unpierced sanctity of space", which appears in the anthology in the poem "Dominion over Air" (previously published in the RAF College Journal). Uses of the poem During April and May 1942, many Hollywood stars including Laurel and Hardy, Groucho Marx, Cary Grant, Bing Crosby, and Bob Hope joined the Hollywood Victory Caravan as it toured the United States on a mission to raise war bonds. Actress Merle Oberon recited "High Flight" as part of this show. During the performance on 30 April 1942, at the Loew's Capitol Theatre in Washington, D.C., and before her recitation of "High Flight", Oberon acknowledged the attendance of Magee's father, John Magee, and brother Christopher Magee. Orson Welles read the poem on an episode of The Radio Reader's Digest (11 October 1942), Command Performance (21 December 1943), and The Orson Welles Almanac (31 May 1944). "High Flight" has been a favourite poem amongst both aviators and astronauts. It is the official poem of the Royal Canadian Air Force and the Royal Air Force and has to be recited from memory by fourth class cadets at the United States Air Force Academy, where it can be seen on display in the Cadet Field House. Portions of the poem appear on many of the headstones in the Arlington National Cemetery, and it is inscribed in full on the back of the Space Shuttle Challenger Memorial. It is displayed on panels at the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa, the National Air Force Museum of Canada, in Trenton, Ontario. It is the subject of a permanent display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, in Dayton, Ohio. General Robert Lee Scott Jr. included it in his book God is My Co-Pilot. Astronaut Michael Collins brought an index card with the poem typed on it on his Gemini 10 flight and included the poem in his 1974 autobiography Carrying the Fire. Former NASA Flight Director Gene Kranz quoted the first line of the poem in his book Failure Is Not An Option. U.S. President Ronald Reagan used part of "High Flight" in a speech written by Peggy Noonan on the night after the Challenger disaster on 28 January 1986. At RAF Scampton in Lincolnshire, a memorial to Red Arrows pilots, Flight Lieutenants Jon Egging, killed on 20 August 2011, and Sean Cunningham, killed on 8 November 2011, bears an interpretation of the poem on a brass plaque atop a wooden plinth in front of a gate guardian aircraft outside the RAF Aerobatics Team hangar. The plaque reads "...they have slipped the surly bonds of Earth / Put out their hands and touched the face of God... / In memory of / Flt Lt Jon Egging – 20th August 2011 / Flt Lt Sean Cunningham – 8th November 2011". In her 1 September 2018, eulogy for her father, John McCain, Meghan McCain quoted the poem at the end of her tribute. "I know that on the afternoon of August 25th in front of Oak Creek in Cornville, Arizona, surrounded by the family he loved so much, an old man shook off the scars of battle one last time and arose a new man to pilot one last flight up and up and up, busting clouds left and right, straight on through to the kingdom of heaven. And he slipped the earthly bonds, put out his hand, and touched the face of God" Musical adaptations Miklós Rózsa composed the earliest known setting of "High Flight", for tenor voice, in 1942. It was later published as one of his Five Songs in 1974. Canadian composer and Royal Canadian Air Force veteran Robert J. B. Fleming wrote a through-composed musical setting of the poem for the Divine Services Book of the Canadian Armed Forces published in 1950. The composer Bill Pursell wrote his own arrangement with narration for the United States Air Force Band, which was broadcast on their radio show in the late 1940s. Several songs and symphonic compositions have been based on Magee's text, including Bob Chilcott's 2008 setting, premiered on 1 May 2008 by the King's Singers.The poem has been set to music by several composers, including by John Denver and Lee Holdridge as performed on the Bob Hope television show and is included in his 1983 album It's About Time and by Christopher Marshall, whose composition was commissioned for and premiered by The Orlando Chorale with saxophonist George Weremchuk (Orlando, Florida) in March 2009, under the direction of Gregory Ruffer. The first performance of a setting of words, known as "Even Such Is Time", from Fauré’s Requiem, plus additional non-liturgical texts that included "High Flight", was performed by the Nantwich Choral Society, conducted by John Naylor, on Saturday 26 March 2011, in St Mary's Church, Nantwich, Cheshire. The music was written by Andrew Mildinhall, the former organist at the church, who accompanied the performance with the Northern Concordia Orchestra. Singer Al Jarreau paid brief homage to "High Flight" by using the closing lines in the bridge of his 1983 song "Mornin'". Phill Driscoll, a trumpet player, Christian artist, and singer, has also performed the poem in song. In his rendition of the song, he alludes to being caught up to be with God. The American composer James Curnow was commissioned by the Graduates Association of Tenri High School Band in Nara, Japan to write a piece for concert band in honour of the 50th anniversary of its association. The piece is entitled Where Never Lark or Eagle Flew with the subtitle "Based on a poem by John Gillespie Magee Jr." In 2012, the Australian composer Daniel Walker was commissioned by North Sydney Boys High School to compose a piece for the school's centenary celebrations. This composition, 'Through Footless Halls of Air', which was written for choir and symphonic winds, features the poem in the lyrics. British composer Jonathan Dove included the poem in his 2009 oratorio There Was a Child, written as a memoriam to Robert Van Allen, who also died at the age of nineteen. It has also been set by British composer Nicholas Scott Burt as a short motet and dedicated to the choir of Rugby Parish Church. In 2011, Emmylou Harris, wrote and recorded a song, "Darlin' Kate", dedicated to her late friend, Kate McGarrigle, which included the lines, " As you slip the surly bonds of earth and sail away..." In 2014, Canadian composer Vince Gassi composed a piece for concert band entitled Chase The Shouting Wind. In 2015, the Hardcore DJ Nosferatu used the poem in his track "sanctity of space". Depictions in mass media Many U.S. television viewers were introduced to "High Flight" when several TV stations ended (and sometimes also began) their programming day with various short films containing it. The sign-off film occasionally seen on KPTV in Portland, Oregon and KCRA in Sacramento, California featured the spoken poem played to Air Force flying footage. Other examples of the use of the poem in television programs, films include: The popular comic strip Bloom County, which used the poem on 8 July 1984, to illuminate the Earth-bound frustrations of Opus, a flightless waterfowl. Featured in an episode of NBC's The Blacklist season 3 episode 6 "Sir Crispin Crandall" originally aired 5 November 2015 Featured in an episode of AMC's Mad Men season 2 episode 6 "Maidenform" originally aired 31 August 2008, where the poem is read on television during a scene featuring Pete Campbell. An episode of the UK archaeology documentary series Time Team that featured the excavation of a crashed Spitfire in France, when the poem was read during the end credits. The penultimate episode "Daybreak" of Battlestar Galactica, where the poem is paraphrased. The first and last lines quoted by President Ronald Reagan after the Challenger space shuttle disaster in January 1986. The 1990 made-for-television film, Challenger, that documented the events leading up to the Challenger space shuttle disaster concludes with the seven doomed astronauts reciting the poem in their thoughts as the shuttle is about to launch. The 1993 Mel Gibson movie The Man Without a Face, where the poem is recited by the character Chuck Norstadt, played by Nick Stahl. The 1993 Russell Crowe movie For the Moment, where the poem is recited by Crowe's character, Lachlan Curry. The 1989 science fiction adventure film Slipstream, which made frequent use of the poem, most notably by Mark Hamill and Bob Peck. The film Snow Walker, in which James Cromwell recites the poem. Pilot and composer Max Conrad's second LP of Flight Inspired Music, which features the poem on the cover. Scott O'Grady's book Return With Honor, which has a full transcript of the poem. One Small Step, a children's novel by Philip Kerr, reprints the poem in full before the Author's Note. President Bartlet recites the final portion of the poem ("...with outstretched fingers, we touched the face of God") in "The Crackpots and These Women", the fifth episode from Season 1 of The West Wing. A French translation of "High Flight" is told by Bernard Chabert in an episode of Pégase, a French TV documentary dedicated to the Spitfire. English independent filmmakers James Walker and John Wallace produced the documentary film High Flight in 2016, which takes its name from the poem, and documents Magee's story, the origin of the poem and the poem's place in the legacy of World War Two iconography, as well as the cultural impact of the era upon the "baby boomer" generation. The film is due for release and distribution in late 2016. In 2019, it was referenced during a speech of the opening episode of the sixth season of the TV series Madam Secretary. 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202749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraction	Contraction	Contraction may refer to: Linguistics Contraction (grammar), a shortened word Poetic contraction, omission of letters for poetic reasons Elision, omission of sounds Syncope (phonology), omission of sounds in a word Synalepha, merged syllables Synaeresis, combined vowels Crasis, merged vowels or diphthongs Mathematics and logic Contraction (operator theory), in operator theory, state of a bounded operator between normed vector spaces after suitable scaling Contraction hierarchies, in applied mathematics, a technique to speed up shortest-path routing Contraction mapping, a type of function on a metric space Edge contraction or vertex contraction, graph operations used in graph theory Tensor contraction, an operation on one or more tensors that arises from the natural pairing of a finite-dimensional vector space and its dual One of the rules of conditional independence, in probability Contraction (logic), a structural rule in proof theory Medicine Muscle contraction, the physiological condition of a muscle which generates tension (traction) at its origin and insertion Uterine contraction, contraction of the uterus, such as during childbirth Contractility, the intrinsic ability of the heart/myocardium to contract Wound contraction, a stage in wound healing Other uses Contraction (economics), a general slowdown in economic activity; the opposite of economic expansion Contraction (physics), change in the volume of matter in response to a change in temperature Lanthanide contraction, the decrease in size of the ionic radius of lanthanide elements with their growing atomic number Contracted (film), a 2013 horror thriller film by Eric England and its sequel Contracted: Phase II (2015) which directed by Josh Forbes See also Contract (disambiguation) Contraction principle (disambiguation)	[ -0.2214387208223343, 0.011557416059076786, -0.27345365285873413, -0.18339850008487701, -0.31687241792678833, 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202756	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%20ren%20zhuang	Mu ren zhuang	Mu ren zhuang (), also known as The Wing-Chun Dummy or simply The Wooden Dummy internationally. This athletic equipment is used in Chinese martial arts training from being associated with the martial art of Wing Chun and other kung fu styles of Southern China. Traditionally made from wood, the dummies are now also made from synthetic materials such as steel and plastic. In Wing Chun The Wing Chun wooden dummy is the most popular form of wooden dummy. A popular legend says it came about when 108 separate wooden dummies from the Shaolin Temple were combined into one by the nun Ng Mui to make training more efficient and effective. The Wing Chun wooden dummy uses an arm and leg configuration designed to cultivate fighting skill and chi simultaneously. The Hong Kong wooden dummy is a wall mounted version of the Wing Chun Wooden Dummy that hangs using two wooden slats through the body of the wooden dummy. Older versions of the Wing Chun wooden dummy were originally placed in the ground. The modern design was created by Ip Man in Hong Kong to fit the needs of living in an apartment. The Wing Chun version of the muk yan jong has three arms and one leg, which represents an opponent's body in various positions and the lines of force the body can give out. The wooden slats on which the muk yan jong is mounted has a springiness that is similar to a human opponent's involuntary reaction and allows the user to practice absorbing energy into his/her stance. Due to this springiness, this type of dummy is considered an "alive" dummy. Therefore, the older version of the dummy without mounting is commonly called a "dead" dummy. In Jeet Kune Do Bruce Lee, a student of Ip Man, had also made and modified a Wing Chun wooden dummy for his martial arts philosophy of Jeet Kune Do, which had a modified neck and a metal leg. Many of the principles of Wing Chun are central to Jeet Kune Do. In Choy Lee Fut Ching Jong Ching Jong (balanced dummy) has a different orientation to the arms more suited to Choy Lee Fut style's arm motions. In this version, the single top arm, protruding straight out from the front, moves up and down, anchored traditionally with a rope and heavy weight (the origin of the namesake) and anchored with a spring to the rear in modern times. Furthermore, the two middle arms now protrude outward in a "V", and also an additional lower arm that can be substitute with a traditional Wing Chun dummy's leg. Also, sandbags are mounted on the front and sides, which are struck for hand and finger conditioning, similar to makiwara. Sui Sau Jong The sui sau jong (breaking hand dummy) features a swinging arm around the shoulder level, hanging sandbags, as well as a rotor-like arm at the top, located at head height. The arms are coordinated so that striking the swinging arm causes the rotation of the helicopter arm, and vice versa. The main aim of this dummy is to train quick reactions for counterattacks. Ma Jong Unlike other dummies, the Ma Jong (horse dummy) is a moveable dummy. Others Other dummys used in Choy Lee Fut includes the qiang bao zhuang (墻包樁) (a wall mounted sand bag), sha bao zhuang (沙包樁) (a sand bag apparatus, with one main heavy sand bag connected to two other sand bags on its side through a pulley system), and other mechanical dummies. References External links Traditional Wing Chun Dummy Supplier Traditional wooden dummies from Koo Sang measures (Ip Man dummy maker and student) Wing Chun Wooden Dummy Buying Guide and Resource Lists Traditional Choy Li Fut (Cai Li Fo) Kung Fu Forms and Scripts (dummy forms at bottom) Wing Chun Teahouse - 2006 issue (Wayback Machine copy) Self made wooden dummy with plans Kung Fu Magazine's plans for making a dummy Spanish instructions for Ching Jong Wing Chun Dummy Construction Video Mudjong Brasil Wing Chun Martial arts equipment	[ 0.18296489119529724, 0.2763601541519165, -0.8705813884735107, -0.18071496486663818, -0.5208771228790283, 0.4213716387748718, 0.09813926368951797, -0.19792811572551727, -0.4221983253955841, -0.014695870690047741, -0.1061728447675705, -0.00902742799371481, 0.2527763545513153, 0.11613170057535172, -0.2454700618982315, 0.4268921911716461, 0.9263878464698792, 0.07150233536958694, 0.07193771749734879, -0.17174874246120453, -0.33352962136268616, 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202758	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20Personae	Sexual Personae	Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson is a 1990 work about sexual decadence in Western literature and the visual arts by scholar Camille Paglia, in which she addresses major artists and writers such as Donatello, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Edmund Spenser, William Shakespeare, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, Emily Brontë, and Oscar Wilde. Following Friedrich Nietzsche, Paglia argues that the primary conflict in Western culture is between the binary forces of the Apollonian and Dionysian, Apollo being associated with order and symmetry, and Dionysus with chaos, disorder, and nature. The book received critical reviews from numerous feminist scholars, but was praised by numerous literary critics. Background By Paglia's own account, the ancestor of Sexual Personae was a book on aviator Amelia Earhart that she began to write in high school. Paglia's discovery of Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex in 1963 inspired her to write a book larger in scope. Sexual Personae began to take shape in essays Paglia wrote in college between 1964 and 1968. The title was inspired by Ingmar Bergman's film Persona, which Paglia saw on its American release in 1968. The book was finished in 1981, but was rejected by seven major New York publishers before being released by Yale University Press in 1990. Paglia credits editor Ellen Graham with securing Yale's decision to publish the book. Sexual Personae's original preface was removed at the Yale editors' suggestion because of the book's extreme length, but was later published in Paglia's essay collection Sex, Art, and American Culture (1992). Paglia describes Sexual Personae's method as psychoanalytic and acknowledges a debt to Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Her other major influences were Sir James George Frazer's The Golden Bough (1890), Jane Harrison's Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903), Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West (1918), D. H. Lawrence's Women in Love (1920), Sándor Ferenczi's Thalassa (1924), the works of literary critics G. Wilson Knight and Harold Bloom, Erich Neumann's The Great Mother (1955) and The Origins and History of Consciousness (1949), Kenneth Clark's The Nude (1956), Gaston Bachelard's The Poetics of Space (1958), Norman O. Brown's Life Against Death (1959) and Love's Body (1966), and Leslie Fiedler's Love and Death in the American Novel (1960). Paglia also acknowledges astrology as an influence. Paglia said of the book, "It was intended to please no one and to offend everyone. The entire process of the book was to discover the repressed elements of contemporary culture, whatever they are, and palpate them. One of the main premises was to demonstrate that pornography is everywhere in major art. Art history as written is completely sex free, repressive and puritanical. I want precision and historical knowledge, but at the same time, I try to zap it with pornographic intensity." Summary Paglia seeks to demonstrate "the unity and continuity of western culture". Accepting the canonical Western tradition, she "rejects the modernist idea that culture has collapsed into meaningless fragments." Paglia argues that Christianity did not destroy paganism, which flourishes in art, eroticism, astrology, and popular culture. She examines antiquity, the Renaissance, and Romanticism from the late eighteenth century to 1900, contending that "Romanticism turns almost immediately into Decadence." She believes that the "amorality, aggression, sadism, voyeurism, and pornography in great art have been ignored or glossed over by most academic critics" and that sex and nature are "brutal pagan forces." She also stresses the truth in sexual stereotypes and the biological basis of sexual difference, noting that her stance is "sure to cause controversy." Paglia sees the mother as an overwhelming force who condemns men to lifelong sexual anxiety, from which they fleetingly escape through rationalism and physical achievement. Portraying Western culture as a struggle between phallic sky-religion on the one hand and chthonic earth-religion on the other, Paglia draws on the Greco-Roman polarity between the Apollonian and Dionysian. She associates Apollo with order, structure, and symmetry, and Dionysus with chaos, disorder, and nature. She analyzes literature and art on the premise that the primary conflict in Western culture has always been between these forces. In her view, the major patterns of continuity in Western culture originate in paganism. Other sources of continuity include androgyny, sadism, and the aggressive "western eye," which seeks to refine and dominate nature's ceaseless hostility and has created our art and cinema. Paglia criticizes feminists for sentimentality or wishful thinking about the causes of rape, violence, and poor relations between the sexes. The "sexual personae" of Paglia's title include the female vampire (Medusa, Lauren Bacall); the pythoness (the Delphic Oracle, Gracie Allen); the beautiful boy (Hadrian's Antinous, Dorian Gray); the epicene man of beauty (Byron, Elvis Presley); and the male heroine (the passive male sufferer; for example, the old men in William Wordsworth's poetry). Writers Paglia discusses include Spenser, Shakespeare, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the Marquis de Sade, Goethe, William Blake, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Honoré de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, Charles Baudelaire, Joris-Karl Huysmans, Brontë, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Walter Pater, Wilde, Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walt Whitman, Henry James, and Emily Dickinson. The works of literature Paglia analyzes include Spenser's The Faerie Queene, Shakespeare's As You Like It and Antony and Cleopatra, Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Byron's Don Juan, Brontë's Wuthering Heights, and Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest and The Picture of Dorian Gray. Works of art to which Paglia applies her analysis of the Western canon include the Venus of Willendorf, the Nefertiti Bust, Ancient Greek sculpture, Donatello's David, Botticelli's Birth of Venus and Primavera, da Vinci's Mona Lisa and The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. Paglia questions the sociologist Max Weber's definition of charisma, according to which it must be manifested in heroic deeds or miracles, writing that she sees charisma as "the numinous aura around a narcissistic personality" and "the radiance produced by the interaction of male and female elements in a gifted personality", rather than something dependent upon "acts or external effects." Publication history Sexual Personae was first published in hardcover by Yale University Press in 1990. It was published by Vintage Books in 1991. Reception Feminist responses Sexual Personae received critical reviews from numerous feminist scholars. Robin Ann Sheets wrote that Paglia "takes a profoundly anti-feminist stance." Molly Ivins wrote a critical review of Sexual Personae, accusing Paglia of historical inaccuracy, egocentrism, and writing in sweeping generalizations. Teresa Ebert denounced the book as "deeply misogynist and rancorous" in the Women's Review of Books, writing that Paglia uses a biological basis to "justify male domination, violence, and superiority in Western culture." English professor Sandra Gilbert described Sexual Personae as "markedly monomaniacal ... bloated, repetitious" and "awkwardly written," adding that it is "so 'essentialist' as to outbiologize even Freud." Gilbert accused Paglia of "vulgar homophobia" and said she deserved "moral contempt" and "loathes liberalism, egalitarianism, feminism, and Mother Nature." Martha Duffy wrote that the book had a "neoconservative cultural message" that was well-received, but rejected by many feminists. Beth Loffreda censured Paglia, writing, "She garners most of her publicity by loudly and nastily proclaiming everyone wrong on the sensitive issues of gender, sexuality and rape." She concluded, "Hers is a seductiveness of simple answers, of clear narratives, of motivations and actions traced solely to a biological origin—a place stripped of the complex ambiguities, the complex interactions of self, skin, group, and institutions that make up daily life." The critic Mary Rose Kasraie wrote, "Paglia gives no indication she has read any studies related to women, or recent studies about imagination, nature and culture" and had "terrible gaps in her coverage." Kasraie called the work "distractingly antischolarly" and "an unacademic wallow in Sadean sadomasochistic chthonian nature." Judy Simons criticized Paglia's "potentially sinister political agenda" and decried her "intellectual sleight of hand." Germaine Greer wrote that Paglia's insights into Sappho are "vivid and extremely perceptive", but also "unfortunately inconsistent and largely incompatible with each other". Professor Alison Booth called Sexual Personae an "anti-feminist cosmogony." Literary scholar Marianne Noble wrote that Paglia misread sadomasochism in Dickinson's poetry, that "Paglia's absolute belief in biological determinism leads her to pronouncements about female nature that are not only detestable but dangerous, because they routinely receive serious widespread attention in the contemporary culture at large", and that Paglia "derives appalling social conclusions." Maya Oppenheim of The Independent called Sexual Personae a "seminal feminist work." Paglia wrote in Free Women, Free Men (2017) that "academic and establishment feminists" made "vicious attacks" on the book, in most cases without reading it, and that these attacks will stand as "an indictment of the sorry process by which important political movements can undermine themselves through the blind insularity of their ruling coteries." Other responses The critic Helen Vendler gave Sexual Personae a negative review in The New York Review of Books, writing that while Paglia could be "enlightening and entertaining" when dealing with a subject congenial to her, she failed in her discussions of subjects that demanded more than appreciation of images and stories. In response to a letter of protest from Paglia, Vendler denied that Sexual Personae contained poetry criticism. The critic Terry Teachout, in The New York Times, called Sexual Personae flawed but "every bit as intellectually stimulating as it is exasperating". The novelist Anthony Burgess called Sexual Personae a "fine, disturbing book. It seeks to attack the reader's emotions as well as his/her prejudices. It is very learned. Each sentence jabs like a needle." Harold Bloom wrote, "Sexual Personae will be an enormous sensation of a book, in all of the better senses of ’sensation.’ There is no book comparable in scope, stance, design, or insight. It compels us to rethink the question of the literary representation of human sexuality." In The American Religion (1992), Bloom called it a "masterwork" and credited Paglia with a "shrewd and alarming sexual definition of charisma", though he also wrote that its "powerful sexual reductiveness ... necessarily produces distortions when applied to the personality of any prophet whosoever." Valerie Steele wrote, "Paglia has been attacked as an academic conservative, in league with Allan Bloom and other defenders of the 'Western canon,' but no conservative would be so explicitly approving of pornography, homosexuality, and rock-and-roll." The literature professor Robert Alter wrote in Arion, "[O]n purely stylistic grounds, this is one of the few thoroughly enjoyable works of criticism written in the American language in the last couple of decades." He called the book "immensely ambitious, vastly erudite, feisty, often outrageous, and sometimes dazzlingly brilliant." Pat Righelato concluded, "Camille Paglia's syncretic theoretical enterprise invoking Frazer, Freud, Nietzsche, and Bloom, from anthropology to influence theory and psychobiography, is an immense tour de force." Gerald Gillespie called Sexual Personae "vigorous and capacious," and wrote of Paglia, "Her passion for her subject matter [...] radiates as a beacon of hope for the survival of the Western heritage beyond the current Babylonian captivity of the American academy." Christina Hoff Sommers wrote in Who Stole Feminism? (1994) that Sexual Personae should have led to Paglia being "acknowledged as an outstanding woman scholar even by those who take strong exception to her unfashionable views", and criticized the Women's Review of Books for calling the book "crackpot extremism" and feminist professors at Connecticut College for comparing it to Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf. The classical scholar Bruce Thornton called it "wild and brilliant", adding, "Even when she's wrong, Paglia is more interesting than any dozen poststructuralist clerks." The novelist John Updike wrote that Sexual Personae "feels less a survey than a curiously ornate harangue. Her percussive style—one short declarative sentence after another—eventually wearies the reader; her diction functions not so much to elicit the secrets of books as to hammer them into submission... The weary reader longs for the mercy of a qualification, a doubt, a hesitation; there is little sense, in her uncompanionable prose, of exploration occurring before our eyes, of tentative motions of thought reflected in a complex syntax." The jurist Richard Posner called Sexual Personae "an insightful book, written in a lively manner, though opinionated, uneven, and often difficult to follow", and compared it to Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind (1987), writing that they are both examples of "difficult academic works that mysteriously strike a chord with a broad public." The anthropologist Melvin Konner wrote that Sexual Personae is "a powerful account of gender as depicted in Western art and literature." In 2013, the singer David Bowie listed Sexual Personae among his 100 favorite books. See also The Birth of Tragedy References 1990 non-fiction books American non-fiction books Androgyny Art history books Books about visual art Books by Camille Paglia Books of literary criticism Criticism of feminism Emily Dickinson English-language books Feminism and sexuality Nefertiti Non-fiction books about sexuality Yale University Press books	[ 0.08741047233343124, -0.1770317554473877, -0.5487028956413269, -0.06492548435926437, -0.30965909361839294, 0.516477644443512, 0.1253403127193451, 0.19511283934116364, 0.1583319902420044, 0.009656725451350212, -0.4546414315700531, 0.397025465965271, 0.04442985728383064, 0.40158480405807495, 0.19685377180576324, 0.39110392332077026, 0.49103739857673645, -0.2794990539550781, -0.09196840226650238, -0.08272018283605576, -0.06008848547935486, -0.16602307558059692, 0.4230335056781769, -0.2885395288467407, 0.045252475887537, -0.44946572184562683, 0.38876837491989136, -0.37975504994392395, -0.21193596720695496, 0.1510905623435974, 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202763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runge%27s%20phenomenon	Runge's phenomenon	In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, Runge's phenomenon () is a problem of oscillation at the edges of an interval that occurs when using polynomial interpolation with polynomials of high degree over a set of equispaced interpolation points. It was discovered by Carl David Tolmé Runge (1901) when exploring the behavior of errors when using polynomial interpolation to approximate certain functions. The discovery was important because it shows that going to higher degrees does not always improve accuracy. The phenomenon is similar to the Gibbs phenomenon in Fourier series approximations. Introduction The Weierstrass approximation theorem states that for every continuous function f(x) defined on an interval [a,b], there exists a set of polynomial functions Pn(x) for n=0, 1, 2, …, each of degree at most n, that approximates f(x) with uniform convergence over [a,b] as n tends to infinity, that is, Consider the case where one desires to interpolate through n+1 equispaced points of a function f(x) using the n-degree polynomial Pn(x) that passes through those points. Naturally, one might expect from Weierstrass' theorem that using more points would lead to a more accurate reconstruction of f(x). However, this particular set of polynomial functions Pn(x) is not guaranteed to have the property of uniform convergence; the theorem only states that a set of polynomial functions exists, without providing a general method of finding one. The Pn(x) produced in this manner may in fact diverge away from f(x) as n increases; this typically occurs in an oscillating pattern that magnifies near the ends of the interpolation points. This phenomenon is attributed to Runge. Problem Consider the Runge function (a scaled version of the Witch of Agnesi). Runge found that if this function is interpolated at equidistant points xi between −1 and 1 such that: with a polynomial Pn(x) of degree ≤ n, the resulting interpolation oscillates toward the end of the interval, i.e. close to −1 and 1. It can even be proven that the interpolation error increases (without bound) when the degree of the polynomial is increased: This shows that high-degree polynomial interpolation at equidistant points can be troublesome. Reason Runge's phenomenon is the consequence of two properties of this problem. The magnitude of the n-th order derivatives of this particular function grows quickly when n increases. The equidistance between points leads to a Lebesgue constant that increases quickly when n increases. The phenomenon is graphically obvious because both properties combine to increase the magnitude of the oscillations. The error between the generating function and the interpolating polynomial of order n is given by for some in (−1, 1). Thus, . Denote by the nodal function and let be the maximum of the magnitude of the function: . It is elementary to prove that with equidistant nodes where is the step size. Moreover, assume that the (n+1)-th derivative of is bounded, i.e. . Therefore, . But the magnitude of the (n+1)-th derivative of Runge's function increases when n increases, since . The consequence is that the resulting upper bound, , tends to infinity when n tends to infinity. Although often used to explain the Runge phenomenon, the fact that the upper bound of the error goes to infinity does not necessarily imply, of course, that the error itself also diverges with n. Mitigations Change of interpolation points The oscillation can be minimized by using nodes that are distributed more densely towards the edges of the interval, specifically, with asymptotic density (on the interval [−1,1]) given by the formula . A standard example of such a set of nodes is Chebyshev nodes, for which the maximum error in approximating the Runge function is guaranteed to diminish with increasing polynomial order. S-Runge algorithm without resampling When equidistant samples must be used because resampling on well-behaved sets of nodes is not feasible, the S-Runge algorithm can be considered. In this approach, the original set of nodes is mapped on the set of Chebyshev nodes, providing a stable polynomial reconstruction. The peculiarity of this method is that there is no need of resampling at the mapped nodes, which are also called fake nodes. A Python implementation of this procedure can be found here. Use of piecewise polynomials The problem can be avoided by using spline curves which are piecewise polynomials. When trying to decrease the interpolation error one can increase the number of polynomial pieces which are used to construct the spline instead of increasing the degree of the polynomials used. Constrained minimization One can also fit a polynomial of higher degree (for instance, with points use a polynomial of order instead of ), and fit an interpolating polynomial whose first (or second) derivative has minimal norm. A similar approach is to minimize a constrained version of the distance between the polynomial's derivative and the mean value of its derivative. Explicitly, to minimize where and , with respect to the polynomial coefficients and the Lagrange multipliers, . When , the constraint equations generated by the Lagrange multipliers reduce to the minimum polynomial that passes through all points. At the opposite end, will approach a form very similar to a piecewise polynomials approximation. When , in particular, approaches the linear piecewise polynomials, i.e. connecting the interpolation points with straight lines. The role played by in the process of minimizing is to control the importance of the size of the fluctuations away from the mean value. The larger is, the more large fluctuations are penalized compared to small ones. The greatest advantage of the Euclidean norm, , is that it allows for analytic solutions and it guarantees that will only have a single minimum. When there can be multiple minima in , making it difficult to ensure that a particular minimum found will be the global minimum instead of a local one. Least squares fitting Another method is fitting a polynomial of lower degree using the method of least squares. Generally, when using equidistant points, if then least squares approximation is well-conditioned. Bernstein polynomial Using Bernstein polynomials, one can uniformly approximate every continuous function in a closed interval, although this method is rather computationally expensive. External Fake Constraints Interpolation This method proposes to optimally stack a dense distribution of constraints of the type P"(x)=0 on nodes positioned externally near the endpoints of each side of the interpolation interval, where P"(x) is the second derivative of the interpolation polynomial. Those constraints are called External Fake Constraints as they do not belong to the interpolation interval and they do not match the behaviour of the Runge function. The method has demonstrated that it has a better interpolation performance than Piecewise polynomials (splines) to mitigate the Runge Phenomenon. Related statements from the approximation theory For every predefined table of interpolation nodes there is a continuous function for which the sequence of interpolation polynomials on those nodes diverges. For every continuous function there is a table of nodes on which the interpolation process converges. Chebyshev interpolation (i.e., on Chebyshev nodes) converges uniformly for every absolutely continuous function. See also Compare with the Gibbs phenomenon for sinusoidal basis functions Taylor series Chebyshev nodes Schwarz lantern, another example of failure of convergence Stone–Weierstrass theorem References Interpolation Continuous mappings Numerical artefacts de:Polynominterpolation#Runges Phänomen	[ -0.3924402892589569, -0.5100990533828735, 0.41201719641685486, -0.1670394390821457, -0.30104535818099976, -0.026956947520375252, 0.39784881472587585, -0.48257848620414734, -0.37456780672073364, -0.2375245839357376, -0.16714541614055634, -0.003963650204241276, -0.3187119960784912, 0.773235559463501, 0.2639835476875305, 0.31574153900146484, 0.4390439987182617, 0.1057509183883667, -0.1886647492647171, -0.7487781643867493, 0.4150909185409546, 0.06555713713169098, 0.22221516072750092, -0.27690768241882324, -0.32286331057548523, -0.23046593368053436, -0.05391039699316025, 0.11297611892223358, -0.02293122000992298, 0.03440435603260994, -0.23521263897418976, 0.9101992249488831, 0.08292677998542786, 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202765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Picture%20Exchange	Digital Picture Exchange	Digital Picture Exchange (DPX) is a common file format for digital intermediate and visual effects work and is a SMPTE standard (ST 268-1:2014). The file format is most commonly used to represent the density of each colour channel of a scanned negative film in an uncompressed "logarithmic" image where the gamma of the original camera negative is preserved as taken by a film scanner. For this reason, DPX is the worldwide-chosen format for still frames storage in most digital intermediate post-production facilities and film labs. Other common video formats are supported as well (see below), from video to purely digital ones, making DPX a file format suitable for almost any raster digital imaging applications. DPX provides, in fact, a great deal of flexibility in storing colour information, colour spaces and colour planes for exchange between production facilities. Multiple forms of packing and alignment are possible. The DPX specification allows for a wide variety of metadata to further clarify information stored (and storable) within each file. The DPX file format was originally derived from the Kodak Cineon open file format (.cin file extension) used for digital images generated by Kodak's original film scanner. The original DPX (version 1.0) specifications are part of SMPTE 268M-1994. The specification was later improved and published by SMPTE as ANSI/SMPTE 268M-2003. Academy Density Exchange (ADX) support for the Academy Color Encoding System are added in the current version of the standard SMPTE ST 268-1:2014. Extensions for high-dynamic-range video and wide color gamut are standardized in SMPTE ST 268-2:2018. Metadata and standard flexibility SMPTE specifications dictate a mild number of compulsory metadata, like image resolution, color space details (channel depth, colorimetric metric, etc.), number of planes/subimages, as well as original filename and creation date/time, creator's name, project name, copyright information, and so on. Furthermore, a couple of industry-specific metadata areas are present: Motion-Picture and Television ones. They are either used only if the picture has enough embedded information relevant to that specific industry, otherwise are left "empty". For example, Motion-Picture-specific metadata includes perforation-exact film KeyKode (if the image comes from a film scan), camera shutter angle, slate information and frame positioning within a frame sequence. On the other side, Television metadata includes full SMPTE time code, video overscan and field information, and signal/colour level information. A third, variable-size metadata area, which is user-definable, exists. Third-party applications/software occasionally use this area to store additional information; for example, when the DPX stores images with technical specifications far away from the original standard (like pictures coded in the CIE XYZ color space, or Bayer-patterned raw frames from specific digital cameras like the Arriflex D-21). SMPTE ST 268-2:2018 defines a standards-based metadata section that supports Extensible Metadata Platform, XML, and KLV metadata representations. Support XnView can read FFmpeg pix_fmt=abgr DPX images. ImageMagick supports DPX. The C++ source of a DPX library is available. DjV, and vooya support DPX sequences. See also Comparison of graphics file formats Digital film Digital intermediate Display resolution Film-out Film recorder MXF, Material Exchange Format Post production Telecine References Graphics file formats SMPTE standards	[ 0.6452481746673584, 0.10525132715702057, 0.5694664120674133, 0.452932208776474, 0.054838523268699646, -0.07810696959495544, -0.727127194404602, -0.09895863384008408, -0.17780625820159912, -0.44052302837371826, -0.7708321809768677, 0.1489088535308838, -0.04967604950070381, 0.2191973775625229, 0.1057484820485115, -0.02200024574995041, 0.28514912724494934, 0.2337244600057602, 0.12397436052560806, -0.549125611782074, -0.3441464304924011, -0.2886490225791931, -0.17933984100818634, -0.5907323956489563, -0.5214658975601196, -0.08357914537191391, -0.0518156997859478, 0.35637521743774414, -0.11152032017707825, -0.13891132175922394, 0.6300791501998901, -0.031035376712679863, -0.14310459792613983, -0.0715814158320427, -0.16640567779541016, -0.004445813596248627, 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202769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Cleveland	USS Cleveland	USS Cleveland may refer to: , a protected cruiser commissioned in 1903 and scrapped in 1930 , a light cruiser commissioned in 1942 and active in World War II , amphibious transport dock commissioned in 1967 and decommissioned in 2011 , a new littoral combat ship, the building of which was announced on 8 October 2018. See also United States Navy ship names	[ -0.32159072160720825, -0.17977221310138702, 0.2671395540237427, 0.10987076908349991, -0.09468457847833633, 0.7260987758636475, -0.01124371588230133, -0.08797914534807205, -0.6336683034896851, -0.33155032992362976, -0.017735488712787628, 0.22135592997074127, -0.10169590264558792, 0.7853651642799377, 0.2734389901161194, 0.4428156614303589, 0.420025110244751, 0.7646737694740295, -0.47018563747406006, -0.07377302646636963, -0.2636847198009491, 0.09883454442024231, 0.5492557287216187, -0.052704498171806335, 0.34127628803253174, -0.14698590338230133, 0.12428919970989227, 0.013685631565749645, 0.41960248351097107, 1.039075255393982, 0.44207680225372314, -0.1134394034743309, -0.04088398069143295, 0.2204045206308365, 0.040047191083431244, -0.13449423015117645, -0.38959401845932007, -0.3267190754413605, -0.019526099786162376, -0.10650648921728134, -0.656351625919342, 0.3112352788448334, 0.28690263628959656, 0.42770934104919434, -0.1318492591381073, 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202770	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sade	Sade	Sade may refer to: People Sade (singer) (born 1959, Helen Folasade Adu), British Nigerian musician and lead singer of the eponymous band Sade Baderinwa (born 1969), WABC-TV Eyewitness News correspondent and anchor Marquis de Sade (1740–1814), French aristocrat, writer, and libertine Arts, entertainment, and media Films Sade (film) (2000), a French film starring Daniel Auteuil as the Marquis de Sade Music Sade (band), a British smooth jazz band headed by the singer Sade "Sade", a song from the album Duotones (1986) by Kenny G, composed as a tribute to the band Sade "Sade", a single from the album Gold (2016) by Adekunle Gold Other uses Sade, Solapur district, a village in Maharashtra, India Sadeh (disambiguation) Tsadi, a letter in several Semitic languages Società Adriatica di Elettricità, bought by Montedison in the 1960s.	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202772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed%20tensor	Mixed tensor	In tensor analysis, a mixed tensor is a tensor which is neither strictly covariant nor strictly contravariant; at least one of the indices of a mixed tensor will be a subscript (covariant) and at least one of the indices will be a superscript (contravariant). A mixed tensor of type or valence , also written "type (M, N)", with both M > 0 and N > 0, is a tensor which has M contravariant indices and N covariant indices. Such a tensor can be defined as a linear function which maps an (M + N)-tuple of M one-forms and N vectors to a scalar. Changing the tensor type Consider the following octet of related tensors: . The first one is covariant, the last one contravariant, and the remaining ones mixed. Notationally, these tensors differ from each other by the covariance/contravariance of their indices. A given contravariant index of a tensor can be lowered using the metric tensor gμν, and a given covariant index can be raised using the inverse metric tensor gμν. Thus, gμν could be called the index lowering operator and gμν the index raising operator. Generally, the covariant metric tensor, contracted with a tensor of type (M, N), yields a tensor of type (M − 1, N + 1), whereas its contravariant inverse, contracted with a tensor of type (M, N), yields a tensor of type (M + 1, N − 1). Examples As an example, a mixed tensor of type (1, 2) can be obtained by raising an index of a covariant tensor of type (0, 3), , where is the same tensor as , because , with Kronecker δ acting here like an identity matrix. Likewise, Raising an index of the metric tensor is equivalent to contracting it with its inverse, yielding the Kronecker delta, , so any mixed version of the metric tensor will be equal to the Kronecker delta, which will also be mixed. See also Covariance and contravariance of vectors Einstein notation Ricci calculus Tensor (intrinsic definition) Two-point tensor References External links Index Gymnastics, Wolfram Alpha Tensors	[ -0.2250441163778305, -0.07242104411125183, 0.003907870501279831, -0.014441014267504215, -0.7427054047584534, 0.191545769572258, -0.030655041337013245, 0.038137033581733704, -0.10082412511110306, -0.5677053928375244, -0.3931531310081482, 0.3002014458179474, -0.6681680083274841, 0.2834516167640686, 0.1231466755270958, 0.6157082319259644, 0.4632500112056732, 0.31975239515304565, -0.1555270105600357, -0.44728225469589233, 0.347890704870224, 0.03962258994579315, -0.08432777225971222, -0.12469562888145447, -0.11344927549362183, -0.02019360288977623, 0.1765175461769104, 0.3224716782569885, 0.11065740138292313, 0.21027666330337524, 0.24003051221370697, 1.0246813297271729, -0.1596282571554184, 0.15558300912380219, -0.22864630818367004, 0.15194499492645264, 0.3358776569366455, 0.07100707292556763, 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202775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n%20Villeda%20Morales	Ramón Villeda Morales	José Ramón Adolfo Villeda Morales (November 26, 1909 – October 8, 1971) served as President of Honduras from 1957 to 1963. He was also known by the nickname, "Pajarito". Biography Trained as a physician, his specialty was pediatrics. Villeda Morales was a liberal who supported the democratization of Honduras after a long period of military rule. He was the Liberal Party candidate in the 1954 presidential election, the first free election for over two decades, winning a plurality over a divided National Party but falling short of a majority. The deadlock led to a coup by Vice-President Julio Lozano Díaz. Following the military junta of 1955, he was in 1957 chosen by the country's constituent assembly to serve as president and oversee the transition to democracy. Villeda Morales immediately embarked on a campaign which he believed would help the poorer elements of society, introducing welfare benefits and enacting a new labor code that favored the country's large working class population (working on the theory that regulations, rather than the market, can improve, rather than undermine, long-term conditions of work). While these steps were popular with the masses, they enraged the traditional holders of power in Honduras: the military and the upper classes. When it seemed likely that the Liberal Party candidate, Modesto Rodas Alvarado, would win the 1963 election with an even stronger mandate to enact social reforms, the military responded with a coup, just ten days before the election was scheduled to take place. Ramón Villeda Morales and his wife, Alejandrina, had six sons: twins Ramon and Ruben, Alejandro, Mauricio, Leonardo, and Juan Carlos. Ramon Villeda Morales died on November 26, 1971, in New York City, where he was serving as the Honduran Ambassador to the UN. His widow, former First Lady of Honduras , died in November 2012, aged 95. Legacy Villeda Morales helped modernize Honduras, and to create its public health, public education, and social security systems. He was a key supporter of the Alliance for Progress. San Pedro Sula International Airport is named after him. His son Mauricio Villeda Bermúdez is a leader of the Liberal Party and was a candidate for the presidency in the 2013 elections. See also History of Honduras References External links 1909 births 1971 deaths People from Ocotepeque Department Liberal Party of Honduras politicians Presidents of Honduras Leaders ousted by a coup Honduran pediatricians	[ -0.0640692263841629, 0.21198703348636627, 0.05570019409060478, 0.33735233545303345, -0.4806336462497711, 0.2303590476512909, 0.1303967833518982, 0.55606609582901, -0.05791196972131729, -0.31530627608299255, 0.1362999975681305, 0.7296451330184937, 0.010195313952863216, 0.46313172578811646, -0.44922515749931335, 0.7006855010986328, 0.06239181011915207, 0.4770633280277252, -0.8358554840087891, -0.15070684254169464, -0.45311233401298523, -0.19436675310134888, 0.07898098975419998, 0.3502805531024933, 0.5240156650543213, 0.24919871985912323, -0.07118178904056549, 0.13628602027893066, -0.3099122941493988, 0.06931275129318237, 0.6266987919807434, -0.49529778957366943, 0.9331374168395996, 0.08633413910865784, -0.5276870131492615, -0.08559819310903549, 0.12794816493988037, 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202776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Cleveland%20%28C-19%29	USS Cleveland (C-19)	USS Cleveland (C-19/PG-33/CL-21) was a United States Navy Denver-class protected cruiser. Construction She was launched 28 September 1901 by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, sponsored by "Miss R. Hanna" (probably Ruth Hanna McCormick), and commissioned 2 November 1903, with Commander William Henry Hudson Southerland in command. Service history The Cleveland cruised with the European Squadron, in West Indies and Cuban waters, along the east coast between Hampton Roads and Boston, and on a midshipmen training cruise until 17 May 1907. She then sailed from New York via Gibraltar, Port Said, Aden, Colombo and Singapore to Cavite, arriving 1 August 1907. After three years on the Asiatic station, the Cleveland returned to Mare Island Navy Yard 1 August 1910. Decommissioned 3 August 1910, she was placed in second reserve 8 April 1912, and returned to full commission 31 August 1912. The Cleveland alternated patrols in waters off Mexico and Central America with reserve periods at Mare Island Navy Yard between 1912 and 1917, protecting American lives and interests from the turmoil of revolution. On 31 March 1917, she arrived at Hampton Roads, and from 9 April to 22 June, patrolled from Cape Hatteras to Charleston. Assigned to escort convoys to a mid-ocean meeting point, the Cleveland made seven voyages between June 1917 and December 1918. Returning to patrols off Central and South America, the Cleveland was assigned to the Pacific Fleet once more from 16 February 1920, returning to Caribbean waters from time to time. She was reclassified CL-21 on 8 August 1921. During her continued service in the Caribbean and along the South American coasts, the Cleveland made courtesy calls, supported diplomatic activities, gave disaster relief, and represented American interests in troubled areas. She was decommissioned at Boston 1 November 1929, and sold for scrapping 7 March 1930 in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty limiting naval armament. References Bibliography External links Protected cruisers of the United States Navy Denver-class cruisers Ships built in Bath, Maine 1901 ships Banana Wars ships of the United States World War I cruisers of the United States United States Navy Ohio-related ships	[ -0.5455368757247925, -0.34274008870124817, 0.25116974115371704, 0.5244326591491699, 0.12688907980918884, 0.19735275208950043, 0.05890800058841705, -0.37065184116363525, -0.6614020466804504, 0.09804551303386688, 0.2145850658416748, 0.6288082003593445, -0.5828810930252075, 0.09452546387910843, 0.36912187933921814, -0.12408707290887833, 0.2676032781600952, 0.7265655398368835, -0.19940514862537384, -0.4604339897632599, -0.4364282786846161, -0.2289942353963852, 0.14182603359222412, 0.16497357189655304, -0.22772471606731415, 0.39708858728408813, 0.3410261273384094, 0.30385416746139526, 0.6127594709396362, 0.24280835688114166, 0.06634607166051865, 0.7735632061958313, 0.09187956154346466, -0.11656203120946884, -0.20891015231609344, 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202777	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Birth%20of%20Tragedy	The Birth of Tragedy	The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music () is an 1872 work of dramatic theory by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It was reissued in 1886 as The Birth of Tragedy, Or: Hellenism and Pessimism (). The later edition contained a prefatory essay, "An Attempt at Self-Criticism", wherein Nietzsche commented on this earliest book. The book Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form that transcended the pessimism and nihilism of a fundamentally meaningless world. The Greek spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering and affirming it, passionately and joyously affirmed the meaning of their own existence. They knew themselves to be infinitely more than petty individuals, finding self-affirmation not in another life, not in a world to come, but in the terror and ecstasy alike celebrated in the performance of tragedies. Originally educated as a philologist, Nietzsche discusses the history of the tragic form and introduces an intellectual dichotomy between the Dionysian and the Apollonian (very loosely: reality as disordered and undifferentiated by forms versus reality as ordered and differentiated by forms). Nietzsche claims life always involves a struggle between these two elements, each battling for control over the existence of humanity. In Nietzsche's words, "Wherever the Dionysian prevailed, the Apollonian was checked and destroyed.... wherever the first Dionysian onslaught was successfully withstood, the authority and majesty of the Delphic god Apollo exhibited itself as more rigid and menacing than ever." And yet neither side ever prevails due to each containing the other in an eternal, natural check or balance. Nietzsche argues that the tragedy of Ancient Greece was the highest form of art due to its mixture of both Apollonian and Dionysian elements into one seamless whole, allowing the spectator to experience the full spectrum of the human condition. The Dionysian element was to be found in the music of the chorus, while the Apollonian element was found in the dialogue which gave a concrete symbolism that balanced the Dionysian revelry. Basically, the Apollonian spirit was able to give form to the abstract Dionysian. Before the tragedy, there was an era of static, idealized plastic art in the form of sculpture that represented the Apollonian view of the world. The Dionysian element was to be found in the wild revelry of festivals and drunkenness, but, most importantly, in music. The combination of these elements in one art form gave birth to tragedy. He theorizes that the chorus was originally always satyrs, goat-men. (This is speculative, although the word “tragedy” τραγωδία is contracted from trag(o)-aoidiā = "goat song" from tragos = "goat" and aeidein = "to sing".) Thus, he argues, “the illusion of culture was wiped away by the primordial image of man” for the audience; they participated with and as the chorus empathetically, “so that they imagined themselves as restored natural geniuses, as satyrs.” But in this state, they have an Apollonian dream vision of themselves, of the energy they're embodying. It's a vision of the god, of Dionysus, who appears before the chorus on the stage. And the actors and the plot are the development of that dream vision, the essence of which is the ecstatic dismembering of the god and of the Bacchantes' rituals, of the inseparable ecstasy and suffering of human existence. After the time of Aeschylus and Sophocles, there was an age where tragedy died. Nietzsche ties this to the influence of writers like Euripides and the coming of rationality, represented by Socrates. Euripides reduced the use of the chorus and was more naturalistic in his representation of human drama, making it more reflective of the realities of daily life. Socrates emphasized reason to such a degree that he diffused the value of myth and suffering to human knowledge. For Nietzsche, these two intellectuals helped drain the ability of the individual to participate in forms of art, because they saw things too soberly and rationally. The participation mystique aspect of art and myth was lost, and along with it, much of man's ability to live creatively in optimistic harmony with the sufferings of life. Nietzsche concludes that it may be possible to reattain the balance of Dionysian and Apollonian in modern art through the operas of Richard Wagner, in a rebirth of tragedy. In contrast to the typical Enlightenment view of ancient Greek culture as noble, simple, elegant and grandiose, Nietzsche believed the Greeks were grappling with pessimism. The universe in which we live is the product of great interacting forces; but we neither observe nor know these as such. What we put together as our conceptions of the world, Nietzsche thought, never actually addresses the underlying realities. It is human destiny to be controlled by the darkest universal realities and, at the same time, to live life in a human-dreamt world of illusions. The issue, then, or so Nietzsche thought, is how to experience and understand the Dionysian side of life without destroying the obvious values of the Apollonian side. It is not healthy for an individual, or for a whole society, to become entirely absorbed in the rule of one or the other. The soundest (healthiest) foothold is in both. Nietzsche's theory of Athenian tragic drama suggests exactly how, before Euripides and Socrates, the Dionysian and Apollonian elements of life were artistically woven together. The Greek spectator became healthy through direct experience of the Dionysian within the protective spirit-of-tragedy on the Apollonian stage. History In January and February 1870, Nietzsche delivered two lectures about ancient Greek drama. After receiving copies of the lectures, his friends Richard and Cosima Wagner suggested that he write a book about the subject. In April 1871, he submitted a manuscript to publisher Wilhelm Engelmann. When Englemann was unresponsive, Nietzsche asked for the return of the manuscript in June. He had a portion of the book privately printed under the title Socrates and Greek Tragedy () and sent to friends. Richard Wagner received the first copy on 18 June. In October 1871, Nietzsche submitted a revised manuscript to E. W. Fritzsch, who had published works by Wagner. Fritzsch accepted the book in November. Printing was completed at the end of December, and the book, now titled The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music (), reached bookstores on 2 January 1872. A second edition was printed by Fritzsch in 1874, but due to the publisher's financial problems, it was not bound until 1875 and had little circulation. In 1878, the remaining copies and publication rights for the first two editions were acquired by Nietzsche's new publisher, Ernst Schmeitzner. By 1886, Nietzsche had fallen out with Schmeitzner, and Fritzsch had recovered from his financial difficulties. Fritzsch published a new edition in October 1886, retitled The Birth of Tragedy, Or: Hellenism and Pessimism (), with an added prefatory essay by Nietzsche called "An Attempt at Self-Criticism", commenting on the earlier editions. Influences The Birth of Tragedy is a young man's work, and shows the influence of many of the philosophers Nietzsche had been studying. His interest in classical Greece as in some respects a rational society can be attributed in some measure to the influence of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, although Nietzsche departed from Winckelmann in many ways. In addition, Nietzsche uses the term "naïve" in exactly the sense used by Friedrich Schiller. Of great importance are the works of Arthur Schopenhauer, especially The World as Will and Representation. The Apollonian experience bears great similarity to the experience of the world as "representation" in Schopenhauer's sense, and the experience of the Dionysian bears similarities to the identification with the world as "will." Nietzsche opposed Schopenhauer's Buddhistic negation of the will. He argued that life is worth living despite the enormous amount of cruelty and suffering that exists. One year before the publication of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche wrote a fragment titled On Music and Words. In it he asserted the Schopenhauerian judgment that music is a primary expression of the essence of everything. Secondarily derivative are lyrical poetry and drama, which represent mere phenomenal appearances of objects. In this way, tragedy is born from music. Reception The Birth of Tragedy was angrily criticized by many respected professional scholars of Greek literature. Particularly vehement was philologist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who denounced Nietzsche's work as slipshod and misleading. Prompted by Nietzsche, Erwin Rohde—a friend who had written a favorable review that sparked the first derogatory debate over the book—responded by exposing Wilamowitz-Moellendorf's inaccurate citations of Nietzsche's work. Richard Wagner also issued a response to Wilamowitz-Moellendorf's critique, but his action only served to characterize Nietzsche as the composer's lackey. In his denunciation of The Birth of Tragedy, Wilamowitz says: Herr N. ... is also a professor of classical philology; he treats a series of very important questions of Greek literary history. ... This is what I want to illuminate, and it is easy to prove that here also imaginary genius and impudence in the presentation of his claims stands in direct relation to his ignorance and lack of love of the truth. ... His solution is to belittle the historical-critical method, to scold any aesthetic insight which deviates from his own, and to ascribe a "complete misunderstanding of the study of antiquity" to the age in which philology in Germany, especially through the work of Gottfried Hermann and Karl Lachmann, was raised to an unprecedented height. In suggesting the Greeks might have had problems, Nietzsche was departing from the scholarly traditions of his age, which viewed the Greeks as a happy, perhaps even naive, and simple people. The work is a web of professional philology, philosophical insight, and admiration of musical art. As a work in philology, it was almost immediately rejected, virtually destroying Nietzsche's academic aspirations. The music theme was so closely associated with Richard Wagner that it became an embarrassment to Nietzsche once he himself had achieved some distance and independence from Wagner. It stands, then, as Nietzsche's first complete, published philosophical work, one in which a battery of questions are asked, sketchily identified, and questionably answered. Marianne Cowan, in her introduction to Nietzsche's Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, describes the situation in these words: The Birth of Tragedy presented a view of the Greeks so alien to the spirit of the time and to the ideals of its scholarship that it blighted Nietzsche's entire academic career. It provoked pamphlets and counter-pamphlets attacking him on the grounds of common sense, scholarship and sanity. For a time, Nietzsche, then a professor of classical philology at the University of Basel, had no students in his field. His lectures were sabotaged by German philosophy professors who advised their students not to show up for Nietzsche's courses. By 1886, Nietzsche himself had reservations about the work, and he published a preface in the 1886 edition where he re-evaluated some of his main concerns and ideas in the text. In this post-script, Nietzsche referred to The Birth of Tragedy as "an impossible book... badly written, ponderous, embarrassing, image-mad and image-confused, sentimental, saccharine to the point of effeminacy, uneven in tempo, [and] without the will to logical cleanliness." Still, he defended the "arrogant and rhapsodic book" for inspiring "fellow-rhapsodizers" and for luring them on to "new secret paths and dancing places." In 1888, in Ecce Homo, Nietzsche was back on the attack. He defends The Birth of Tragedy by stating: "...It is indifferent toward politics,—'un-German,' to use the language of the present time—it smells offensively Hegelian, and the cadaverous perfume of Schopenhauer sticks only to a few formulas. An 'idea'—the antithesis of the Dionysian and the Apollinian—translated into the metaphysical; history itself as the development of this 'idea'; in tragedy this antithesis is sublimated into a unity; under this perspective things that had never before faced each other are suddenly juxtaposed, used to illuminate each other, and comprehended... Opera, for example, and the revolution.— The two decisive innovations of the book are, first, its understanding of the Dionysian phenomenon among the Greeks: for the first time, a psychological analysis of this phenomenon is offered, and it is considered as one root of the whole of Greek art. The other is the understanding of Socratism: Socrates is recognized for the first time as an instrument of Greek disintegration, as a typical décadent. 'Rationality' against instinct. 'Rationality' at any price as a dangerous force that undermines life!— Profound, hostile silence about Christianity throughout the book. That is neither Apollinian nor Dionysian; it negates all aesthetic values—the only values that the 'Birth of Tragedy' recognizes: it is nihilistic in the most profound sense, while in the Dionysian symbol the ultimate limit of affirmation is attained. There is one allusion [The Birth of Tragedy, 24] to Christian priests as a 'vicious kind of dwarfs' who are 'subterranean' ..." In the title of his novel The Magic Mountain, Thomas Mann alludes to a passage from The Birth of Tragedy, and the influence of Nietzsche's work can be seen in the novel's character Mynheer Peepercorn, who embodies the "Dionysian principle". Within the context of a critical study of Nietzsche's "atheist humanism", the influential Catholic theologian Henri de Lubac considered it "a work of genius", and dedicated several pages of his study to explicate the relationship between Nietzsche's early thought and Christianity. Notes References De Lubac, Henri, The Drama of Atheist Humanism. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2008. Gründer, Karlfried, ed. Der Streit um Nietzsches "Geburt der Tragödie"': Die Schriften von E. Rohde, R. Wagner, und U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1969. Kaufmann, Walter ed. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. New York: Modern Library, 2000. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. Translated with an introduction by Marianne Cowan. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1962. Porter, James I. The Invention of Dionysus: An Essay on The Birth of Tragedy. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. External links (German) as translated to English by Ian C. 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202778	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kut	Kut	Kūt (), officially Al-Kut, also spelled Kutulamare or Kut al-Imara, is a city in eastern Iraq, on the left bank of the Tigris River, about south east of Baghdad. the estimated population is about 389,400 people. It is the capital of the province long known as Al Kut, but since the 1960s renamed Wasit. The old town of Kut is within a sharp "U" bend of the river, opposite from the point where the Shatt al-Gharraf branches off from the Tigris. This "U"-shaped bend almost makes it an island but for a narrow connection to the shore. For centuries Kut was a regional center of the carpet trade. The area around Kut is a fertile cereal grain growing region. The Baghdad Nuclear Research Facility, looted following the 2003 US invasion of Iraq, is located near Kut. The Kut Barrage was constructed in the city in the 1930s to provide irrigation water for the surrounding area. The barrage supports a road and includes a lock for boats passing up and down the Tigris. Its purpose is to maintain a sufficiently high water level in the Tigris to provide water for the Gharraf irrigation canal. In 1952, were irrigated from water provided by the Gharraf Canal. Of this newly reclaimed land, was distributed to small farmers as part of a social land reform program. These farmers received per family and were required to live on the land they farmed. In 2005, repairs and maintenance works were carried out at the Kut Barrage and the Gharraf Head Regulator for a total cost of US$3 million. Geography Climate Kut has a hot desert climate (BWh) in the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Kut is . About of precipitation falls annually. History The medieval city of Madharaya was at the site of modern Kut. It lay at the point where the Nahrawan Canal flowed out into the Tigris. Madharaya has been identified as the hometown of the Sasanian-era Zoroastrian religious leader Mazdak. By the early 1200s, however, Yaqut al-Hamawi wrote that Madharaya was in ruins. Modern Kut owes much of its prosperity to the advent of steamboat transportation on the Tigris in the 1800s. World War I Kut was the scene of a fierce battle during World War I. The British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force, led by Major General Charles Townshend, marched north from Basra in September 1915 in what became known as the Mesopotamian Campaign. They reached Kut on September 26, where after three days of fighting they drove the Ottoman forces from the town. After a halt of nearly nine months, Townshend then headed up river to Ctesiphon. Following a battle there, the British forces withdrew back to Kut. On December 7, 1915, the Turks, under their commander, the Colonel Nurettin Pasha, arrived at Kut and began a siege. The British cavalry under Colonel Gerard Leachman succeeded in breaking out, but Townshend and the bulk of the force remained besieged. Many attempts were made to relieve Townshend's forces, but all were defeated. Some 23,000 British and Indian soldiers died in the attempts to retake Kut, probably the worst loss of life for the British away from the European theater. Near the end of the siege, T. E. Lawrence and Aubrey Herbert of British Intelligence unsuccessfully tried to bribe Khalil Pasha to allow the troops to escape. Townshend, with some 8,000 surviving soldiers, finally surrendered Kut on April 29, 1916. The captured soldiers were divided, where the officers were sent to separate facilities, and many of the enlisted soldiers were impressed into hard labour until the surrender of the Ottoman Empire; more than half of them died. The British went back on the offensive in December 1916 with a larger and better-supplied force under General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude and retook Kut on February 23, 1917. Kut suffered heavy damage during the First World War, and was almost entirely rebuilt afterward. Contingency Operating Base Delta (COB Delta) Contingency Operating Base (COB) Delta was an American military installation located on the right bank of the Tigris southwest from Kut. Designated as a Forward operating base (FOB) in the early stages of Operation Iraqi Freedom, Delta was centered on a former Iraqi Air Force base, Ubaydah Bin Al Jarrah Air Base. In 2005 Delta was selected to become an "enduring" FOB, remaining open after other FOBs had closed. During the U.S.Military's Iraqi Freedom Campaign, FOB Delta was primarily manned by Multi-National Forces, Polish, Kazakhstan, El Salvadorian, Georgian, Lithuanian, British, and U.S. Forces, with U.S. forces operating as command and control. Sometime after 2009 the FOB was re-designated as a COB. COB Delta was closed on October 24, 2011 and officially turned over to the IAF in a handover ceremony that afternoon in the main flight line hangar/terminal. Later that evening, approximately 2,200, the last Force Pro civilians flew out by helicopter. At that time the last remaining US forces departed the main hangar and drove out of the south gate headed toward Kuwait under cover of darkness. See also Anglo-Iraqi War List of places in Iraq List of United States Military installations in Iraq References Sources External links Iraq Image - Al Kut Satellite Observation Populated places in Wasit Governorate District capitals of Iraq Cities in Iraq	[ -0.17496134340763092, 0.2960363030433655, -0.3900107741355896, -0.2958245575428009, -0.3902154862880707, 0.8063321113586426, 0.5323445200920105, 0.02971457690000534, 0.0939820185303688, -0.03176001086831093, -0.7872574329376221, 0.03674464300274849, -0.40909284353256226, 0.21924558281898499, 0.10994957387447357, 0.43528661131858826, 0.14149552583694458, -0.09260447323322296, 0.06231304630637169, 0.08933845907449722, -0.014822178520262241, -0.07617167383432388, 0.37995991110801697, -0.2155415564775467, 0.24940015375614166, -0.01708810031414032, 0.4192417860031128, 0.4088244140148163, -0.5272670984268188, -0.11608349531888962, -0.28610438108444214, 0.4333307445049286, -0.5025519728660583, -0.5712007284164429, 0.17902718484401703, 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202780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salival	Salival	Salival is a live, outtake, and video album, released as a limited edition box set in CD/VHS and CD/DVD formats in 2000 by American rock band Tool. It includes a 56-page book of photos and stills from their music videos. Background The live track "You Lied" is a cover of a song by bass player Justin Chancellor's previous band Peach. The cover of Led Zeppelin's "No Quarter" was originally planned to be used for the soundtrack to Private Parts, but Tool subsequently decided against allowing it to be used, leading to criticism from Howard Stern, who had previously endorsed the band. Salival is the second and final official Tool release (as of 2020) to feature a substantial amount of live material (Tool's other official live release, consisting of songs primarily from Lollapalooza '93, is available on the out-of-print Sober – Tales from the Darkside). The tracks were recorded from several different shows prior to Salivals release in 2000; however, because the booklet merely lists locations without date information, the exact sources are unconfirmed. Likely candidates for most of the recordings are the 1998 summer tour, though the San Diego recording could be "Third Eye," "Pushit" or "Merkaba" from spring 1997. Live versions of the Ænima tracks "Pushit" and "Third Eye" appear on this album plus a live version of the Opiate song "Part of Me". The live instrumental song "Merkaba" was originally an intro for "Sober" when played live, however no tracks from Undertow properly appear here in live form. The name "Merkaba" or Merkabah translating to "Mer-Light", "Ka-Spirit", "Ba-Body" is the divine light vehicle allegedly used by ascended masters to connect with and reach those in tune with the higher realms. A reference to the Merkabah school of Jewish mysticism as it relates to new age meditation. "Message to Harry Manback II", "No Quarter", and "LAMC" were recorded during the sessions for Ænima though they were slightly re-recorded before being released on Salival. Rumors and leaks As with other releases, there were rumors during the Salival period. Most notably, the band was said to be breaking up. Maynard James Keenan said, "we mentioned some song titles and some dickhead went out and reserved all of the .com and .org names." Artwork and packaging The album is packaged in a black box sized 8.25x6.75x2" featuring the "Salival man" with outstretched arms. It is contained within a translucent slipcase that features the band's logo on the front. The front of the book included with the package has a small glossy square on its front. Upon initial release, the package came with two stickers on the cover; one announcing that the "new studio album" was due to arrive in stores on April 17, 2001, Maynard's 37th birthday, though it was ultimately pushed back to May 15. The other sticker, a Parental Advisory, would be the fourth and last one to appear on a Tool release. The audio CD portion of the album is contained within a disc tray at the back of the 56-page book, which has similar dimensions to and is only slightly larger than a standard CD jewel case. Album typos The first pressings of Salival contain typographical errors, as well as the VHS edition having red tape. Later editions do not have these typos. The following typos are found in the CD booklet. Aloke Dutta and Paul D'Amour's names are misspelled as Aloke Dutto and Paul D'Mour. "Stinkfist" is listed as "Stink Fist." "Message to Harry Manback II" is spelled "Messege to Harry Manback II." The playing order of the videos on the VHS are listed in reverse chronological order. The track ordering of "Merkaba" and "You Lied" is incorrect. A typographical error made it into VHS Version 61422-31158-2R; Stinkfist was spelled 'Stinkfest' on the label sticker. Track listing Personnel Tool Maynard James Keenan – vocals Adam Jones – guitar Justin Chancellor – bass guitar, backing vocals Danny Carey – drums Additional musicians Buzz Osborne – additional guitar David Bottrill – keyboards Vince DeFranco – synthesizer Aloke Dutta – acoustic tabla Charts References External links 2000 compilation albums 2000 video albums Volcano Entertainment compilation albums Volcano Entertainment video albums Tool (band) albums Albums produced by David Bottrill Music video compilation albums Progressive metal compilation albums Progressive rock compilation albums Alternative metal compilation albums	[ 0.5423823595046997, -0.031886663287878036, -0.22452625632286072, 0.17664489150047302, 0.05711253359913826, 0.2448510229587555, 0.4343947470188141, -0.28475961089134216, 0.42184942960739136, 0.03869357705116272, 0.13824735581874847, 0.8416637182235718, 0.07122825086116791, 0.03539420664310455, -0.1696307361125946, 0.11612948030233383, 0.082279734313488, 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202787	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huysmans	Huysmans	Huysmans or Huijsmans is a Dutch occupational surname. A "huisman" or "huijsman" is an archaic term for a farmer. It may refer to: Camille Huysmans (1871–1968), Belgian politician Constant Huysmans (b. 1928), Belgian footballer Constant Cornelis Huijsmans (1810–1886), Dutch painter Cornelis Huysmans (1648–1727), Flemish painter, brother of Jan Baptist Huysmans Gerardus Huysmans (1902–1948), Dutch Minister for Finance (1945) and Economy (1946–1948) Jacob Huysmans (c.1633–1696), Flemish portrait painter Jan Baptist Huysmans (1654–1716), a Flemish painter, brother of Cornelis Huysmans Jan-Baptist Huysmans (1826–1906), Belgian Orientalist painter and travel writer Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848–1907), French novelist Jos Huysmans (1941–2012), Belgian cyclist Huijsman/Huysman: Harald Huysman (b. 1959), Norwegian race car driver Nicolas Huysman (b. 1968), French footballer See also Huisman Dutch-language surnames Occupational surnames	[ -0.2592812776565552, 0.668648898601532, -0.2819584310054779, -0.5865770578384399, -0.1105373427271843, 1.0985572338104248, 0.37675562500953674, 0.1109067052602768, 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202791	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilde	Wilde	Wilde is a surname. Notable people with the name include: In arts and entertainment In film, television, and theatre Wilde a 1997 biographical film about Oscar Wilde Andrew Wilde (actor), English actor Barbie Wilde (born 1960), Canadian actress Brian Wilde (1927–2008), British actor Cornel Wilde (1915–1989), American actor and film director Hagar Wilde (1905–1971), screenplay writer Lois Wilde (1907–1995), American actress, model, dancer, and beauty contest winner Marty Wilde (born 1939), British rock and roll singer and actor; father of Kim and Ricky Wilde Olivia Wilde (born 1984), American actress Patrick Wilde, British television, stage and screenwriter Sonya Wilde (born 1939), American actress Ted Wilde (1893–1929), comedy writer and director of silent movies In music Andrew Wilde (pianist) (born 1965), English classical pianist Danny Wilde (musician) (born 1956), American musician and founding member of The Rembrandts David Wilde (born 1935), British pianist and composer Jinian Wilde, British singer, part of Uniting Nations and other musical projects Kim Wilde (born 1960), British pop singer and pop culture figure Marty Wilde (born 1939), British rock and roll singer and actor; father of Kim and Ricky Wilde Ricky Wilde (born 1961), British songwriter, musician, and record producer Wilbur Wilde (born 1955), Australian saxophonist In other arts Eduardo Wilde (1844–1913), Argentine politician, writer, and physician Jane Wilde (1821–1896), Irish political activist, poet, and folklorist; mother of Oscar Wilde John Wilde (1919–2006), American painter associated with Magic Realism Liz Wilde (born 1971), American radio personality Nurit Wilde (born 1971), Israeli-born photographer, socialite, and occasional actress Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), Irish writer In government, law, and politics Eduardo Wilde (1844–1913), Argentine politician, writer, and physician Fran Wilde (born 1948), New Zealand politician James Plaisted Wilde, Baron Penzance (1816–1899), British judge, rose-breeder, and proponent of the Baconian theory of the works of Shakespeare John Wilde (jurist) (1590–1669), English lawyer and politician Louis J. Wilde (1865–1924), American banker and politician Thomas Wilde, 1st Baron Truro (1782–1858), Lord Chancellor of England In sport Jimmy Wilde (1892–1969), Welsh world boxing champion Sam Wilde, English rugby league footballer Walter Wilde (1908–1968), Somerset cricketer In science and technology Henry Tingle Wilde (1872–1912), English chief officer on the RMS Titanic Henry Wilde (engineer) (1833–1919), British engineer and inventor of the self-energizing dynamo Krzysztof Wilde (born 1966), Polish engineer, rector of Gdańsk University of Technology William Wilde (1815–1876), Irish eye and ear surgeon, writer on medicine, archaeology and folklore, father of Oscar Wilde Winston Wilde, American sexologist In other fields Dorothy Wilde (1895–1941), Anglo-Irish socialite Michael Wilde (born 1952), English businessman See also De Wilde Dewilde Wild (surname), list of people with the surname Wild Vilde Notes Surnames English-language surnames Surnames of English origin	[ -0.11707890778779984, 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202796	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite%20B%C3%A9zier%20curve	Composite Bézier curve	In geometric modelling and in computer graphics, a composite Bézier curve is a piecewise Bézier curve that is at least continuous. In other words, a composite Bézier curve is a series of Bézier curves joined end to end where the last point of one curve coincides with the starting point of the next curve. Depending on the application, additional smoothness requirements (such as C1 or C2 continuity) may be added. A continuous composite Bézier is also called a polybezier, by similarity to polyline, but whereas in polylines the points are connected by straight lines, in a polybezier the points are connected by Bézier curves. A beziergon (also called bezigon) is a closed path composed of Bézier curves. It is similar to a polygon in that it connects a set of vertices by lines, but whereas in polygons the vertices are connected by straight lines, in a beziergon the vertices are connected by Bézier curves. Some authors even call a C0 composite Bézier curve a "Bézier spline"; the latter term is however used by other authors as a synonym for the (non-composite) Bézier curve, and they add "composite" in front of "Bézier spline" to denote the composite case. Perhaps the most common use of composite Béziers is to describe the outline of each letter in a PostScript or PDF file. Such outlines are composed of one beziergon for open letters, or multiple beziergons for closed letters. Modern vector graphics and computer font systems like PostScript, Asymptote, Metafont, OpenType, and SVG use composite Bézier curves composed of cubic Bézier curves (3rd order curves) for drawing curved shapes. Smooth joining Composite Bezier curves can be smoothed to any desired degree of smoothness using Stärk's construction. C2 continuous composite cubic Bezier curves are actually cubic B-splines, and vice versa. Individual curves are by definition C1 and C2 continuous. The geometric condition for C1 continuity when transiting across an endpoint joining two curves is that the associated control points are mutually opposed and collinear with the endpoint. The geometric condition for C2 continuity is C1 continuity, with the additional constraint that the control points are equidistant from the endpoint. Approximating circular arcs In case circular arc primitives are not supported in a particular environment, they may be approximated by Bézier curves. Commonly, eight quadratic segments or four cubic segments are used to approximate a circle. It is desirable to find the length of control points which result in the least approximation error for a given number of cubic segments. Using four curves Considering only the 90-degree unit-circular arc in the first quadrant, we define the endpoints and with control points and , respectively, as: From the definition of the cubic Bézier curve, we have: With the point as the midpoint of the arc, we may write the following two equations: Solving these equations for the x-coordinate (and identically for the y-coordinate) yields: Note however that the resulting Bézier curve is entirely outside the circle, with a maximum deviation of the radius of about 0.00027. By adding a small correction to intermediate points such as the magnitude of the radius deviation to 1 is reduced by a factor of about 3, to 0.000068 (at the expense of the derivability of the approximated circle curve at endpoints). General case We may compose a circle of radius from an arbitrary number of cubic Bézier curves. Let the arc start at point and end at point , placed at equal distances above and below the x-axis, spanning an arc of angle : The control points may be written as: Examples Fonts TrueType fonts use composite Béziers composed of quadratic Bézier curves (2nd order curves). To describe a typical type design as a computer font to any given accuracy, 3rd order Beziers require less data than 2nd order Beziers; and these in turn require less data than a series of straight lines. This is true even though any one straight line segment requires less data than any one segment of a parabola; and that parabolic segment in turn requires less data than any one segment of a 3rd order curve. See also B-spline References Splines (mathematics)	[ -0.34741395711898804, 0.15967555344104767, -0.26157015562057495, -0.35584959387779236, -0.6515929698944092, 0.663844645023346, -0.09793967753648758, -0.24559542536735535, -0.15645289421081543, -0.7279423475265503, -0.4438362717628479, 0.2557660639286041, -0.36488571763038635, -0.025045443326234818, -0.07585950195789337, 0.4808214604854584, 0.5162985920906067, 0.5278897881507874, -0.17820781469345093, -0.99139803647995, 0.5443193912506104, 0.11270277202129364, 0.2512134909629822, -0.23840279877185822, 0.1575392484664917, -0.25542959570884705, 0.19018951058387756, 0.4249865412712097, 0.7015630006790161, 0.3045128881931305, -0.08699115365743637, 0.803471028804779, 0.17706364393234253, -0.7767858505249023, 0.4177187383174896, 0.16639471054077148, 0.5743374824523926, -0.02723115310072899, 0.18648888170719147, -0.28728458285331726, 0.9377466440200806, 0.01626604050397873, 0.5014646649360657, 0.7037190794944763, -0.6908410787582397, 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202800	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba%20noastr%C4%83	Limba noastră	"" ("Our Language"; ) is the national anthem of Moldova. It has been used since 1994 and was officially adopted on 22 July 1995. For a short period of time in the early 1990s, the national anthem of Moldova was "Deșteaptă-te, române!", which was and remains the national anthem of Romania. The lyrics were written by Alexei Mateevici (1888–1917) a month before his death. Mateevici contributed significantly to the national emancipation of Bessarabia. The music was composed by Alexandru Cristea. History Uniquely among national anthems, the focus of "Limba noastră" is language; in this case, the national language of Moldova, which is referred to as either Romanian or Moldovan. It calls for the people to revive the usage of their native language. The poem does not refer to the language by name; it is poetically called "our language". Lyrics "Limba noastră" is based on a twelve-verse poem. For the officially-defined national anthem used today, the verses were selected and reorganised into five verses of four lines each; namely, the first, second, fifth, ninth and twelfth verses, respectively, which are highlighted in bold. Images See also "Deșteaptă-te, române!", national anthem of Romania "Dimãndarea pãrinteascã", ethnic anthem of the Aromanians Moldovenism Notes References External links Wikisource, "Limba noastră", full text of Mateevici's poem State Symbols of the Republic of Moldova – The official page of the Republic of Moldova features a page about the flag and anthem, which include vocal and instrumental versions President's House – The official website of the President of Moldova has a page with information about the anthem. The Romanian version of the page also contains the music score of the anthem. Moldova: Limba noastră – Audio of the national anthem of Moldova, with information and lyrics (archive link) "Romanian Nationalism in the Republic of Moldova" by Andrei Panici, American University in Bulgaria, 2002 Moldovan songs National symbols of Moldova European anthems National anthems Songs about language National anthem compositions in F major	[ 0.22520968317985535, -0.12860077619552612, 0.5871976017951965, -0.2766283452510834, -0.04925742745399475, 0.5489886403083801, 0.1663140207529068, 0.31352466344833374, -0.1569272130727768, -0.3234386742115021, -0.4048381447792053, 0.5339793562889099, -0.7745054364204407, -0.136332705616951, -0.4943162798881531, 0.8477969169616699, 0.21201011538505554, 0.0031924964860081673, 0.1469111144542694, 0.04580678418278694, -0.28592315316200256, 0.28658029437065125, 0.3878389596939087, 0.19666431844234467, 0.2477029711008072, 0.3350652754306793, 0.6871131062507629, 0.5375568866729736, -0.8901574611663818, 0.19704556465148926, -0.3657528758049011, 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202801	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXT2	EXT2	EXT2 can refer to: EXT2 (gene), a human gene ext2, a file system for the Linux kernel	[ -0.2550961673259735, -0.3556099832057953, -0.3111702799797058, -0.12129183113574982, 0.1697872132062912, 0.06907328963279724, 0.07283943891525269, 0.46341440081596375, 0.26366329193115234, -0.5371702313423157, -0.48296380043029785, 0.4151831865310669, -0.9509314298629761, -0.07666981220245361, -0.033951178193092346, -0.020627928897738457, 0.5038856267929077, 0.40771952271461487, -0.4018697142601013, -0.427486389875412, -0.23418781161308289, -0.13832426071166992, 0.02076343446969986, -0.32906267046928406, -0.14184094965457916, -0.01870919205248356, 0.31444135308265686, -0.26105836033821106, 0.415953665971756, 0.10983304679393768, -0.37596428394317627, 0.08335445076227188, 0.11699677258729935, -0.05416349694132805, -0.3172925114631653, -0.05637625232338905, -0.8145695924758911, 0.14708811044692993, 0.3150941729545593, 0.04244578629732132, 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202802	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXT3	EXT3	EXT3 can refer to: The ext3 journaling filesystem for Linux EXT3 (gene)	[ -0.48470544815063477, 0.019868995994329453, 0.012441146187484264, -0.41480398178100586, -0.31363391876220703, -0.03928461670875549, 0.3321951627731323, 0.13288940489292145, -0.081452377140522, -0.46893981099128723, -0.3312726318836212, 0.1728343665599823, -1.1160138845443726, -0.04334717243909836, -0.03498261794447899, 0.3601270318031311, 0.27569201588630676, 0.3562380373477936, -0.09744447469711304, -0.7807449102401733, -0.026050763204693794, -0.4445277452468872, -0.2114935964345932, -0.46660399436950684, 0.2758887708187103, 0.1280413419008255, 0.5404126644134521, 0.2692553997039795, 0.30947479605674744, 0.12424883246421814, -0.18114414811134338, 0.4058307409286499, 0.024320019409060478, 0.06382057815790176, -0.12167199701070786, -0.13052359223365784, -0.3891702890396118, 0.00989503413438797, 0.10862991213798523, 0.11674434691667557, 0.0066034672781825066, 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202810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Teenage%20Liberation%20Handbook	The Teenage Liberation Handbook	The Teenage Liberation Handbook: How to Quit School and Get a Real Life and Education, which was published in 1991 by Grace Llewellyn, is a book about unschooling and youth empowerment. Largely inspired by John Holt's educational philosophy, the book encourages teenagers to leave full-time school and to allow their curiosity about the world to guide their learning. It includes suggestions and resources regarding traditional academic areas, as well as chapters about talking to parents, social life, college, and exploring the world. References External links 1991 non-fiction books Alternative education Books about education History of youth	[ 0.21302911639213562, -0.005263335071504116, -0.6201607584953308, -0.08149407804012299, 0.12758955359458923, 0.20984917879104614, 0.42838892340660095, 0.11285985261201859, 0.2781911790370941, 0.01630033180117607, 0.17344678938388824, 0.3169867694377899, 0.00959732010960579, -0.5169574618339539, -0.15133540332317352, -0.04790863022208214, 0.20782914757728577, 0.29075077176094055, 0.09139052778482437, -0.47569355368614197, -0.3115570843219757, -0.22418080270290375, 0.058740969747304916, 0.18171781301498413, 0.4799264967441559, 0.26401644945144653, 0.32840412855148315, -0.26933491230010986, -0.10867584496736526, -0.18560561537742615, 0.23259995877742767, 0.11276701837778091, 0.3885348439216614, -0.5826186537742615, -0.08673414587974548, 0.032163746654987335, -0.08126545697450638, -0.4100046455860138, -0.13963615894317627, -0.3400038480758667, -0.2452205866575241, 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202814	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Tiara	Triple Tiara	Triple Tiara can refer to: American Triple Tiara of Thoroughbred Racing, for three-year-old fillies in New York state Canadian Triple Tiara of Thoroughbred Racing, for three-year-old fillies in Canada Papal Tiara or triple tiara, used 1143–1963 See also Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, three-race series from many countries	[ 0.3445691168308258, -0.11044927686452866, -0.28477194905281067, 0.28647729754447937, -0.4032924175262451, -0.061420831829309464, 0.7644400596618652, 0.10506150871515274, -0.4501062035560608, 0.11759983003139496, 0.06250106543302536, 0.6509886384010315, -0.2146647721529007, 0.5784276127815247, -0.1244870275259018, 0.279725044965744, 0.26413655281066895, 0.4436136782169342, -0.24148418009281158, -0.5718343257904053, -0.4544597566127777, -0.014938403852283955, 0.6582469940185547, -0.7777256965637207, -0.0564575158059597, 0.1681714653968811, 0.30034637451171875, -0.1455053985118866, 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202818	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Crown	Triple Crown	A Triple Crown is the act of winning or completing the three most important, difficult, or prestigious events, feats, or prizes in a given field. Originating in England in the mid-19th century in the sport of horse racing, it has spread to other competitive endeavors. Sports Horse racing Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing (United States) Triple Crown Trophy Triple Crown Productions Canadian Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters Triple Crown of Hurdling Motor racing Triple Crown of Motorsport Triple Crown of Endurance racing Triple Crown (IndyCar) Professional wrestling Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship (Japan) Triple Crown (professional wrestling) (mainly United States) Other endeavors Triple Crown of Alpine Skiing Triple Crown (baseball) Triple Crown (basketball) Triple Crown of Boxing Triple Crown of Brazilian Football Triple Crown of Bridge Triple Crown of Cycling Triple Crown (golf) Triple Crown of Hiking Triple Crown (poker) Triple Crown (rugby union) Triple Crown (snooker) Triple Crown (tennis) Triple Crown of Surfing Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming Triple Crown Tournament, cricket Triple Crown of Nordic skiing Triple Crown Tour of USA Ultimate Triple Crown of Canoe Racing Other uses Chiappa Triple Crowns are Italian made triple-barrel shotguns Coat of arms of the Drapers Company, 1439 emblem with three triple crowns Papal tiara, the three-tiered crown that was used by popes for centuries Triple accreditation, in business schools Triple Crown of Acting, for winners of an Academy Award, an Emmy Award, and a Tony Award in acting categories Triple Crown Records, a record label Triple Crown of National High Adventure award, associated with High Adventure Bases of the Boy Scouts of America Triple Crown of Science Fiction (Nebula Award, Hugo Award, and Philip K. Dick Award), won by William Gibson See also Grand Tour (cycling) Grand Slam (golf) Grand Slam (tennis) Three Crowns, an emblem of Sweden Three crowns (disambiguation) Three Kingdoms (disambiguation) Treble (association football) Triple Gold Club in ice hockey Winston Million in NASCAR	[ -0.15776360034942627, 0.038683757185935974, -0.23389749228954315, 0.445307195186615, -0.0675668939948082, -0.4539341330528259, 1.0136276483535767, 0.3851417303085327, -0.47864431142807007, 0.06366671621799469, -0.2914317548274994, 0.5175127983093262, 0.1854403018951416, 0.21623194217681885, -0.07581919431686401, 0.47128576040267944, 0.6257956027984619, 0.38780316710472107, 0.1565951555967331, -0.30762621760368347, -0.5030436515808105, 0.028255997225642204, 0.43185314536094666, -0.5259349942207336, 0.5699414610862732, -0.15250983834266663, -0.3261227011680603, -0.1437394917011261, -0.2853655517101288, 0.34302210807800293, 0.015073016285896301, 0.04126916825771332, -0.3457706868648529, 0.2509053647518158, 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202820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarius%20Filii%20Dei	Vicarius Filii Dei	Vicarius Filii Dei (Latin: Vicar or Representative of the Son of God) is a phrase first used in the forged medieval Donation of Constantine to refer to Saint Peter, who is regarded as the first Pope by the Catholic Church. Origins and uses of the phrase The earliest known instance of the phrase Vicarius Filii Dei is in the Donation of Constantine, now dated between the eighth and the ninth centuries AD. Johann Peter Kirsch states that "many of the recent critical students of the document [i.e. Donation of Constantine] locate its composition at Rome and attribute the forgery to an ecclesiastic, their chief argument being an intrinsic one: this false document was composed in favour of the popes and of the Holy Catholic Roman Church, therefore the Christ Church itself must have had the chief interest in a forgery executed for a purpose so clearly expressed". However, it goes on to state, "Grauert, for whom the forger is a Frankish subject, shares the view of Hergenröther, i.e. the forger had in mind a defence of the new Western Empire from the attacks of the Eastern Romans. Therefore it was highly important for him to establish the legitimacy of the newly founded empire, and this purpose was especially aided by all that the document alleges concerning the elevation of the pope." Gratian excluded it from his "Decretum"; however, it was later added as "Palea". It was also included in some collections of Greek canons. As a forgery it currently carries no dogmatic or canonical authority, although it was previously used as such for hundreds of years in the past. Papal title? The Protestant writer Andreas Helwig suggested that Vicarius Filii Dei was an expansion of the historical title Vicarius Christi, rather than an official title used by the Popes themselves. His interpretation did not become common until about the time of the French Revolution. Some later Protestant figures claimed that Vicarius Filii Dei was an official title of the Pope, with some saying that this title appeared on the papal tiara and/or a mitre. Catholic apologist Patrick Madrid answers the Protestant claims by noting that Vicarius Filii Dei has never been an official Papal title. Catholics answer the claims that "Vicarius Filii Dei" is written on the Papal Tiara by stating that a simple inspection of the more than 20 papal tiaras still in existence—including those in use in 1866 during the reign of Pope Pius IX when Uriah Smith made his claim—shows that none have this inscription, nor is there any evidence that any of the earlier papal tiaras destroyed by invading French troops in 1798 had it. Protestant view Many Protestants have the view that Vicarius Filii Dei can be applied to the Bishop of Rome. Origins of the controversy The earliest extant record of a Protestant writer on this subject is that of Professor Andreas Helwig in 1612. In his work Antichristus Romanus he took fifteen titles in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin and computed their numerical equivalents in those languages, arriving at the number 666 mentioned in the Book of Revelation. Out of all these titles, he preferred to single out Vicarius Filii Dei, for the reason that it met "all the conditions which [Cardinal] Bellarmine had thus far demanded." Besides being in Latin, the title was "not offensive or vile," but rather was "honorable to this very one." Helwig suggested that the supposed title was an expansion of the historical title Vicarius Christi, rather than an official title used by the Popes themselves. Additionally, he said nothing about the title appearing on tiaras or mitres. Helwig's interpretation did not become a common one until about the time of the French Revolution. Some later Protestant figures directly claimed that Vicarius Filii Dei was an official title of the Roman Catholic Pope, some claimed that this title appeared on the papal tiara and/or a mitre. Some Protestants view the Pope as the Antichrist. This view was common at the time of Helwig and is still part of the confession of faith of some Protestant churches, such as those within Confessional Lutheranism. Historical Seventh-day Adventist views In 1866, Uriah Smith was the first to propose the interpretation to the Seventh-day Adventist Church. In The United States in the Light of Prophecy, he wrote: "The pope wears upon his pontifical crown in jeweled letters, this title: Vicarius Filii Dei, 'Viceregent of the Son of God'; the numerical value of which title is just six hundred and sixty-six. The most plausible supposition we have ever seen on this point is that here we find the number in question. It is the number of the beast, the papacy; it is the number of his name, for he adopts it as his distinctive title; it is the number of a man, for he who bears it is the 'man of sin'." Uriah Smith maintained his interpretation in the various editions of Thoughts on Daniel and the Revelation, which was influential in the church. In November 1948, Le Roy Froom, a Seventh-day Adventist ministerial leader, editor of the church's Ministry, and a church historian, wrote an article to correct the mistaken use of some of the denomination's evangelists who continued to claim that the Latin words "Vicarius Filii Dei" were written on a papal tiara. Froom also stated in the 1948 article that at one point a prominent Adventist went to Rome to take some pictures of the papal tiaras, but "the photographs were without any wording of any sort on any one of the three crown, front or back." Later, an Adventist artist who wanted to illustrate a standard Adventist text on prophecies added the words "Vicarius", "Filii", and "Dei", one word on each of the three tiaras in the photograph taken. He submitted his image for publishing in a standard church text on Bible prophecy; the image was to serve as an illustration in the book, not as a visual proof. However, when an Adventist publishing house and the Adventist General Conference received it, they "emphatically rejected it as misleading and deceptive, and refused to allow its use. (All honor to them!)." Froom concluded his 1948 article with the following words: "Truth does not need fabrication to aid or support it. Its very nature precludes any manipulation or duplicity. We cannot afford to be party to any fraud. The reflex action upon our own souls should be a sufficient deterrent. We must never use a quotation or a picture merely because it sounds or looks impressive. We must honor the truth, and meticulously observe the principle of honesty in the handling of evidence under all circumstances." Catholic response Catholic apologist Patrick Madrid answers the Protestant claims by claiming that "Vicarius Filii Dei" has never been an official Papal title. He also argue that even if it were a Papal title, that would not be sufficient to associate the Pope with the number of the Beast, as, for example, the name of Ellen Gould White can also be similarly manipulated to get the same number (ELLen GoVLD VVhIte 50+50+5+50+500+5+5+1=666). He answers the claims that "Vicarius Filii Dei" is not written on Papal Tiara by stating that merely looking at any of the more than 20 papal tiaras still in existence—including those in use in 1866 during the reign of Pope Pius IX when Uriah Smith made his claim—plainly shows that not even one of them has any such inscription, nor is there any evidence that any of the earlier papal tiaras destroyed by invading French troops in 1798 had any such inscription either. Adventists Samuele Bacchiocchi responded to those claims, by pointing out that "interpreting 666 on the basis of the numerical values of the letters of names can give absurd results". He also notes the Donation of Constantine was considered as true to the point "this forged document was used by 10 popes over a period of six centuries to assert, not only their ecclesiastical supremacy over all the churches, but also their political sovereignty over what became known the Papal States, which included most of Italy." He also states the title "Vicarius Filii Dei" was considered as an official title of the pope. See also Chronogram Vicar of Jesus Christ References Further reading Bruinsma, Reinder. (1994). Seventh-day Adventist Attitudes Toward Roman Catholicism 1844–1965, Berrien Springs, Michigan. . Heim, Bruno (1978). Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origins, Customs and Laws, Gerrards Cross, Eng.: Van Duren. . Noonan, James-Charles. (1996). The Church Visible: The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Church, New York: Viking. . Smith, Uriah (1881). Thoughts, Critical and Practical on the Book of Revelation, Battle Creek, Mich. Froom, Le Roy (1948). "Dubious Pictures of the Tiara." The Ministry, vol.10, no.21. November, 1948. Smithe, Jefferson (1902). Roman Catholic Ritual, London. 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202821	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape%20note	Shape note	Shape notes are a musical notation designed to facilitate congregational and social singing. The notation, introduced in late 18th century England, became a popular teaching device in American singing schools. Shapes were added to the noteheads in written music to help singers find pitches within major and minor scales without the use of more complex information found in key signatures on the staff. Shape notes of various kinds have been used for over two centuries in a variety of music traditions, mostly sacred music but also secular, originating in New England, practiced primarily in the Southern United States for many years, and now experiencing a renaissance in other locations as well. Nomenclature Shape notes have also been called character notes and patent notes, respectfully, and buckwheat notes and dunce notes, pejoratively. Overview The idea behind shape notes is that the parts of a vocal work can be learned more quickly and easily if the music is printed in shapes that match up with the solfège syllables with which the notes of the musical scale are sung. For instance, in the four-shape tradition used in the Sacred Harp and elsewhere, the notes of a C major scale are notated and sung as follows: A skilled singer experienced in a shape note tradition has developed a fluent triple mental association, which links a note of the scale, a shape, and a syllable. This association can be used to help in reading the music. When a song is first sung by a shape note group, they normally sing the syllables (reading them from the shapes) to solidify their command over the notes. Next, they sing the same notes to the words of the music. The syllables and notes of a shape note system are relative rather than absolute; they depend on the key of the piece. The first note of a major key always has the triangular Fa note, followed (ascending) by Sol, La, etc. The first note of a minor key is always La, followed by Mi, Fa, etc. The first three notes of any major scale – fa, sol, la – are each a tone apart. The fourth to sixth notes are also a tone apart and are also fa, sol, la. The seventh and eighth notes, being separated by a semitone, are indicated mi-fa. This means that just four shapenotes can adequately reflect the "feeling" of the whole scale. Four-shape vs. seven-shape systems The system illustrated above is a four-shape system; six of the notes of the scale are grouped in pairs assigned to one syllable/shape combination. The ascending scale using the fa, so, la, fa, so, la, mi, fa syllables represent a variation of the hexachord system introduced by the 11th century monk Guido of Arezzo, who originally introduced a six-note scale using the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la. The four syllable variation of Guido's original system was prominent in 17th century England, and entered the US in the 18th century. Shortly afterward, shapes were invented to represent the syllables. (see below). The other important systems are seven-shape systems, which give a different shape and syllable to every note of the scale. Such systems use as their syllables the note names "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do" (familiar to most people due to the song "Do-Re-Mi" from The Sound of Music). A few books (e.g. "The Good Old Songs" by C. H. Cayce) present the older seven-note syllabification of "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, si, do". In the seven-shape system invented by Jesse B. Aikin, the notes of a C major scale would be notated and sung as follows: There are other seven-shape systems. Effectiveness of shape notes A controlled study on the usefulness of shape notes was carried out in the 1950s by George H. Kyme with an experimental population consisting of fourth- and fifth-graders living in California. Kyme took care to match his experimental and control groups as closely as possible for ability, quality of teacher, and various other factors. He found that the students taught with shape notes learned to sight read significantly better than those taught without them. Kyme additionally found that the students taught with shape notes were also far more likely to pursue musical activities later on in their education. Shape notes and modulation Many forms of music in the common practice period employ modulation, that is, a change of key in mid-piece. Since the 19th century, most choral music has employed modulation, and since the key change is easy for instruments but difficult for singers, the new tonality is usually established by instrumental accompaniment; accordingly, the choir will also sing in the temperament of the instrument rather than the just intonation of the human voice. Modulation is sometimes said to be problematic for shape-note systems, since the shapes employed for the original key of the piece no longer match the scale degrees of the new key; but the ability to use of sharp and flat symbols along with shape notes is a matter of the range of sorts available to the typographer and musical preferences. The development of musical preferences is partly documented by surviving copies of B.F. White's Organ from the 1850s. Justin Morgan's "Judgment Anthem," which first appeared in shapes in Little and Smith's The Easy Instructor (1801), appears to shift keys (and key signatures) from E minor to E♭ major, then back to E minor before concluding in E♭ major. Morgan, however, may be supposed to have intended simply a shift from major to minor while maintaining the same tonic pitch. It was reprinted in many of the early shape note tunebooks, but not in the Sacred Harp (1844), in which Jeremiah Ingalls's "Christian Song" is the only song that modulates (in this case, from D minor to D major). Origin and early history As noted above, the syllables of shape-note systems greatly antedate the shapes. The practice of singing music to syllables designating pitch goes back to about AD 1000 with the work of Guido of Arezzo. Other early work in this area includes the cipher notation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (18th century), and the tonic sol-fa of John Curwen (19th century). American forerunners to shape notes include the 9th edition of the Bay Psalm Book (Boston), and An Introduction to the Singing of Psalm Tunes in a Plaine & Easy Method by Reverend John Tufts. The 9th edition of the Bay Psalm Book was printed with the initials of four-note syllables (fa, sol, la, me) underneath the staff. In his book, Tufts substituted the initials of the four-note syllables on the staff in place of note heads, and indicated rhythm by punctuation marks to the right of the letters. Compositions of the "Yankee tunesmiths" ("First New England School") began to appear in 1770, prior to the advent of shape notes, which first appeared in The Easy Instructor by William Little and William Smith in 1801 in Philadelphia. Little and Smith introduced the four-shape system shown above, intended for use in singing schools. In 1803 Andrew Law published The Musical Primer, which used slightly different shapes: a square indicated fa and a triangle la, while sol and mi were the same as in Little and Smith. Additionally, Law's invention was more radical than Little and Smith's in that he dispensed with the use of the staff altogether, letting the shapes be the sole means of expressing pitch. Little and Smith followed traditional music notation in placing the note heads on the staff, in place of the ordinary oval note heads. In the end, it was the Little/Smith system that won out, and there is no hymnbook used today that employs the Law system. Some copies of The Easy Instructor, Part II (1803) included a statement, on the verso of the title page, in which John Connelly (whose name is given in other sources as Conly, Connolly, and Coloney) grants permission to Little and Smith to make use in their publications of the shape notes to which he claimed the rights. Little and Smith did not themselves claim credit for the invention, but said instead that the notes were invented around 1790 by John Connelly of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Andrew Law asserted that he was the inventor of shape notes. Shape notes proved popular in America, and quickly a wide variety of hymnbooks were prepared making use of them. The shapes were eventually extirpated in the northeastern U.S. by a so-called "better music" movement, headed by Lowell Mason. But in the South, the shapes became well entrenched, and multiplied into a variety of traditions. Ananias Davisson's Kentucky Harmony (1816) is the first Southern shape-note tunebook, and was soon followed by Alexander Johnson's Tennessee Harmony (1818), Allen D. Carden's The Missouri Harmony (1820) and many others. Rise of seven-shape systems By the middle of the 19th century, the "fa so la" system of four syllables had acquired a major rival, namely the seven-syllable "do re mi" system. Thus, music compilers began to add three more shapes to their books to match the extra syllables. Numerous seven-shape notations were devised. Jesse B. Aikin was the first to produce a book with a seven-shape note system, and he vigorously defended his "invention" and his patent. The system used in Aikin's 1846 Christian Minstrel eventually became the standard. This owes much to the influential Ruebush & Kieffer Publishing Company adopting Aikin's system around 1876. Two books that have remained in continuous (though limited) use, William Walker's Christian Harmony and M. L. Swan's New Harp of Columbia, are still available. These books use seven-shape systems devised by Walker and Swan, respectively. Currently active shape note traditions Although seven-shape books may not be as popular as in the past, there are still a great number of churches in the American South, in particular Southern Baptists, Primitive Baptists, almost all of the non-instrumental Churches of Christ, some Free Methodists, Mennonite, some Amish, United Pentecostals, and United Baptists in the Appalachian regions of West Virginia, Ohio and Kentucky, that regularly use seven-shape songbooks in Sunday worship. These songbooks may contain a variety of songs from 18th-century classics to 20th-century gospel music. Thus today denominational songbooks printed in seven shapes probably constitute the largest branch of the shape-note tradition. In addition, nondenominational community singings are also intermittently held which feature early- to mid-20th century seven-shape gospel music such as Stamps-Baxter hymnals or Heavenly Highway. In these traditions, the custom of "singing the notes" (syllables) is generally preserved only during the learning process at singing schools and singing may be to an instrumental accompaniment, typically a piano. The seven-shape system is also still used at regular public singings of 19th-century songbooks of a similar type to the Sacred Harp, such as The Christian Harmony and the New Harp of Columbia. Such singings are common in Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama, and generally preserve the singing school custom of "singing the notes". The seven-shape (Aikin) system is commonly used by the Mennonites and Brethren. Numerous songbooks are printed in shaped notes for this market. They include Christian Hymnal, the Christian Hymnary, Hyms of the Church, Zion's Praises, Pilgrim's Praises, the Church Hymnal, Silver Gems in Song, the Mennonite Hymnal, and Harmonia Sacra. Some African-American churches use the seven-shape note system. The four-shape tradition that currently has the greatest number of participants is Sacred Harp singing. But there are many other traditions that are still active or even enjoying a resurgence of interest. Among the four-shape systems, the Southern Harmony has remained in continuous use at one singing in Benton, Kentucky, and is now experiencing a small amount of regrowth. The current reawakening of interest in shape note singing has also created new singings using other recently moribund 19th-century four-shape songbooks, such as The Missouri Harmony, as well as new books by modern composers, such as the Northern Harmony. Of a hybrid nature, in terms of reviving Ananias Davisson's Kentucky Harmony but taking the further step of incorporating songs from 70 other early tunebooks, along with new compositions, is the Shenandoah Harmony (2013). Thomas B. Malone has specialized in the revival of works by Jeremiah Ingalls, and has published a four-shape edition of Ingalls' 1805 The Christian Harmony. Malone organizes an annual mid-July singing in Newbury, Vermont, where Ingalls was a tavern-keeper and musician between 1789 and 1810. See also Fuguing tune Southern gospel West gallery music Notes References Bibliography Books . . Drummond, R. Paul (n.d.) A Portion for the Singers: A History of Music Among Primitive Baptists Since 1800. Eastburn, Kathryn (n.d.) A Sacred Feast: Reflections on Sacred Harp Singing and Dinner on the Ground. . . . . , xxxvii, 346 pp. Journal articles investigates the internal debate among shape note singers at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the twentieth. External links Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Fasola Home Page – web site of the Sacred Harp Musical Heritage Association, dedicated to Sacred Harp and Shapenote singing Awake, My Soul – about a documentary movie The Story of Sacred Harp and Shaped Note singing Shape Note Historical Background – article on the evolution of shaped notes Shape Notes: the eight note, seven shape method – article promoting the seven shape method Shape-note Connexion & music of Jeremiah Ingalls where you can hear a fine example of shapenote singing, including the first run-through with the shapenote syllables being sung With lesson plans for teachers. Sacred Harp Music – article on Sacred Harp from the Handbook of Texas online Mississippi's African American Shape Note Tradition article by Chiquita Walls Pearl River South Singing Convention Stamps-Baxter School of Gospel Music – school furthering the Stamps and Baxter tradition UK Sacred Harp and Shapenote Singing – official UK site with events calendar, resources and contacts for all UK shapenote groups Sacred Harp and Related Shape-Note Music Resources – an extensive site of resources concerning Sacred Harp, other Shape-Note music, Gallery music, etc. Singing with Sol-fa Syllables – article about singing schools and shape notes The Shape of Music – book on teaching small children shapenote singing. Where Could I Go But To The Lord field recording from the Florida Folklife Collection Art of the States: shape-note recordings Sacred Harp.mus. Electronic sound files of songs from several 19th century shapenote songbooks using Melody Assistant software. Seven-Shape Note Sheet Music Open Hymnal Round Notes converted to Seven-Shape Notes. Seven-Shape Note Book Cyber Hymnal Selection converted to Seven-Shape Notes Book. Singings from the Shenandoah Harmony List of all-day and regular local singings from the Shenandoah Harmony. Public-domain shape-note tunebooks 4-shape notation tunebooks on IMSLP 7-shape notation tunebooks on IMSLP The Methodist Harmonist (1833) . (at IMSLP). . Allen D. Carden, The Missouri Harmony (1834) W. L. Chappell, The Western Lyre, new edition (1835) David Clayton and James Carrell, The Virginia Harmony (1831) Ananias Davisson, A Supplement to the Kentucky Harmony (1825, reset 2011) Joseph Funk and sons, The New Harmonia Sacra: A Compilation of Genuine Church Music (1915, 18th edition, 7-shape), (2008, 26th edition, 7-shape and 4-shape) William Hauser, The Hesperian Harp (1848) The Christian Harp and Sabbath School Songster (1870), (7-shape) J. S. James, Union Harp and History of Songs (1909) William Little and William Smith, The Easy Instructor (1801), Part 2 (1803) Lowell Mason, Mason's Sacred Harp (1835 and 1844 editions) John G. McCurry, The Social Harp (1855) William Walker, The Southern Harmony, and Musical Companion (1847), (1854); The Southern and Western Pocket Harmony, intended as an Appendix to the Southern Harmony (1860) B. F. White, The Sacred Harp (1860) (c. 2), (1911, rev. J. S. James et al.) 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202822	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blank%20Generation%20%28album%29	Blank Generation (album)	Blank Generation is the debut studio album by American punk rock band Richard Hell and the Voidoids. It was produced by Richard Gottehrer and released in September 1977 on Sire Records. Background Kentucky-born Richard Meyers moved to New York City after dropping out of high school in 1966 aspiring to become a poet. He and his best friend from high school, Tom Miller, founded the rock band the Neon Boys, which became Television in 1973. The pair adopted stage names after French poets they admired: Miller became Tom Verlaine, after the Symbolist Paul Verlaine, and Meyers became Richard Hell, inspired by A Season in Hell (1873) a poem written by Verlaine's idol Arthur Rimbaud. The group was the first rock band to play the club CBGB, which soon became a breeding ground for the early punk rock scene in New York. Hell had an energetic stage presence and wore torn clothing held together with safety pins and spiked his hair, which was to become punk fashion—in 1975, after a failed management deal with the New York Dolls, impresario Malcolm McLaren brought Hell's and the Dolls' ideas back with him to England and eventually incorporated them into the Sex Pistols' image. Disputes with Verlaine led to Hell's departure from Television in April 1975, and he co-founded the Heartbreakers with New York Dolls guitarist Johnny Thunders and drummer Jerry Nolan. Hell lasted less than a year with this band, and began recruiting members for a new one in early 1976. For guitarists, Hell found Robert Quine and Ivan Julian—Quine had worked in a bookstore with Hell, and Julian responded to an advertisement in The Village Voice. They lifted drummer Marc Bell from Wayne County. The band was named the Voidoids after a novel Hell had been writing. Hell drew musical inspiration from acts such as Bob Dylan, the Rolling Stones, the Beatles, the Stooges and fellow New Yorkers the Velvet Underground, a group with a reputation for heroin-fueled rock and roll with poetic lyrics. Hell also drew from—and covered—garage rock bands such as the Seeds and the Count Five, both found on the 1972 Nuggets compilation. Hell had written the song "Blank Generation" while still in Television; he had played it regularly with the band since at least 1974, and later with the Heartbreakers. The Voidoids released a 7" Blank Generation EP in November 1976 on Ork Records containing "Blank Generation", "Another World" and "You Gotta Lose". The cover featured a black-and-white photo by Hell's former girlfriend and unofficial CBGB photographer Roberta Bayley, depicting a bare-chested Hell with an open jeans zipper. It was an underground hit, and the band signed to Sire Records for its album debut. Bell eventually left and became a member of the Ramones in 1978, adopting the stage name Marky Ramone. Recording The album was co-produced by Richard Gottehrer, a songwriter associated with the Brill Building who co-penned his first hit in 1963 with "My Boyfriend's Back" and who performed in the group the Strangeloves, known for hits such as "I Want Candy". According to Hell, they recorded and mixed the entire album at Electric Lady Studios in New York City across three weeks beginning on March 14, 1977. Two months later, they were informed that the album release would be delayed until September because their label, Sire Records, was changing distributors. "In the meantime, I had noticed a lot of things about the record that I thought we could have done better," recalls Hell. He asked their label if they could re-record the album, and after getting their approval, they booked three weeks in late June and early July at Plaza Sound Studio, located on the eighth floor of Radio City Music Hall. The final LP would use the Plaza Sound recordings for every song except "Liars Beware," "New Pleasure" and "Another World," while the Electric Lady recordings were retained for those three songs. Their rendition of John and Tom Fogerty's "Walking on the Water" was also added to the LP during the Plaza Sound sessions; the song had been added to their repertoire after it debuted during a CBGB performance on April 14, 1977. Final mixing began at Plaza Sound on July 13, but their work was interrupted a little after 9:00 p.m. by the New York City blackout of 1977. Electricity would not be restored until the next day, and mixing wouldn't resume until July 18 when all remaining studio work was completed on the same day. Both Quine and Julian played Fender Stratocasters through Fender Champ amplifiers. Quine is usually panned to the right and Julian to the left in the mix, but their positions are reversed on “New Pleasure” and “Down at the Rock and Roll Club.” On “Liars Beware” Julian plays through both channels as he played his rhythm part twice, with slightly heavier playing on the left. Quine plays all the solos except for “Liars” and “Another World,” which Julian does. Julian does all of the soloing on “Another World” except during the outro, where both Julian and Quine play at the same time. Mixed in the center were Bell's drums and Hell's bass and vocals. Analysis Julian opens "Blank Generation" with a riff loosely inspired by the Who's 1970 song "The Seeker". The rest of the band joins one by one until Quine's short lead ends in feedback. The main section of the song features lyrics reflecting the hopelessness of his generation against a descending chord progression patterned after "The Beat Generation", a 1959 novelty song by Bob McFadden and poet Rod McKuen, the descent matched with falsetto "ooh-ooh" backing vocals. Quine takes two guitar solos—the first eight bars, the second 16—exhibiting his peculiar atonal mix of 1950s rock and roll with 1960s free jazz. The song closes with a falsetto, doo-wop-like "Whee-ooh!" which had been suggested by Johnny Thunders. Cover design The original album sleeve features a front cover photo by Bayley of a shirtless Hell in black jeans, opening a frayed jacket to reveal the phrase "YOU MAKE ME ___" written across his chest. The back cover featured a posed photo of Hell and the Voidoids taken by Kate Simon. Hell's hair was spiked, a look he attributed to Rimbaud. Critical reception In a contemporary review of Blank Generation, Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote that the Voidoids "make unique music from a reputedly immutable formula, with jagged, shifting rhythms accentuated by Hell's indifference to vocal amenities like key and timbre", and that he intended "to save this record for those very special occasions when I feel like turning into a nervous wreck." In the first edition (1979) of The Rolling Stone Record Guide, Dave Marsh rated it 2 stars out of 5 and described it as "bull-oney", writing "In the first place, Jack Kerouac said everything here first, and far better. In the second place, Hell is about as whining as Verlaine is pretentious." However, in a radical and uncharacteristic re-evaluation, the second edition (1983) replaced Marsh's review with one from Lester Bangs, who upped the rating to a full 5 stars, labeling it "seminal" and "essential to any modern music collection", and describing the music as "shattering assaults by a band that prophesied the later No Wave punk-jazz fusion". Ira Robbins of Trouser Press wrote that "the album combines manic William Burroughs-influenced poetry and raw-edged music for the best rock presentation of nihilism and existential angst ever. Hell’s voice, fluctuating from groan to shriek, is more impassioned and expressive than a legion of Top 40 singers." Ben Ratliff of The New York Times later wrote that Blank Generation "helped define punk, so we're often told, but it's much more than that: it's literary, romantic (boy-girl), Romantic (intellectual tradition) and, because of Robert Quine's guitar solos, intensely musical, an album of high-grade improvisation." Mark Deming of AllMusic called Blank Generation "one of the most powerful [albums] to come from punk's first wave" and "groundbreaking punk rock that followed no one's template, and today it sounds just as fresh—and nearly as abrasive—as it did when it first hit the racks." Sid Smith of BBC Music, in a 2007 retrospective review, called it "a thrilling and improbably poignant listening experience". 1990 reissue The 1990 compact disc reissue of Blank Generation differed in several respects from the original vinyl album. It sported a different cover, and included two bonus tracks: a version of the pop standard "All the Way" and an original, "I'm Your Man". Both were outtakes from the original album sessions. Also, the version of "Down at the Rock & Roll Club" was a noticeably different recording from that which appeared on the original album. 2017 reissue In October 2017, it was announced that a 40th anniversary limited edition of the album would be released on CD and vinyl on November 24 for Record Store Day's Black Friday sale. The reissue, mastered by original engineer Greg Calbi, included a second disc of previously unreleased alternate takes, singles-only tracks and rare bootleg live tracks recorded at the band's first CBGB performance in 1976, as well as a booklet featuring an essay from Hell, an interview with Ivan Julian conducted by Hell, previously unpublished photos by Bayley, and snapshots of Hell's notebooks and private papers. Legacy Rock critics have held Blank Generation in high regard. It has been highly influential, reflecting the kinds of themes that soon became commonplace in punk. Along with such groups as Television, Suicide, the Ramones, the Patti Smith Group, and the Heartbreakers, the Voidoids helped define the early New York punk scene. Upon the album's release, critics such as Velvet Lanier called it "one of the greatest records ever cut"; Jimi LaLumia at The Village Gate called the title track "a classic, a unifying lifeline" for the punk scene; and Record World called it "the Future of American rock". To Joe Ferbacher at Creem, "Blank Generation" was evidence that punk was essentially American, and was more authentic than the more commercially successful but less intellectual or philosophical British punk scene. Punk became a phenomenon in England, with the quick rise and fall of the Sex Pistols and with longer lasting bands such as the Clash. Glen Matlock was inspired to write "Pretty Vacant" in 1976 after seeing a handbill containing the names of Hell's songs, including "(I Belong To The) Blank Generation", that Malcolm McLaren had brought back to England with him from the United States. Matlock, nor any of the other Pistols, had actually heard Hell's song, as it wasn't released on an album until September 1977. By then, "Pretty Vacant" had already recorded and released as a single two months earlier. Hell was at first offended at how much McLaren had taken from him—musically, lyrically, and visually—but came to accept it, as he believed "ideas are free property", and praised the band's vocalist Johnny Rotten for taking his nihilist persona further than he felt himself able to do. The Voidoids toured England with the Clash in 1977, and during one show, Rotten appeared on stage and goaded the audience into demanding an encore from Hell and his band. The nihilism of "Blank Generation" was echoed in other songs in the early British punk scene such as the Sex Pistols' "Anarchy in the U.K.", the Clash's "London's Burning" and Generation X's "Your Generation". Hell became mired in heroin addiction, and the group did not release another album until 1982's Destiny Street, by which time punk had passed from headlines in favor of new wave. The album had a weak reception, and Hell turned focus on non-music projects. Meanwhile, British punk had swept the US and was to largely define its public perception. American bands influenced by British punk proliferated, and the music evolved into genres such as hardcore punk and alternative rock. Many of these bands delved into punk history and paid tribute to the Voidoids and other New York bands, in particular New York-based noise rockers Sonic Youth, whose frontman Thurston Moore had seen the Voidoids live in the 1970s. The Voidoids were a key influence on the Minutemen, whose D. Boon name-dropped Hell in "History Lesson – Part II". Track listing Bonus disc (2017 40th Anniversary Deluxe Edition) "Love Comes in Spurts" (alternate version from Electric Lady Studios) – 2:01 "Blank Generation" (alternate version from Electric Lady Studios) – 2:54 "You Gotta Lose" (alternate version from Electric Lady Studios) – 3:42 "Who Says?" (alternate version from Plaza Sound Studios) – 2:11 "Love Comes in Spurts" (live at CBGB, November 19, 1976 - the Voidoids' first public performance) – 2:11 "Blank Generation" (live at CBGB, November 19, 1976) – 2:41 "Liars Beware" (live at CBGB, April 14, 1977) – 2:58 "New Pleasure" (live at CBGB, April 14, 1977) – 2:36 "Walking on the Water" (live at CBGB, April 14, 1977 - song's live debut for the Voidoids) – 2:11 "Another World" (original Ork Records EP version) – 6:09 "Oh" (original 2000 release commissioned by MusicBlitz - final Voidoids recording) – 4:17 "1977 Sire Records Radio Commercial" – 1:03 All live CBGB recordings were taken from audience cassette recordings. The “Blank Generation” recording from November 19 cut in halfway through the song's intro. This was repaired by splicing in an intro from another audience cassette recording of “Blank Generation” that was performed the following night. (It happens at 00:19.) Personnel The Voidoids Richard Hell – vocals, bass guitar Robert Quine – guitar, backing vocals Ivan Julian – guitar, backing vocals Marc Bell – drums Technical personnel Richard Gottehrer – producer Richard Hell – producer Don Hünerberg, Jerry Solomon, Rob Freeman – engineer John Gillespie, Richard Hell – art direction, design Roberta Bayley – cover photography Notes References Works cited Further reading External links 1977 debut albums Richard Hell albums Albums produced by Richard Gottehrer Sire Records albums Philips Records albums Albums recorded at Electric Lady Studios	[ 0.1853194683790207, 0.04633593559265137, -0.7847958207130432, 0.30116790533065796, -0.35501909255981445, 0.3202688694000244, 0.1976005584001541, 0.10148047655820847, -0.039893146604299545, -0.40569397807121277, 0.060932230204343796, 0.4776988923549652, -0.5606603622436523, 0.2505953907966614, 0.06721086800098419, 0.38040992617607117, -0.09783945977687836, 0.023438530042767525, -0.45150938630104065, 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202824	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20die%20Jugend	An die Jugend	An die Jugend is a sequence (or collection) of pieces of classical music for solo piano by Ferruccio Busoni. Plan of the work The collection was written June–August 1909 and consists of four volumes, the last with an epilogue. It was published later in the same year by Zimmermann of Leipzig under four separate catalog numbers (Z 4755, Z 4756, Z 4757, and Z 4781). Each book takes about five minutes to play, and may be played separately, or together as a cycle. As in many other works by Busoni, it is compiled from transcribed, freely adapted, and original music. Book 1: Preludietto, Fughetta ed Esercizio - this section uses impressionist harmonies reminiscent of Claude Debussy. In the "Esercizio", chords suggesting A major in the left hand are juxtaposed with passages in the right based on the whole tone scale. Book 2: Preludio, Fuga e Fuga figurata (Studie nach J. S. Bach's Wohltemperiertem Klavier) - The "Preludio" and "Fuga" are almost unaltered transcriptions of the D major prelude and fugue from the first book of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. The "Fuga figurata" presents elements of the prelude and fugue simultaneously. Book 3: Giga, Bolero e Variazione (Studie nach Mozart) - The "Giga" is based on Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Eine kleine Gigue, K. 574, the "Bolero" is based on the fandango in the Act III finale of The Marriage of Figaro, while the "Variazione" is a variation on the "Giga". Book 4: Introduzione e Capriccio (Paganinesco) & Epilogo - The "Introduzione" is a transcription of the opening of Niccolò Paganini's Caprice No. 11 for solo violin and the "Capriccio" is an arrangement of his Caprice No. 15, followed by a return of the material from the "Introduzione," but in modified and grandiose style. Busoni embellishes the originals, creating a difficult piece reminiscent of the elaborate early versions of Franz Liszt's own Paganini transcriptions. In the epilogue, music from Book 1 returns. Although, as before, the harmonic language is impressionist and tonal centres are unclear, the piece closes with a cadence in C major. (The epilogue is omitted, when the books are not played as a cycle.) First performance The first performance, of Books 2, 3, and 4 (without "Epilogo"), was on 16 October 1909 in Bechstein Hall, London, with Busoni as the pianist. The first Sonatina The materials of Book 1, and the "Epilogo," all related and highly original compositions, and written in the new style first explored in Elegien (BV 249), were later revised and combined with a new introduction and short linking passages presenting the thematic roots of the pieces and gluing them together into a single entity. The new piece, resembling a set of variations without a theme, Busoni entitled Sonatina (BV 257). This more advanced and forward-looking composition was the first of what would eventually be six "sonatinas" containing some of the most unusual and original piano music of the early 20th century. Composition and publication details 1) Preludietto, Fughetta ed Esercizio •Composed: June 1909 (Beaumont) •Manuscript: Busoni Archive No. 264 •Title: Preludietto [and] Fughetta •3 separate pages, written on one side only, unpaginated •Original publication: Leipzig: Jul. Heinr. Zimmermann, Copyright 1909, cat. no. Z. 4755, (11 pages) •Dedication: Josef Turczyński •Duration: 5 minutes (Beaumont) 2) Preludio, Fuga e Fuga figurata •Composed: July 1909 •Manuscript: Busoni Archive No. 240 •Title: Fuga figurata. (nach dem Prael. + Fuga aus dem W. Cl. v. J. S. Bach) •4 pages (1 notated, 2 blank, 1 notated) •Date: "3. Juli 1909 F. Busoni" (at the end of the composition) •Original publication: Leipzig: Jul. Heinr. Zimmermann, Copyright [1909], cat. no. Z. 4756, (11 pages) •Dedication: Louis Theodor Grünberg •Duration: 4 minutes (Beaumont) 3) Giga, Bolero e Variazione •Composed: July 1909 (Beaumont) •Manuscript: Busoni Archive No. 240 (attachment) •Title: Variazione (Gigue – Bolero e Variazione) (d'après Mozart) •1 page with only 6 measures •Original publication: Leipzig: Jul. Heinr. Zimmermann, Copyright [1909], cat. no. Z. 4757, (11 pages) •Dedication: Leo Sirota •Duration: 4 minutes (Beaumont) 4) Introduzione e Capriccio (Paganinesco) & Epilogo •Composed: August 1909 (Beaumont) •Manuscript: unknown •Original publication: Leipzig: Jul. Heinr. Zimmermann, Copyright 1909, cat. no. Z. 4781, (13 pages) •Dedication: Louis Closson; Emile R. Blanchet (Epilogo) •Duration: 7 minutes (Beaumont) •Note: Four of the dedicatees (Turczyński, Gruenberg, Sirota, Closson) were master class pupils of Busoni in Vienna, Jul 1908 (Beaumont, 1987, p. 91), while Blanchet had been a pupil at a master class in Weimar, Jul-Sep, 1899 (Dent). •Later Publications: 1) Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, n.d. [1909], cat. nos. E.B. 4944-4947. 2) Milan: Carisch & Jänichen, n.d. 3) No. 2: In Bach-Busoni Edition, Volume IV, 1916. 4) No. 4 (without Epilogo): In Klavierübung, Book 10, 1925. •Ref: Dent, pp. 125, 224; Beaumont, pp. 91, 148-157, 368; Sitsky, pp. 65-66, 206-208, 264-266, 289-290, 373, 374; Kindermann, p. 242; Roberge, p. 34. Free scores Notes References Beaumont, Antony (1985). Busoni the Composer. London: Faber and Faber. Beaumont, Antony, ed. (1987). Busoni: Selected Letters. New York: Columbia University Press. Kindermann, Jürgen (1980). Thematisch-chronologisches Verzeichnis der Werke von Ferruccio B. Busoni. Studien zur Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts, vol. 19. Regensburg: . Roberge, Marc-André (1991). Ferruccio Busoni: a bio-bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press. Sitsky, Larry (2008). Busoni and the Piano. The Works, the Writings, and the Recordings (2nd ed.) Distinguished Reprints no. 3. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. [First edition, 1986. ] Compositions for solo piano Compositions by Ferruccio Busoni	[ -0.2614680528640747, 0.3135716915130615, 0.09671657532453537, -0.06387073546648026, -0.42383530735969543, 0.48129037022590637, 0.3591255247592926, -0.43202245235443115, -0.18572697043418884, -0.40352514386177063, -0.25558435916900635, -0.34609556198120117, -0.047341905534267426, 0.653751015663147, -0.0817156732082367, 0.09038283675909042, 0.6167060732841492, -0.45454642176628113, -0.23661649227142334, -0.8141894340515137, 0.27853327989578247, -0.14406302571296692, 0.0866633802652359, -0.2854640483856201, 0.0918358638882637, -0.25520965456962585, -0.03807755932211876, -0.006974348332732916, 0.2287326157093048, 0.1481190025806427, 0.11698616296052933, 0.4864080846309662, 0.2958207130432129, -0.34113937616348267, -0.48423147201538086, 0.3747316598892212, 0.3067689836025238, -0.6887360215187073, -0.2379014939069748, -0.7236182689666748, 0.24838459491729736, 0.11698249727487564, -0.2556131184101105, 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202827	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid%20Andreyev	Leonid Andreyev	Leonid Nikolaievich Andreyev (, – 12 September 1919) was a Russian playwright, novelist and short-story writer, who is considered to be a father of Expressionism in Russian literature. He is regarded as one of the most talented and prolific representatives of the Silver Age period. Andreyev's style combines elements of realist, naturalist, and symbolist schools in literature. Of his 25 plays, his 1915 play He Who Gets Slapped is regarded as his finest achievement. Biography Born in Oryol, Russia, to a middle-class family, Andreyev originally studied law in Moscow and in Saint Petersburg. His mother hailed from an old Polish aristocratic, though impoverished, family, while she also claimed Ukrainian and Finnish ancestry. He became a police-court reporter for a Moscow daily, performing the routine of his humble calling without attracting any particular attention. At this time he wrote poetry and made a few efforts to publish it, but most publishers rejected his work. In 1898 the newspaper in Moscow published his first short story, "Баргамот и Гараська" ("Bargamot and Garaska"). This story came to the attention of Maxim Gorky who recommended that Andreyev concentrate on his literary work. Andreyev eventually gave up his law practice, fast becoming a literary celebrity, and the two writers remained friends for many years to come. Through Gorky, Andreyev became a member of the Moscow Sreda literary group, and published many of his works in Gorky's Znanie collections. Andreyev's first collection of short stories and short novels (повести) appeared in 1901, quickly selling a quarter-million copies and making him a literary star in Russia. In 1901 he published "Стена" ("The Wall"), and in 1902, "В тумане" ("In the Fog") and "Бездна" ("The Abyss"), which was a response to "The Kreutzer Sonata" by Leo Tolstoy. These last two stories caused great commotion because of their candid and audacious treatment of sex. From 1898-1905 Andreyev published numerous short stories on many subjects, including life in Russian provincial settings, court and prison incidents (where he drew on material from his professional activity), and medical settings. His particular interest in psychology and psychiatry gave him an opportunity to explore insights into the human psyche and to depict memorable personalities who later became classic characters of Russian literature, such as in the 1902 short story "Мысль" ("Thought"). During the time of the first Russian revolution (1905) Andreyev participated actively in social and political debate as a defender of democratic ideals. Several of his stories, including "The Red Laugh" ("Красный смех", 1904), Governor ("Губернатор", 1905) and The Seven Who Were Hanged ("Рассказ о семи повешенных", 1908), captured the spirit of this period. Starting from 1905 he also produced many theatre dramas, including The Life of Man (1906), Tsar Hunger (1907), Black Masks (1908), Anathema (1909), and The Days of Our Life (1909). The Life of Man was staged by both Konstantin Stanislavsky (with his Moscow Art Theatre) and Vsevolod Meyerhold (in Saint Petersburg), two leading lights of Russian theatre of the twentieth century, in 1907. Andreyev's works of the post-1905 revolution period often represent the evocation of absolute pessimism and a despairing mood. By the beginning of the second decade of the century his fame began to wane as new literary powers such as the Futurists rapidly came to prominence. Andreyev completed his most well-known work, the play He Who Gets Slapped, in August 1915, just two months before its world premiere at the Moscow Art Theatre on 27 October 1915. A critically successful Broadway production, using an English language translation of the original Russian by Gregory Zilboorg, was staged in 1922. The work has been adapted into several films, a novel, an opera, and a musical, and is his most-performed play internationally. Aside from his political writings, Andreyev published little after 1915. In 1916 he became the editor of the literary section of the newspaper He later supported the February Revolution of 1917, but foresaw the Bolsheviks' coming to power as catastrophic. In 1917 he moved to Finland. From his house in Finland he addressed manifestos to the world at large against the excesses of the Bolsheviks. An idealist and a rebel, Andreyev spent his last years in bitter poverty, and his premature death from heart failure may have been hastened by his anguish over the results of the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917. He finished his last novel, Satan's Diary, a few days before his death. A play, The Sorrows of Belgium, was written at the beginning of the War to celebrate the heroism of the Belgians against the invading German army. It was produced in the United States, as were the plays, The Life of Man (1917), The Rape of the Sabine Women (1922), He Who Gets Slapped (1922), and Anathema (1923). A popular and acclaimed film version of He Who Gets Slapped was produced by MGM Studios in 1924. Some of his works were translated into English by Thomas Seltzer. Poor Murderer, an adaptation of his short story Thought made by Pavel Kohout, opened on Broadway in 1976. He was married to Alexandra Veligorskaia, a niece of Taras Shevchenko. She died of puerperal fever in 1906. They had two sons, Daniil Andreyev, a poet and mystic, author of Roza Mira, and Vadim Andreyev. In 1908 Leonid Andreyev married Anna Denisevich, and decided to separate his two little boys, keeping the elder son, Vadim, with him and sending Daniil to live with Aleksandra's sister. Vadim Andreyev became a poet. He lived in Paris. Publication in English During the 1914-1929 period, America was avid for anything relating to Edgar Allan Poe and, as Poe's Russian equivalent, translations of Andreyev's work found a ready audience in the English-speaking world. His work was extensively translated in book form, for instance as The Crushed Flower, and other stories (1916); The Little Angel, and other stories (1916); When The King Loses His Head, and other stories (1920). His stories were also published in translation in Weird Tales magazine in the 1920s, such as "Lazarus" in the March 1927 edition. Leonid Andreyev's granddaughter, daughter of Vadim Andreyev, the American writer and poet Olga Andrejew Carlisle (born 1931), published a collection of his short stories, Visions, in 1987. Influence Often referred to as 'a Russian Edgar Allan Poe', Andreyev had an influence through translations on two of the great horror writers, H.P. Lovecraft and R.E. Howard. Copies of his The Seven Who Were Hanged and The Red Laugh were found in the library of horror writer H. P. Lovecraft at his death, as listed in the "Lovecraft's Library" catalogue by S.T. Joshi. Andreyev was also one of the seven "most powerful" writers of all time, in the opinion of Robert E. Howard. Notes Sources Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. . Carnicke, Sharon M. 2000. "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor." In Twentieth Century Actor Training. Ed. Alison Hodge. London and New York: Routledge. . p. 11–36. "Leonid Nikolayevich Andreyev." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 October 2010 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24016/Leonid-Nikolayevich-Andreyev>. External links Leonid Andreyev's tombstone University of Leeds archive page on Leonid's elder son, Vadim Leonidovich Andreyev 1871 births 1919 deaths People from Oryol People from Oryol Governorate Dramatists and playwrights of the Russian Empire Male writers of the Russian Empire Expressionist writers Expressionist dramatists and playwrights Symbolist dramatists and playwrights Writers of Gothic fiction 20th-century Russian writers 20th-century dramatists and playwrights 19th-century Russian short story writers 20th-century Russian short story writers 19th-century Russian male writers Russian people of Polish descent Russian people of Ukrainian descent Russian people of Finnish descent 20th-century Russian male writers Imperial Moscow University alumni	[ -0.22950482368469238, 0.3314736783504486, -0.21358676254749298, 0.020707568153738976, -0.26550787687301636, 0.6497958898544312, 0.5729919075965881, -0.26126909255981445, -0.09009034186601639, -0.4177388846874237, -0.732416570186615, 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202830	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capucine	Capucine	Capucine (born Germaine Hélène Irène Lefebvre, 6 January 192817 March 1990) was a French fashion model and actress known for her comedic roles in The Pink Panther (1963) and What's New Pussycat? (1965). She appeared in 36 films and 17 television productions between 1948 and 1990. Early life Capucine was born Germaine Hélène Irène Lefebvre on 6 January 1928 in Saint-Raphaël, Var, France. She often confused the issue of her birth by saying that she was born in 1931 or 1933, and most sources indicate those years. She attended school in Saumur, France, and attained a Bachelor of Arts degree in foreign languages. In 1945, at age 17, while riding in a carriage in Paris, Lefebvre was noticed by a commercial photographer. Adopting the French name of a flower, "Capucine" (nasturtium, Tropaeolum), she became a fashion model, working for the fashion houses Givenchy and Christian Dior. Capucine met Audrey Hepburn while modeling for Givenchy in Paris. They remained close friends for the rest of Capucine's life. Career Early films Capucine made her film debut in Jean Cocteau's The Eagle with Two Heads (1948), in a small, unbilled role. She also appeared in Jacques Becker's Rendezvous in July (1949) and Robert Dhéry's Crazy Show (1949). She was in My Friend Sainfoin (1950) and Dhery's Bernard and the Lion (1951). After a break of a few years, Capucine appeared in Mademoiselle from Paris (1955) and Frou-Frou (1955). Charles K. Feldman In 1957, film producer Charles K. Feldman spotted Capucine while she was modeling in New York City. Feldman put her under contract at $150 a week. He brought her to Hollywood to learn English and study acting under Gregory Ratoff. She took the stage name "Capucine", saying, "Two names are interesting and I hope one is interesting." She signed a seven-year contract with Columbia Pictures in 1958. After unsuccessfully auditioning for the role of Feathers in Rio Bravo (1959) she landed her first English-speaking role in the film Song Without End (1960), a biopic of Franz Liszt, where Capucine played Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein. Producer William Goetz said, "You can teach a girl to act, but nobody can teach her how to look like a princess. You've got to start with a girl who looks like a princess." "Every time I get in front of the camera, I think of it as an attractive man I am meeting for the first time", she said in 1960. "I find him demanding and aloof, so I must do all I can to interest him." "I got much better as we went on", she said. "As the scenes warmed up, so did I." She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award. Capucine followed this with North to Alaska (1960), a comedy which had been set up with her in mind by Feldman at 20th Century Fox. She played a French prostitute who becomes the love interest of John Wayne. Directed by Henry Hathaway, it was successful at the box office. Capucine returned to Europe to co star in Le triomphe de Michel Strogoff (1961) with Curd Jürgens, a sequel to Michel Strogoff (1956). Back in Hollywood, she had second billing in Walk on the Wild Side (1962), produced by Feldman, in which she portrayed a redeemed hooker. Co-star Laurence Harvey complained that Feldman cut his part to expand Capucine's role. She was then William Holden's love interest in The Lion (1962). During filming, Capucine began a romance with Holden, which led to the end of her romantic relationship with Feldman; however, the producer remained loyal professionally. Feldman announced he would put Capucine in Mary Magdalene and Waltz of the Toreadors but neither happened. She moved to Switzerland in 1962. The Pink Panther Blake Edwards cast Capucine in The Pink Panther, playing Inspector Clouseau's wife, who is having an affair with a jewel thief, played by David Niven. It was a huge hit, and led to a number of sequels. In 1964, Capucine said the directors she had learned most from were Edwards and Henry Hathaway. Capucine was reunited with Holden in The 7th Dawn (1964) produced by Feldman; it was a box-office disappointment. Another film she did for Feldman, the comedy What's New Pussycat? (1965), which costarred Sellers and Peter O'Toole, was far more successful; it was filmed entirely in France. Capucine was one of several European stars in Sex Quartet (1966) for Columbia (originally The Queens),) then Feldman put her in The Honey Pot (1967), directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz. She was announced for Feldman's Casino Royale, but did not appear in the film. Feldman died in May 1968, and Capucine's career never regained its former momentum. She inherited the rights to the book Zandy from his estate and sold them to the makers of Zandy's Bride. Post-Feldman Capucine had a support role in Fräulein Doktor (1968) and the lead in the Spanish thriller The Exquisite Cadaver (1969). She was in the supporting cast of Fellini Satyricon (1969). Fellini said "she had a face to launch a thousand ships... but she was born too late." In 1968, she told an Italian magazine she wished she didn't always have to be elegant, that she longed to play a "dishevelled woman", but "since the directors know I was a model, it is obvious that they can't see me as anything else." Dirk Bogarde suggested her for the role of Tadzio's mother in Death in Venice (1971), but Luchino Visconti turned her down, saying, "She has a horrible voice and too many teeth. She looks like a horse, a beautiful horse, I know that, I was a trainer. I know all about horses, but I don't want a horse." Capucine had a supporting role in the Western Red Sun (1971) and guest starred on Search Control (1972), her first TV series. She supported Jean-Paul Belmondo in Incorrigible (1975) and Richard Burton in Jackpot, which was ultimately abandoned. She appeared on television in Cinéma 16, and La pêche miraculeuse (1976), and had roles in The Con Artists (1976), Per amore (1976), Ecco noi per esempio (1977), Nest of Vipers (1978), From Hell to Victory (1979), Atrocious Tales of Love and Death (1979), Neapolitan Mystery (1979), Arabian Adventure (1979), Jaguar Lives! (1979), and Martin Eden (1979). 1980s Capucine was in episodes of Orient Express, and Hart to Hart. She went to Europe to make Les invités (1982), Aphrodite (1982), Trail of the Pink Panther (1982), and Curse of the Pink Panther (1983). Capucine can be seen in episodes of Série noire, Voglia di cantare, Murder, She Wrote, Honor Thy Father, Sins, Delirium (1987), My First Forty Years (1987), Gila and Rik (1987), Una verità come un'altra (1989), Quartier nègre (1989), Blaues Blut (1990) and Il giudice istruttore. Personal life Capucine met Pierre Trabaud on the set of Rendez-vous (1949) and they married the next year. The marriage lasted only eight months, and she never married again. She had a relationship with Charles K. Feldman, who produced her films What's New Pussycat?, The 7th Dawn, and The Honey Pot. This affair ended when Capucine met William Holden, but she and Feldman remained friends until his death in 1968. He left her $75,000 (). Capucine met actor William Holden in the early 1960s. They starred in the films The Lion (1962) and The 7th Dawn (1964). Holden was married to Brenda Marshall, but the two began a two-year affair, which ended in part due to Holden's increasing alcoholism. After the affair ended, she and Holden remained friends until his death in 1981. In his will he left her $50,000 (). Death On 17 March 1990, at age 62, Capucine jumped to her death from her eighth-floor apartment in Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland, where she had lived for 28 years, having reportedly suffered from illness and depression for some time. The police said an investigation left no doubt that she committed suicide. Neighbours said she had led a reclusive life with her three cats, hardly ever leaving her apartment and spending most of her time reading. Selected filmography See also Mononymous persons List of suicides References External links Capucine (Aveleyman.com) 1928 births 1990 deaths 20th-century French actresses French expatriates in Switzerland French female models French film actresses French television actresses Suicides by jumping in Switzerland People from Saint-Raphaël, Var 1990 suicides Female suicides	[ -0.5780019164085388, -0.5486655235290527, -0.16632631421089172, -0.027744436636567116, 0.2449333220720291, 1.1394327878952026, 0.10775487124919891, 0.3133350610733032, -1.0440646409988403, -0.002530159428715706, 0.1993044763803482, 0.3187374472618103, -0.15150965750217438, 0.1463126689195633, -0.19558896124362946, -0.08890018612146378, 0.5853220820426941, 0.19759687781333923, -0.02369135059416294, -0.35652390122413635, -0.525470495223999, -0.12857796251773834, 0.1437070667743683, -0.4903644323348999, -0.5036079287528992, -0.27037230134010315, -0.047012683004140854, 0.48917844891548157, 0.3166043162345886, 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202831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphism	Metamorphism	Metamorphism is the transformation of existing rock (the protolith) to rock with a different mineral composition or texture. Metamorphism takes place at temperatures in excess of , and often also at elevated pressure or in the presence of chemically active fluids, but the rock remains mostly solid during the transformation. Metamorphism is distinct from weathering or diagenesis, which are changes that take place at or just beneath Earth's surface. Various forms of metamorphism exist, including regional, contact, hydrothermal, shock, and dynamic metamorphism. These differ in the characteristic temperatures, pressures, and rate at which they take place and in the extent to which reactive fluids are involved. Metamorphism occurring at increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde metamorphism, while decreasing temperature and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism. Metamorphic petrology is the study of metamorphism. Metamorphic petrologists rely heavily on statistical mechanics and experimental petrology to understand metamorphic processes. Metamorphic processes Metamorphism is the set of processes by which existing rock is transformed physically or chemically at elevated temperature, without actually melting to any great degree. The importance of heating in the formation of metamorphic rock was first recognized by the pioneering Scottish naturalist, James Hutton, who is often described as the father of modern geology. Hutton wrote in 1795 that some rock beds of the Scottish Highlands had originally been sedimentary rock, but had been transformed by great heat. Hutton also speculated that pressure was important in metamorphism. This hypothesis was tested by his friend, James Hall, who sealed chalk into a makeshift pressure vessel constructed from a cannon barrel and heated it in an iron foundry furnace. Hall found that this produced a material strongly resembling marble, rather than the usual quicklime produced by heating of chalk in the open air. French geologists subsequently added metasomatism, the circulation of fluids through buried rock, to the list of processes that help bring about metamorphism. However, metamorphism can take place without metasomatism (isochemical metamorphism) or at depths of just a few hundred meters where pressures are relatively low (for example, in contact metamorphism). Rock can be transformed without melting because heat causes atomic bonds to break, freeing the atoms to move and form new bonds with other atoms. Pore fluid present between mineral grains is an important medium through which atoms are exchanged. This permits recrystallization of existing minerals or crystallization of new minerals with different crystalline structures or chemical compositions (neocrystallization). The transformation converts the minerals in the protolith into forms that are more stable (closer to chemical equilibrium) under the conditions of pressure and temperature at which metamorphism takes place. Metamorphism is generally regarded to begin at temperatures of . This excludes diagenetic changes due to compaction and lithification, which result in the formation of sedimentary rocks. The upper boundary of metamorphic conditions lies at the solidus of the rock, which is the temperature at which the rock begins to melt. At this point, the process becomes an igneous process. The solidus temperature depends on the composition of the rock, the pressure, and whether the rock is saturated with water. Typical solidus temperatures range from for wet granite at a few hundred megapascals (Mpa) of pressure to about for wet basalt at atmospheric pressure. Migmatites are rocks formed at this upper limit, which contains pods and veins of material that has started to melt but has not fully segregated from the refractory residue. The metamorphic process can occur at almost any pressure, from near surface pressure (for contact metamorphism) to pressures in excess of 16 kbar (1500 Mpa). Recrystallization The change in the grain size and orientation in the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization. For instance, the small calcite crystals in the sedimentary rocks limestone and chalk change into larger crystals in the metamorphic rock marble. In metamorphosed sandstone, recrystallization of the original quartz sand grains results in very compact quartzite, also known as metaquartzite, in which the often larger quartz crystals are interlocked. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their points of contact (pressure solution) and redeposition in pore space. During recrystallization, the identity of the mineral does not change, only its texture. Recrystallization generally begins when temperatures reach above half the melting point of the mineral on the Kelvin scale. Pressure solution is an important mechanism for recrystallization. During this process, grains of the protolith dissolve at points of contact, where stresses due to compaction are greatest, and are redeposited in pore space. Pressure solution begins during diagenesis (the process of lithification of sediments into sedimentary rock) but is completed during early stages of metamorphism. For a sandstone protolith, the dividing line between diagenesis and metamorphism can be placed at the point where strained quartz grains begin to be replaced by new, unstrained, small quartz grains, producing a mortar texture that can be identified in thin sections under a polarizing microscope. With increasing grade of metamorphism, further recrystallization produces foam texture, characterized by polygonal grains meeting at triple junctions, and then porphyroblastic texture, characterized by coarse, irregular grains, including some larger grains (porphyroblasts.) Metamorphic rocks are typically more coarsely crystalline than the protolith from which they formed. Atoms in the interior of a crystal are surrounded by a stable arrangement of neighboring atoms. This is partially missing at the surface of the crystal, producing a surface energy that makes the surface thermodynamically unstable. Recrystallization to coarser crystals reduces the surface area and so minimizes the surface energy. Although grain coarsening is a common result of metamorphism, rock that is intensely deformed may eliminate strain energy by recrystallizing as a fine-grained rock called mylonite. Certain kinds of rock, such as those rich in quartz, carbonate minerals, or olivine, are particularly prone to form mylonites, while feldspar and garnet are resistant to mylonitization. Phase change Phase change metamorphism is the creating of a new mineral with the same chemical formula as a mineral of the protolith. This involves a rearrangement of the atoms in the crystals. An example is provided by the aluminium silicate minerals, kyanite, andalusite, and kyanite. All three have the identical composition, . Kyanite is stable at surface conditions. However, at atmospheric pressure, kyanite transforms to andalusite at a temperature of about . Andalusite, in turn, transforms to sillimanite when the temperature reaches about . At pressures above about 4 kbar (400 Mpa), kyanite transforms directly to sillimanite as the temperature increases. A similar phase change is sometimes seen between calcite and aragonite, with calcite transforming to aragonite at elevated pressure and relatively low temperature. Neocrystallization Neocrystallization involves the creation of new mineral crystals different from the protolith. Chemical reactions digest the minerals of the protolith which yields new minerals. This is a very slow process as it can also involve the diffusion of atoms through solid crystals. An example of a neocrystallization reaction is the reaction of fayalite with plagioclase at elevated pressure and temperature to form garnet. The reaction is: Many complex high-temperature reactions may take place between minerals without them melting, and each mineral assemblage produced provides us with a clue as to the temperatures and pressures at the time of metamorphism. These reactions are possible because of rapid diffusion of atoms at elevated temperature. Pore fluid between mineral grains can be an important medium through which atoms are exchanged. A particularly important group of neocrystallization reactions are those that release volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide. During metamorphism of basalt to eclogite in subduction zones, hydrous minerals break down, producing copious quantities of water. The water rises into the overlying mantle, where it lowers the melting temperature of the mantle rock, generating magma via flux melting. The mantle-derived magmas can ultimately reach the Earth's surface, resulting in volcanic eruptions. The resulting arc volcanoes tend to produce dangerous eruptions, because their high water content makes them extremely explosive. Examples of dehydration reactions that release water include: An example of a decarbonation reaction is: Plastic deformation In plastic deformation pressure is applied to the protolith, which causes it to shear or bend, but not break. In order for this to happen temperatures must be high enough that brittle fractures do not occur, but not so high that diffusion of crystals takes place. As with pressure solution, the early stages of plastic deformation begin during diagenesis. Types Regional Regional metamorphism is a general term for metamorphism that affects entire regions of the Earth's crust. It most often refers to dynamothermal metamorphism, which takes place in orogenic belts (regions where mountain building is taking place), but also includes burial metamorphism, which results simply from rock being buried to great depths below the Earth's surface in a subsiding basin. Dynamothermal To many geologists, regional metamorphism is practically synonymous with dynamothermal metamorphism. This form of metamorphism takes place at convergent plate boundaries, where two continental plates or a continental plate and an island arc collide. The collision zone becomes a belt of mountain formation called an orogeny. The orogenic belt is characterized by thickening of the Earth's crust, during which the deeply buried crustal rock is subjected to high temperatures and pressures and is intensely deformed. Subsequent erosion of the mountains exposes the roots of the orogenic belt as extensive outcrops of metamorphic rock, characteristic of mountain chains. Metamorphic rock formed in these settings tends to shown well-developed foliation. Foliation develops when a rock is being shortened along one axis during metamorphism. This causes crystals of platy minerals, such as mica and chlorite, to become rotated such that their short axes are parallel to the direction of shortening. This results in a banded, or foliated, rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them. Foliated rock often develops planes of cleavage. Slate is an example of a foliated metamorphic rock, originating from shale, and it typically shows well-developed cleavage that allows slate to be split into thin plates. The type of foliation that develops depends on the metamorphic grade. For instance, starting with a mudstone, the following sequence develops with increasing temperature: The mudstone is first converted to slate, which is a very fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock, characteristic of very low grade metamorphism. Slate in turn is converted to phyllite, which is fine-grained and found in areas of low grade metamorphism. Schist is medium to coarse-grained and found in areas of medium grade metamorphism. High-grade metamorphism transforms the rock to gneiss, which is coarse to very coarse-grained. Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those that lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Marble lacks platy minerals and is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture. Collisional orogenies are preceded by subduction of oceanic crust. The conditions within the subducting slab as it plunges toward the mantle in a subduction zone produce their own distinctive regional metamorphic effects, characterized by paired metamorphic belts. The pioneering work of George Barrow on regional metamorphism in the Scottish Highlands showed that some regional metamorphism produces well-defined, mappable zones of increasing metamorphic grade. This Barrovian metamorphism is the most recognized metamorphic series in the world. However, Barrovian metamorphism is specific to pelitic rock, formed from mudstone or siltstone, and it is not unique even in pelitic rock. A different sequence in the northeast of Scotland defines Buchan metamorphism, which took place at lower pressure than the Barrovian. Burial Burial metamorphism takes place simply through rock being buried to great depths below the Earth's surface in a subsiding basin. Here the rock subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Burial metamorphism tends to produced low-grade metamorphic rock. This shows none of the effects of deformation and folding so characteristic of dynamothermal metamorphism. Examples of metamorphic rocks formed by burial metamorphism include some of the rocks of the Midcontinent Rift System of North America, such as the Sioux Quartzite, and in the Hamersley Basin of Australia. Contact (thermal) Contact metamorphism occurs typically around intrusive igneous rocks as a result of the temperature increase caused by the intrusion of magma into cooler country rock. The area surrounding the intrusion where the contact metamorphism effects are present is called the metamorphic aureole, the contact aureole, or simply the aureole. Contact metamorphic rocks are usually known as hornfels. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not present signs of strong deformation and are often fine-grained and extremely tough. Contact metamorphism is greater adjacent to the intrusion and dissipates with distance from the contact. The size of the aureole depends on the heat of the intrusion, its size, and the temperature difference with the wall rocks. Dikes generally have small aureoles with minimal metamorphism, extending not more than one or two dike thicknesses into the surrounding rock, whereas the aureoles around batholiths can be up to several kilometers wide. The metamorphic grade of an aureole is measured by the peak metamorphic mineral which forms in the aureole. This is usually related to the metamorphic temperatures of pelitic or aluminosilicate rocks and the minerals they form. The metamorphic grades of aureoles at shallow depth are albite-epidote hornfels, hornblende hornfels, pyroxene hornfels, and sillimanite hornfels, in increasing order of temperature of formation. However, the albite-epidote hornfels is often not formed, even though it is the lowest temperature grade. Magmatic fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in the metamorphic reactions. An extensive addition of magmatic fluids can significantly modify the chemistry of the affected rocks. In this case the metamorphism grades into metasomatism. If the intruded rock is rich in carbonate the result is a skarn. Fluorine-rich magmatic waters which leave a cooling granite may often form greisens within and adjacent to the contact of the granite. Metasomatic altered aureoles can localize the deposition of metallic ore minerals and thus are of economic interest. Fenitization, or Na-metasomatism, is a distinctive form of contact metamorphism accompanied by metasomatism. It takes place around intrusions of a rare type of magma called a carbonatite that is highly enriched in carbonates and low in silica. Cooling bodies of carbonatite magma give off highly alkaline fluids rich in sodium as they solidify, and the hot, reactive fluid replaces much of the mineral content in the aureole with sodium-rich minerals. A special type of contact metamorphism, associated with fossil fuel fires, is known as pyrometamorphism. Hydrothermal Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of the interaction of a rock with a high-temperature fluid of variable composition. The difference in composition between an existing rock and the invading fluid triggers a set of metamorphic and metasomatic reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may be magmatic (originate in an intruding magma), circulating groundwater, or ocean water. Convective circulation of hydrothermal fluids in the ocean floor basalts produces extensive hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to spreading centers and other submarine volcanic areas. The fluids eventually escape through vents on the ocean floor known as black smokers. The patterns of this hydrothermal alteration are used as a guide in the search for deposits of valuable metal ores. Shock Shock metamorphism occurs when an extraterrestrial object (a meteorite for instance) collides with the Earth's surface. Impact metamorphism is, therefore, characterized by ultrahigh pressure conditions and low temperature. The resulting minerals (such as SiO2 polymorphs coesite and stishovite) and textures are characteristic of these conditions. Dynamic Dynamic metamorphism is associated with zones of high strain such as fault zones. In these environments, mechanical deformation is more important than chemical reactions in transforming the rock. The minerals present in the rock often do not reflect conditions of chemical equilibrium, and the textures produced by dynamic metamorphism are more significant than the mineral makeup. There are three deformation mechanisms by which rock is mechanically deformed. These are cataclasis, the deformation of rock via the fracture and rotation of mineral grains; plastic deformation of individual mineral crystals; and movement of individual atoms by diffusive processes. The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on the depth at which they were formed, as the temperature and confining pressure determine the deformation mechanisms which predominate. At the shallowest depths, a fault zone will be filled with various kinds of unconsolidated cataclastic rock, such as fault gouge or fault breccia. At greater depths, these are replaced by consolidated cataclastic rock, such as crush breccia, in which the larger rock fragments are cemented together by calcite or quartz. At depths greater than about , cataclasites appear; these are quite hard rocks consist of crushed rock fragments in a flinty matrix, which forms only at elevated temperature. At still greater depths, where temperatures exceed , plastic deformation takes over, and the fault zone is composed of mylonite. Mylonite is distinguished by its strong foliation, which is absent in most cataclastic rock. It is distinguished from the surrounding rock by its finer grain size. There is considerable evidence that cataclasites form as much through plastic deformation and recrystallization as brittle fracture of grains, and that the rock may never fully lose cohesion during the process. Different minerals become ductile at different temperatures, with quartz being among the first to become ductile, and sheared rock composed of different minerals may simultaneously show both plastic deformation and brittle fracture. The strain rate also affects the way in which rocks deform. Ductile deformation is more likely at low strain rates (less than 10-14 sec-1) in the middle and lower crust, but high strain rates can cause brittle deformation. At the highest strain rates, the rock may be so strongly heated that it briefly melts, forming a glassy rock called pseudotachylite. Pseudotachylites seem to be restricted to dry rock, such as granulite. Classification of metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks are classified by their protolith, if this can be determined from the properties of the rock itself. For example, if examination of a metamorphic rock shows that its protolith was basalt, it will be described as a metabasalt. When the protolith cannot be determined, the rock is classified by its mineral composition or its degree of foliation. Metamorphic grades Metamorphic grade is an informal indication of the amount or degree of metamorphism. In the Barrovian sequence (described by George Barrow in zones of progressive metamorphism in Scotland), metamorphic grades are also classified by mineral assemblage based on the appearance of key minerals in rocks of pelitic (shaly, aluminous) origin: Low grade ------------------- Intermediate --------------------- High grade Greenschist ------------- Amphibolite ----------------------- Granulite Slate --- Phyllite ---------- Schist ---------------------- Gneiss --- Migmatite Chlorite zone Biotite zone Garnet zone Staurolite zone Kyanite zone Sillimanite zone A more complete indication of this intensity or degree is provided by the concept of metamorphic facies. Metamorphic facies Metamorphic facies are recognizable terranes or zones with an assemblage of key minerals that were in equilibrium under specific range of temperature and pressure during a metamorphic event. The facies are named after the metamorphic rock formed under those facies conditions from basalt. The particular mineral assemblage is somewhat dependent on the composition of that protolith, so that (for example) the amphibolite facies of a marble will not be identical with the amphibolite facies of a pellite. However, the facies are defined such that metamorphic rock with as broad a range of compositions as is practical can be assigned to a particular facies. The present definition of metamorphic facies is largely based on the work of the Finnish geologist, Pentti Eskola in 1921, with refinements based on subsequent experimental work. Eskola drew upon the zonal schemes, based on index minerals, that were pioneered by the British geologist, George Barrow. The metamorphic facies is not usually considered when classifying metamorphic rock based on protolith, mineral mode, or texture. However, a few metamorphic facies produce rock of such distinctive character that the facies name is used for the rock when more precise classification is not possible. The chief examples are amphibolite and eclogite. The British Geological Survey strongly discourages use of granulite as a classification for rock metamorphosed to the granulite facies. Instead, such rock will often be classified as a granofels. However, this is not universally accepted. See diagram for more detail. Prograde and retrograde Metamorphism is further divided into prograde and retrograde metamorphism. Prograde metamorphism involves the change of mineral assemblages (paragenesis) with increasing temperature and (usually) pressure conditions. These are solid state dehydration reactions, and involve the loss of volatiles such as water or carbon dioxide. Prograde metamorphism results in rock characteristic of the maximum pressure and temperature experienced. Metamorphic rocks usually do not undergo further change when they are brought back to the surface. Retrograde metamorphism involves the reconstitution of a rock via revolatisation under decreasing temperatures (and usually pressures), allowing the mineral assemblages formed in prograde metamorphism to revert to those more stable at less extreme conditions. This is a relatively uncommon process, because volatiles produced during prograde metamorphism usually migrate out of the rock and are not available to recombine with the rock during cooling. Localized retrograde metamorphism can take place when fractures in the rock provide a pathway for groundwater to enter the cooling rock. Equilibrium mineral assemblages Metamorphic processes act to bring the protolith closer to thermodynamic equilibrium, which is its state of maximum stability. For example, shear stress (nonhydrodynamic stress) is incompatible with thermodynamic equilibrium, so sheared rock will tend to deform in ways that relieve the shear stress. The most stable assemblage of minerals for a rock of a given composition is that which minimizes the Gibbs free energy where: U is the internal energy (SI unit: joule), p is pressure (SI unit: pascal), V is volume (SI unit: m3), T is the temperature (SI unit: kelvin), S is the entropy (SI unit: joule per kelvin), In other words, a metamorphic reaction will take place only if it lowers the total Gibbs free energy of the protolith. Recrystallization to coarser crystals lowers the Gibbs free energy by reducing surface energy, while phase changes and neocrystallization reduce the bulk Gibbs free energy. A reaction will begin at the temperature and pressure where the Gibbs free energy of the reagents becomes greater than that of the products. A mineral phase will generally be more stable if it has a lower internal energy, reflecting tighter binding between its atoms. Phases with a higher density (expressed as a lower molar volume V) are more stable at higher pressure, while minerals with a less ordered structure (expressed as a higher entropy S) are favored at high temperature. Thus andalusite is stable only at low pressure, since it has the lowest density of any aluminium silicate polymorph, while sillimanite is the stable form at higher temperatures, since it has the least ordered structure. The Gibbs free energy of a particular mineral at a specified temperature and pressure can be expressed by various analytic formulas. These are calibrated against experimentally measured properties and phase boundaries of mineral assemblages. The equilibrium mineral assemblage for a given bulk composition of rock at a specified temperature and pressure can then be calculated on a computer. However, it is often very useful to represent equilibrium mineral assemblages using various kinds of diagrams. These include petrogenetic grids and compatibility diagrams (compositional phase diagrams.) Petrogenetic grids A petrogenetic grid is a geologic phase diagram that plots experimentally derived metamorphic reactions at their pressure and temperature conditions for a given rock composition. This allows metamorphic petrologists to determine the pressure and temperature conditions under which rocks metamorphose. The Al2SiO5 nesosilicate phase diagram shown is a very simple petrogenetic grid for rocks that only have a composition consisting of aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O). As the rock undergoes different temperatures and pressure, it could be any of the three given polymorphic minerals. For a rock that contains multiple phases, the boundaries between many phase transformations may be plotted, though the petrogenetic grid quickly becomes complicated. For example, a petrogenetic grid might show both the aluminium silicate phase transitions and the transition from aluminum silicate plus potassium feldspar to muscovite plus quartz. Compatibility diagrams Whereas a petrogenetic grid shows phases for a single composition over a range of temperature and pressure, a compatibility diagram shows how the mineral assemblage varies with composition at a fixed temperature and pressure. Compatibility diagrams provide an excellent way to analyze how variations in the rock's composition affect the mineral paragenesis that develops in a rock at particular pressure and temperature conditions. Because of the difficulty of depicting more than three components (as a ternary diagram), usually only the three most important components are plotted, though occasionally a compatibility diagram for four components is plotted as a projected tetrahedron. See also Footnotes References Eskola P., 1920, The Mineral Facies of Rocks, Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr., 6, 143–194 </ref> Vernon, R. H., 1976, Metamorphic Processes, Halsted Press Further reading Winter J.D., 2001, An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, Prentice-Hall . External links Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 1. How to Name a Metamorphic Rock Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 2. Types, Grade, and Facies of Metamorphism Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 3. Structural terms including fault rock terms Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 4. High P/T Metamorphic Rocks James Madison University: Metamorphism Barrovian Metamorphism: Brock Univ. 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202832	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890%20in%20literature	1890 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1890. Events January – William Heinemann launches his Heinemann publishing business in London's Covent Garden with Hall Caine's successful novel The Bondman. January 25 – L. Frank Baum begins publishing and editing his newspaper The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer in Aberdeen, South Dakota; it survives for just over a year. March 8 – Bram Stoker begins work on Dracula. c. June–September – Joseph Conrad, at this time serving as Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski with a Belgian steamer company, makes a journey on the Congo River which will inspire his novel Heart of Darkness (1899). July 13 – Ambrose Bierce's short story "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge", one of his best known works, is first published, in The San Francisco Examiner. July–August – Bram Stoker holidays with his family at Whitby and from the library there reads William Wilkinson's An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, all of which feed into his composition of Dracula. September – Arthur Morrison joins the staff of The Globe (London newspaper). October 20 – A day after the death of Richard Francis Burton in Trieste, his widow, Isabel, burns his journals, a revised translation of The Perfumed Garden and many more manuscripts and books, largely on account of their erotic nature. unknown dates Leo Tolstoy's novella The Kreutzer Sonata, suppressed in Russia, is published in Berlin in Russian, German, English and French, with other English versions issued in the UK and the United States. The United States Post Office Department prohibits mailing of newspapers containing serialized installments of it. Macmillan Publishers in the U.K. begin to supply on "net book" terms, i. e. no discounts are available to consumers. Hall Caine's four-act historical drama Mahomet, based on the life of Muhammad and written for the actor-manager Henry Irving, is banned by the Lord Chamberlain after it causes unrest in Britain's Muslim communities, threatens British rule in parts of India and strains Britain's relations with the Ottoman Empire. New books Fiction Rolf Boldrewood – The Squatter's Dream Mary Elizabeth Braddon – One Life, One Love Rhoda Broughton – Alas! Hall Caine The Bondman The Prophet: a Parable (novella) Kate Chopin – At Fault Wilkie Collins (completed after his death by Walter Besant) – Blind Love Marie Corelli – Wormwood Louis Couperus – Footsteps of Fate (Noodlot – Fate – in the magazine De Gids, dated October) Jane Dieulafoy – Parysatis Florence Dixie – Gloriana, or the Revolution of 1900 Ignatius L. Donnelly – Caesar's Column Arthur Conan Doyle The Firm of Girdlestone The Sign of Four (Sherlock Holmes story originally published as The Sign of the Four in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine dated February) Knut Hamsun – Hunger (Sult) E. W. Hornung – A Bride from the Bush William Dean Howells – A Hazard of New Fortunes Rudyard Kipling – The Light That Failed (in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine dated January 1891) Arthur Machen – The Great God Pan (in the magazine The Whirlwind) Karl May – Der Schatz im Silbersee (The Treasure of Silver Lake, begins publication) Mori Ōgai – "The Dancing Girl" (舞姫, Maihime, short story in Kokumin no Tomo) William Morris – News from Nowhere (serialized in Commonweal) Octave Mirbeau – Sébastien Roch Georges Ohnet - Serge Panine Bolesław Prus The Doll (Lalka; book publication) The New Woman (Emancypantki; serialization begins) Molly Elliot Seawell – Little Jarvis Mary Taylor – Miss Miles, or, A Tale of Yorkshire Life Sixty Years Ago Jules Verne – César Cascabel Oscar Wilde – The Picture of Dorian Gray (in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine dated July) Children and young people Lady Florence Dixie Aniwee, or, The Warrior Queen The Young Castaways, or, The Child Hunters of Patagonia Joseph Jacobs – English Fairy Tales Kate Douglas Wiggin – Timothy's Quest Dikken Zwilgmeyer (as Inger Johanne) – Vi børn (We Children) Drama Hall Caine – Good Old Times Clyde Fitch – Beau Brummell James Herne – Margaret Fleming 'Bjarne P. Holmsen' (Arno Holz and Johannes Schlaf) – Die Familie Selicke Henrik Ibsen – Hedda Gabler Wilhelm Jacoby and Carl Laufs – Pension Schöller Maurice Maeterlinck – The Blind (Les aveugles) Arthur Wing Pinero – The Cabinet Minister Poetry Edwin James Brady – The Way of Many Rivers Emily Dickinson (died 1886) – Poems W. B. Yeats – "Lake Isle of Innisfree" (in The National Observer (London) 13 December) Non-fiction Eliza Brightwen – Wild Nature Won by Kindness Sir James George Frazer – The Golden Bough Clarissa Caldwell Lathrop, A Secret Institution Alfred Thayer Mahan – The Influence of Sea Power upon History Ragnar Redbeard (perhaps Arthur Desmond) – Might Is Right, or The Survival of the Fittest James McNeill Whistler – The Gentle Art of Making Enemies Births January 9 Karel Čapek, Czech author (died 1938) Barbara Euphan Todd, English children's writer (died 1976) January 11 – Oswald de Andrade, Brazilian poet and polemicist (died 1954) February 10 – Boris Pasternak, Russian author (died 1960) March 11 – Vannevar Bush, American author (died 1974) May 15 – Katherine Anne Porter, American journalist and novelist (died 1980) May 18 – Zora Cross, Australian poet and novelist (died 1964) May 20 – Allan Nevins, American historian and journalist (died 1971) May 29 Rhoda Power, English children's writer and broadcaster (died 1957) Martin Wickramasinghe, Sri Lankan novelist (died 1976) May 31 – Gheorghe Eminescu, Romanian historian and memoirist (died 1988) August 15 – Tsugi Takano (鷹野つぎ), Japanese novelist (died 1943) August 20 – H. P. Lovecraft, American horror writer (died 1937) August 24 – Jean Rhys, Dominica, West Indies-born English novelist (died 1979) August 28 – Ivor Gurney, English war poet and composer (died 1937) August 31 (August 19 O.S.) – August Alle, Estonian writer (died 1952) September 6 – Brinsley MacNamara, born John Weldon, Irish novelist and playwright (died 1963) September 10 – Franz Werfel, Austrian author (died 1945) September 15 – Agatha Christie, English mystery writer (died 1976) September 24 – A. P. Herbert, English humorist and novelist (died 1971) October 1 – Blanche Oelrichs, American poet and playwright (died 1950) October 13 – Conrad Richter, American novelist (died 1968) November 2 – Moa Martinson, Swedish author (died 1964) November 25 – Isaac Rosenberg, English poet (killed in action 1918) December 2 – Károly Molter, Hungarian novelist, dramatist and academic (died 1981) Deaths January 2 – George Henry Boker, American poet and playwright (born 1823) June 11 – George Edward Brett, American publisher (born 1829) June 24 – Subba Row, Hindu Theosophist writer (cutaneous disease, born 1856) July 15 – Gottfried Keller, Swiss novelist (born 1819) July 18 – Lydia Becker, English journalist and author, co-founder of the Women's Suffrage Journal (born 1827) August 9 – Eduard von Bauernfeld, Austrian dramatist (born 1802) September 18 – Dion Boucicault, Irish dramatist (born c. 1820) October 19 – Sir Richard Francis Burton, English explorer, translator and writer (born 1821) October 26 – Carlo Collodi, Italian children's writer (born 1826) November 1 – Júlio Ribeiro, Brazilian naturalist, novelist and grammarian (tuberculosis, born 1845) December 6 – Richard William Church, English biographer and cleric (born 1815) December 18 – Grigory Danilevsky, Russian historical novelist (born 1829) December 19 – Zénaïde Fleuriot, French novelist (born 1829) December 29 – Octave Feuillet, French novelist and dramatist (born 1821) Awards Newdigate prize – Laurence Binyon References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ 0.038601476699113846, 0.2459382712841034, -0.6537648439407349, -0.04163961112499237, -0.6050687432289124, 0.04148868843913078, 0.6014004349708557, 0.5519821047782898, -0.5826264023780823, -0.8374849557876587, 0.026889778673648834, -0.11789742112159729, 0.09823492169380188, 0.21030746400356293, 0.027078386396169662, -0.14656208455562592, 0.17984476685523987, -0.12955787777900696, 0.14817950129508972, -0.5345069766044617, -0.5355037450790405, 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202833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1887%20in%20literature	1887 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1887. Events February – Oscar Wilde publishes "The Canterville Ghost", his first short story, in The Court and Society Review. March 30 – Théâtre Libre, established by André Antoine to promote naturalism in theatre, gives its first performances in Paris, originally as an amateur ensemble. April 22 – Syracuse University in New York State purchases the Ranke Library from the estate of historian Leopold von Ranke, outbidding the Prussian government. November – Arthur Conan Doyle's first detective novel, A Study in Scarlet, is published in Beeton's Christmas Annual by Ward Lock & Co. in London, introducing the consulting detective Sherlock Holmes and his friend and chronicler Dr. Watson (illustrated by D. H. Friston). December 5 – The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886) comes into effect. December 15 – The Romanian literary magazine Revista Nouă is launched in Bucharest by Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, who answers a request made by Ioan Bianu, Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea, Alexandru Vlahuță and others. The first issue, illustrated by George Demetrescu Mirea, hosts Delavrancea's Hagi Tudose and Petre Ispirescu's Sarea în bucate (a localized folkloric version of the King Leir myth). unknown dates Futabatei Shimei writes and begins to publish The Drifting Cloud (浮雲, Ukigumo), the first modern novel in Japan. George Hutchinson establishes Hutchinson & Co. as a publisher in London. John Lane and Elkin Mathews set up in partnership under the name The Bodley Head in London, originally as antiquarian booksellers. New books Fiction Herman Bang – Stucco (Stuk) Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Cut by the County Hall Caine – The Deemster Marie Corelli – Thelma F. Marion Crawford – Saracinesca José Maria de Eça de Queiroz – A Relíquia (The Relic) Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea – Hagi Tudose Anna Bowman Dodd – The Republic of the Future Arthur Conan Doyle – A Study in Scarlet Édouard Dujardin – Les Lauriers sont coupés (early example of Stream of consciousness, narrative mode) Benito Pérez Galdós – Fortunata y Jacinta (publication completed) Enrique Gaspar – El anacronópete, first fiction to feature a time machine George Gissing – Thyrza H. Rider Haggard Allan Quatermain Jess She Thomas Hardy – The Woodlanders W. H. Hudson – A Crystal Age Joris-Karl Huysmans – En rade (Becalmed; serialization concludes, book publication) Petre Ispirescu – Sarea în bucate Pierre Loti – Madame Chrysanthème Paolo Mantegazza – Testa William Morris – The Tables Turned, Or, Nupkins Awakened: A Socialist Interlude Appu Nedungadi – Kundalatha (കുന്ദലത) Bolesław Prus – The Doll (Lalka; serialization begins) José Rizal – Noli Me Tangere Mark Rutherford (pseudonym of Hale White) – Revolution in Tanner's Lane Futabatei Shimei – The Drifting Cloud August Strindberg – The People of Hemsö (Hemsöborna) Jules Verne The Flight to France (Le Chemin de France) Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (Nord contre Sud) O. F. Walton – A Peep Behind the Scenes Émile Zola – La Terre (The Earth) Children and young people Palmer Cox – The Brownies, Their Book Robert Louis Stevenson – The Merry Men and Other Tales and Fables Drama Anton Chekhov – Ivanov Arthur Wing Pinero – Dandy Dick Victorien Sardou – La Tosca August Strindberg – The Father Thomas Russell Sullivan – Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, adapted from 1886 Robert Louis Stevenson novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Non-fiction Mikhail Bakunin – God and the State Hall Caine – Life of Samuel Taylor Coleridge Charles Darwin (died 1882) – The Autobiography of Charles Darwin Julius Dresser – The True History of Mental Science Friedrich Engels (translated by Florence Kelley) – The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 (first English language edition) George William Foote – Royal Paupers: a radical's contribution to the Jubilee Franz Hartmann – The Life of Philippus Theophrastus Bombast of Hohenheim, better known by the name of Paracelsus, and the substance of his teachings David MacGibbon and Thomas Ross - The Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers – The Kabbalah Unveiled Friedrich Nietzsche – On the Genealogy of Morality Marius Nygaard, Jan Johanssen and Emil Schreiner – Latinsk Ordbog A. E. Waite – The Real History of the Rosicrucians L. L. Zamenhof – Unua Libro Births January 7 – Oskar Luts, Estonian author and playwright (died 1953) January 22 – Helen Hoyt, American poet (died 1972) February 1 – Charles Nordhoff, English-born author (died 1947) February 3 – Georg Trakl, Austrian poet (died of overdose 1914) February 4 – Sheila Kaye-Smith, English writer (died 1955) February 11 – John van Melle, South African writer (died 1953) February 20 – Carl Ebert, German theatre and opera director (died 1980) March 9 – Ion Buzdugan, Romanian poet and political figure (died 1967) March 14 – Sylvia Beach (Nancy Woodbridge Beach), American publisher and memoirist (died 1962) May 15 – Edwin Muir, Scottish poet and translator (died 1959) May 31 – Saint-John Perse, French diplomat, writer and Nobel Prize laureate (died 1975) June 2 – Orrick Glenday Johns, American poet and playwright (died 1946) June 25 – George Abbott, American playwright, director and screenwriter (died 1995) July 1 – Amber Reeves, New Zealand-born English scholar, feminist and novelist (died 1981) July 6 – Walter Flex, German war writer (died 1917) August 3 – Rupert Brooke, English poet (died 1915) August 17 – Marcus Garvey, African American publisher, entrepreneur and Pan Africanist (died 1940) August 28 – István Kühár, Prekmurje Slovene poet, writer and politician (died 1922) September 1 – Blaise Cendrars (Frédéric-Louis Sauser), Swiss-born French writer (died 1961) September 8 – Constantin Beldie, Romanian literary promoter and memoirist (died 1954) September 26 – Edwin Keppel Bennett, British writer (died 1958) October 1 – Barbu Nemțeanu, Romanian poet and translator (died 1919) October 22 – John Reed, American journalist and poet (died 1920) November 10 – Arnold Zweig, German novelist (died 1968) December 15 – A. de Herz, Romanian playwright and journalist (died 1936) Deaths February 10 – Mrs Henry Wood (Ellen Wood), English novelist (born 1814) February 11 – François Laurent, Belgian historian (born 1810) February 19 – Multatuli (Eduard Douwes Dekker), Dutch-born writer (born 1820) February 21 – Elizabeth Caroline Gray, historian and travel author (born 1800) March 20 – Pavel Annenkov, Russian critic and memoirist (born 1813) April 23 – John Ceiriog Hughes, Welsh poet and folk song collector (born 1832) May 4 – William Murdoch, Scottish-born Canadian poet (born 1823) May 5 – James Grant, Scottish novelist and historian (born 1822) August 20 – Jules Laforgue, French poet (born 1860) August 25 – Emma Jane Guyton (Worboise), English novelist and magazine editor (born 1825) September 14 – Friedrich Theodor Vischer, German novelist, poet, playwright and art theorist (born 1807) September 27 – Mikalojus Akelaitis, Lithuanian writer, linguist and publicist (born 1829) October 12 – Dinah Craik, English novelist and poet (born 1826) November 2 – Alfred Domett, English-born New Zealand poet and politician (born 1811) November 19 – Emma Lazarus, American poet (born 1849) December 5 – Eliza Roxcy Snow, American poet (born 1804) 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202834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist	Orléanist	Orléanist () was a 19th-century French political label originally used by those who supported a constitutional monarchy expressed by the House of Orléans. Due to the radical political changes that occurred during that century in France, three different phases of Orléanism can be identified: The "pure" Orléanism: constituted by those who supported the constitutional reign of Louis Philippe I (18301848) after the 1830 July Revolution, and who showed liberal and moderate ideas. The "fusionist" Orléanism: the movement formed by pure Orléanists and by those Legitimists who after the childless death of Henri, Count of Chambord in 1883 endorsed Philippe, Count of Paris, grandson of Louis Philippe, as his successor. The fusion drove the Orleanist movement to more conservative stances. The "progressive" Orléanism: the majority of "fusionists" who, after the decline of monarchist sentiment in the 1890s, joined into moderate republicans, who showed progressive and secular-minded goals, or into Catholic rally, like the Liberal Action. Orleanism was opposed by the two other monarchist trends: the more conservative Legitimism that was loyal to the eldest branch of the House of Bourbon after 1830, and the Bonapartism that supported Napoleon’s legacy and heirs. Under the July Monarchy On 26 July 1830, the revolution of the so-called Three Glorious Days (or July Revolution) erupted due to the authoritarian and anti-Gallican tendencies showed by Charles X and his Prime Minister Jules de Polignac, expressed by the recently approved Saint-Cloud Ordinances. Despite the abdication of Charles X and the Dauphin Louis in favor to Charles X's grandson Henri, Duke of Bordeaux, on 2 August 1830, only seven days later Louis Philippe I, still Duke of Orléans, was elected by the Chamber of Deputies as new "King of the French". The enthronement of Louis Philippe was strongly wanted by Doctrinaires, the liberal opposition to Charles X's ministries, under the concept "nationalize the monarchy and royalize France". On 14 August 1830, the Chamber approved a new Constitution, who became the de facto political manifesto for the Orléanists, containing the basis for a constitutional monarchy with a central Parliament. The Orléanism, became the dominant tendency within political life, easily divided inside the Chamber of Deputies between the centre-left of Adolphe Thiers and the centre-right of François Guizot. Louis Philippe showed himself more aligned with Guizot, entrusted to the higher offices of government, and rapidly became associated with the rising "new men" of the banks, industries and finance, gaining the epithet of "Roi bourgeois". In the early 1840s, Louis Philippe's popularity decreased, due to his strong connection to upper classes and repression against workers' strikes, and showed few concerns for his weakened position, leading the writer Victor Hugo to describe him as "a man with many little qualities". The Orléanist regime finally fell in 1848, when a revolution erupted and on 24 February Louis Philippe abdicated in favor to his grandson Philippe, Count of Paris, under regency of his mother Helene, Duchess of Orléans, who was quickly ousted out from the Chamber of Deputies during the regency's formalization, who was interrupted by republican deputies who instead proclaimed the Second Republic. After 18 years of reign, Louis Philippe left the Orléanist base well-defined inside the magistrature, the press, universities and academies, especially the Académie française. However, also some great aristocratic families joined the court, like the Dukes of Broglie, as well former Bonapartist officers like the Marshal Soult and Édouard Mortier. This establishment constituted the majority of the Party of Order, led by Thiers, who represented the conservatives and monarchists under the Second Republic. Under the Third Republic Fusion and restoration project Orléanism revived after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 which caused the fall of the Second Empire which had succeeded to the Second Republic under Emperor Napoleon III, the former president of France who had been enthroned after the coup d'état of 1851. The Second Empire was succeeded itself officially in 1871 by the Third Republic. A National Assembly, composed by 638 on 778 seats, was formed and new elections were called for the 8 February of the same year, which resulted in a victory for the monarchist right: 396 seats won, divided to 214 Orléanists and 182 Legitimists, nicknamed "cavalrymen". Initially divided about the dynastic issue, the Orléanists found a compromise with the Legitimists, supporting the rights of Henri, Count of Chambord (former Duke of Bordeaux, currently childless) in return of the recognition of the Count of Paris as his heir, echoing an 1862 statement of Chambord. Although Chambord never mentioned the Count of Paris as his heir, probably fearing the defection of his ultraconservative supporters, the informal agreement sanctioned the "fusion" of Legitimists and Orléanists, who quite easily formed a conservative coalition. The monarchist majority, led by the Duke of Aumale (son of Louis Philippe), and the centre-left endorsed the centre-right candidate Thiers as president of the Republic, but due to the continued arguments between Legitimists and Orléanists and the memory of the dynastic divisions of the past 40 years, Thiers moved to support a "conservative republic" instead of a divided monarchy. Due to Chambord's dislike toward Aumale, the "fusionists" rapidly passed under the leadership of the Duke of Broglie, who in 1873 successfully managed the election of President Patrice de MacMahon, former general and national hero who showed Legitimist sympathies, considering him as a kind of "lieutenant-general of the kingdom" before the fully restoration of Chambord on the throne. Broglie was shortly after awarded with the premiership by Mac Mahon, supported by monarchists and the centre-right. Restoration appeared imminent when a parliamentary commission was established in October 1873 to adopt a monarchist constitution. But in the same month the majority was weakened by the refusal of Chambord to accept the French Tricolour, used since 1830, preferring instead the return of the royal white flag, symbol of the Ancien Régime. The question was apparently resolved with a compromise between Broglie and Chambord: the last will accept the tricolour flag while a future agreement about a new flag will be considered. In October the majority was shocked when the centre-right representative Charles Savary rashly misinformed the press of Chambord's full acceptance of the tricolour flag,. The pretender had to harshly clarify his position, causing the left of the centre-right, Orléanists disappointment and the dissolution of the "restoration" commission on 31 October 1873. A last attempt by Chambord was made on 12 November, when he asked President MacMahon via the Duke of Blacas to join with him into the National Assembly and spoke toward the representatives, hoping to convince them to restore the monarchy, but MacMahon refused due to his institutional position, toward he was formally even if not ideologically attached, causing the project's failure. Due to the impossibility to restore the monarchy in a short time, the Orléanists waited the death of the sickly Chambord, occurred in 1883, but by that time, enthusiasm for a monarchy had faded, and as a result the Count of Paris was never offered the French throne. The monarchists, however, still controlled the National Assembly, and under MacMahon's partisan presidency they launched the so-called "moral order government", in reference to the Paris Commune, whose political and social innovations were viewed as morally degenerate by large conservative segments of the French population. In February 1875, a series of parliamentary acts established the constitutional laws of the new republic. At its head was a President of the Republic. A two-chamber parliament consisting of a directly elected Chamber of Deputies and an indirectly-elected Senate was created, along with a ministry under the President of the council (prime minister), who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and the legislature. Throughout the 1870s, the issue of whether a monarchy should replace the republic dominated public debate. On 16 May 1877, with public opinion swinging heavily in favour of a republic after the election of March, President MacMahon made one last desperate attempt to salvage the monarchical cause by dismissing the "conservative republican" prime minister Jules Simon and appointing the Duke of Broglie to office. He then dissolved parliament and called a general election for the following October. If his hope had been to halt the move towards republicanism, it backfired spectacularly, with the president being accused of having staged a constitutional coup d'état known as "16 May Crisis" after the date on which it happened. Republicans returned triumphantly after the October elections for the Chamber of Deputies. The crisis ultimately sealed the defeat of the royalist movement, and was instrumental in creating the conditions of the longevity of the Third Republic: in January 1879 the Republicans gained control of the Senate, formerly monopolized by monarchists. MacMahon himself resigned on 30 January 1879, leaving a seriously weakened presidency in the hands of Jules Grévy, leader of the Republican Left. The end of the presidency Mac Mahon and the Senate's loss caused the end of the monarchist bloc. Although there were Orléanist deputies in the Chamber for all the 19th century, they were only a minority. At the end, many monarchists accepted the republic, moving toward the centre. Some Orléanists, especially from their bourgeoise core base, accepted the republic even since the 1870s, like Thiers and press baron Émile de Girardin. In 1892, after Pope Leo XIII's approval to the Third Republic, breaking the historical alliance between Church and Crown, some monarchists led by Orléanist Jacques Piou and Legitimist Albert de Mun formed the group of the "ralliés" ("supporters"), that in 1901 constituted the base of the first Christian Democratic party in France, the Liberal Action, while many other royalists were still attached to the Crown. Association with the far-right The elections of 1898 confirmed the exclusion of the monarchists from any possible government. However, 4 years earlier, the Dreyfus affair shook public opinion, dividing the republican camp: socialists, radicals and liberals defended the innocence of Dreyfus, while other republicans joined the nationalists and monarchists against Dreyfus. The election also introduced 10 overtly anti-Semitic representatives, led by Édouard Drumont. The following year, on 20 June 1899, the academic Henri Vaugeois and journalist Maurice Pujo founded the nationalist association Action française, initially absent of any specific ideology. However, the Action was joined by many Catholics and monarchists who were anti-Dreyfus, contributing to the move of the association toward the right. Particularly, the adhesion of Charles Maurras, considered a "pragmatic" anti-Dreyfusard rather than a true anti-Semite, contributed to the creation of the ideology of the Action, which rapidly became the main monarchist group. Maurras, despite becoming the movement's ideologist, supported not a classical monarchy on religious term (divine right) but a positivist one, stating that a monarchy would grant more order and stability than a parliamentary republic. The largest group of French monarchists, after the death of Chambord in 1883, endorsed the Count of Paris until his death in 1894, recognizing the claim of his son Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who was also supported by the Action. However, monarchism inside the Action was always integrated secondary to its semi-official ideology of "integral nationalism" theorized by Maurras, and many Action activists were still republicans, like the founder Vaugeois. The movement grew to be one of the largest organizations in France, but in 1926 a condemnation from Pope Pius XI against the Action caused the defection of many Catholic sympathizers. The Pope judged that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration, and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms, and the Action Française never recovered from the condemnation. By 1934, the Action was still a considerable force, with over 60,000 members across France. In that year, they joined other far-right leagues on 6 February demonstrations against political corruption and the Parliament, causing the resignation of Prime Minister Édouard Daladier the day after and provoking fear of a nationalist coup d'état. The papal condemnation, the aggressive tactics, and Maurras's disrespectful attitude toward constitutional monarchists finally ended the organization as a major power. The Orléanist pretender Jean, Duke of Guise, who in 1937 broken ties with the Action, also lost many supporters. From this moment, Orléanism ceased to be associated with the Action or the far-right. Instead, the Duke of Guise's son and heir Henri, Count of Paris, launched his own magazine Courier Royale and secretly dealt with anti-fascist conservative General La Rocque, leader of the French Social Party, about the possibility of a restoration. Hope during the Fourth Republic In 1946, the Count of Paris (who succeeded his father in 1940) moved to Portugal due to the ban on former royals still present in France. As a result of the unstable situation of the Fourth Republic, characterized like its predecessor by short governments and a high number of political parties, the Count of Paris made a serious attempt to restore the French monarchy. He endorsed the Christian Democratic Popular Republican Movement (MPR), and formed a kind of political committee composed of the academics Bertrand de Jouvenel, Gustave Thibon and Michel de Saint Pierre, publishing on 5 February 1948 the manifesto Esquisse d'une constitution monarchique et démocratique, that promoted the idea of a constitutional monarchy. Thanks to the MPR deputy Paul Hutin-Desgrées (co-founder of Ouest-France), the exile law was abrogated on 24 June 1950, permitting the return of the Count of Paris to the capital, where he met with President Vincent Auriol. The count and his family made their home in the Parisian suburbs of Louveciennes, and quickly became media darlings. Orléans frequently went to parties and meetings which were attended by prominent French politicians of the Fourth Republic, such as Antoine Pinay, Jacques Soustelle, Pierre Mendès France and Maurice Schumann. Through his newsletter Courier 50, the Count of Paris expressed support for the policies of Mendès France, like the peace in Indochina, the refusal of a US-controlled European Defence Community (EDC) and decolonization of French Africa. Orléans' relationship with Charles de Gaulle was also promising, as the general and the pretender had similar political views and were both devout Roman Catholics. When De Gaulle became prime minister in 1958, it was expected by the Count of Paris that the general would move to restore the French monarchy, but instead De Gaulle preferred to strengthen the republican institutions, eventually becoming the driving force behind the establishment of the present-day Fifth Republic. De Gaulle was elected president of the new government in 1959, and seems to have promised the Count of Paris that he wouldn't run again in the election of 1965, instead supporting the candidacy of the pretender that would promote a campaign to transform the republic into a constitutional monarchy. However, in 1963 De Gaulle confided to his minister Alain Peyrefitte that, despite his respect and esteem for the Count of Paris, he never considered him to be his successor as the head of state, stating that the idea of a monarchy was incompatible with the modern world. Disappointed by the false hopes and unfulfilled promises, the Count of Paris retired from French political life in 1967, ending also the publications of his newsletter. Principles of succession Orléanist claims follow these principles: The Crown descends to males born in the male line of Hugh Capet. The succession normally passes by primogeniture in the male line. Only children born of legal marriages conforming with the canon law of the Catholic Church are dynasts. The Sovereign or Head of the House must be Roman Catholic. The Sovereign or Head of the House must be French and inherit succession rights through a dynast of French nationality. Rules of succession to the Crown are governed by the Constitution and/or laws of the realm. It is this rule that separates the Orléanist rule from the Legitimist one. List of claimants to the French throne since 1848 Orléanist political parties Doctrinaires (1815-1848) Resistance Party (1832-1848) Movement Party (1831-1848) Party of Order (1848-1852) Action Française (1899- ) Legacy The Orléanist party, despite the different regimes, maintained its bourgeois platform, constituted by those academics, journalists and financiers who backed Louis Philippe during his reign, and was intended as the liberal centre of politics, far from reactionary Legitimists and revolutionary republicans. However, for all the span of Louis Philippe's reign, the Orléanists were not a homogeneous party, but simply the majority who supported the constitutional system. It was only after the establishment of the Second French Republic in 1848 and the division inside right-wing factions over the monarchy that the Orléanist party found unity, supporting a parliamentary system instead of an executive one. In the early 20th century, the majority of Orléanists accepted the republican institutions, approving the parliamentary system and pro-business policy realized by the republican majority, who reflected the historical Orléanist purposes. French historian René Rémond included the presidency of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing as part of the Orléanist tradition, due to his liberal views and equidistance from the nationalist right (descending from Bonapartism) and the conservative right (from Legitimism). The term "Orléanist parliamentarism" was also used by jurist and sociologist Maurice Duverger to define the form of government of the Fifth Republic, which presents a parliamentary system with a powerful head of state. In 1974, before the presidential election, the New Royal Action (NAR), born by a moderate faction spilled from the Action française, endorsed Bertrand Renouvin for the presidency, with the purpose of restoring a constitutional monarchy led by Orléans, followed by centrist and liberal positions on other issues. Renouvin gained only 43,722 votes (0.17%). Bibliography References See also Succession to the former French throne (Orléanist) Succession to the French throne French dynastic disputes Alliance Royale New Royalist Action French Action 1830 establishments in France 1898 disestablishments in France Eponymous political ideologies House of Orléans July Monarchy Conservative liberalism Classical liberalism Conservatism in France Conservative parties in France Liberal parties in France Monarchism in France Political history of France Political parties disestablished in 1898 Political parties established in 1830 Politics of France	[ 0.25245124101638794, -0.4187312722206116, -0.4154471755027771, 0.0014583448646590114, -0.16102361679077148, 0.2937774062156677, -0.16681547462940216, 0.22081585228443146, -0.3362625241279602, -0.4773956835269928, -0.4193173050880432, 0.7216503024101257, -0.3085692524909973, 0.5574987530708313, 0.09003119170665741, 0.5143812894821167, 0.11597195267677307, -0.013867499306797981, 0.1965564340353012, 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202835	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Kevorkian	Jack Kevorkian	Murad Jacob "Jack" Kevorkian (May 26, 1928 – June 3, 2011) was an American pathologist and euthanasia proponent. He publicly championed a terminal patient's right to die by physician-assisted suicide, embodied in his quote, "Dying is not a crime". Kevorkian said that he assisted at least 130 patients to that end. He was convicted of murder in 1999 and was often portrayed in the media with the name of "Dr. Death". There was support for his cause, and he helped set the platform for reform. In 1998, Kevorkian was arrested and tried for his direct role in a case of voluntary euthanasia on a man named Thomas Youk who suffered from Lou Gehrig’s disease, or ALS. He was convicted of second-degree murder and served 8 years of a 10-to-25-year prison sentence. He was released on parole on June 1, 2007, on condition he would not offer advice about, participate in, or be present at the act of any type of suicide involving euthanasia to any other person, as well as neither promote nor talk about the procedure of assisted suicide. Early life and education Kevorkian was born in Pontiac, Michigan, on May 26, 1928, to Armenian immigrants from present-day Turkey. His father, Levon (1887–1960), was born in the village of Passen, near Erzurum, and his mother, Satenig (1900–1968), was born in the village of Govdun, near Sivas. His father left Armenia in the Ottoman Empire and made his way to Pontiac in 1912, where he found work at an automobile foundry. Satenig fled the Armenian genocide of 1915, finding refuge with relatives in Paris and eventually reuniting with her brother in Pontiac. Levon and Satenig met through the Armenian community in their city, where they married and began their family. The couple had a daughter, Margaret, in 1926, followed by son Murad, and their third and last child, Flora. When Kevorkian was a child, his parents took him to an Orthodox church weekly. He started questioning the existence of a God, as he believed an all-knowing God would have prevented the Armenian genocide on his extended family. He stopped attending church by the time he was 12. Kevorkian was a child prodigy. He taught himself multiple languages, including German, Russian, Greek, and Japanese. As such, he was often alienated by his peers. Kevorkian graduated from Pontiac Central High School with honors in 1945, at the age of 17. In 1952, he graduated from the University of Michigan Medical School in Ann Arbor. Kevorkian completed residency training in anatomical and clinical pathology and briefly conducted research on blood transfusion. Career Over a period of decades, Kevorkian developed several controversial ideas related to death. In a 1959 journal article, he wrote: Senior doctors at the University of Michigan, Kevorkian's employer, opposed his proposal and Kevorkian chose to leave the University rather than stop advocating his ideas. Ultimately, he gained little support for his plan. He returned to the idea of using death-row inmates for medical purposes after the Supreme Court's 1976 decision in Gregg v. Georgia reinstituted the death penalty. He advocated harvesting the organs from inmates after the death penalty was carried out for transplant into sick patients, but he failed to gain the cooperation of prison officials. As a pathologist at Pontiac General Hospital, Kevorkian experimented with transfusing blood from the recently deceased into live patients. He drew blood from corpses recently brought into the hospital and transferred it successfully into the bodies of hospital staff members. Kevorkian thought that the U.S. military might be interested in using this technique to help wounded soldiers during a battle, but the Pentagon was not interested. In the 1980s, Kevorkian wrote a series of articles for the German journal Medicine and Law that laid out his thinking on the ethics of euthanasia. In 1987, Kevorkian started advertising in Detroit newspapers as a physician consultant for "death counseling". His first public assisted suicide, of Janet Adkins, a 54-year-old woman diagnosed in 1989 with Alzheimer's disease, took place in 1990. Charges of murder were dropped on December 13, 1990, as there were, at that time, no laws in Michigan regarding assisted suicide. In 1991, however, the State of Michigan revoked Kevorkian's medical license and made it clear that, given his actions, he was no longer permitted to practice medicine or to work with patients. According to his lawyer Geoffrey Fieger, Kevorkian assisted in the deaths of 130 terminally ill people between 1990 and 1998. In each of these cases, the individuals themselves allegedly took the final action which resulted in their own deaths. Kevorkian allegedly assisted only by attaching the individual to a euthanasia device that he had devised and constructed. The individual then pushed a button which released the drugs or chemicals that would end his or her own life. Two deaths were assisted by means of a device which delivered the euthanizing drugs intravenously. Kevorkian called the device a "Thanatron" ("Death machine", from the Greek thanatos meaning "death"). Other people were assisted by a device which employed a gas mask fed by a canister of carbon monoxide, which Kevorkian called the "Mercitron" ("Mercy machine"). Criticism and Kevorkian's response According to a report by the Detroit Free Press, 60% of the patients who died with Kevorkian's help were not terminally ill, and at least 13 had not complained of pain. The report further asserted that Kevorkian's counseling was too brief (with at least 19 patients dying less than 24 hours after first meeting Kevorkian) and lacked a psychiatric exam in at least 19 cases, 5 of which involved people with histories of depression, though Kevorkian was sometimes alerted that the patient was unhappy for reasons other than their medical condition. In 1992, Kevorkian himself wrote that it is always necessary to consult a psychiatrist when performing assisted suicides because a person's "mental state is [...] of paramount importance." The report also stated that Kevorkian failed to refer at least 17 patients to a pain specialist after they complained of chronic pain and sometimes failed to obtain a complete medical record for his patients, with at least three autopsies of suicides Kevorkian had assisted with showing the person who committed suicide to have no physical sign of disease. Rebecca Badger, a patient of Kevorkian's and a mentally troubled drug abuser, had been mistakenly diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. The report also stated that Janet Adkins, Kevorkian's first euthanasia patient, had been chosen without Kevorkian ever speaking to her, only with her husband, and that when Kevorkian first met Adkins two days before her assisted suicide he "made no real effort to discover whether Ms. Adkins wished to end her life," as the Michigan Court of Appeals put it in a 1995 ruling upholding an order against Kevorkian's activity. According to The Economist: "Studies of those who sought out Dr. Kevorkian, however, suggest that though many had a worsening illness... it was not usually terminal. Autopsies showed five people had no disease at all... Little over a third were in pain. Some presumably suffered from no more than hypochondria or depression." In response, Kevorkian's attorney Geoffrey Fieger published an essay stating, "I've never met any doctor who lived by such exacting guidelines as Kevorkian... [H]e published them in an article for the American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry in 1992. Last year he got a committee of doctors, the Physicians of Mercy, to lay down new guidelines, which he scrupulously follows." However, Fieger stated that Kevorkian found it difficult to follow his "exacting guidelines" because of "persecution and prosecution", adding, "[H]e's proposed these guidelines saying this is what ought to be done. These are not to be done in times of war, and we're at war." In a 2010 interview with Sanjay Gupta, Kevorkian stated an objection to the status of assisted suicide in Oregon, Washington, and Montana. At that time, only in those three states was assisted suicide legal in the United States, and then only for terminally ill patients. To Gupta, Kevorkian stated, "What difference does it make if someone is terminal? We are all terminal." In his view, a patient had to be suffering but did not have to be terminally ill to be assisted in committing suicide. However, he also said in that same interview that he declined four out of every five assisted suicide requests, on the grounds that the patient needed more treatment or medical records had to be checked. In 2011, disability rights and anti-legalization of assisted suicide and euthanasia group Not Dead Yet spoke out against Kevorkian, citing potentially concerning sentiments he expressed in his published writing. On page 214 of Prescription: Medicide, the Goodness of Planned Death, Kevorkian wrote that assisting "suffering or doomed persons [to] kill themselves" was "merely the first step, an early distasteful professional obligation... What I find most satisfying is the prospect of making possible the performance of invaluable experiments or other beneficial medical acts under conditions that this first unpleasant step can help establishin a word obitiatry." In a journal article titled "The Last Fearsome Taboo: Medical Aspects of Planned Death", Kevorkian also detailed anesthetizing, experimenting on, and utilizing the organs of a disabled newborn as a token of "daring and highly imaginative research" that would be possible "beyond the constraints of traditional but outmoded, hopelessly inadequate, and essentially irrelevant ethical codes now sustained for the most part by vacuous sentimental reverence". Art career Kevorkian was a jazz musician and composer. The Kevorkian Suite: A Very Still Life was a 1997 limited-release CD of 5,000 copies from the 'Lucid Subjazz' label. It features Kevorkian on the flute and organ playing his own works with "The Morpheus Quintet". It was reviewed in Entertainment Weekly online as "weird" but "good-natured". As of 1997, 1,400 units had been sold. Kevorkian wrote all the songs but one; the album was reviewed in jazzreview.com as "very much grooviness" except for one tune, with "stuff in between that's worthy of multiple spins". The first public performance of the complete classical organ works by Jack Kevorkian was by Craig Rifel in a live concert on January 30, 1996, at Central United Methodist Church in Waterford, Michigan, including Kevorkian's Prelude & Fugue in E-flat, Pipe Dream, Sonata in D, Passacaglia on B-A-C-H, Pastorale & Fugue in B-Flat, and Fantasy & Fugue in C. In 1999, the Geneva-based self-determination society EXIT commissioned David Woodard to orchestrate wind settings of Kevorkian's organ works. He was also an oil painter. His work tended toward the grotesque and surreal, and he had created pieces of symbolic art, such as one "of a child eating the flesh off a decomposing corpse". Of his known works, six were made available in the 1990s for print release. The Ariana Gallery in Royal Oak, Michigan is the exclusive distributor of Kevorkian's artwork. The original oil prints are not for release. Sludge metal band Acid Bath used his painting "For He is Raised" as the cover art for their 1996 album Paegan Terrorism Tactics. In 2011, his paintings became the center of a legal entanglement between his sole heir and a Massachusetts museum. Trials, conviction, and imprisonment Kevorkian was tried four times for assisting suicides between May 1994 and June 1997. With the assistance of Fieger, Kevorkian was acquitted three times. The fourth trial ended in a mistrial. The trials helped Kevorkian gain public support for his cause. After Oakland County prosecutor Richard Thompson lost a primary election to a Republican challenger, Thompson attributed the loss in part to the declining public support for the prosecution of Kevorkian and its associated legal expenses. In the November 22, 1998, broadcast of CBS News' 60 Minutes, Kevorkian allowed the airing of a videotape he made on September 17, 1998, which depicted the voluntary euthanasia of Thomas Youk, 52, who was in the final stages of Lou Gehrig's disease. After Youk provided his fully informed consent (a sometimes complex legal determination made in this case by editorial consensus) on September 17, 1998, Kevorkian himself administered Thomas Youk a lethal injection. This was highly significant, as all of his earlier clients had reportedly completed the process themselves. During the videotape, Kevorkian dared the authorities to try to convict him or stop him from carrying out mercy killings. Youk's family described the lethal injection as humane, not murder. On November 25, 1998, Kevorkian was charged with second-degree murder and the delivery of a controlled substance (administering the lethal injection to Thomas Youk). Because Kevorkian's license to practice medicine had been revoked eight years previously, he was not legally allowed to possess the controlled substance. As homicide law is relatively fixed and routine, this trial was markedly different from earlier ones that involved an area of law in flux (assisted suicide). On March 26, 1999, a jury began deliberations in the first-degree murder trial of Kevorkian. He had discharged his attorneys and proceeded through the trial representing himself, a decision he later regretted. The judge ordered a criminal defense attorney to remain available at trial as standby counsel for information and advice. Inexperienced in law but persisting in his efforts to represent himself, Kevorkian encountered great difficulty in presenting his evidence and arguments. He was not able to call any witnesses to the stand as the judge did not deem the testimony of any of his witnesses relevant. After a two-day trial, the Michigan jury found Kevorkian guilty of second-degree homicide. Judge Jessica Cooper sentenced Kevorkian to serve 10–25 years in prison and told him: This is a court of law and you said you invited yourself here to take a final stand. But this trial was not an opportunity for a referendum. The law prohibiting euthanasia was specifically reviewed and clarified by the Michigan Supreme Court several years ago in a decision involving your very own cases, sir. So the charge here should come as no surprise to you. You invited yourself to the wrong forum. Well, we are a nation of laws, and we are a nation that tolerates differences of opinion because we have a civilized and a nonviolent way of resolving our conflicts that weighs the law and adheres to the law. We have the means and the methods to protest the laws with which we disagree. You can criticize the law, you can write or lecture about the law, you can speak to the media or petition the voters. Kevorkian was sent to a prison in Coldwater, Michigan, to serve his sentence. After his conviction (and subsequent losses on appeal), Kevorkian was denied parole repeatedly until 2007. In an MSNBC interview aired on September 29, 2005, Kevorkian said that if he were granted parole, he would not resume directly helping people die and would restrict himself to campaigning to have the law changed. On December 22, 2005, Kevorkian was denied parole by a board on the count of 7–2 recommending not to give parole. Reportedly terminally ill with Hepatitis C, which he contracted while doing research on blood transfusions in the 1960s, Kevorkian was expected to die within a year in May 2006. After applying for a pardon, parole, or commutation by the parole board and Governor Jennifer Granholm, he was paroled for good behavior on June 1, 2007. He had spent eight years and two and a half months in prison. Kevorkian was on parole for two years, under the conditions that he would not help anyone else die, or provide care for anyone older than 62 or disabled. Kevorkian said he would abstain from assisting any more terminal patients with death, and his role in the matter would strictly be to persuade states to change their laws on assisted suicide. He was also forbidden by the rules of his parole from commenting about assisted suicide procedure. Activities after his release from prison Kevorkian gave a number of lectures upon his release. He lectured at universities such as the University of Florida, Nova Southeastern University, and the University of California, Los Angeles. His lectures were not limited to the topic of euthanasia; he also discussed such topics as tyranny, the criminal justice system, politics, the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution and Armenian culture. He appeared on the Fox News Channel's Your World with Neil Cavuto on September 2, 2009, to discuss health care reform. On April 15 and 16, 2010, Kevorkian appeared on CNN's Anderson Cooper 360°. Cooper asked, "You are saying doctors play God all the time?" Kevorkian said: "Of course. Any time you interfere with a natural process, you are playing God." Director Barry Levinson and actors Susan Sarandon and John Goodman, who appeared in You Don't Know Jack, a film based on Kevorkian's life, were interviewed alongside Kevorkian. Kevorkian was again interviewed by Cavuto on Your World on April 19, 2010, regarding the movie and Kevorkian's world view. You Don't Know Jack premiered April 24, 2010, on HBO. The film premiered April 14 at the Ziegfeld Theater in New York City. Kevorkian walked the red carpet alongside Al Pacino, who portrayed him in the film. Pacino received Emmy and Golden Globe awards for his portrayal and personally thanked Kevorkian, who was in the audience, upon receiving both of these awards. Kevorkian stated that the film "brings tears to my eyes – and I lived through it". 2008 congressional race On March 12, 2008, Kevorkian announced plans to run for United States Congress to represent Michigan's 9th congressional district as an independent against eight-term congressman Joe Knollenberg (R-Bloomfield Hills), former Michigan Lottery commissioner and state senator Gary Peters (D-Bloomfield Township), Adam Goodman (L-Royal Oak) and Douglas Campbell (G-Ferndale). The race had already garnered national attention due to Democrats targeting the historically Republican district based in Oakland County, which Knollenberg barely won in 2006 against a little-known opponent, and which would suffer some of the worst brunt of the Great Recession due to declines in Detroit's automotive industry. Upon Kevorkian's entry into the race, one analyst viewed Kevorkian as a potential spoiler to Peters' candidacy. Ultimately, Kevorkian received 8,987 votes (2.6% of the vote) in the election, in which Peters defeated the incumbent Knollenberg by a nine-percent margin. Peters would eventually serve three terms in Congress before making a successful run for the United States Senate. Personal life Kevorkian taught himself multiple languages such as German, Russian, Greek, and Japanese. Illness and death Kevorkian had struggled with kidney problems for years. He was diagnosed with liver cancer, which "may have been caused by hepatitis C," according to his longtime friend Neal Nicol. Kevorkian was hospitalized on May 18, 2011, with kidney problems and pneumonia. Kevorkian's condition grew rapidly worse and he died from a thrombosis on June 3, 2011, eight days after his 83rd birthday, at William Beaumont Hospital in Royal Oak, Michigan. According to his attorney, Mayer Morganroth, there were no artificial attempts to keep him alive and his death was painless. Kevorkian was buried in White Chapel Memorial Park Cemetery in Troy, Michigan. Legacy Judge Thomas Jackson, who presided over Kevorkian's first murder trial in 1994, commented that he wanted to express sorrow at Kevorkian's death and that the 1994 case was brought under "a badly written law" aimed at Kevorkian, but he attempted to give him "the best trial possible". Geoffrey Fieger, Kevorkian's lawyer during the 1990s, gave a speech at a press conference in which he stated: "Dr. Jack Kevorkian didn't seek out history, but he made history." Fieger said that Kevorkian revolutionized the concept of suicide by working to help people end their own suffering, because he believed physicians are responsible for alleviating the suffering of patients, even if that meant allowing patients to die. Kevorkian would speak at Presbyterian and Episcopal churches to gain support for Euthanasia. John Finn, medical director of palliative care at the Catholic St. John's Hospital, said Kevorkian's methods were unorthodox and inappropriate. He added that many of Kevorkian's patients were isolated, lonely, and potentially depressed, and therefore in no state to mindfully choose whether to live or die. Derek Humphry, author of the suicide handbook Final Exit, said Kevorkian was "too obsessed, too fanatical, in his interest in death and suicide to offer direction for the nation". In a 2015 Retro Report story about Kevorkian's legacy and the Right to Die movement, journalist Jack Lessenberry said Kevorkian "got a national debate going, which I think he then helped stifle by his own outrageous actions". Howard Markel, a medical historian at the University of Michigan, said that Kevorkian "was a major historical figure in modern medicine". The Catholic Church in Detroit said Kevorkian left behind a "deadly legacy" that denied scores of people their right to humane deaths. Philip Nitschke, founder and director of right-to-die organization Exit International, said that Kevorkian "moved the debate forward in ways the rest of us can only imagine. He started at a time when it was hardly talked about and got people thinking about the issue. He paid one hell of a price, and that is one of the hallmarks of true heroism." The epitaph on Kevorkian's tombstone reads, "He sacrificed himself for everyone's rights." In 2015, the 1968 Volkswagen Type 2 van in which Jack Kevorkian assisted some of his suicidal patients was bought by paranormal investigator Zak Bagans (from the documentary series Ghost Adventures) for display in his haunted museum in Las Vegas. Publications Books † †† † = Later heavily revised and incorporated into glimmerIQs †† = Later incorporated in abridged form into glimmerIQs * = Revised and distributed in 2009 by World Audience, Inc. Selected journal articles See also God Bless You, Dr. Kevorkian, a collection of short fictional interviews written by Kurt Vonnegut You Don't Know Jack, a 2010 television film References External links A Right to Die? a documentary from Retro Report "Papa" Prell Radio interview with Kevorkian. (MP3, 15 minutes). Prell archive at Radio Horror Hosts website. "The Kevorkian Verdict: The Life and Legacy of the Suicide Doctor" Frontline; PBS.org – with timeline and other info. Kevorkian's Art Work Frontline; PBS.org. Kevorkian on law and the constitution during an appearance at Harvard Law School (Harvard Law Record) Michigan Department of Corrections record for Jack Kevorkian 1928 births 2011 deaths 20th-century American criminals American male criminals American pathologists American people convicted of murder American people of Armenian descent American political candidates Assisted suicide in the United States Criminals from Michigan Critics of religions Deaths from thrombosis Deaths from kidney failure Euthanasia activists Euthanasia doctors Euthanasia in the United States Medical practitioners convicted of murdering their patients Michigan Independents People convicted of murder by Michigan People from Pontiac, Michigan Persons involved with death and dying Physicians from Michigan University of Michigan Medical School alumni Multilingual writers	[ 0.21896982192993164, 0.7001973390579224, -1.352846384048462, -0.04162343591451645, 0.07225344330072403, 0.4819328486919403, 0.8633134961128235, 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202837	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Uhuru	Black Uhuru	Black Uhuru is a Jamaican reggae group formed in 1972, initially as Uhuru (Swahili for 'freedom'). The group has undergone several line-up changes over the years, with Derrick "Duckie" Simpson as the mainstay. They had their most successful period in the 1980s, with their album Anthem winning the first ever Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album in 1985. History The group formed in the Waterhouse district of Kingston in 1972, initially called “Uhuru" (the Swahili word for freedom), with a line-up of Garth Dennis, Don Carlos, and Derrick "Duckie" Simpson. Their first release was a cover version of The Impressions' "Romancing to the Folk Song", which was followed by "Time is on Our Side"; Neither song was a success and they split up, with Carlos pursuing a solo career, as did Dennis, before joining The Wailing Souls. Simpson also briefly worked with the Wailing Souls, before forming a new version of Uhuru with Errol Nelson (of The Jayes) and Michael Rose, the group now taking the name Black Sounds Uhuru. Their Prince Jammy-produced debut album, Love Crisis, was released in 1977. Nelson returned to The Jayes in late 1977, and was replaced the following year by Sandra "Puma" Jones, a social worker from South Carolina, US, who had previously worked as a dancer for Ras Michael & the Sons of Negus, and as a member of the group Mama Africa. The band now took on their most familiar name, Black Uhuru. The group began working extensively with Sly and Robbie, and recorded a string of successful singles, including "General Penitentiary" a re-recording of Rose's solo hit "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner", and "Shine Eye Gal", which featured guest guitarist Keith Richards. The group's second album Showcase drew on these singles, and the band cemented their status with a performance at the 1980 Reggae Sunsplash festival. They planned to record an album with Dennis Brown producing, but this didn't materialise, although two singles, "Wood for My Fire" and "Rent Man", were released. They were signed by Island Records in 1980, who issued the Sinsemilla album to an international audience in 1981. The follow-up, Red reached number 28 in the UK Albums Chart in 1981, Chill Out reached number 38 a year later, and they toured with The Rolling Stones. In 1989, their album Red was ranked No. 23 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "100 greatest albums of the 1980s." Their next studio album, Anthem, appeared in 1984, and won the first ever Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album the following year. Despite this success, Rose left the group in 1984 to resume his solo career after falling out with Simpson, and was replaced by Junior Reid. They signed to RAS Records and moved in a different direction with the album Brutal and the single "The Great Train Robbery", the latter recorded with New York dance producer Arthur Baker. Although these alienated much of their roots reggae following, Brutal was nominated for a Grammy and "The Great Train Robbery" gave them their second UK hit single, reaching number 62. The band began to disintegrate; their next album with Jammy was started but never completed, they stopped working with Sly and Robbie, and Jones left the band due to ill health (she died in 1990 from cancer). Her replacement was Janet "Olafunke" Reid, and the group returned in 1987 with the Positive album. Reid was unable to obtain a US visa, and unable to tour, left the band, followed shortly by Olafunke. Black Uhuru, now reduced to Simpson alone, had been booked to play at an awards ceremony in California, which coincidentally had original Uhuru members Don Carlos and Garth Dennis on the bill, and they took the opportunity to reunite the original line-up for a performance at the event, and decided to continue afterwards. The Now album followed in 1991, and was also nominated for a Grammy. In 1996 the group fragmented again, with Simpson leaving to tour Europe with dub poet Yasus Afari, under the name Black Uhuru, while Carlos and Dennis also toured the US under the same name. A legal battle over the name followed, won by Simpson in 1997. Carlos resumed his solo career, while Simpson formed a new line-up of Black Uhuru with Andrew Bees and Jennifer Connally. Only two albums, Unification and Dynasty, were released before Bees went back to pursue his solo career in 2003. In February 2004, it was announced in the Jamaican press that Simpson and Michael Rose had reunited under the name "Black Uhuru feat. Michael Rose". Together with a female backing singer named Kay Starr, they released a single, "Dollars", and performed at several concerts including "Western Consciousness 2004" on 28 April in Jamaica, of which a live video was released shortly thereafter. A new album was reported to be in progress, although it was never released. The group toured throughout Europe in 2006. In 2008, Simpson took on lead vocal duties, and in 2012 the group recorded a new album, As the World Turns, with guest appearances from Aterciopelados and Jarabe De Palo, although this was still unreleased a year later due to the master files getting corrupted. A 25th Anniversary Edition DVD of their Live in London concert was released in June 2008. In 2011, the group now featuring Derrick "Duckie" Simpson, Andrew Bees, and Kaye Starr, toured the US for the first time since 2002. In 2014 Jojo Mac joined the group, and left in 2016 to continue her solo career. The band re-recorded all but one track of As the World Turns, which was eventually released in September 2018. Black Uhuru undertook a US tour in 2016 with Andrew Bees on lead vocals and Elsa Green on backing vocals. Singer Onesty opened for the band. Discography Group: Derrick "Duckie" Simpson, Michael Rose, Errol "Tarzan" Nelson 1977 – Love Crisis 1981 – Black Sounds of Freedom (Love Crisis re-edition) Group: Derek "Duckie" Simpson, Michael Rose, Sandra "Puma" Jones, Sly Dunbar, Robbie Shakespeare 1979 – Showcase 1980 – Black Uhuru (Showcase re-edition) 1980 – Sinsemilla 1981 – Red 1982 – Chill Out 1983 – Guess Who's Coming To Dinner (Black Uhuru re-edition) 1983 – Anthem 1985 – Reggae Greats (compilation) Group: Derrick "Duckie" Simpson, Delroy "Junior" Reid, Sandra "Puma" Jones, Sly Dunbar, Robbie Shakespeare 1986 – Brutal Group: Derrick "Duckie" Simpson, Delroy "Junior" Reid, Olafunke 1987 – Positive Group: Derrick "Duckie" Simpson, Garth Dennis, Don Carlos 1990 – Now 1991 – Iron Storm 1993 – Mystical Truth 1994 – Strongg Group: Derrick "Duckie" Simpson, Jenifah Nyah, Andrew Bees 1998 – Unification 2001 – Dynasty 2018 – As the World Turns Live / Dub albums: 1982 – Uhuru in Dub 1982 – Tear It Up – Live (album and video) 1983 – The Dub Factor 1984 – Live 1986 – Brutal Dub 1987 – The Positive Dub 1988 – Live In New York City 1990 – Now Dub 1990 – Love Dub (Uhuru In Dub re-edition) 1992 – Iron Storm Dub 1993 – Mystical Truth Dub 1994 – Strongg Dubb 2000 – Live 1984 2001 – In Dub 2001 – Dubbin' It Live (summer 2001, at Paléo Festival) 2013 - Live In Germany 1981 (Rockpalast on CD and DVD) Awards and nominations Black Uhuru has won one Grammy award and were nominated eight times. \|- \|align=center\|1982 \|Reggae Sunsplash '81, A Tribute To Bob Marley \|Best Ethnic or Traditional Folk Recording \| \|- \|align=center\|1984 \|Anthem \| rowspan="3" \|Best Reggae Recording \| \|- \|align=center\|1986 \|Brutal \| \|- \|align=center\|1990 \|Now \| \|- \|align=center\|1991 \|Iron Storm \| rowspan="4" \|Best Reggae Album \| \|- \|align=center\|1993 \|Mystical Truth \| \|- \|align=center\|1994 \|Strongg \| \|- \|align=center\|2018 \|As the World Turns \| \|- Notes References Campbell, Howard (2004) "Michael Rose returns to Black Uhuru", Jamaica Observer, 4 February 2004, retrieved 26 September 2009. Campbell, Howard (2008) " Duckie sings lead", Jamaica Gleaner, 9 September 2008, retrieved 26 September 2009. Harris, Craig "[ Black Uhuru Biography]", AllMusic, Macrovision Corporation. Thompson, Dave (2002), Reggae and Caribbean Music, Backbeat Books, External links Black Uhuru on Discogs Black Uhuru on Myspace Jamaican reggae musical groups Musical groups established in 1972 Grammy Award winners Island Records artists ROIR artists Palm Pictures artists	[ 0.19313369691371918, 0.029940448701381683, -0.6439816355705261, -0.556648313999176, -0.5130563378334045, 0.6746073365211487, 0.022549912333488464, 0.020104190334677696, -0.9859336614608765, 0.14719770848751068, -0.04938758537173271, 0.3444643020629883, -0.495219886302948, 0.7224839329719543, -0.14794933795928955, 0.3868103325366974, 0.007061263080686331, 0.08715281635522842, -0.6099854111671448, 0.05672483891248703, -0.2444884479045868, 0.1445218324661255, 0.18667849898338318, 0.21435146033763885, 0.37646934390068054, 0.025431741029024124, 0.38645151257514954, 0.2395848035812378, 0.14624473452568054, -0.00002146908809663728, 0.7836384177207947, 0.3996778130531311, 0.4859018921852112, -0.13885515928268433, 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202838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal%20Rights%20%28album%29	Animal Rights (album)	Animal Rights is the fourth studio album by American musician Moby, released on September 23, 1996. The album was a temporary style shift from the electronica music that Moby had previously released to an alternative rock sound influenced by the hardcore punk music that he had enjoyed as a teenager. The album was released to mediocre critical reviews and commercial performance. Background Moby's decision to release a punk rock album was in part the result of being disillusioned by the lack of positive media feedback he had been receiving from the music media for his electronic works, which they struggled to comprehend and failed to take very seriously. Moby had previous experience performing rock music, having been a member of the groups Vatican Commandos and Ultra Vivid Scene in the 1980s. The album was recorded between the summer of 1995 and spring of 1996 in Manhattan, New York. Moby worked alongside Alan Moulder in the making of the album. Just as Moby decided to change direction, the electronic music he moved away from started to gain recognition and popularity through artists like The Chemical Brothers and The Prodigy. Packaging The cover photograph features Moby at two weeks old, being held by his grandfather. The album's liner notes contain various pictures, an essay on the course of basic rights over history, an essay outlining Moby's disregard for the Christian Coalition, and a page with various "last minute maxims", such as "cruelty is unacceptable" and "you can't expect people to worry about the world when they can't feed themselves or their children." Release The first single from Animal Rights, released on August 26, 1996, was a cover of Mission of Burma's 1981 song "That's When I Reach for My Revolver". The single peaked at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart. On September 23, 1996, Animal Rights was released in the United Kingdom, where it charted at number 38 on the UK Albums Chart. The first batch of released copies in the United Kingdom were packaged with a 49-minute bonus CD called Little Idiot. Consisting entirely of drum-free ambient tracks, it was the second in a line of ambient bonus CDs, following Underwater, which came with Everything Is Wrong. Little Idiot included reworkings of tracks from Animal Rights – it also features a drawing of Moby's character "Little Idiot", who would later appear on various music videos and single and album covers. A second single from Animal Rights, "Come On Baby", was released on November 4, 1996, but failed to chart. Animal Rights was not released in Moby's native United States until five months later on February 11, 1997. The album failed to chart on the Billboard 200, but reached number 31 on the Heatseekers Albums chart. Moby toured the record as the opening act for Soundgarden on their Down on the Upside tour, where he was met with largely unreceptive audiences. He also undertook a separate promotional tour for Animal Rights, where, he later recalled, he found himself playing to "roughly 50 people a night". Critical reception Animal Rights received generally negative reviews upon its first release. Moby had earlier made his reputation with electronic music, but Animal Rights found him embracing punk rock and ambient music. While most critics praised his attempt at diversifying, Salons Douglas Wolk opined that Animal Rights "finds Moby falling on his nose" and concluded that "maybe somebody should try to convince Moby that guitars are actually made out of dead animals", while Rolling Stones Lorraine Ali felt that "this time around, he has decided to push an agenda instead of boundaries". However, James Oldham of NME wrote that "Animal Rights is a brave, turbulent and consistently exhilarating record", and Robert Christgau, writing in The Village Voice, said that the two discs "enrich and play off each other with the flow and coherence Everything Is Wrong lacks". Seeming to expect a negative critical reaction, Moby added the following entreaty to the bottom of the credits page: "please listen to animal rights in its entirety at least once." Legacy According to Moby's manager Eric Härle, Animal Rights nearly ended Moby's career because not only did the new direction leave audiences cold – with music media uninterested and his existing fan base largely alienated by it – but it led to people being confused as to what kind of artist Moby really was. Having "wipe[d] out all of his early good work" in establishing himself, Moby was left struggling for any kind of recognition and quickly became seen as a "has-been" in the eyes of many people in the industry. In an interview for Rolling Stone, Moby admitted that the failure of Animal Rights, combined with the negative reception he received from Soundgarden's fanbase while touring the album, led him to consider quitting music. However, he chose to continue his career after other artists, including Terence Trent D'Arby, Axl Rose and Bono, personally told him they enjoyed the album. By 2002, Animal Rights had sold 100,000 copies worldwide. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that Animal Rights "ranks as one of the classic failed albums, right alongside Sinéad O'Connor's big-band Am I Not Your Girl." On the other hand, Drowned in Sound critic Mark Reed, in a 2002 retrospective review, suggested that Animal Rights had been unfairly lambasted by contemporary critics for being unrepresentative of Moby's capabilities and for "daring to go against the grain", describing it as "one of the most underbought, underrated, unusual albums a major recording artist has ever produced." Additionally, despite the negative critical reaction, Moby has since named Animal Rights as his favorite album of his. Track listing Personnel Credits for Animal Rights adapted from album liner notes. Moby – vocals, guitar, bass guitar, percussion, drums, keyboards, production, engineering, mixing Alan Moulder – engineering, mixing Hahn Rowe – violin Artwork and design Damien Loeb – booklet back cover photography, logo design Moby – art direction, logo design, photography Alli Truch – art direction Charts References External links Moby albums 1996 albums Mute Records albums Elektra Records albums Albums produced by Alan Moulder Albums produced by Moby Hardcore punk albums by American artists Industrial rock albums Punk rock albums by American artists Industrial albums by American artists	[ 0.5167300701141357, 0.19413232803344727, -0.20172381401062012, 0.08267178386449814, -0.1844312697649002, 0.4710458219051361, 0.2728741765022278, -0.7597225904464722, -0.24983026087284088, 0.1256471872329712, 0.45817217230796814, 1.0493381023406982, -0.759799063205719, 0.01610051840543747, 0.1260749250650406, 0.4242152273654938, 0.0043381210416555405, 0.05300317332148552, -0.3299993574619293, 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202840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjugate%20matrix	Adjugate matrix	In linear algebra, the adjugate or classical adjoint of a square matrix is the transpose of its cofactor matrix. It is also occasionally known as adjunct matrix, though this nomenclature appears to have decreased in usage. The adjugate has sometimes been called the "adjoint", but today the "adjoint" of a matrix normally refers to its corresponding adjoint operator, which is its conjugate transpose. Definition The adjugate of is the transpose of the cofactor matrix of , In more detail, suppose is a unital commutative ring and is an matrix with entries from . The -minor of , denoted , is the determinant of the matrix that results from deleting row and column of . The cofactor matrix of is the matrix whose entry is the cofactor of , which is the -minor times a sign factor: The adjugate of is the transpose of , that is, the matrix whose entry is the cofactor of , The adjugate is defined as it is so that the product of with its adjugate yields a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the determinant . That is, where is the identity matrix. This is a consequence of the Laplace expansion of the determinant. The above formula implies one of the fundamental results in matrix algebra, that is invertible if and only if is an invertible element of . When this holds, the equation above yields Examples 1 × 1 generic matrix The adjugate of any non-zero 1 × 1 matrix (complex scalar) is . By convention, (0) = 0. 2 × 2 generic matrix The adjugate of the 2 × 2 matrix is By direct computation, In this case, it is also true that ((A)) = (A) and hence that ((A)) = A. 3 × 3 generic matrix Consider a 3 × 3 matrix Its cofactor matrix is where Its adjugate is the transpose of its cofactor matrix, 3 × 3 numeric matrix As a specific example, we have It is easy to check the adjugate is the inverse times the determinant, . The in the second row, third column of the adjugate was computed as follows. The (2,3) entry of the adjugate is the (3,2) cofactor of A. This cofactor is computed using the submatrix obtained by deleting the third row and second column of the original matrix A, The (3,2) cofactor is a sign times the determinant of this submatrix: and this is the (2,3) entry of the adjugate. Properties For any matrix , elementary computations show that adjugates enjoy the following properties: and , where and are the zero and identity matrices, respectively. for any scalar . . . If is invertible, then . It follows that: is invertible with inverse . . is entrywise polynomial in . In particular, over the real or complex numbers, the adjugate is a smooth function of the entries of . Over the complex numbers, , where the bar denotes complex conjugation. , where the asterisk denotes conjugate transpose. Suppose that is another matrix. Then This can be proved in three ways. One way, valid for any commutative ring, is a direct computation using the Cauchy–Binet formula. The second way, valid for the real or complex numbers, is to first observe that for invertible matrices and , Because every non-invertible matrix is the limit of invertible matrices, continuity of the adjugate then implies that the formula remains true when one of or is not invertible. A corollary of the previous formula is that, for any non-negative integer , If is invertible, then the above formula also holds for negative . From the identity we deduce Suppose that commutes with . Multiplying the identity on the left and right by proves that If is invertible, this implies that also commutes with . Over the real or complex numbers, continuity implies that commutes with even when is not invertible. Finally, there is a more general proof than the second proof, which only requires that an n × n matrix has entries over a field with at least 2n + 1 elements (e.g. a 5 × 5 matrix over the integers modulo 11). is a polynomial in t with degree at most n, so it has at most n roots. Note that the ij&hairsp;th entry of is a polynomial of at most order n, and likewise for . These two polynomials at the ij&hairsp;th entry agree on at least n + 1 points, as we have at least n + 1 elements of the field where is invertible, and we have proven the identity for invertible matrices. Polynomials of degree n which agree on n + 1 points must be identical (subtract them from each other and you have n + 1 roots for a polynomial of degree at most n – a contradiction unless their difference is identically zero). As the two polynomials are identical, they take the same value for every value of t. Thus, they take the same value when t = 0. Using the above properties and other elementary computations, it is straightforward to show that if has one of the following properties, then does as well: Upper triangular, Lower triangular, Diagonal, Orthogonal, Unitary, Symmetric, Hermitian, Skew-symmetric, Skew-Hermitian, Normal. If is invertible, then, as noted above, there is a formula for in terms of the determinant and inverse of . When is not invertible, the adjugate satisfies different but closely related formulas. If , then . If , then . (Some minor is non-zero, so is non-zero and hence has rank at least one; the identity implies that the dimension of the nullspace of is at least , so its rank is at most one.) It follows that , where is a scalar and and are vectors such that and . Column substitution and Cramer's rule Partition into column vectors: Let be a column vector of size . Fix and consider the matrix formed by replacing column of by : Laplace expand the determinant of this matrix along column . The result is entry of the product . Collecting these determinants for the different possible yields an equality of column vectors This formula has the following concrete consequence. Consider the linear system of equations Assume that is non-singular. Multiplying this system on the left by and dividing by the determinant yields Applying the previous formula to this situation yields Cramer's rule, where is the th entry of . Characteristic polynomial Let the characteristic polynomial of be The first divided difference of is a symmetric polynomial of degree , Multiply by its adjugate. Since by the Cayley–Hamilton theorem, some elementary manipulations reveal In particular, the resolvent of is defined to be and by the above formula, this is equal to Jacobi's formula The adjugate also appears in Jacobi's formula for the derivative of the determinant. If is continuously differentiable, then It follows that the total derivative of the determinant is the transpose of the adjugate: Cayley–Hamilton formula Let be the characteristic polynomial of . The Cayley–Hamilton theorem states that Separating the constant term and multiplying the equation by gives an expression for the adjugate that depends only on and the coefficients of . These coefficients can be explicitly represented in terms of traces of powers of using complete exponential Bell polynomials. The resulting formula is where is the dimension of , and the sum is taken over and all sequences of satisfying the linear Diophantine equation For the 2 × 2 case, this gives For the 3 × 3 case, this gives For the 4 × 4 case, this gives The same formula follows directly from the terminating step of the Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm, which efficiently determines the characteristic polynomial of . Relation to exterior algebras The adjugate can be viewed in abstract terms using exterior algebras. Let be an -dimensional vector space. The exterior product defines a bilinear pairing Abstractly, is isomorphic to , and under any such isomorphism the exterior product is a perfect pairing. Therefore, it yields an isomorphism Explicitly, this pairing sends to , where Suppose that is a linear transformation. Pullback by the st exterior power of induces a morphism of spaces. The adjugate of is the composite If is endowed with its canonical basis , and if the matrix of in this basis is , then the adjugate of is the adjugate of . To see why, give the basis Fix a basis vector of . The image of under is determined by where it sends basis vectors: On basis vectors, the st exterior power of is Each of these terms maps to zero under except the term. Therefore, the pullback of is the linear transformation for which that is, it equals Applying the inverse of shows that the adjugate of is the linear transformation for which Consequently, its matrix representation is the adjugate of . If is endowed with an inner product and a volume form, then the map can be decomposed further. In this case, can be understood as the composite of the Hodge star operator and dualization. Specifically, if is the volume form, then it, together with the inner product, determines an isomorphism This induces an isomorphism A vector in corresponds to the linear functional By the definition of the Hodge star operator, this linear functional is dual to . That is, equals . Higher adjugates Let be an matrix, and fix . The th higher adjugate of is an matrix, denoted , whose entries are indexed by size subsets and of . Let and denote the complements of and , respectively. Also let denote the submatrix of containing those rows and columns whose indices are in and , respectively. Then the entry of is where and are the sum of the elements of and , respectively. Basic properties of higher adjugates include: . . . . , where denotes the &hairsp;th compound matrix. Higher adjugates may be defined in abstract algebraic terms in a similar fashion to the usual adjugate, substituting and for and , respectively. Iterated adjugates Iteratively taking the adjugate of an invertible matrix A times yields For example, See also Cayley–Hamilton theorem Cramer's rule Trace diagram Jacobi's formula Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm References Bibliography Roger A. Horn and Charles R. Johnson (2013), Matrix Analysis, Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, Roger A. Horn and Charles R. Johnson (1991), Topics in Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University Press, External links Matrix Reference Manual Online matrix calculator (determinant, track, inverse, adjoint, transpose) Compute Adjugate matrix up to order 8 Matrix theory Linear algebra	[ -0.5649128556251526, 0.0522041916847229, 0.3152199983596802, -0.3357465863227844, -0.8704512119293213, 0.26175761222839355, 0.061062656342983246, -0.4943338632583618, 0.3677886128425598, -0.33243584632873535, -0.1235523670911789, 0.37688639760017395, -0.7666407227516174, 0.052596013993024826, 0.10821714997291565, 0.28473755717277527, 0.7732488512992859, 0.5100858211517334, -0.42195382714271545, -0.9407289028167725, 0.19890639185905457, 0.0595938004553318, 0.38991519808769226, -0.10286170989274979, 0.7004852890968323, -0.3270838260650635, 0.4154953062534332, -0.10012470930814743, -0.42374974489212036, 0.09197244793176651, -0.3564841151237488, 0.5947953462600708, -0.05223887041211128, 0.13091565668582916, 0.3543414771556854, -0.15806621313095093, 0.631866455078125, 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202843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20W.%20Chesnutt	Charles W. Chesnutt	Charles Waddell Chesnutt (June 20, 1858 – November 15, 1932) was an African-American author, essayist, political activist and lawyer, best known for his novels and short stories exploring complex issues of racial and social identity in the post-Civil War South. Two of his books were adapted as silent films in 1926 and 1927 by the African-American director and producer Oscar Micheaux. Following the Civil Rights Movement during the 20th century, interest in the works of Chesnutt was revived. Several of his books were published in new editions, and he received formal recognition. A commemorative stamp was printed in 2008. During the early 20th century in Cleveland, Chesnutt established what became a highly successful court reporting business, which provided his main income. He became active in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, writing articles supporting education as well as legal challenges to discriminatory laws. Early life Chesnutt was born in Cleveland, Ohio, to Andrew Chesnutt and Ann Maria (née Sampson) Chesnutt, both "free persons of color" from Fayetteville, North Carolina. His paternal grandfather was known to be a white slaveholder. He identified as African American but noted that he was seven-eighths white. Given his majority-European ancestry, Chesnutt could "pass" as a white man, but he never chose to do so. In many southern states at the time of his birth, Chesnutt would have been considered legally white if he had chosen to identify so. By contrast, under the one drop rule later adopted into law by the 1920s in most of the South, he would have been classified as legally black because of some known African ancestry. After the end of the Civil War and resulting emancipation, in 1867 the Chesnutt family returned to Fayetteville; Charles was nine years old. His parents ran a grocery store, but it failed because of his father's poor business practices and the struggling economy of the postwar South. By the age of 14, Chesnutt was a pupil-teacher at the Howard School, one of many founded for black students by the Freedmen's Bureau during the Reconstruction era. Education career Chesnutt continued to study and teach. He eventually was promoted to assistant principal of the normal school in Fayetteville, one of a number of historically black colleges established for the training of Black teachers. The normal school developed into Fayetteville State University. Freedmen made education a priority during the 19th century. As the historian David Blight remarked in an interview, formerly enslaved individuals "embraced education like nothing else. They lined up in droves, old and young, to go to night school, to go to morning school." Reconstruction legislatures had created the first systems of public education in the states of the South, but they made them segregated as part of the price of passage. Many Black people, both from the North and the South, "entered freed-people's classrooms out of a sense of racial commitment that sometimes reached beyond lines of class and color." Marriage and family In 1878 at the age of 20, Chesnutt married Susan Perry. They moved to New York City. They had four daughters, one of whom, Helen Maria Chesnutt, became a noted classicist and published a biography of her father. He wanted to escape the prejudice and poverty of the South, as well as to pursue a literary career. After six months, the Chesnutts moved to Cleveland. Legal and writing career In 1887 in Cleveland, Chesnutt read the law and passed the bar exam. Chesnutt had learned stenography as a young man in North Carolina. He established what became a lucrative court reporting (legal stenography) business, which made him "financially prosperous". Chesnutt also began writing stories, which were published by top-ranked national magazines. These included The Atlantic Monthly, which in August 1887 published his first short story, "The Goophered Grapevine." It was the first work by an African American to be published by The Atlantic. In 1890 he tried to interest Walter Hines Page of Houghton Mifflin in his novel, A Business Career, completed in 1890. Page said he needed to establish his reputation more before publishing a novel, but encouraged him. Dealing with white characters and their society, this novel was found among Chesnutt's manuscripts and eventually published in 2005. His first book was a collection of short stories entitled The Conjure Woman, published in 1899. These stories featured Black characters who spoke in African American Vernacular English, as was popular in much contemporary southern literature portraying the antebellum years in the South, as well as the postwar period. That year he published another short story collection, The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color-Line (1899), which included the title story, as well as "The Passing of Grandison", and others. These overturned contemporary ideas about the behavior of enslaved people, and their seeking of freedom, as well as raising new issues about African-American culture. Atlantic editors strongly encouraged Chesnutt in his writing, and he had a 20-year relationship with the magazine. Chesnutt's stories on racial identity were more complex than those of many of his contemporaries. He wrote about characters dealing with difficult issues of mixed race, "passing", illegitimacy, racial identities, and social place throughout his career. As in "The Wife of His Youth", Chesnutt explored issues of color and class preference within the Black community, including among longtime free people of color in northern towns. The issues were especially pressing during the social volatility of Reconstruction and late 19th-century southern society. Whites in the South were trying to reestablish supremacy in social, economic and political spheres. With their regaining of political dominance through paramilitary violence and suppression of Black voting in the late 19th century, white Democrats in the South passed laws imposing legal racial segregation and a variety of Jim Crow rules that imposed second-class status on Black people. From 1890 to 1910, southern states also passed new constitutions and laws that disfranchised most Black people and many poor white people from voting. At the same time, there was often distance and competition between families established as free before the war, especially if they were educated and property-owning, and the masses of illiterate freedmen making their way from slavery. Chesnutt continued writing short stories. He also completed a biography of the abolitionist Frederick Douglass, who had escaped from slavery before the war and become renowned as a speaker and abolitionist in the North. Encouraged by Atlantic editors, Chestnutt moved to the larger novel form. He wanted to express his stronger sense of activism. The magazine's press published his first novel, The House behind the Cedars (1900). His Marrow of Tradition (1901) was based on the Wilmington Massacre of 1898, when whites took over the city: attacking and killing many Black people, and ousting the elected biracial government. This was the only coup d'état in United States history. Eric Sundquist, in his book To Wake the Nations: Race in the Making of American Culture (1993), described the novel as "probably the most astute political-historical novel of its day," both in recounting the massacre and reflecting the complicated social times in which Chesnutt wrote it. Chesnutt wrote several novels, not all published during his lifetime. He also toured on the national lecture circuit, primarily in northern states. Because his novels posed a more direct challenge to current sociopolitical conditions, they were not as popular among readers as his stories, which had portrayed antebellum society. But, among the era's literary writers, Chesnutt was well respected. For instance, in 1905, Chesnutt was invited to Mark Twain's 70th-birthday party in New York City. Although Chesnutt's stories met with critical acclaim, poor sales of his novels doomed his hopes of a self-supporting literary career. His last novel, The Colonel's Dream, was published in 1905 and detailed the actions of an ex-Confederate colonel returning to his hometown in North Carolina with hopes of reviving the town. In 1906, his play Mrs. Darcy's Daughter was produced, but it was also a commercial failure. Between 1906 and his death in 1932, Chesnutt wrote and published little, except for a few short stories and essays. Social and political activism Starting in 1901, Chesnutt turned more energies to his court reporting business and, increasingly, to social and political activism. Beginning in 1910, he served on the General Committee of the newly founded National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Working with W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington, he became one of the early 20th century's most prominent activists and commentators. Chesnutt contributed some short stories and essays to the NAACP's official magazine, The Crisis, founded in 1910. He did not receive compensation for these pieces. He wrote a strong essay protesting the southern states' successful actions to disfranchise Black people at the turn of the 20th century. To his dismay, their new constitutions and laws survived several appeals to the United States Supreme Court, which held that the conditions imposed (by new electoral registration requirements, poll taxes, literacy tests and similar conditions) applied to all residents and were therefore constitutional. (While this was literally true, in practice these rules were applied by white registrars to discriminate against Black people, resulting in a steep drop in the number of Black voters across the South.) Although a couple of rulings went against the states, they devised new means to keep Black people from voting. In 1917, Chesnutt protested showings in Ohio of the controversial film The Birth of a Nation, which the NAACP officially protested at venues across the nation. In Ohio he gained prohibitions against the film. Set during Reconstruction, the film glorified the Ku Klux Klan, which had taken violent action against freedmen. The Klan was revived following this film, reaching a peak in membership nationally in 1925, as chapters were founded in the urban Midwest and West as well as the South. Chesnutt died on November 15, 1932, at the age of 74. He was interred in Cleveland's Lake View Cemetery. Writing In style and subject matter, the writings of Charles Chesnutt straddle the divide between the local color school of American writing and literary realism. One of Chesnutt's most important works was The Conjure Woman (1899), a collection of stories set in postbellum North Carolina. The lead character Uncle Julius, a formerly enslaved man, entertains a white couple from the North, who have moved to the farm, with fantastical tales of antebellum plantation life. Julius' tales feature such supernatural elements as haunting, transfiguration, and conjuring, which were typical of Southern African-American folk tales. But Uncle Julius is also telling the stories in ways crafted to achieve his own goals and care for his circle. While Julius's tales recall the Uncle Remus tales published by Joel Chandler Harris, they differ in that Uncle Julius' tales offer oblique or coded commentary on the psychological and social effects of slavery and racial inequality. While controversy exists over whether Chesnutt's Uncle Julius stories reaffirmed stereotypical views of African Americans, most critics contend that their allegorical critiques of racial injustice took them to a different level. Seven of the Uncle Julius tales were collected in The Conjure Woman. Chesnutt wrote a total of fourteen Uncle Julius tales, the remainder of which were later collected in The Conjure Woman and Other Conjure Tales, edited by Richard H. Brodhead and published posthumously in 1993. In 1899 Chesnutt published his The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color-Line, a collection of short stories in the realist vein. He explored many themes that also were used by 20th-century Black writers: especially the prevalence of color prejudice" among blacks, "the dangers of 'passing', the bitterness of mulatto offspring..., the pitfalls of urban life and intermarriage in the North, and the maladministration of justice in the small towns of the South. Both collections were highly praised by the influential novelist, critic and editor William Dean Howells in a review published in 1900 in the Atlantic Monthly, entitled "Mr. Charles W. Chesnutt's Stories". While acknowledging Chesnutt as a Black writer, he says the stories are not to be first considered for their "racial interest" but it is as "works of art, that they make their appeal, and we must allow the force of this quite independently of the other interest." He described Chesnutt as notable for the passionless handling of a phase of our common life which is tense with potential tragedy; for the attitude almost ironical, in which the artist observes the play of contesting emotions in the drama under his eyes; and for his apparently reluctant, apparently helpless consent to let the spectator know his real feeling in the matter. The House Behind the Cedars (1900) was Chesnutt's first novel, his attempt to improve on what he believed were inadequate depictions of the complexity of race and the South's social relations. He wanted to express a more realistic portrait of his region and community drawn from personal experience. He was also concerned with the silence around issues of miscegenation and passing, and hoped to provoke political discussion by his novel. The issues are expressed chiefly through the trials of Rena Walden, a young, fair, mixed-race woman who joins her brother in another town, where he is already passing for white and established as a lawyer. She and a white upper-class friend of his fall in love and become engaged. When her fiancée learns of her Black ancestry, he breaks their engagement, but tries to get her to agree to be his mistress. She leaves to teach in a Black school, but is assaulted there by a lower-class mulatto. She tries to return to her mother but dies on the way, although helped by a longtime Black friend. The Marrow of Tradition (1901), set fictionally against events like the Wilmington Race Riot, marked a turning point for Chesnutt. He combined leading characters who were prominent whites in town, together with a Black doctor who had returned from the North, exploring the difficulties for the latter in a small, prejudiced Southern town. Among the characters were half-sisters, one white and one Black, daughters of the same white father, who encounter each other during these events. With this and other early 20th-century works, Chesnutt began to address political issues more directly and confronted sensitive topics such as racial "passing", lynching, and miscegenation, which made many readers uncomfortable. Many reviewers condemned the novel's overt politics. Some of Chesnutt's supporters, such as William Dean Howells, regretted its "bitter, bitter" tone. He found it powerful but with more "justice than mercy" in it. Middle-class white readers, who had been the core audience for Chesnutt's earlier works, found the novel's content shocking and some found it offensive. It sold poorly. His last novel, The Colonel's Dream (1905), was described as "a tragic story of an idealist's attempt to revive a depressed North Carolina town through a socioeconomic program much akin to the New South creed of Henry W. Grady and Booker T. Washington." It featured a white aristocrat who returns to his town during Reconstruction, when it is controlled by a lower-class white and is stagnating economically. Colonel Champion builds a new cotton mill, to try to establish business. He runs into conflicts because of racial discrimination and leaves the town in defeat. The book received little critical notice and sold hardly any copies. Chesnutt gave up thinking he could support his family by his writing. He built up his court reporting business, lectured in the North, and became an activist with the NAACP. Overall, Chesnutt's writing style is formal and subtle. A typical sentence from his fiction is a passage from The House Behind the Cedars: "When the first great shock of his discovery wore off, the fact of Rena's origin lost to Tryon some of its initial repugnance—indeed, the repugnance was not to the woman at all, as their past relations were evidence, but merely to the thought of her as a wife." - Chapter XX, "Digging up roots". The Harlem Renaissance eclipsed much of Chesnutt's remaining literary reputation. New writers regarded him as old-fashioned and pandering to racial stereotypes. They relegated Chesnutt to minor status. Starting in the 1960s, when the Civil Rights Movement brought renewed attention to African-American life and artists, a long process of critical discussion and re-evaluation has revived Chesnutt's reputation. In particular, critics have focused on the writer's complex narrative technique, subtlety, and use of irony. Several commentators have noted that Chesnutt broke new ground in American literature with his innovative explorations of racial identity, use of African-American speech and folklore, and the way in which he exposed the skewed logic of Jim Crow strictures. Chesnutt's longer works laid the foundation for the modern African-American novel. Legacy and honors In 1913, Chesnutt was awarded an honorary LLD from Wilberforce University. 1928, Chesnutt was awarded the NAACP's Spingarn Medal for his life's work. In 1987, construction of the Charles Waddell Chesnutt Library was completed at the Fayetteville State University in North Carolina. (Chesnutt had been the second principal of the Howard School, later known as Fayetteville State University.) Several of Chesnutt's works have been published posthumously, including essays. In 1989 William L. Andrews wrote of him: Today Chesnutt is recognized as a major innovator in the tradition of Afro American fiction, an important contributor to the deromanticizing trend in post-Civil War southern literature and a singular voice among turn-of-the-century realists who treated the color line in American life. In 2002, the Library of America added a major collection of Chesnutt's fiction and non-fiction to its important "American Authors" series, under the title Stories, Novels And Essays: The Conjure Woman, The Wife of His Youth & Other Stories of the Color Line, The House Behind the Cedars, The Marrow of Tradition, Uncollected Stories, Selected Essays (Werner Sollors, ed.). His two major novels and some collected short stories are available online at the University of North Carolina, Wikisource. and other websites (see below). On 31 January 2008, the United States Postal Service honored Chesnutt with the 31st stamp in the Black Heritage Series. Race relations Chesnutt's views on race relations put him between Du Bois' talented tenth and Booker Washington's separate but equal positions. In a speech delivered in 1905 to the Boston Historical and Literary Association and later published as an essay, titled "Race Prejudice; Its Causes and Its Cure," Chesnutt imagined a "stone by stone" dismantling of race antagonism as the Black middle class grew and prospered. Filled with numbers and statistics, Chesnutt's speech/essay chronicled Black achievements and Black poverty. He called for full civil and political rights for all African Americans. He had little tolerance for the new ideology of race pride. He envisioned instead a nation of "one people molded by the same culture." He concluded his remarks with the following statement, made 58 years before Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech: Selected written works The Conjure Woman, and Other Conjure Tales (1899) The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color-Line (1899) "The Wife of His Youth" "The Passing of Grandison" Frederick Douglass (1899) The House Behind the Cedars (1900) novel The Marrow of Tradition (1901), novel The Colonel's Dream (1905), novel Published posthumously A Business Career (written in the 1890s; published 2005, University Press of Mississippi) Mandy Oxendine (written in the 1890s; published in 1997) Paul Marchand, F.M.C. (written in 1921; published 1998, University Press of Mississippi) Evelyn's Husband (2005, University Press of Mississippi) The Quarry (written 1928; published 1999, Princeton University Press) Collection Stories, Novels and Essays: The Conjure Woman, The Wife of His Youth & Other Stories of the Color Line, The House Behind the Cedars, The Marrow of Tradition, Uncollected Stories, Selected Essays (Werner Sollors, ed., Library of America, 2002) . Adapted in film 1926, The Conjure Woman was adapted by Oscar Micheaux as the film The Spider's Web 1927, The House Behind the Cedars was adapted by Oscar Micheaux as The Millionaire 2008, Dante James, a student at Duke University, made a film adapted from Chesnutt's short story The Doll. This story was first published in The Crisis in 1912. It was for a course entitled "Adapting Literature, Producing Film". The film premiered at the San Diego Black Film Festival on January 31, 2008, where Clayton LeBouef won an award for "Best Actor". It also won "Best Short Film" at The Sweet Auburn International Film Festival, and the "Short Film" award at the Hollywood Black Film Festival. See also African American literature The Conjure Woman (film version by Oscar Micheaux) The House Behind the Cedars (film version by Oscar Micheaux) Notes References Further reading Andrews, William. The Literary Career of Charles W. Chesnutt, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1980. Print. Richardson, Mark. "Charles Chesnutt: Nowhere to Turn." In The Wings of Atalanta: Essays Written Along the Color Line (pages 164–204). Rochester, New York: Camden House, 2019. External links "Charles W. Chesnutt", Library of America Charles W. Chesnutt, The Marrow of Tradition, full etext at Wikisource Charles W. Chesnutt, The House Behind the Cedars, full etext at Wikisource The Charles W. Chesnutt Digital Archive, Sarah Browners, Berea College in cooperation with Fisk University Library Chesnutt Literary Web, Rutgers University Frederick Douglass, (biography by Charles Chesnutt) Boston: Small, Maynard, 1899, hosted on Documents of the American South, University of North Carolina Chesnutt's "Sister Becky's Pickaninny" , dramatization on VHS The Charles Chesnutt Digital Archive Charles W. Chesnutt stamp Charles Waddell Chesnutt, Find a Grave Collection of Photographs relating to Charles W. Chesnutt at Cleveland Public Library 1858 births 1932 deaths African-American novelists Burials at Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland Fayetteville State University NAACP activists Writers from Cleveland Spingarn Medal winners 19th-century American novelists American male novelists African-American short story writers American male short story writers 19th-century American short story writers 19th-century American male writers Novelists from Ohio 20th-century African-American people African-American male writers	[ -0.560947597026825, 0.3594224750995636, -1.18961501121521, -0.09575366973876953, 0.5960162878036499, 0.5628119707107544, 0.9578405618667603, 0.12059583514928818, -0.08907350897789001, -0.3181094527244568, -0.4584124982357025, 0.13768567144870758, -0.65188068151474, 0.8633998036384583, -0.3085792064666748, 0.3825509548187256, -0.10092225670814514, -0.48386093974113464, -0.544596791267395, -0.03602477163076401, -0.43514761328697205, -0.2567339241504669, 0.3872120678424835, 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202845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Iha	James Iha	(born March 26, 1968) is an American rock musician. He is best known as a guitarist and co-founder of the alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins. He was a member until the initial breakup in 2000. Among his musical projects of recent years, Iha has been a permanent fixture of A Perfect Circle. He was most recently a member of Tinted Windows, a 1960s/1970s inspired group with members of Cheap Trick, Fountains of Wayne, and Hanson. He rejoined the Smashing Pumpkins in 2018. Iha has produced songs, contributed guitar and vocals, and produced remixes for a number of artists, including Midnight Movies, Isobel Campbell, Marilyn Manson, Whiskeytown, and Michael Stipe. He co-owned Scratchie Records, an independent record label, with Adam Schlesinger, and from 1999-2012 owned a recording studio with Schlesinger and Andy Chase of Ivy called Stratosphere Sound. Early life and background Iha was born in Chicago, Illinois. He attended Elk Grove High School in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, which he described as "a boring, middle-class suburb of Chicago." Iha received average grades in high school, and, after a successful two-year stint at a local junior college, he majored in graphic design at Loyola University Chicago before dropping out to dedicate himself to the Smashing Pumpkins. He is a second-generation Japanese-American and is able to speak only a little Japanese. Like his bandmate Billy Corgan, Iha has a brother with a disability. In the early 2000s, Iha had an impostor in the Chicago area, who was arrested. Iha designs and consults for his men's clothing brand Vaporize, a collaboration with the Japanese label Beams since 2001. The Smashing Pumpkins In 1987 Iha, then playing guitar in the Chicago band Snake Train, met Billy Corgan via a friend. Corgan had already been telling people he was in a band called "Smashing Pumpkins", and decided to make it a real band with Iha. Iha later became romantically involved with the band's bassist D'arcy Wretzky, but the couple broke up just prior to the band's performance at the Reading Festival in 1992. After a brief feud between the two, Iha sustained a friendly and close relationship with Wretzky, citing her as a best friend. Iha wrote and sang a number of Smashing Pumpkins' songs, such as: "Blew Away" on Pisces Iscariot, "Bugg Superstar" on Vieuphoria, "Take Me Down" on Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness, "...Said Sadly", "Believe", "The Boy", and "The Bells" on The Aeroplane Flies High, "Summer" on the "Perfect" single and "Go" on Machina II/The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music. He co-wrote with Billy Corgan "I Am One" on Gish, "Soma" and "Mayonaise" on Siamese Dream, "Plume" on Pisces Iscariot and "Farewell and Goodnight" on Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness. He sang the band's covers of the Cure's "A Night Like This" and Syd Barrett's "Terrapin". During his time with the Pumpkins, Iha recorded with other bands, including Ivy, to which Adam Schlesinger contributed, and Swedish New Wave band the Sounds. Billy Corgan has claimed that Iha played very little guitar on the first two Smashing Pumpkins albums, with Corgan himself playing most of the parts in the studio that Iha played live. Iha was often considered the "quiet one" in Smashing Pumpkins, but he was known to engage in ad-libbed jokes and rap sessions at live performances. His humor was encapsulated in his use of the catchphrase, "I've seen a million faces, and I've rocked them all," originally from the Bon Jovi song "Wanted Dead or Alive". In 1998, Iha released a moderately successful solo album, Let It Come Down. One music video was produced from this album, for the song "Be Strong Now", which was released as a four-track single. When his former bandmates Billy Corgan and Jimmy Chamberlin revived the "Smashing Pumpkins" name, Iha did not participate, and in fact had not spoken to Corgan in years. Corgan stated in a 2008 blog entry that when he and Chamberlin reunited, the "door was open" for Iha to rejoin, but he declined, and Corgan said that he "can now say definitively that Iha isn't ever coming back." However, in a 2012 interview about the band reformation, Iha stated that he was never even asked back into the band in the first place. Iha also admitted within the interview that he has not heard any of the band's new music since the reformation. In a March 2013 interview, he was asked about looking back at the band's history and explained that he never really thought about his former success with the band, but did look back with fondness when asked about the 6 studio albums he made with them. He revealed that he and Corgan had not spoken in around ten years, but that he did speak to Wretzky "once in a while". On March 26, 2016 and March 27, 2016, Iha joined Corgan and Chamberlin on stage unannounced at back to back Smashing Pumpkins shows at the Ace Hotel in downtown Los Angeles. Iha played a third show with the band in their hometown of Chicago at the Civic Opera house on April 14, 2016. In 2017, reunion rumors were leaked through various sources, and in 2018, Iha was spotted with Corgan, Chamberlin, and current Smashing Pumpkins guitarist Jeff Schroeder in the studio and at a photo shoot, confirming his return to the band. In summer 2018, the reunited band embarked on the Shiny And Oh So Bright Tour, which was followed at the end of the year by the release of their album Shiny and Oh So Bright, Vol. 1 / LP: No Past. No Future. No Sun. Iha would go on to also record Cyr with the reunited lineup, which was released in November 2020. Post-Pumpkins work 2001–2004: A Perfect Circle, producing, Japan After the Smashing Pumpkins' breakup in 2000, Iha pursued many projects. He continues to contribute to other artists' recordings, such as "Don't Be Sad" on Whiskeytown's Pneumonia released in 2001 and further guest appearances for bands Ivy and Fountains of Wayne, both of which he remained close to, appearing on virtually every release by both bands since 1997. Andy Chase of Ivy, and Adam Schlesinger of both Ivy and Fountains, recorded on most songs James produced or wrote for other artists. Schlesinger first recorded on Iha's song on "The Bells" by the Smashing Pumpkins. Iha made bigger news when he joined the alternative rock supergroup A Perfect Circle in July 2003 in time for their Thirteenth Step club tour. He has since recorded on their 2004 album eMOTIVe as well as contributed remixes of Blue and Outsider, and is back with the band following its near 6-year long hiatus. In 2003, he joined Vanessa and the O's. The group released an EP Plus Rien in Sweden the same year and followed up with the album La Ballade d'O in 2005–06 on the band's independent record company Rushmore Recordings playing live shows in Sweden during the summer of 2005. Iha has collaborated on musical and fashion design projects in Japan. He collaborated on and produced two tracks with Japanese musician Chara for her 2001 album Madrigal called "Boku ni Utsushite" and "Skirt". The latter was accompanied by a music video featuring Iha as a hunter in a forest. With the help of longtime friend and manager Isao Izutsu, Iha started the clothing label Vaporize (f.k.a. 'Vapor') in 2001, and recorded "Never Ever", his first solo song since the Smashing Pumpkins demise, for Vaporize's first runway show. In 2001, Iha played live with the Blank Theory and recorded on their album Beyond the Calm of the Corridor producing the song "Addicted" together with Schlesinger and contributing guitar playing. 2005–2007: Soundtracks, collaborations, remixes Iha scored the Japanese film Linda, Linda, Linda, released in late summer of 2005. The same year he teamed with Schlesinger again to produce a duet cover of Bobby Darin's "Splish Splash" for the soundtrack to the Wayne Wang film Because of Winn-Dixie. The same year Iha contributed guitar to some tracks of Chino Moreno's band Team Sleep second album, which has yet to be released. Iha produced two tracks on the 2006 tribute album to Serge Gainsbourg, Monsieur Gainsbourg Revisited, "I love you (me either)", that featured Cat Power and model Karen Elson singing and "L'Hotel" with Michael Stipe on vocals. Iha recorded on the track "The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde" in a duet with singer Kazu Makino (of Blonde Redhead) on the US edition of the album. In February 2006, a digital EP "In the Sun" produced by Iha featuring Michael Stipe and Chris Martin was released. The EP was for the benefit of Gulf Coast victims of Hurricane Katrina. The song was featured on an episode of Grey's Anatomy. In collaboration with Stipe, Iha played guitar at the "Bring 'Em Back Home Now" concert in March 2006 in New York City to benefit Iraq War veterans peace groups such as Veterans for Peace. Iha remixed "Me Plus One", a track from Norwegian pop singer Annie's debut album Anniemal. Released in October 2006, Florida pop group the Postmarks's "Goodbye" EP features a remix by Iha. That same year, Iha teamed up with Schlesinger to co-produce folk band America's comeback album, Here & Now, and recorded on Scottish singer Isobel Campbell's album, collaborating on her renditions of traditional Irish and Scottish folk songs. In 2006 Iha recorded a cover of "Judy Is a Punk" by the Ramones for 30th anniversary of a Japanese clothing label Beams. In February 2007, Side-Line announced that Iha delivered a remix for the Ladytron single "Weekend Mixes" out on March 9 via Smoke & Mirrors. In April 2007, he recorded a remix for the Midnight Movies track "Patient Eye". Iha appeared on stage with Swedish band the Sounds, on the season finale of MTV's Bam's Unholy Union in April 2007 and contributed guitar to the song "Seatbacks and Traytables", on Fountains of Wayne's 2007 album Traffic and Weather. His former bandmate Melissa Auf der Maur contributed to that album. 2007–present: Second solo album In the spring of 2007, Iha told Rolling Stone magazine that he was writing and recording songs for a second solo album. In the spring of 2007, Iha remixed Midnight Movies and the Postmarks as freebies on the Internet. A Chicago weekly reported in June 2007 that Iha had been living in New York City for some time, running a recording studio and independent label. Iha had lived in Manhattan since 2000 and has since moved to Brooklyn. In May 2008, Marilyn Manson said that Iha would be making a guest appearance on his new record; however, Iha was not credited as a guitarist on the album. On December 22, 2008, the Swedish band A Camp (the solo project of the Cardigans vocalist Nina Persson) put out a press release announcing that their new album would come out on April 28, 2009, featuring guest appearances by Iha and other musicians. On February 17, 2009, it was announced that Iha had, together with Taylor Hanson, Fountains of Wayne bassist Adam Schlesinger, and Cheap Trick drummer Bun E. Carlos formed a new band called Tinted Windows. The band played their first publicized gig at SXSW in Austin, Texas on March 20. Their first album was released on April 21, 2009 to generally positive reviews. In April 2010, Iha' website reopened. According to the site, Iha considered his next solo album "halfway done (in his mind)". Shortly thereafter, a picture of Iha with Kelly Pratt and Jon Natchez from the band Beirut was posted on the Web site saying they would be playing horns on the album. In August 2010, members of A Perfect Circle posted messages to their Twitter accounts telling fans of their return after a 6-year long hiatus. The band later announced tour dates in which they would be playing the entirety of each of their three albums at each concert, with one album being played per night. It was announced that the line-up would consist of Maynard James Keenan, Billy Howerdel, Josh Freese, Matt McJunkins, and Iha. Iha's second solo album titled Look to the Sky was released in March 2012. To begin its promotion, Iha performed at the 2nd EMI ROCKS festival in Saitama, Japan in February 2012, and later in December that year performing a small European tour in London, Paris, Amsterdam and Lisbon. In 2013, under management of David Bason, Iha collaborated with Japanese musician Yukihiro Takahashi, writing songs for and performing on Takahashi's album Life Anew, and performing as part of Takahashi's band "In Phase" on tours in Japan. In 2014 Iha scored the soundtrack to Lionsgate/Hulu series Deadbeat. On March 26, 2016 Iha rejoined Smashing Pumpkins onstage for several numbers. In 2016 Iha composed the score for James Franco's film Mother, May I Sleep with Danger? In 2017 Iha composed the score for the drama series The Arrangement. Discography Solo albums 1998 – Let it Come Down 2012 – Look to the Sky With Smashing Pumpkins 1991 – Gish 1991 – Lull 1993 – Siamese Dream 1994 – Pisces Iscariot 1994 – Earphoria 1995 – Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness 1996 – The Aeroplane Flies High 1998 – Adore 2000 – Machina/The Machines of God 2000 – Machina II/The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music 2001 – Rotten Apples 2005 – Rarities and B-Sides 2018 – Shiny and Oh So Bright, Vol. 1 / LP: No Past. No Future. No Sun. 2020 – Cyr With A Perfect Circle 2004 – eMOTIVe (only feature on "People Are People") 2004 – aMotion 2013 – Three Sixty (compilation album) With Whiskeytown 2001 – Pneumonia With Vanessa and the O's 2003 – La Ballade d'O With Tinted Windows 2009 – Tinted Windows Soundtrack appearances 2005 – Because of Winn-Dixie soundtrack (with Adam Schlesinger on track 5) 2005 – Linda Linda Linda soundtrack (movie by Nobuhiro Yamashita) 2009 – Kakera: A Piece of Our Life (movie by Momoko Andô) Guest appearances 1997 – Apartment Life (with Ivy) 2001 – Long Distance (with Ivy) 2001 – Madrigal (with Chara) 2003 – Welcome Interstate Managers (with Fountains of Wayne) 2003 – Wonderfully Nothing (with Brookville) 2004 – Auf der Maur (with Melissa Auf der Maur) 2005 – In the Clear (with Ivy) 2006 – Milkwhite Sheets (with Isobel Campbell) 2007 – Traffic and Weather (with Fountains of Wayne) 2009 – Colonia (with A Camp) 2010 – Hawk (with Isobel Campbell and Mark Lanegan) 2015 - "Blaster" (with Scott Weiland and the Wildabouts) on "Blue Eyes" 2017 – Ogilala (Billy Corgan) on "Proccessional" Videography 1994 – Vieuphoria (VHS) 2001 – Smashing Pumpkins – Greatest Hits Video Collection (DVD) 2005 – Charlie Charlie (Videoclip by Vanessa and the O's) Smashing Pumpkins songs written, co-written or covered by Iha Written by James Iha "Wave Song" from Mashed Potatoes "Blew Away" from Pisces Iscariot "Why Am I So Tired?" from Vieuphoria and Earphoria "Bugg Superstar" from Vieuphoria and Earphoria "Take Me Down" from Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness "Farewell and Goodnight" from Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness "...Said Sadly" from The Aeroplane Flies High "Believe" from The Aeroplane Flies High "The Boy" from The Aeroplane Flies High "The Bells" from The Aeroplane Flies High "Summer" from the "Perfect" single "Go" on Machina II/The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music Co-written with Billy Corgan "I Am One" from Gish "Soma" and "Mayonaise" from Siamese Dream "Plume" from Pisces Iscariot "Tribute to Johnny" from "The Aeroplane Flies High" "Innosense" on Machina II/The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music Covers sung by Iha Syd Barrett's "Terrapin" from I Am One The Cure's "A Night Like This" from The Aeroplane Flies High Tom Waits's "Ol' '55" (performed live in 1999 at the Bridge School Benefit concerts) The Human League's "Don't You Want Me" (performed live as a duet with Melissa Auf der Maur in 2000 tour) David Bowie's "Kooks" (performed live in 1993) David Bowie's "Rock 'n' Roll with Me" (performed live in 2012) The Cure's "Friday I'm in Love" (performed live in 2018) Equipment Guitars Fender Jazzmaster (as seen on "Zero" video) 1980s Les Paul Custom 1984 Ebony Gibson Les Paul Custom Gibson Flying V (as seen in "Bullet with Butterfly Wings" video) Gibson SG-Custom (1980s) Gibson SG Les Paul Custom 30th Anniversary (1991) Rickenbacker 360 Fender Bronco Fernandes Telecaster (used for the Adore tour) 1960s Teisco K2L (as seen in "Rocket" video) Amplifiers Fender Twin Reverb Amp Marshall JMP-1 Pre-Amp Mesa-Boogie Tri-Axis Orange Overdrive 120 Head & Cab Effects DigiTech DHP-55 Harmony Processor DigiTech GSP2101 Effects Processor EBow Electro Harmonix Big Muff Pi Electro Harmonix Electric Mistress (18v Version) Electro Harmonix Deluxe Memory Man Electro Harmonix Small Stone Phaser Eventide H3000 Harmonizer Boss AW-2 DOD FX-17 Wah-Volume Pedal Other DR Hi-Beam Nickel-Plated Strings Jim Dunlop 1.0 millimeter tortex pics Pedal-cast Extender References External links 1968 births 20th-century American guitarists 21st-century American guitarists A Perfect Circle members Alternative rock guitarists American alternative rock musicians American expatriates in Japan American male guitarists American musicians of Japanese descent American people of Okinawan descent American rock guitarists Grammy Award winners Guitarists from Chicago Living people People from Elk Grove Village, Illinois Rhythm guitarists The Smashing Pumpkins members Whiskeytown members 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202848	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Horseshoe%20Bend	Battle of Horseshoe Bend	The Battle of Horseshoe Bend (also known as Tohopeka, Cholocco Litabixbee, or The Horseshoe), was fought during the War of 1812 in the Mississippi Territory, now central Alabama. On March 27, 1814, United States forces and Indian allies under Major General Andrew Jackson defeated the Red Sticks, a part of the Creek Indian tribe who opposed American expansion, effectively ending the Creek War. Background The Creek Indians of Georgia and the eastern part of the Mississippi Territory had become divided into two factions: the Upper Creek (or Red Sticks), a majority who opposed American expansion and sided with the British and the colonial authorities of Spanish Florida during the War of 1812; and the Lower Creek, who were more assimilated into the Anglo culture, had a stronger relationship with the U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins, and sought to remain on good terms with the Americans. The Shawnee war leader Tecumseh visited Creek and other Southeast Indian towns in 1811–1812 to recruit warriors to join his war against American territorial encroachment. The Red Sticks, young men who wanted to revive traditional religious and cultural practices, were already forming, resisting assimilation. They began to raid American frontier settlements. When the Lower Creek helped U.S. forces to capture and punish leading raiders, the Lower Creek were punished in turn by the Red Sticks. In 1813, militia troops intercepted a Red Stick party returning from obtaining arms in (Spanish colonial) Pensacola. While they were looting the material, the Red Sticks returned and defeated them, at what became known as the Battle of Burnt Corn. Red Sticks' raiding of enemy settlements continued; and in August 1813 they attacked an American outpost at Fort Mims. After the Fort Mims massacre, frontier settlers appealed to the government for help. Since Federal military forces were committed to waging the War of 1812 against Great Britain, the governments of Tennessee, Georgia, and the Mississippi Territory organized militia forces, which together with Lower Creek and Cherokee allies, fought against the Red Sticks. After leaving Fort Williams in the spring of 1814, Jackson's army cut its way through the forest to within six miles (10 km) of Chief Menawa's Red Stick camp Tehopeka, near a bend in the Tallapoosa River called "Horseshoe Bend"—located in what is now central Alabama, east of present-day Alexander City. Jackson sent General John Coffee with the mounted infantry and the Indian allies south across the river to surround the Red Sticks' camp, while Jackson stayed with the rest of the 2,000 infantry north of the camp. Added to the militia units were the 39th United States Infantry and about 600 Cherokee, Choctaw, and Lower Creek, fighting against the Red Stick Creek warriors. American Forces West Tennessee Militia: Major General Andrew Jackson Battle On March 27, 1814, General Andrew Jackson led troops consisting of 2,600 American soldiers, 500 Cherokee, and 100 Lower Creek allies up a steep hill near Tehopeka. From this vantage point, Jackson would begin his attack on the Red Stick fortification. At 6:30am, he split his troops and sent roughly 1,300 men to cross the Tallapoosa River and surround the Creek village. Then, at 10:30 a.m., Jackson's remaining troops began an artillery barrage which consisted of two cannons firing for about two hours. Little damage was caused to the Red Sticks or their 400-yard-long, log-and-dirt fortifications. In fact, Jackson was quite impressed with the measures the Red Sticks took to protect their position. As he later wrote: Soon, Jackson ordered a bayonet charge. The 39th U.S. Infantry, led by Colonel John Williams, charged the breastworks and engaged the Red Sticks in hand-to-hand combat. Sam Houston (the future statesman and leader of Texas) served as a third lieutenant in Jackson's army. Houston was one of the first to make it over the log barricade alive and received a wound from a Creek arrow that troubled him for the rest of his life. Meanwhile, the troops under the command of General John Coffee had successfully crossed the river and surrounded the encampment. They joined the fight and gave Jackson a great advantage. The Creek warriors refused to surrender, though, and the battle lasted for more than five hours. At the end, roughly 800 of the 1,000 Red Stick warriors present at the battle were killed. In contrast, Jackson lost fewer than 50 men during the fight and reported 154 wounded. After the battle, Jackson's troops made bridle reins from skin taken from Indian corpses, conducted a body count by cutting off the tips of their noses, and sent their clothing as souvenirs to the "ladies of Tennessee." Chief Menawa was severely wounded but survived; he led about 200 of the original 1,000 warriors across the river and toward safety, to join the Seminole tribe in Spanish Florida. Results On August 9, 1814, Andrew Jackson forced the Creek to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson. The Creek Nation was forced to cede —half of central Alabama and part of southern Georgia—to the United States government; this included territory of the Lower Creek, who had been allies of the United States. Jackson had determined the areas from his sense of security needs. Of the Jackson forced the Creek to cede , which was claimed by the Cherokee Nation, which had also allied with the United States. Jackson was promoted to Major General after getting agreement to the treaty. Capture of Pensacola, Battle of New Orleans After the battle, Jackson sent his friend and trusted scout, John Gordon, Captain of the Spies, to secretly go to the Spanish fort at Pensacola to find out if the British were using it as a base to arm the rebellious red stick Creeks. Gordon travelled through hundreds of miles of hostile Creek territory to find the British flag flying at Pensacola and British officers arming and training Creeks. Jackson, with this knowledge, took Pensacola, a controversial move which led ultimately to further battle against the British in New Orleans. This victory, along with that at the Battle of New Orleans, greatly contributed to Jackson's favorable national reputation and his popularity. He was well known when he ran successfully for President in 1828. Legacy The battlefield is preserved in the Horseshoe Bend National Military Park. Two currently active battalions of the Regular Army (2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 7th Infantry Regiment) perpetuate the lineage of the old 39th Infantry Regiment, which fought at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. In fiction Eric Flint has written a series of alternate history novels, Trail of Glory, that begin with the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. In Flint's version, Houston is only lightly wounded in the battle, allowing him freedom to develop his career, in turn facilitating the author's objectives. The main character of Paulette Jiles' novel News of the World, 'Captain' Jefferson Kyle Kidd, has a backstory that includes fighting as a youth of 16 in this battle under Jackson. Notes References Andrew Burstein, * Steve Rajtar, Indian War Sites, (McFarland and Company, Inc., 1999) Robert Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821 (1977) ch. 13 Further reading Holland, James W. "Andrew Jackson and the Creek War: Victory at the Horseshoe Bend," Alabama Review, Oct 1968, Vol. 21 Issue 4, pp 243–275 Kanon, Thomas. "A Slow, Laborious Slaughter": The Battle of Horseshoe Bend," Tennessee Historical Quarterly, March 1999, Vol. 58 Issue 1, pp 2–15 Remini, Robert V. Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (2001), ch 4 External links "The Battle of Horseshoe Bend: Collision of Cultures", National Park Service's Teaching with Historic Places. A map of Creek War Battle Sites, PCL Map Collection at the University of Texas at Austin. "Battle of Horseshoe Bend" , Encyclopedia of Alabama Mrs. Dunham Rowland, "The Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812", Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, Volume 4, 1921, pp. 7–156 "If you visited Horseshoe Bend Battlefield today" Cherokee Nation (1794–1907) Horseshoe Bend (1814) 1814 in the United States Horseshoe Bend Native American history of Alabama Andrew Jackson 1814 in Mississippi Territory March 1814 events	[ -0.37896278500556946, 0.25277695059776306, -0.7977109551429749, -0.1556648463010788, 0.5659655332565308, 0.29049915075302124, 0.9737817049026489, -0.0012799445539712906, -0.09846657514572144, -0.7483940124511719, 0.43422362208366394, 0.6438064575195312, -0.3958916962146759, 0.7776986360549927, -0.9607438445091248, 0.9274969100952148, 0.3598940372467041, -0.6256505250930786, 0.7613228559494019, -0.489884614944458, 0.09591266512870789, -0.16901519894599915, 0.1265975385904312, 0.635286271572113, 1.0524640083312988, 0.15836089849472046, 0.328293114900589, 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202849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz%2021	Soyuz 21	Soyuz 21 (, Union 21) was a 1976 Soviet crewed mission to the Salyut 5 space station, the first of three flights to the station. The mission's objectives were mainly military in scope, but included other scientific work. The mission ended abruptly with cosmonauts Boris Volynov and Vitaly Zholobov returning to Earth after 49 days in orbit. The precise reason for the early end of the mission was the subject of much speculation, but was reported to be an emergency evacuation after the Salyut atmosphere developed an acrid odor. Crew Backup crew Reserve crew Mission parameters Mass: Perigee: Apogee: Inclination: 51.6° Period: 88.7 minutes Mission highlights Salyut 5, the last dedicated military space station in the Soviet space program, was launched 22 June 1976. Its first crew was launched 14 days later on 6 July 1976, with Commander Volynov and Flight Engineer Zholobov aboard Soyuz 21. Based on landing opportunities, observers estimated the mission was intended to last 54 to 66 days. They docked with the station the next day, and gave a televised tour 8 July 1976. Their stay coincided with the start of the Siber military exercise in Siberia, which they observed as part of an assessment of the station's military surveillance capabilities. They conducted only a few scientific experiments, including the first use of the Kristall furnace for crystal growth. Engineering experiments included propellant transfer system tests with implications for future operation of the freight-carrying Progress spacecraft. Experiments conducted during the mission were mainly of a military nature as part of the Almaz program. Various purely scientific tasks were also carried out, including solar observations and biological observations of an aquarium of fish carried into orbit. A television link-up with school children on 17 August 1976 was also undertaken. On 24 August 1976, it was announced the mission was to end in only 10 hours, a development which caught even the reporters of Radio Moscow by surprise. The reason for the sudden termination of the mission was reported at the time to have been an acrid odor that developed in the environmental control system. The problem was said to have begun as early as 17 August 1976. The Soviets made no comments at the time, but the next crew to board the station wore breathing masks. Later reports indicate that the mission may have ended owing to a deterioration in the health of Zholobov. The mission was to last two months but was cut short by a gradually worsening illness of Zholobov. The cosmonauts boarded Soyuz 21 but as Volynov tried to undock from the station, the docking latches failed to release properly. As he fired the jets to move the spacecraft away, the docking mechanism jammed, resulting in the Soyuz being undocked but still linked to Salyut. As the two spacecraft moved out of range of ground communications, the cosmonauts received only the first set of emergency procedures. Volynov tried a second time to undock but only managed slightly to loosen the latches. The situation persisted for an entire orbit, 90 minutes, when the final set of emergency procedures were received and the crew finally disengaged the latches. Because Soyuz 21 was returning early, it was outside the normal recovery window. It then encountered strong winds as it descended, which caused uneven firing of the retrorockets. It made a hard landing around midnight at the southwest of Kokchetav, Kazakhstan. Zholobov's illness was apparently caused by nitric acid fumes leaking from the Salyut's propellant tanks; other reports, however, indicate that the crew failed to follow their physical exercise program and suffered from lack of sleep. Sources at NASA have reported that psychologists with the Russian Aviation and Space Agency cited Soyuz 21 as ending prematurely due to unspecified "interpersonal issues" with the crew. The next mission to successfully dock with the station, Soyuz 24, would vent Salyut 5's air to space and replace it due to concerns the air had become toxic. 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202851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Pearl	Daniel Pearl	Daniel Pearl (October 10, 1963 – February 1, 2002) was an American journalist who worked for The Wall Street Journal. He was kidnapped and later decapitated by terrorists in Pakistan. Pearl was born in Princeton, New Jersey, and raised in Encino, Los Angeles, to a Jewish family of mixed European and West Asian origins; his father is of Polish Jewish descent and his mother was an Iraqi Jew from Baghdad. After attending Stanford University, Pearl embarked on a career in journalism. He was working as the South Asia Bureau Chief of The Wall Street Journal, based in Mumbai, India. Infamously, he was kidnapped when he went to Pakistan as part of an investigation into the alleged links between British citizen Richard Reid (known as the "shoe bomber") and al-Qaeda. Pearl was killed by his captors. Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, a British national of Pakistani origin, was sentenced to death by hanging for Pearl's abduction and murder in 2002, but his conviction was overturned by a Pakistani court in the summer of 2020. Researchers have also connected Al-Qaeda member Saif al-Adel with the kidnapping. Early life and education Pearl was born in Princeton, New Jersey, to Judea and Ruth Pearl (née Rejwan). His father is an Israeli-American of Polish Jewish descent and his mother was an Iraqi Jew whose family was saved from the Farhud by Muslim neighbors. His family moved to Encino, a neighborhood in the City of Los Angeles, when his father took a position with the University of California, Los Angeles as professor of computer science and statistics and later director of the Cognitive Systems Laboratory. In 2011, Judea Pearl received the Turing Award, the 'Nobel Prize for Computer Science'. The history of the family and its connections to Israel are described by Judea Pearl in the Los Angeles Times article, "Roots in the Holy Land". Pearl attended Portola Junior High School and Birmingham High School. Danny, as whom he was known throughout his life, attended Stanford University from 1981 to 1985, where he stood out as a Communication major with Phi Beta Kappa honors, a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity, a co-founder of a student newspaper called the Stanford Commentator, as well as a reporter for the campus radio station KZSU. Pearl graduated from Stanford with a B.A. in Communication, after which he spent a summer as a Pulliam Fellow intern at The Indianapolis Star. Journalism career Following a trip to the Soviet Union, China and Europe, Pearl started his professional journalism career at the North Adams Transcript and The Berkshire Eagle in western Massachusetts. From there he moved to the San Francisco Business Times. In 1990, Pearl moved to the Atlanta bureau of The Wall Street Journal and moved again in 1993 to its Washington, D.C., bureau to cover telecommunications. In 1996, he was assigned to the London bureau and in 1999 to Paris. His articles covered a range of topics, such as the October 1994 story of a Stradivarius violin allegedly found on a highway on-ramp and a June 2000 story about Iranian pop music. He became more involved in international affairs: his most notable investigations covered the ethnic wars in the Balkans, where he discovered that charges of an alleged genocide committed in Kosovo were unsubstantiated. He also explored the American missile attack on a supposed military facility in Khartoum, which he proved to have been a pharmaceutical factory. Marriage and family In 1999 in Paris, Pearl met and married French journalist Mariane van Neyenhoff, a former reporter and columnist for Glamour. Their son, Adam Daniel Pearl, was born in Paris on May 28, 2002, approximately four months after Pearl's abduction and death. South Asia The Pearls settled in Mumbai, India, after Daniel Pearl was made Southeast Asia bureau chief of The Wall Street Journal. They traveled to Karachi, Pakistan, which he used as a base for reporting on the United States' War on Terrorism following the 9/11 attacks by Al-Qaeda terrorists in 2001 in the United States. Abduction On January 23, 2002, on his way to what he thought was an interview with Sheikh Mubarak Ali Gilani at the Village Restaurant in downtown Karachi, Pearl was kidnapped near the Metropole Hotel at 7:00 p.m. by a militant group calling itself the National Movement for the Restoration of Pakistani Sovereignty. The group claimed Pearl was a spy and—using a Hotmail e-mail address—sent the United States a range of demands, including the freeing of all Pakistani terror detainees, and the release of a halted U.S. shipment of F-16 fighter jets to the Pakistani government. The message read: We give you one more day if America will not meet our demands we will kill Daniel. Then this cycle will continue and no American journalist could enter Pakistan. Photos of Pearl handcuffed with a gun at his head and holding up a newspaper were attached. The group did not respond to public pleas for release of the journalist by his editor and his wife Mariane. United States intelligence forces tried to track down the kidnappers. Death Nine days later, the terrorists beheaded Pearl. On May 16, his severed head and decomposed body were found cut into ten pieces, and buried, along with an identifying jacket, in a shallow grave at Gadap, about north of Karachi. When the police found Pearl's remains three months after his murder, Abdul Sattar Edhi, a Pakistani philanthropist, collected all of the body parts and took them to the morgue. He helped ensure that Pearl's remains were returned to the United States, where he was later interred in the Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles. Video of his murder On February 21, 2002, a video was released titled The Slaughter of the Spy-Journalist, the Jew Daniel Pearl. The video shows Pearl's mutilated body, and lasts 3 minutes and 36 seconds. During the video, Pearl said: My name is Daniel Pearl. I'm a Jewish American from Encino, California, USA. I come from, uh, on my father's side the family is Zionist. My father's Jewish, my mother's Jewish, I'm Jewish. My family follows Judaism. We've made numerous family visits to Israel. Pearl condemned American foreign policy in the video. His family stated that he did so under duress, describing him as "a proud American, and he abhorred extremist ideologies." They also said that he gave signals that indicated that he did not agree with what he was saying. Following these statements, Pearl's throat was slit, and his head was severed. The video concluded with the captors demanding the release of all Muslim prisoners in Guantanamo Bay. They warned that, if their demands were not met, they would repeat such a beheading "again and again". Murder investigation Arrests Three suspects were caught by February 6, 2002, after the IP address of those who sent the ransom e-mail was traced by police in Karachi. The arrests were carried out after investigation by Pakistani detective Mir Zubair Mahmood, assisted by an FBI computer expert. The man responsible for the planning and execution of the kidnapping, Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, surrendered to a former ISI officer, Brig. Ijaz Shah, who concealed Sheikh's whereabouts from the Karachi police for a week. Sheikh had been in an Indian prison in connection with 1994 kidnappings of Western tourists in India. In December 1999, Sheikh was released by the Indian government in exchange for the safe release of passengers aboard hijacked Indian Airlines Flight 814. On March 21, 2002, in Pakistan, Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh and three other suspects were charged with murder for their part in the kidnapping and murder of Daniel Pearl. They were convicted on July 15, 2002, and Sheikh was sentenced to death. Sheikh has appealed the sentence. On April 2, 2020, Sheikh's murder conviction was overturned by a Pakistani court, and his death sentence was reduced to seven years' time for his kidnapping conviction, previously served. In his book, In the Line of Fire, President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf stated that Sheikh may have been an agent of MI6, and at some point may have become a double agent. On March 10, 2007, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed claimed responsibility, before his Combatant Status Review Tribunal at Guantanamo Bay, for the murder of Daniel Pearl. He is an alleged Al Qaeda operative reported to be third in command under Osama bin Laden, mastermind of the 2001 attacks. He claimed to have beheaded Pearl. In a confession read during his Tribunal hearing, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed said, "I decapitated with my blessed right hand the head of the American Jew Daniel Pearl, in the city of Karachi, Pakistan." This confession repeated word for word the phrasing leaked in 2002 from his interrogation at a CIA black site interrogation center. On March 19, 2007, Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh's lawyers cited Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's confession as part of an appeal in defense of their client. They said they had always acknowledged that their client played a role in Pearl's murder, but they had argued that Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was the actual murderer. They plan to feature Mohammed's confession as central in their appeal of their client's death sentence. According to an investigative report published in January 2011 by Georgetown University, the Federal Bureau of Investigation used vein matching to determine that the perpetrator in the video of the killing of Pearl was most likely Mohammed, identifying him through a "bulging vein" running across his hand that was visible in the video. Federal officials had been concerned that Mohammed's confession obtained through waterboarding would not hold up in court. They intended to use this forensic evidence to bolster their case that he had murdered Pearl. A Pakistani official announced on March 19, 2013, that another suspect was captured in connection with Pearl's murder and was in police custody. Pakistan's Inter Services Public Relations Directorate confirmed the arrest by a paramilitary unit known as the Pakistan Rangers. On April 24, 2019, Pakistan arrested the last suspect involved in the murder, named Azam Jan. Azam Jan had eluded the authorities for two decades and was responsible for several terrorist attacks inside Pakistan. Court proceedings 2020/2021 On April 2, 2020, The High Court of Pakistan's Southern Province of Sindh vacated the 2007 murder conviction of Omar Said Sheikh and his three co-conspirators. They reduced their sentences to a 7-year prison term for kidnapping that was counted as time served. At the time, Omar Sheikh had been awaiting the death penalty and his co-conspirators were serving life sentences. On April 3, 2020: Pakistani authorities order the detention of the four men set to be released and the government said it will challenge the acquittal and hold the men on a measure that allows the government to hold terrorism suspects for up to three months (which has been repeatedly extended) On May 2, 2020: Judea and Ruth Pearl, parents of Daniel Pearl filed an appeal to the Pakistani Supreme Court to reverse the April 2 decision of the Sindh High Court that overturned the convictions of four men in Pearl's case. They hired Pakistani attorney, Faisal Siddiqi to represent them. In making their appeal, Daniel's father, Judea Pearl said: "We are standing up for justice not only for our son, but for all our dear friends in Pakistan so they can live in a society free of violence and terror and raise their children in peace and harmony." On July 1, 2020 Pakistan's Supreme Court refused to overturn the lower court's ruling exonerating Sheikh for the kidnapping and murder of Pearl. On September 28, 2020: Pakistan's Supreme Court accepted the appeal by the family of Daniel Pearl seeking to keep a British-born Pakistani man (Omar Sheikh) on death row over the beheading of the Wall Street Journal reporter, and to uphold the life sentences of his three co-co-conspirators. On December 24, 2020: A Pakistani court ordered the release of four men being held over the 2002 abduction and killing of the American journalist Daniel Pearl, arguing that they had been acquitted months ago, and that their continued detention was illegal. On December 29, 2020: United States Acting Attorney General Jeffrey Rosen released a strongly worded statement affirming that if Omar Sheikh and his co-conspirators are not held accountable in Pakistan, "The United States stands ready to take custody of Omar Sheikh to stand trial here. We cannot allow him to evade justice for his role in Daniel Pearl's abduction and murder." Former Governor Chris Christie confirmed that a federal grand jury in New Jersey indicted Omar Sheikh and his co-conspirators for the kidnapping and murder of Daniel Pearl on March 14, 2002 under his tenure as U.S. Attorney for the state of New Jersey. On January 28, 2021: Pakistan's Supreme Court dismissed an appeal against the acquittal of Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh in connection with the kidnapping and beheading of journalist Daniel Pearl. The court also ordered that three other Pakistanis who were sentenced to life in prison for their part in Pearl's kidnapping and death, should also be freed. In a statement, Pearl's family called the decision "illegal and unfair" and said they would appeal the decision. At her daily briefing, White House Press Secretary, Jen Psaki expressed outrage at the verdict and asked Pakistan to review all of its legal options, including possible extradition to the United States. The US Secretary of State, Antony Blinken issued a statement declaring that the "US is committed to securing justice for Daniel Pearl's family and holding terrorists accountable." On January 30, 2021: The Pakistani Federal Govt decided to formally join Sindh govt review petition against the Supreme Court judgment on the acquittal of all accused persons involved in the abduction and murder of Daniel Pearl. Govt will file move application for the constitution of larger bench to hear review petition. On February 2, 2021, the Supreme Court ordered Omar Sheikh, the alleged mastermind of Pearl's abduction and beheading, off death row and moved him to a so-called government safe house. Sheikh had been on death row for 18 years, but will be under guard and is not allowed to leave said facility. However, Sheikh is permitted visits from his wife and children. On March 8, 2021, Authorities in Karachi sent Omar Saeed Sheikh, who was acquitted of murdering US journalist Daniel Pearl, to Lahore. Sheikh will stay at a rest house within the premises of Kot Lakhpat Jail, confirmed an official at Punjab advocate general's office. He is expected to remain there while the rest of the appeal process plays out. Legacy A collection of Pearl's writings (At Home in the World) was published posthumously in 2002. The Wall Street Journal noted that these demonstrated his "extraordinary skill as a writer" and his "eye for quirky stories—many of which appeared in The Wall Street Journal "middle column". The Daniel Pearl Foundation was formed by Pearl's parents Ruth and Judea Pearl; other family and friends have joined to continue Pearl's mission. They intend to carry out the work in the spirit, style, and principles that shaped Pearl's work and character. Daniel Pearl World Music Days has been held worldwide since 2002, and has promoted over 1,500 concerts in over 60 countries. Pearl's widow, Mariane Pearl, wrote the memoir A Mighty Heart, which tells the full story of Pearl and more about his life. The book was adapted into a film starring Dan Futterman as Daniel Pearl, Angelina Jolie as Mariane Pearl, Irfan Khan, Adnan Siddiqui, Archie Panjabi, and Will Patton. On September 1, 2003, a book titled Who Killed Daniel Pearl? was published, written by Bernard-Henri Lévy. The book, which the author characterized as an "investigative novel", stirred controversy for some of its speculative conclusions about the killing, for some of its characterizations of Pakistan, and for the author's decision to engage in an exercise of fictionalizing Pearl's thoughts in the final moments of his life. Lévy was criticized for the book. At one point there were plans for a film adaptation of the book, to be directed by Tod Williams and star Josh Lucas, focusing on the last few days of Daniel Pearl's life. HBO Films produced a 79-minute documentary titled The Journalist and the Jihadi: The Murder of Daniel Pearl. It premiered on HBO on October 10, 2006. The documentary chronicles Pearl's life and death, and features extensive interviews with his immediate family. It is narrated by Christiane Amanpour, and was nominated for two Emmy Awards. Pearl's parents edited and published a collection of responses sent to them from around the globe, entitled I Am Jewish: Personal Reflections Inspired by the Last Words of Daniel Pearl (Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004). At one point on the video, Pearl said: "My father is Jewish, my mother is Jewish, I am Jewish", after which Pearl added one obscure detail, that a street in Israel's Bnei Brak is named after his great grandfather, who was one of the founders of the town. The family has written that it understands this last detail authenticates Daniel's own voice and demonstrates his willingness to claim his identity. Judea Pearl has written that at first this statement surprised him, but he later understood it to be a reference to the town-building tradition of his family contrasted with the destructive aims of his captors. Judea Pearl then enlarged the idea by inviting responses from artists, government leaders, authors, journalists, scientists, scholars, rabbis, and others. All wrote personal responses to what they thought upon hearing that these were Pearl's last words. Some responses were one sentence while others were several pages. The book is organized by five themes: Identity; Heritage; Covenant, Chosenness, and Faith; Humanity and Ethnicity; Tikkun Olam (Repairing the World) and Justice. Contributors include Theodore Bikel, Alan Dershowitz, Kirk Douglas, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Larry King, Amos Oz, Shimon Peres, Daniel Schorr, Elie Wiesel, Peter Yarrow, and A.B. Yehoshua. In western Massachusetts, where Pearl had been a young journalist, friend and former bandmate, Todd Mack, established a new nonprofit organization, Fodfest, later renamed, Music in Common, to continue Pearl's legacy of "bridge building", Mack said. Posthumous recognition In 2002, Pearl posthumously received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award from Colby College and in 2007, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Moral Courage Award from the Houston Holocaust Museum. On April 16, 2007, Pearl was added to the Holocaust Memorial on Miami Beach as the first non-Holocaust victim. His father gave his consent for the induction in order to remind generations to come that "The forces of barbarity and evil are still active in our world. The Holocaust didn't finish in 1945." Journalist Bradley Burston criticized the addition of a post-Holocaust victim to the memorial, saying "it diminishes the uniqueness of the Holocaust". In 2010, the International Press Institute named Pearl one of its World Press Freedom Heroes. On December 10, 2007, President George W. Bush and Laura Bush invited Ruth and Judea Pearl, parents of Daniel Pearl, to the White House Hanukkah reception. They lighted the Pearl family menorah that once belonged to Daniel's great-grandparents, Chaim and Rosa Pearl, who brought it with them when they moved from Poland to Mandatory Palestine in 1924. There they helped establish the town of Bnei Brak. The late former mayor of New York City Ed Koch requested that his own tombstone be inscribed with Pearl's words: "My father is Jewish, my mother is Jewish, I am Jewish." Film In 2007, the film A Mighty Heart was released, based on Mariane Pearl's memoir of the same name. In 2017, Bollywood portrayed a film Omerta on the life of Sheikh which received positive reviews. Music American minimalist composer Steve Reich wrote his 2006 work Daniel Variations, jointly commissioned by the Daniel Pearl Foundation and the Barbican Centre, which interweaves Pearl's own words with verses from the Book of Daniel. Institutions and awards in Pearl's name Shortly after Pearl's death, his parents founded the Daniel Pearl Foundation. The foundation's mission is to promote cross-cultural understanding through journalism, music, and dialogue. The honorary board of the Daniel Pearl Foundation includes Christiane Amanpour, former US President Bill Clinton, Abdul Sattar Edhi, John L. Hennessy, Ted Koppel, Queen Noor of Jordan, Sari Nusseibeh, Mariane Pearl, Itzhak Perlman, and Elie Wiesel. The Daniel Pearl Memorial Lecture at UCLA was established by the foundation in 2002. Christopher Hitchens delivered a lecture on March 3, 2010. Other lecturers have included Anderson Cooper, David Brooks, Ted Koppel, Larry King, Jeff Greenfield, Daniel Schorr, and Thomas Friedman. Soka University of America's student news magazine, titled the Pearl, is named in honor of Daniel Pearl. The 2021 Daniel Pearl Memorial Lecture will be given on February 2, 2021, by CNN's lead Washington correspondent Jake Tapper On May 19, 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama signed the Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act, which protects U.S. journalists around the world. The act is also designed to use tools from the Secretary of State to ensure that freedom of press is upheld in other countries. In 2010, Moment established The Daniel Pearl Investigative Journalism Initiative to provide grants and mentors for independent journalists to conduct in-depth reporting on anti-Semitism and other prejudices. The edited stories are published in Moment. The project has already produced two stories that have been nominated for the prestigious Livingston Award—the equivalent of the Pulitzer for journalists under 35. Institutions named after Pearl The Sammy Ofer School of Communications at IDC Herzliya introduced the Daniel Pearl International Journalism Institute, a new partnership between IDC Herzliya and the Daniel Pearl Foundation. The multimedia newsroom at the School of Communications was named in honor of Daniel Pearl. The Charles E. Smith Jewish Day School in Rockville, MD has named their gymnasium after Pearl, with a large block sign reading Daniel Pearl Memorial Gymnasium. The school annually celebrates a Daniel Pearl Day. Awards In 2005, The Wall Street Journal, in conjunction with the École de Journalisme de Sciences Po, gave the first Daniel Pearl Prize to Louis-Étienne Vigneault-Dubois from Canada, at a ceremony held on June 10 in Paris. In western Massachusetts, with help from the newspapers there for which Pearl worked early in his career (the North Adams Transcript and the Berkshire Eagle), friends of Pearl established the Daniel Pearl Berkshire Scholarship, awarded annually beginning in 2003. Since 2003, Stanford's Department of Communication has awarded a paid summer internship with The Wall Street Journal, known as the "Daniel Pearl Journalism Internship." In 2008 the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists' bi-annual ICIJ awards were renamed the Daniel Pearl Awards for Outstanding International Investigative Reporting. The Samuel Eells Literary and Educational Foundation annually awards the Brother Daniel Pearl Stanford 85' Award for Literary Excellence to one undergraduate member of the Alpha Delta Phi Society or Fraternity who has displayed exceptional skill and enthusiasm in fiction, non-fiction, poetry, music and lyrics, photography, or film. Schools named after Pearl In May 2007, the Communications Technology Magnet School at Birmingham High School in Los Angeles was renamed the Daniel Pearl Magnet High School. In July 2009, it became a stand-alone high school in the Los Angeles Unified School District. In East Brunswick Township, Temple B'nai Shalom renamed their Hebrew School 'The Daniel Pearl Education Center' after Pearl. Additionally, the Synagogue has created a "Daniel Pearl Education Scholarship". See also 2006 Fox journalists kidnapping History of the Jews in Los Angeles Islamic terrorism List of kidnappings List of solved missing person cases List of unsolved murders People involved in similar kidnappings/murders Eugene Armstrong Nick Berg Kenneth Bigley Amjad Hussain Farooqi James Foley Jack Hensley Margaret Hassan Paul Marshall Johnson Jr. Seif Adnan Kanaan Shosei Koda Yevgeny Rodionov Piotr Stańczak Kim Sun-il Austin Tice References Sources – 'Fahad Naseem, one of the three militants accused of kidnapping Pearl, told a judge in Karachi yesterday that Pearl was kidnapped because he was "a Jew and is working against Islam."' – 'The intelligence official, who spoke on condition of anonymity, said that information from American intelligence agencies helped Pakistani investigators track down the ring involved in the plot. Information from Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, Al Qaeda's former head of operations who was captured in March 2002, aided the investigation, he said. American officials say they believe that Mr. Mohammed was the person who actually killed Mr. Pearl.' Further reading Lévy, Bernard-Henri, Who Killed Daniel Pearl?, Melville House Publishing, 2003. Pearl, Daniel, At Home in the World: Collected Writings from the Wall Street Journal, New York: Free Press, June 2002. Pearl, Mariane, and Sarah Crichton, A Mighty Heart: The Brave Life and Death of My Husband, Danny Pearl, New York: Scribner, 2003. Pearl, Ruth and Judea, eds. I Am Jewish: Personal Reflections Inspired by the Last Words of Daniel Pearl. Jewish Lights Pub., January 2004. . External links Daniel Pearl International Journalism Institute, IDC Herzliya Daniel Pearl Berkshire Scholarship DANIEL PEARL AWARD - Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po Pakistan re-arrests four men acquitted in Daniel Pearl murder case The Daniel Pearl Foundation Rewards for Justice Daniel Pearl Page South Asian Journalists Association Roundup Wall Street Journal selection of stories by Daniel Pearl 1963 births 2000s missing person cases 2000s murders in Pakistan 2002 crimes in Pakistan 2002 deaths 2002 murders in Asia 20th-century American journalists 21st-century American journalists 20th-century American Jews 21st-century American Jews American male journalists American expatriates in India American expatriates in the United Kingdom American people murdered abroad American people of Iraqi-Jewish descent American people of Israeli descent American people of Polish-Jewish descent American terrorism victims Antisemitic attacks and incidents Assassinated American journalists Birmingham High School alumni Burials at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients Filmed assassinations Formerly missing people Foreign hostages in Pakistan Islamism-related beheadings Jewish American journalists Jewish martyrs Journalists from California Journalists from New Jersey Journalists killed in Pakistan Journalists who died as a result of terrorism Kidnapped American people Male murder victims Missing person cases in Pakistan American Mizrahi Jews Murdered American Jews People from Princeton, New Jersey People murdered in Karachi Stanford University alumni Terrorism deaths in Pakistan The Indianapolis Star people The Wall Street Journal people Unsolved murders in Pakistan Writers from Los Angeles	[ 0.11712317913770676, 0.2255081683397293, -0.9231749176979065, -0.13049794733524323, 0.32037055492401123, 0.3486243486404419, 0.04810481518507004, 0.2961953580379486, 0.41977736353874207, 0.1606861799955368, -0.13978073000907898, 0.6339410543441772, 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