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261926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora%20%28province%29 | Aurora (province) | Aurora (; ) is a province in the Philippines located in the eastern part of Central Luzon region, facing the Philippine Sea. Its capital is Baler and borders, clockwise from the south, the provinces of Quezon, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino, and Isabela.
Before 1979, Aurora was part of the province of Quezon. Aurora was, in fact, named after Aurora Aragon, the wife of Pres. Manuel L. Quezon, the president of the Philippine Commonwealth, after whom the mother province was named.
History
Spanish era
In 1572, the Spanish explorer Juan de Salcedo became the first European to visit the region that would be known as Aurora while he was exploring the northern coast of Luzon. Salcedo reportedly visited the towns of Casiguran, Baler and Infanta.
In the early days of the Spanish colonial period, Aurora was ecclesiastically linked to Infanta, which today rests further south, in northern Quezon. The earliest missionaries in the province were the Franciscans, who had established missions in Baler and Casiguran in 1609. Due to lack of available personnel, the region was given to the jurisdiction of the Augustinians and Recollects in 1658, but was returned to the Friars Minor in 1703. Other early missions included Dipaculao, established in 1719, and Casiguran, in 1753.
District of El Principe
The early history of Aurora is linked to Quezon province, of which it formed a part, and Nueva Ecija, under which the area was governed as the District of El Príncipe. In 1902, the district was separated from Nueva Ecija and transferred to the province of Tayabas (now Quezon).
Independence
Aurora became a sub-province of Quezon in 1951 through Republic Act No. 648, and finally became an independent province during the presidency of Ferdinand E. Marcos, through Batas Pambansa Blg. 7 enacted on November 21, 1978.
Administrative assignment
As original part of the province of Quezon, Aurora was part of the Southern Tagalog Region (Region IV). Upon the issuance of Executive Order No. 103, dated May 17, 2002, by then-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the province of Aurora was moved to Central Luzon (Region III). The provinces south of Aurora formed as Calabarzon and Mimaropa.
Geography
Aurora is a coastal province covering an area of in east-central Luzon. To the north, it is bordered by the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park of Isabela, to the west by the central range of the Sierra Madre which contains the Casecnan Protected Landscape and Aurora Memorial National Park, to the south by the Umiray River, and to the east by the Philippine Sea which opens to the Philippine Sea. The San Ildefonso Peninsula lies in the province's northern portion between the Philippine Sea and the Casiguran Sound.
Topography
The province covers a portion of the Sierra Madre mountain range. As such, the elevation is generally steep to very steep and only about 14% of the province's total area is flat.
Climate
Aurora's climate is classified as Tropical rainforest climate. It experiences significant rainfall throughout the year. Because the coastal province faces the Pacific Ocean, it is frequently visited by typhoons.
Administrative divisions
Aurora is politically subdivided into 8 municipalities, all encompassed by a lone legislative district.
Barangays
The 8 municipalities of the province comprise a total of 151 barangays, with Suclayin in Baler as the most populous in 2010, and Dibalo in San Luis as the least.
Demographics
The population of Aurora in the was people, with a density of .
Based on the 2000 census survey, Tagalogs comprised of the total provincial population of 173,589, and about less than 1/3 of the population were Ilocano at . Other ethnic groups in the province were Kasiguranin at , Bicolano at , Kankanaey at , Bisaya at , Dumagat (Umiray) at , and Cebuano at .
There are also pockets of Negritos, called Dumagats. Most Dumagats are living in the hillsides or mountains. They are believed to have result from a fusion of Austronesian and Melanesian ancestries, and survive from fishing and hunting. There are three kinds of Dumagats in Aurora province, the Umiray Dumagat, Casiguran Dumagat, and the Palanan Dumagat.
Religion
The people of Aurora are heavily Christianized (large majority being Roman Catholic by 87%) as a result of hundreds of years of Spanish colonization. Some other Christian believers are also present which includes Methodists, Aglipayan Church, Baptists, Born Again Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Members Church of God International, Iglesia ni Cristo and Seventh-day Adventist while Muslims are also found which presence is traced to migration by some people from some parts of Mindanao. Muslims, Anitists, animists, and atheists are also present in the province.
Economy
Corn crops, rice and other major agricultural crops are grown in Aurora. It has a total of 38, 928 or 13% of provincial Land Area of Agricultural land. It also has of rice plantation that averages 24,000 ton every years.
Aurora Pacific Economic Zone
Casiguran is home to the Aurora Pacific Economic Zone and Freeport Authority or APECO a special economic zone located in this coastal town. Created in 2007 by virtue of Republic Act No. 9490 through the efforts of Sen. Edgardo Angara and Rep. Juan Edgardo Angara, it is expected be a major transshipment hub going to the pacific region. It aims to boost social, economic and industrial developments in Aurora and nearby provinces by generating jobs for the people, improving the quality of their living conditions, advocating an eco-friendly approach to industrialization and enhancing the potential of the community in productivity.
Infrastructure
Electricity
Gallery
See also
Aurora Quezon
Siege of Baler
Sierra Madre mountain range
References
External links
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1979
1979 establishments in the Philippines
Former sub-provinces of the Philippines | [
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261927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth%20Coast%20Football | Commonwealth Coast Football | Commonwealth Coast Football (CCC Football) is a single-sport athletic conference that competes in football in the NCAA's Division III. It began play as CCC Football in 2017 after the New England Football Conference (NEFC) was renamed following the 2016 season. CCC Football is administered by the Commonwealth Coast Conference.
The conference competed under the NEFC banner from 1965 through the 2016 season. Member teams are located in New England.
Before an NEFC conference split that took effect with the 2013 season, the NEFC was divided into the Boyd Division and the Bogan Division, with the division champions competing in Division III football's only season-ending conference championship game.
After the 2012 season, the NEFC split, with the seven Massachusetts state institutions and Plymouth State playing in the MASCAC for football. The conference's automatic bid to the NCAA Division III playoffs continued to be held by the eight remaining members: Curry, Endicott, Maine Maritime, MIT, Nichols, Salve Regina, Coast Guard, and Western New England. In the 12 seasons the NEFC hosted a championship game between its two division winners, these remaining eight members accounted for 16 of the 24 championship game participants and 8 of 12 conference champions.
The decision to rename the NEFC was made in October 2015, as the Commonwealth Coast Conference announced that it would add football by effectively absorbing the NEFC as a single-sport conference known as Commonwealth Coast Football, starting with the 2017–18 school year. Accordingly, the 2016 season was the last for the NEFC under its long-standing name and acronym.
The CCC and Commonwealth Coast Football unveiled a new family of logos during a June 2019 visual rebrand.
NEFC and CCC Football Membership evolution
1965 – The New England Football Conference is founded by charter members Curry, Bridgewater State and Maine Maritime.
1971 – Plymouth State and New England College become conference members.
1972 – Nichols College and Boston State become conference members.
1972 – New England College suspends football program following '72 season; Mass. Maritime Academy becomes conference member.
1973 – Framingham State and New Haven become conference members.
1979 – Western Connecticut State becomes conference member.
1981 – Western New England College becomes conference member.
1981 – New Haven leaves conference, moves to Division II.
1981 – Boston State suspends football program following '81 season.
1982 – Westfield State becomes conference member.
1985 – Fitchburg State and Worcester State become conference members.
1985 – Western Connecticut leaves conference to pursue independent schedule.
1987 – UMass Lowell becomes conference member in 1987, initiating a split into two six-team divisions with divisional winners meeting in championship playoff game.
1988 – UMass Boston and UMass Dartmouth become conference members.
1988 – Western New England leaves conference following '88 season.
1992 – Plymouth State and UMass Lowell join the Freedom Football Conference; Curry and Nichols join the Eastern Collegiate Football Conference.
1992 – The conference now numbers nine colleges that play a round robin schedule.
1997 – Five new members begin conference play in 1998: Curry, Nichols, MIT, Salve Regina and WNEC. The 14-team conference had two 7-team divisions.
1999 – Bridgewater State (10–0) receives first automatic qualification to NCAA playoffs.
2000 – The first Championship game in the 14-team Conference is scheduled. Wal*Mart agrees to sponsor the game. The Divisions are renamed with the Red being the Bogan Division and the Blue becoming the Boyd Division named after the NEFC's first two commissioners. Bridgewater State defeats Salve Regina 27–24 for the championship. UMass Boston drops football.
2001 – The Bogan Division plays with only six teams while the Boyd continues with seven. Endicott College begins a football program and is admitted into the Boyd Division beginning with the 2003 season.
2004 – A Most Valuable Player Award is established for the NEFC Championship Game and is named the William Mottola Award in honor of the long-time conference commissioner.
2005 – Plymouth State University and the United States Coast Guard Academy are admitted as members for play beginning in the 2006 season. Plymouth enters the Boyd Division and Coast Guard Academy competes in the Bogan Division. The Conference decides that the Championship Game will be played at the campus of the Bogan Division winner in even numbered years and on the field of the Boyd Division champion in odd numbered years.
2007 – Curry College becomes the first NEFC team to win an NCAA Division III Championship Tournament game, defeating Hartwick College 42–21.
2008 – The NEFC qualifies two teams for the NCAA Division III Championship Tournament for the first time. Conference champion Plymouth State University receives the automatic bid, and Curry College receives an at-large bid.
2010 – Maine Maritime Academy sets a new NCAA Division III season rushing record with 5189 yards in 11 games. The Mariners miss the all-Division mark set by the University of Oklahoma in 1971 by eight yards.
2011 – Massachusetts State College Athletic Conference institution presidents decide to form a MASCAC football league, which consists of nine schools, and the league champion is awarded an automatic berth to the NCAA D-III Football National Tournament. Bridgewater State University, Fitchburg State University, Framingham State University, Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Westfield State University, and Worcester State University are the six core schools deciding to join the new MASCAC conference. Also, Plymouth State University, UMass-Dartmouth, and Western Connecticut State also join the MASCAC conference as flagship members, effectively in 2013.
2012 – The NEFC qualifies two teams for the NCAA Division III National Tournament for the second time in league history. Framingham State (10–1) won the NEFC Championship and received the automatic bid, while Bridgewater State (9–1) received an at-large bid. Framingham State lost in the First Round, 20–19 to Cortland State (NY), while Bridgewater State also lost in the First Round, 44–14 to Widener University (PA).
2013 – Retired Bridgewater State University Director of Athletics John Harper is named Commissioner of the Conference
2014 – The Conference Championship traveling trophy is named for former Maine Maritime Academy Director of Athletics and football coach Bill Mottola. Mottola was NEFC Commissioner from 1997 to 2007 and was affiliated with the conference for four decades.
2015 – Maine Maritime Academy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the United States Coast Guard Academy announce plans to leave the NEFC following the 2016 season to compete in the NEWMAC, which begins sponsoring football as a championship sport in 2017.
2015 – Gregg Kaye, Commissioner of the Commonwealth Coast Conference, is named NEFC Commissioner.
2016 – The NEFC completes its final season of play under the NEFC name. Curry, Endicott, Nichols, Salve Regina, and Western New England compete in a renamed NEFC known as Commonwealth Coast Football (CCC Football) in succeeding years. Becker joins as an associate member in 2017 and the University of New England adds a football program and becomes CCC Football's seventh football member in 2018. As a renamed NEFC, CCC Football continues to receive automatic qualification to the NCAA Division III Championship Tournament.
2017 – The NEFC begins play as Commonwealth Coast Football and continues to operate as a single-sport conference administered by the Commonwealth Coast Conference.
2019 – Husson joins as an associate member.
2021 – Becker ceases operations.
Member schools
Current members
Former NEFC/CCC Football members
The years of departure listed are the calendar years in which each school left the conference. Because football is a fall sport, the year of departure is the calendar year after the last season of competition.
Membership timeline
Primary conferences
When the conference operated under the NEFC name, its teams competed in other primary multi-sport conferences.
References
External links | [
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261929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleanna | Oleanna | Oleanna (anglicized from Oleana) is:
Oleana, a community in Ole Bull's colony in New Norway, Pennsylvania
Oleana, a character from Pokémon Sword and Shield
Oleana (clothing), a Norwegian textile company named after Ole Bull's Oleana community
"Oleanna" (song), a folk song mocking Ole Bull's ambitions of a perfect community
Oleanna (play), a play named after the folk song, written by David Mamet
Oleanna (film), a film based on Mamet's play, directed by the author and starring William H. Macy | [
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261931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20England%20Small%20College%20Athletic%20Conference | New England Small College Athletic Conference | The New England Small Collegiate Athletic Conference (NESCAC) is an American collegiate athletic conference comprising sports teams from eleven highly selective liberal arts institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The eleven institutions are Amherst College, Bates College, Bowdoin College, Colby College, Connecticut College, Hamilton College, Middlebury College, Tufts University, Trinity College, Wesleyan University, and Williams College.
The conference originated with an agreement among Amherst, Bowdoin, Wesleyan and Williams in 1955. In 1971, Bates, Colby, Hamilton, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts, and Union College joined on and the NESCAC was officially formed. Union withdrew in 1977 and was replaced by Connecticut College in 1982. The members are grouped within the NCAA Division III athletic conference. Members of the conference have some of the largest financial endowments of any liberal arts colleges in the world, with Williams College's $3.89 billion being the largest. Undergraduate enrollment at the schools ranges from about 1,800 to 6,000 (Tufts).
Member schools
Member colleges of the athletic conference possesses some of the largest financial endowments in the world. As of the 2021-2022 academic year, Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, has the largest endowment of any college in the conference, followed closely by Amherst, and then Bowdoin and Tufts respectively. Admission to NESCAC institutions is often highly competitive, with most member schools touting acceptance rates lower than 15 percent as of the 2020-2021 admissions cycle. Many NESCAC schools are also some of the oldest institutions of higher education in the United States, with Williams, Bowdoin and Middlebury being among the 40 oldest institutions in the country.
Current members
Notes
Former member
Membership timeline
History
Williams began its inaugural football season in 1881 and its rivalry with Amherst College is one of the longest at any level of college football. Tufts and Harvard played the first football game between two American colleges on June 4, 1875 which Tufts won 1-0. Bates and Bowdoin have competed against each other athletically since the 1870s and subsequently share one of the ten oldest NCAA Division III football rivalries, in the United States, there is a long history of athletic competition between the two colleges and Colby. Colby began its now most notable hockey rivalry, with Bowdoin in 1922.
In 1899, Amherst, Wesleyan and Williams schools first began to compete together as the "Triangular League". Since then they have continued to play each other in most sports on a regular basis. The conference originated with an agreement among Amherst, Bowdoin, Wesleyan and Williams in 1955. Later, Bates, Colby, Connecticut College, Hamilton, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts joined and the NESCAC was officially formed. The Conference was created out of a concern for the direction of intercollegiate athletic programs and remains committed to keeping a proper perspective on the role of sport in higher education.
Member institutions believe athletic teams should be representative of school's entire student bodies and hew to NCAA Division III admissions and financial policies prohibiting athletic scholarships while awarding financial aid solely on the basis of need. Due to the prestigious reputations of its member schools, the NESCAC is able to attract many of the most athletically and intellectually gifted student-athletes in the country. Members stress that intercollegiate athletic programs should operate in harmony with the educational mission of each institution. Schools are committed to maintaining common boundaries to keep athletics strong yet in proportion to their overall academic mission. Presidents of each NESCAC institution control intercollegiate athletic policy. Conference tenets are usually more restrictive than those of the NCAA Division III regarding season length, number of contests and post-season competition.
Four NESCAC institutions are among the 39 that founded the NCAA in 1905: Amherst, Tufts, Wesleyan, and Williams. Prior to 1993 NESCAC generally did not allow member schools to send teams to NCAA championships. Since then all sports except football have had this freedom, many excelling in the NCAA Division III championships. The NACDA Directors' Cup, awarded since 1996 to the college or university in each NCAA Division that wins the most college championships, has been claimed at the Division III level by a NESCAC institution every year except 1998. In the 2012–13 season, four of the top ten NACDA Director's Cup institutions were from NESCAC: Williams (1), Middlebury (3), Amherst (6), and Tufts (8).
Academics
Many schools in the New England Small College Athletic Conference are known for low grade inflation, grade deflation, and rigorous academic standards. Some members have received limited media coverage over perceived grade inflation and deflation.
The colleges are also known for a range of high and relatively low tuition rates and comprehensive fees. Some of the colleges have been named the most expensive in the United States.
Association of American Universities
Tufts University is a member of the prestigious Association of American Universities.
Geographic distribution
Most applicants to schools in the NESCAC come from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all NESCAC schools are located on the East Coast, and all but one are in New England, most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation.
Spending and revenue
Total revenue includes ticket sales, contributions and donations, rights/licensing, student fees, school funds, and all other sources including TV income, camp income, food, and novelties. Total expenses includes coaching/staff, buildings/grounds, maintenance, utilities and rental fees, and all other costs including recruiting, team travel, equipment and uniforms, conference dues, and insurance costs.
Facilities
Culture
Many colleges banned fraternities and sororities on the grounds of unwarranted exclusivity, and provided on-campus social houses for all students to engage with. Williams College displaced their fraternity system in the 1960s due to high levels of racial and religious discrimination. Williams College President Chandler stated, "there remained the system of blackballing and secret agreements between some fraternities and their national bodies to exclude blacks and Jews... it was essentially a caste system based on socioeconomic status as perceived by students."
Bates rejected the fraternity system in 1855, when it was founded. Colby disbanded its fraternities and sororities in 1984. At Bowdoin, fraternities were phased out in 2000. Despite the lack of Greek life, NESCAC schools are widely known for a prominent drinking culture.
Schools within the NESCAC conference have made institutional efforts to diversify student body, and attract and wide range of students to their institutions. Many schools in the NESCAC provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students.
Notable alumni
Schools in the New England Small College Athletic Conference have graduated three U.S. presidents. The first president to graduate from the athletic conference was Franklin Pierce, the 14th President of the United States, a Bowdoin graduate of 1824. The 20th president, James A. Garfield, graduated from Williams College in 1856. The third U.S. president to graduate from a NESCAC institution was Calvin Coolidge, who graduated from Amherst College in 1895. President Chester Arthur was an 1848 graduate of Union College, a former NESCAC member, and President Woodrow Wilson was a professor at Wesleyan from 1888 to 1890.
Sports
The New England Small College Athletic Conference sponsors championship competition in 13 men's and 14 women's NCAA sanctioned sports.
Men's sponsored sports by school
Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the New England Small College Athletic Conference that are played by NESCAC schools
Women's sponsored sports by school
Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the New England Small College Athletic Conference that are played by NESCAC schools
Football
Until the 2017 season, the 10 football-playing NESCAC schools only played 8 regular season games. On April 27, 2017, the NESCAC announced that it would adopt a full 9-game round robin schedule.
In addition to the ban on postseason play, the NESCAC football league is notable for member teams playing conference games only. While some Division II and Division III teams play only conference schedules, NESCAC is unique in all of its members playing only within conference games.
Baseball
NESCAC Baseball is the only men's sport to utilize divisions. Bates, Bowdoin, Colby, Tufts, and Trinity compete in the East Division, while Amherst, Hamilton, Middlebury, Wesleyan, and Williams compete in the West Division. Connecticut College does not sponsor baseball.
The NESCAC has won the College World Series once: by the Trinity Bantams in 2008. Current member schools have appeared in the College World Series a combined total of 5 times.
NCAA team championships
The Middlebury Panthers lead the NESCAC in NCAA men's titles with 15, while the Williams Ephs lead in women's titles with 30 and in overall NCAA titles with 38. Excluded from this list are all national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including women's AIAW championships.
The following is a list of NCAA-recognized national team championships by NESCAC schools.
Baseball (1):
2008 – Trinity
Men's basketball (3):
2003 – Williams
2007 – Amherst
2013 – Amherst
Women's basketball (3):
2011 – Amherst
2017 – Amherst
2018 – Amherst
Men's cross country (2):
1994 – Williams
1995 – Williams
Women's cross country (10):
2000 – Middlebury
2001 – Middlebury
2002 – Williams
2003 – Middlebury
2004 – Williams
2006 – Middlebury
2007 – Amherst
2008 – Middlebury
2010 – Middlebury
2015 – Williams
Field hockey (10):
1998 – Middlebury
2007 – Bowdoin
2008 – Bowdoin
2010 – Bowdoin
2012 – Tufts
2013 – Bowdoin
2015 – Middlebury
2017 – Middlebury
2018 – Middlebury
2019 – Middlebury
Women's golf (1):
2015 – Williams
Men's ice hockey (9):
1995 – Middlebury
1996 – Middlebury
1997 – Middlebury
1998 – Middlebury
1999 – Middlebury
2004 – Middlebury
2005 – Middlebury
2006 – Middlebury
2015 – Trinity
Women's ice hockey (5):
2004 – Middlebury
2005 – Middlebury
2006 – Middlebury
2009 – Amherst
2010 – Amherst
Men's lacrosse (7):
2000 – Middlebury
2001 – Middlebury
2002 – Middlebury
2010 – Tufts
2014 – Tufts
2015 – Tufts
2018 – Wesleyan
Women's lacrosse (10):
1997 – Middlebury
1999 – Middlebury
2001 – Middlebury
2002 – Middlebury
2003 – Amherst
2004 – Middlebury
2008 – Hamilton
2012 – Trinity
2016 – Middlebury
2019 – Middlebury
Women's rowing (15)
2002 – Williams
2003 – Colby
2006 – Williams
2007 – Williams
2008 – Williams
2009 – Williams
2010 – Williams
2011 – Williams
2012 – Williams
2013 – Williams
2015 – Bates
2017 – Bates
2018 – Bates
2019 – Bates
2021 – Bates
Men's soccer (7):
1995 – Williams
2007 – Middlebury
2014 – Tufts
2015 – Amherst
2016 – Tufts
2018 – Tufts
2019 – Tufts
2021 – Connecticut College
Women's soccer (3):
2015 – Williams
2017 – Williams
2018 – Williams
Softball (3):
2013 – Tufts
2014 – Tufts
2015 – Tufts
Women's swimming & diving (2):
1982 – Williams
1983 – WilliamsMen's tennis (10): 1999 – Williams
2001 – Williams
2002 – Williams
2004 – Middlebury
2010 – Middlebury
2011 – Amherst
2013 – Williams
2014 – Amherst
2016 – Bowdoin
2018 – MiddleburyWomen's tennis (12): 1999 – Amherst
2001 – Williams
2002 – Williams
2008 – Williams
2009 – Williams
2010 – Williams
2011 – Williams
2012 – Williams
2013 – Williams
2015 – Williams
2017 – Williams
2019 – WesleyanWomen's indoor track (2):'''
2007 – Williams
2019 – Williams
See also
The Little Ivies: a grouping of small liberal arts colleges, also in the Northeastern United States, comparable to Ivy League universities
The Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium: three small liberal arts colleges known as the "Maine Big Three"
The Little Three: three small liberal arts colleges in Massachusetts and Connecticut comparable to the "Big Three"
References
External links
Hadley, Massachusetts
Organizations based in Massachusetts
Sports leagues established in 1971
Sports in New England
College sports in Massachusetts
College sports in Connecticut
College sports in Maine
College sports in Vermont
College sports in New York (state) | [
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261933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie%20Robertson | Robbie Robertson | Jaime Royal "Robbie" Robertson, OC (born July 5, 1943), is a Canadian musician, songwriter, film composer, producer, actor, and author. Robertson is best known for his work as lead guitarist and songwriter for The Band, and for his career as a solo recording artist.
Robertson's work with The Band was instrumental in creating the Americana music genre. Robertson has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Canadian Music Hall of Fame as a member of The Band, and has been inducted to Canada's Walk of Fame, both with The Band and on his own. He is ranked 59th in Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 100 greatest guitarists. As a songwriter, Robertson is credited for writing "The Weight", "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down", "Up on Cripple Creek" with The Band, and had solo hits with "Broken Arrow" and "Somewhere Down the Crazy River", and many others. He has been inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame, and received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Academy of Songwriters.
As a film soundtrack producer and composer, Robertson is known for his collaborations with director Martin Scorsese, which began with the rockumentary film The Last Waltz (1978), and continued through a number of dramatic films, including Raging Bull (1980), The King of Comedy (1983), Casino (1995), The Departed (2006), The Wolf of Wall Street (2013) and The Irishman (2019). He has worked on many other soundtracks for film and television.
Early life
Robertson was born Jaime Royal Robertson on July 5, 1943. He was an only child. His mother was Rosemarie Dolly Chrysler, born February 6, 1922. She was Cayuga and Mohawk, raised on the Six Nations Reserve southwest of Toronto, Ontario. Chrysler lived with an aunt in the Cabbagetown neighbourhood and worked at the Coro jewellery plating factory. She met James Patrick Robertson at the factory and they married in 1942.
Rosemarie and James Robertson continued to work at the factory where they met. The family lived in several homes in different Toronto neighbourhoods when Robbie was a child. He often travelled with his mother to the Six Nations Reserve to visit her family. It was here that Robertson was mentored in playing guitar by family members, in particular his older cousin Herb Myke. He became a fan of rock 'n' roll and R&B through the radio, listening to disc jockey George "Hound Dog" Lorenz play rock 'n' roll on WKBW in Buffalo, New York, and staying up at night to listen to disc jockey John R.'s all-night blues show on WLAC, a clear-channel station in Nashville, Tennessee.
When Robertson was in his early teens, his parents separated. His mother revealed to Robertson that his biological father was not James, but Alexander David Klegerman, a Jewish man whom she had met working at the Coro factory. He became a professional gambler and was killed in a hit-and-run accident on the Queen Elizabeth Way. She had been with him while James Robertson was stationed in Newfoundland with the Canadian Army, before she married James. After telling Robertson, his mother arranged for the youth to meet his paternal uncles Morris (Morrie) and Nathan (Natie) Klegerman.
Career
When Robertson was 14, he worked two brief summer jobs in the travelling carnival circuit, first for a few days in a suburb of Toronto, and later as an assistant at a freak show for three weeks during the Canadian National Exhibition. He drew from this for his song "Life is a Carnival" (with the Band) and the movie Carny (1980), which he produced and starred in.
The first band Robertson joined was Little Caesar and the Consuls, formed in 1956 by pianist/vocalist Bruce Morshead and guitarist Gene MacLellan. He stayed with the group for almost a year, playing popular songs of the day at local teen dances. In 1957 he formed Robbie and the Rhythm Chords with his friend Pete "Thumper" Traynor (who would later found Traynor Amplifiers). They changed the name to Robbie and the Robots after they watched the film Forbidden Planet and took a liking to the film's character Robby the Robot. Traynor customized Robertson's guitar for the Robots, fitting it with antennae and wires to give it a space age look. Traynor and Robertson joined with pianist Scott Cushnie and became The Suedes. At a Suedes show on October 5, 1959, when they played CHUM Radio's Hif Fi Club on Toronto's Merton Street, Ronnie Hawkins first became aware of them and was impressed enough to join them for a few numbers.
With Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks
Robertson began shadowing Hawkins. After the Suedes opened for the Arkansas-based rockabilly group Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks at Dixie Arena, Hawkins hired Robertson for the Hawks' road crew. Hawkins recorded two songs co-credited to Robertson, "Hey Baba Lou" and "Someone Like You", for his album Mr. Dynamo (1959), and brought Robertson to the Brill Building in New York City to help him choose songs for the rest of the album.
Hawkins hired pianist Scott Cushnie away from the Suedes, and took him on tour with Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks in Arkansas. When the Hawks' bass player left the group, Cushnie recommended that Hawkins hire Robertson to replace him on bass.
Hawkins invited Robertson to Arkansas, and flew to the UK to perform on television there. Left in Arkansas, Robertson spent his living allowance on records and practised intensively each day. Upon returning, Hawkins hired him to play bass. Cushnie left the band a few months later. Robertson soon switched over from bass to playing lead guitar for the Hawks. Robertson developed into a guitar virtuoso.
Roy Buchanan, a few years older than Robertson, was briefly a member of the Hawks and became an important influence on Robertson's guitar style: "Standing next to Buchanan on stage for several months, Robertson was able to absorb Buchanan’s deft manipulations with his volume speed dial, his tendency to bend multiple strings for steel guitar-like effect, his rapid sweep picking and his passion for bending past the root and fifth notes during solo flights."
Drummer/singer Levon Helm was already a member of the Hawks and soon became close friends with Robertson. The Hawks continued to tour the United States and Canada, adding Rick Danko, Richard Manuel, and Garth Hudson to the Hawks lineup in 1961.
This lineup, which later became The Band, toured with Hawkins throughout 1962 and into 1963. They also hired the saxophone player Jerry Penfound and later Bruce Bruno, who were both with the group in their intermediary period as Levon and the Hawks.
Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks cut sessions for Roulette Records throughout 1961–1963, all of which Robertson appeared on. The sessions included three singles: "Come Love" b/w "I Feel Good" (Roulette 4400 1961); "Who Do You Love" b/w "Bo Diddley" (Roulette 4483 1963); and "There's A Screw Loose" b/w "High Blood Pressure" (Roulette 4502 1963).
With Levon and the Hawks
The Hawks left Ronnie Hawkins at the beginning of 1964 to go on their own. The members of the Hawks were losing interest in playing in the rockabilly style and favoured blues and soul music. In early 1964, the group approached agent Harold Kudlets about representing them, which he agreed to do, booking them a year's worth of shows in the same circuits as they had been in before with Ronnie Hawkins. Originally dubbed The Levon Helm Sextet, the group included all of the future members of The Band, plus Jerry Penfound on saxophone and Bob Bruno on vocals.
After Bruno left in May 1964, the group changed their name to Levon and the Hawks. Penfound stayed with the group until 1965. Kudlets kept the group busy performing throughout 1964 and into 1965, finally booking them into two lengthy summer engagements at the popular nightclub Tony Mart's in Somers Point, New Jersey, at the Shore. They played six nights a week alongside Conway Twitty and other acts.
The members of Levon and the Hawks befriended blues artist John P. Hammond while he was performing in Toronto in 1964. Later in the year, the group agreed to work on Hammond's album So Many Roads (released in 1965) at the same time that they were playing the Peppermint Lounge in New York City. Robertson played guitar throughout the album, and was billed "Jaime R. Robertson" in the album's credits.
Levon and the Hawks cut a single "Uh Uh Uh" b/w "Leave Me Alone" under the name the Canadian Squires in March 1965. Both songs were written by Robertson. The single was recorded in New York and released on Apex Records in the United States and on Ware Records in Canada. As Levon and the Hawks, the group cut an afternoon session for Atco Records later in 1965, which yielded two singles, "The Stones I Throw" b/w "He Don't Love You" (Atco 6383) and "Go, Go, Liza Jane" b/w "He Don't Love You" (Atco 6625). Robertson also wrote all three of the tracks on Levon and the Hawks' Atco singles.
With Bob Dylan and the Hawks
1965–1966 World Tour
Toward the end of Levon and the Hawks' second engagement at Tony Mart's in New Jersey, in August 1965, Robertson received a call from Albert Grossman Management requesting a meeting with singer Bob Dylan. The group had been recommended to both Grossman and to Dylan by Mary Martin, one of Grossman's employees; she was originally from Toronto and was a friend of the band. Dylan was also aware of the group through his friend John Hammond, whose album So Many Roads members of the Hawks had performed on.
Robertson agreed to meet with Dylan. Initially, Dylan intended simply to hire Robertson as the guitarist for his backing group. Robertson refused the offer, but did agree to play two shows with Dylan, one at the Forest Hills Tennis Stadium in Forest Hills, New York on August 28, and one at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles on September 3. Robertson suggested they use Levon Helm on drums for the shows.
Robertson and Helm performed in Dylan's backing band, along with Harvey Brooks and Al Kooper for both shows. The first at Forest Hills received a predominantly hostile response, but the second in Los Angeles was received slightly more favourably. Dylan flew up to Toronto and rehearsed with Levon and the Hawks September 15–17, as Levon and the Hawks finished an engagement there, and hired the full band for his upcoming tour.
Bob Dylan and the Hawks toured the United States throughout October–December 1965, with each show consisting of two sets: an acoustic show featuring only Dylan on guitar and harmonica, and an electric set featuring Dylan backed by the Hawks. The tours were largely met with a hostile reaction from fans who knew Dylan as a prominent figure in the American folk music revival, and thought his move into rock music a betrayal. Helm left the group after their November 28 performance in Washington, D.C. Session drummer Bobby Gregg replaced Helm for the December dates, and Sandy Konikoff was brought in to replace Gregg in January 1966.
Dylan and the Hawks played more dates in the continental United States in February–March 1966 of the 1966 world tour. From April 9-May 27, they played Hawaii, Australia, Europe, and the UK and Ireland. Drummer Sandy Konikoff left after the Pacific Northwest dates in March, and Mickey Jones replaced him, staying with the group for the remainder of the tour. The Australian and European legs of the tour received a particularly harsh response from disgruntled folk fans. The May 17 Manchester Free Trade Hall show is best known for an angry audience member audibly yelling "Judas!" at Dylan; it became a frequently-bootlegged live show from the tour, was eventually released officially as The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The "Royal Albert Hall" Concert.
The European leg of the tour was filmed by documentary filmmaker D. A. Pennebaker, but completion of a planned film was delayed. After recovering from an accident, Dylan decided to edit it himself. ABC television rejected it, and it was never commercially released. It was screened as Eat the Document in 1972 at the Whitney Museum in New York.
On November 30, 1965, Dylan cut a studio session with members of the Hawks, which yielded the non-LP single "Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?" Dylan completed the Blonde on Blonde album in Nashville in mid-February 1966, employing Robertson for one of these sessions, which took place on February 14.
The "Basement Tapes" period
On July 29, 1966, Dylan sustained an injured neck from a motorcycle accident, and retreated to a quiet domestic life with his new wife and child in upstate New York. Some of the members of the Hawks were living at the Chelsea Hotel in New York City at the time, and were kept on a weekly retainer by Dylan's management.
In February 1967, Dylan invited the members of the Hawks to come up to Woodstock, New York to work on music. Robertson had met a French-Canadian woman on the Paris stop of Dylan's 1966 world tour, and the two moved into a house in the Woodstock area. The remaining three members of the Hawks rented a house near West Saugerties, New York; it was later dubbed "Big Pink" because of its pink exterior.
Dylan and the members of the Hawks worked together at the "Big Pink" house every day to rehearse and generate ideas for new songs, many of which they recorded in "Big Pink"'s makeshift basement studio. The recordings were made between the late spring and autumn of 1967. Previous Hawks member Levon Helm returned to the group in August 1967. By this time, Robertson's guitar style had evolved to be more supportive of the song and less devoted to displaying speed and virtuosity.
In time, word about these sessions began to circulate, and in 1968, Rolling Stone magazine co-founder Jann Wenner brought attention to these tracks in an article entitled "Dylan's Basement Tape Should Be Released".
In 1969, a bootleg album with a plain white cover compiled by two incognito music industry insiders featured a collection of seven tracks from these sessions. The album, which became known as The Great White Wonder, began to appear in independent record stores and receive radio airplay. This album became a runaway success and helped to launch the bootleg recording industry.
In 1975, Robertson would produce an official compilation, The Basement Tapes, which included a selection of tracks from the sessions. An exhaustive collection of all 138 extant recordings was released in 2014 as The Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete.
With the Band
1967–1968 (Music From Big Pink)
In late 1967, Dylan left to record his next album, John Wesley Harding (1967). After recording the basic tracks, Dylan asked Robertson and Garth Hudson about playing on the album to fill out the sound. However, when Robertson heard the tracks, he liked the starkness of the sound and recommended that Dylan leave the songs as they were. Dylan worked with the members of the Hawks again when they appeared as his backup band at two Woody Guthrie memorial concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York City in January 1968. Three of these performances were later released by Columbia Records on the LP A Tribute to Woody Guthrie, Vol. 1 (1972).
Over the course of the "Basement Tapes" period, the group had developed a sound of their own, and Grossman went to Los Angeles to shop the group to a major label, securing a contract with Capitol Records. The group went to New York to begin recording songs with music producer John Simon. Capitol brought the group to Los Angeles to finish the album. The resulting album, Music From Big Pink, was released in August 1968.
Robertson wrote four of the songs on Music From Big Pink, including "The Weight", "Chest Fever", "Caledonia Mission," and "To Kingdom Come". Robertson is listed in the songwriting credits as "J.R. Robertson". Robertson sang lead vocal on the track "To Kingdom Come"; he would not sing on another Band song released to the public until "Knockin' Lost John" on 1977's Islands. Two of Robertson's compositions for the album, "The Weight" and "Chest Fever", would become important touchstones in the group's career. "The Weight" was influenced by the films of director Luis Buñuel, in particular Nazarín (1959) and Viridiana (1961), and reflects the recurring theme in Buñuel's films about the impossibility of sainthood. The song portrays an individual who attempts to take a saintly pilgrimage, and becomes mired down with requests from other people to do favors for them along the way. The mention of "Nazareth" at the beginning of the song refers to Nazareth, Pennsylvania, where the C. F. Martin & Company guitar manufacturer is located; it was inspired by Robertson seeing the word "Nazareth" in the hole of his Martin guitar. Although "The Weight" reached #21 on the British radio charts, it did not fare as well on the American charts, initially stalling at #63.
But the song gained traction following more successful covers by Jackie DeShannon (US #55, 1968), Aretha Franklin (US #19, 1969), and the Supremes with the Temptations (US #46, 1969), and the song's inclusion in the movie Easy Rider (1969), which became a runaway success. "The Weight" has since become the Band's best known song. It has been covered by many artists, appeared in dozens of films and documentaries, and has become a staple in American rock music.
When Music from Big Pink was released in 1968, the Band initially avoided media attention, and discouraged Capitol Records from promotional efforts. They also did not immediately pursue touring to support the album, and declined to be interviewed for a year. The resulting mystery surrounding the group prompted speculation in the underground press. Music from Big Pink received excellent reviews, and the album influenced many well-known musicians of the period.
1969 The Band
In early 1969, the Band rented a home from Sammy Davis Jr. in Hollywood Hills, and converted the pool house behind it into a studio to recreate the "clubhouse" atmosphere that they had previously enjoyed at "Big Pink". The band began recording every day in the pool house studio, working on a tight schedule to complete the album. An additional three tracks were recorded at The Hit Factory in New York in April 1969. Robertson did most of the audio engineering on the album.
The Band began performing regularly in spring 1969, with their first live dates as the Band taking place at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco. Their most notable performances that year were at the 1969 Woodstock Festival and the UK Isle of Wight Festival with Bob Dylan in August.
The Band's album The Band was released in September 1969, and became a critical and commercial success. The album received almost universal critical praise, peaked at #9 on the US pop charts, and stayed in the Top 40 for 24 weeks. The Band works as a loose concept album of Americana themes, and was instrumental in the creation of the Americana music genre. It was included in the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry in 2009.
The song from this album that had the strongest cultural influence was "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down". The song explores a Confederate man's life after defeat of the South following the American Civil War. It incorporates historical events to create a larger American mythos. Although the Band's original version was not released as a single, a cover version by Joan Baez went to #3 on the charts in 1971 and helped to popularize the song.
Several other tracks from The Band received significant radio airplay, and would become staples in the group's concert appearances. "Up on Cripple Creek" peaked at #25 in late 1969 in the United States, and would be their only Top 30 hit there. "Rag Mama Rag" reached #16 in the UK in April 1970, the highest chart position of any single by the group in that country. "Whispering Pines", co-written by Richard Manuel, was released as a single in France in 1970, and would become the title of a 2009 book about Canadian contributions to the Americana music genre by Jason Schneider. On November 2, 1969, the Band appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show, one of only two television appearances they would make.
1970–1973 (Stage Fright through Moondog Matinee)
On January 12, 1970, the Band was featured on the cover of Time magazine. This was the first time a North American rock band featured on the cover of the magazine.
The Band rented The Woodstock Playhouse in Woodstock, New York with the intent of recording a new live album there, but the city council voted against it, so they recorded on location, but without an audience. Robertson handled most of the songwriting duties as before. Robertson brought in Todd Rundgren to engineer the album which was recorded in two weeks' time. These sessions became their third album, Stage Fright, which would become the Band's highest charting album, peaking at #5 on September 5 and staying in the Billboard Top 40 for 14 weeks.
The Band's next album, Cahoots, was recorded at Albert Grossman's newly built Bearsville Studios and was released in October 1971. The album received mixed reviews, and peaked at #24 on the Billboard charts, only remaining in the Billboard Top 40 for five weeks.
Cahoots is notable for its cover of Bob Dylan's "When I Paint My Masterpiece", as well as for featuring the concert favourite "Life Is a Carnival". The inclusion of "When I Paint My Masterpiece" came about when Dylan stopped by Robertson's home during the recording of Cahoots and Robertson asked if he might have any songs to contribute. That led to Dylan playing an unfinished version of "When I Paint My Masterpiece" for him. Dylan completed the song soon afterwards, and the Band recorded it for the album. "Life Is a Carnival" features horn parts written by producer and arranger Allen Toussaint. It would be the only track from Cahoots the group would keep in their set list through to The Last Waltz concert and film.
The Band continued to tour throughout 1970-71. A live album recorded at a series of shows at the Academy of Music in New York City between December 28–31, 1971, was released in 1972 as the double album Rock Of Ages. Rock of Ages peaked at #6, and remained in the Top 40 for 14 weeks.
After the Academy of Music shows, the Band again retreated from performing live. They returned to the stage on July 28, 1973, to play the Summer Jam at Watkins Glen alongside the Allman Brothers Band and the Grateful Dead. A recording of the Band's performance was released by Capitol Records as the album Live at Watkins Glen in 1995. With over 600,000 people in attendance, the festival set a record for "Pop Festival Attendance" in the Guinness Book of World Records. The record was first published in the 1976 edition of the book.
In October 1973, the Band released an album of cover songs entitled Moondog Matinee, which peaked at #28 on the Billboard charts. Around the time of the recording of Moondog Matinee, Robertson began working on an ambitious project entitled Works that was never finished or released. One lyric from the Works project, "Lay a flower in the snow," was used in Robertson's song "Fallen Angel", which appeared on his 1987 self-titled solo album.
1974 Reunion with Bob Dylan (Planet Waves and Before the Flood)
In February 1973, Bob Dylan relocated from Woodstock, New York to Malibu, California. Coincidentally, Robertson moved to Malibu in the summer of 1973, and by October of the year the rest of the members of the Band had followed suit, moving into properties near Zuma Beach.
David Geffen had signed Dylan to Asylum Records, and worked with promoter Bill Graham on the concept that would become the Bob Dylan and the Band 1974 Tour. It would be Dylan's first tour in more than seven years.
Meanwhile, Bill Graham took out a full page advertisement for the Bob Dylan and the Band tour in the New York Times. The response was one of the largest in entertainment history up to that point, with between 5 and 6 million requests for tickets mailed in for 650,000 seats. Graham's office ended up selling tickets off on a lottery basis, and Dylan and the Band netted $2 million from the deal.
Amongst the rehearsals and preparations, the Band went into the studio with Bob Dylan to record a new album for Asylum Records that would become the Bob Dylan album Planet Waves (1974). Sessions took place at Village Recorder in West Los Angeles, California, from November 2–14, 1973. Planet Waves was released on February 9, 1974. The album was #1 on the Billboard album charts for four weeks, and spent 12 weeks total in the Billboard Top 40. Planet Waves was Bob Dylan's first #1 album, and the first and only time Bob Dylan and the Band recorded a studio album together.
The 1974 tour began at the Chicago Stadium on January 3, 1974, and ended at The Forum in Inglewood, California on February 14. The shows began with more songs from the new Planet Waves album and with covers that Dylan and the Band liked, but as the tour went on, they moved toward playing older and more familiar material, only keeping "Forever Young" from the Planet Waves album in the set list. Dylan and the Band played a number of tracks from the controversial 1965–1966 World Tour, this time to wildly enthusiastic response from the audience where there had been mixed reaction and boos a mere nine years previously.
The final three shows of the tour at The Forum in Inglewood, California were recorded and assembled into the double album Before the Flood. Credited to "Bob Dylan/The Band", Before the Flood was released by Asylum Records on July 20, 1974. The album debuted at #3 on the Billboard charts, and spent ten weeks in the Top Forty.
1974–1975 (Shangri-La Studios, The Basement Tapes, and Northern Lights – Southern Cross)
Following the 1974 reunion tour with Bob Dylan, rock manager Elliot Roberts booked the Band with the recently reunited Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young. On September 4, both artists played Wembley Stadium in London, appearing with Jesse Colin Young and Joni Mitchell.
After moving to Malibu in 1973, Robertson and the Band had discovered a ranch in Malibu near Zuma Beach called "Shangri-La", and decided to lease the property. The main house on the property had originally been built by Lost Horizon (1937) actress Margo Albert, and the ranch had been the filming and stabling site for the Mister Ed television show in the 1960s. In the interim, the house had served as a high-class bordello.
The album release of The Basement Tapes, credited to Bob Dylan and the Band, was the first album production that took place in the new studio. The album, produced by Robertson, featured a selection of tapes from the original 1967 Basement Tapes sessions with Dylan, as well as demos for tracks eventually recorded for Music From Big Pink album. Robertson cleaned up the tracks, and the album was released in July 1975.
Shangri-La Studios proved to be a return to a clubhouse atmosphere that the Band had enjoyed previously at Big Pink, and in the spring of 1975, the group began work on Northern Lights – Southern Cross, their first release of original material in four years. One of the best known tracks on the album is "Acadian Driftwood", the first song with specifically Canadian subject material. Robertson was inspired to write "Acadian Driftwood" after seeing the documentary L'Acadie, l'Acadie (1971) on Canadian television while in Montreal. Two other notable tracks from that album are "It Makes No Difference" and "Ophelia".
Northern Lights – Southern Cross was released on November 1, 1975. The album received generally positive reviews, and reached #26 on the Billboard charts, remaining in the Top 40 for five weeks.
1976 (Islands and The Last Waltz concert)
The Band began touring again in June 1976, performing throughout the summer. The members of the Band were splintering off to work on other projects, with Levon Helm building a studio in Woodstock and Rick Danko having been contracted to Arista Records as a solo artist.
While on the summer tour, member Richard Manuel was involved in a boating accident that severely injured his neck, and ten dates of the 25-date tour were cancelled. It was during this time period that Robertson introduced the concept that the Band would cease to operate as a touring act. According to Robertson, the group's mutual agreement was that they would stage one final "grand finale" show, part ways to work on their various projects, and then regroup. Helm later made the case in his autobiography, This Wheel's on Fire, that Robertson had forced the Band's breakup on the rest of the group.
Concert promoter Bill Graham booked the Band at the Winterland Ballroom on Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1976. The show was intended as a gala event, with ticket prices of $25 per person. The event would include a Thanksgiving dinner served to the audience, and would feature the Band performing with various musical guests. The onstage guest list included Ronnie Hawkins, Muddy Waters, Paul Butterfield, Dr. John, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton, Van Morrison, Neil Diamond, Joni Mitchell, Neil Young, and others.
Robertson wanted to document the event on film, and approached director Martin Scorsese to see if he would be interested in shooting the concert. The Winterland concert was called The Last Waltz. Robertson and Scorsese developed a 200-page script for the show, listing out in columns the lyrics of the songs, who was singing what part, and what instruments were being featured. It included columns for the camera and lighting work.
Scorsese brought in all-star cameramen such as Michael Chapman, László Kovács and Vilmos Zsigmond to film the show in 35mm. John Simon, producer on the Band's first two albums, was brought in to coordinate rehearsals and work as musical director. Boris Leven was brought in as art director. Jonathan Taplin assumed the role of executive producer, and Robertson worked as producer of the film.
Rehearsals for The Last Waltz concert began in early November. Warner Bros. Records president Mo Ostin offered to finance the production of The Last Waltz film in exchange for the rights to release music from The Last Waltz as an album. However, the group were contractually obligated to supply Capitol Records with one more album before they could be released to work with Warner Bros. So in between rehearsing, the Band worked on the studio album Islands for Capitol. Robertson wrote or co-wrote eight of the ten tracks. One of the songs, "Knockin' Lost John", features Robertson on vocals, and was the first Band song Robertson had sung on since "To Kingdom Come" from Music From Big Pink. "Christmas Must Be Tonight" was inspired by the birth of Robertson's son, Sebastian, in July 1974.
The Last Waltz concert event took place on Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1976. Approximately five thousand people were in attendance. The event began at 5 pm, beginning with the audience members being served a full traditional Thanksgiving meal at candlelit tables, with a vegetarian table serving an alternate menu as an option. The Berkeley Promenade Orchestra played waltz music for dancing afterwards. The tables were cleared and moved at 8 pm. At 9 pm, the Band played songs for an hour, beginning with "Up On Cripple Creek". Just after 10 pm, Robertson introduced Ronnie Hawkins, the first onstage guest, with a succession of guest stars appearing with the group until just after midnight.
The group took a 30-minute break, during which several Bay Area poets performed readings of their poems. After the break, the Band returned to the stage, performing, among other songs, a new composition entitled "The Last Waltz Theme" that Robertson had just completed less than 48 hours prior. Bob Dylan was brought in at the end of this second set, performing several songs, and finally being joined with the other guest stars for a finale performance of "I Shall Be Released". This was then followed with two all-star jam sessions, after which the Band returned to the stage to close the show with one more song, their rendition of "Baby Don't You Do It".
1977–1978 (The Last Waltz film and album)
After The Last Waltz concert event was finished, director Martin Scorsese had 400 reels of raw footage to work with, and began editing the footage. The film was then sold to United Artists. In the meantime, Robertson and Scorsese continued to brainstorm more ideas for the film. In April 1977, country singer Emmylou Harris and gospel vocal group the Staple Singers were filmed on a sound stage at MGM performing with the Band. Emmylou Harris performed on "Evangeline", a new song written by Robertson, and the Staples Singers performed on a new recording of "The Weight," which they themselves had recorded a version of in 1968. Scorsese's next idea was to intersperse the concert footage with interviews of the Band that told their story. Scorsese conducted the interviews.
The Last Waltz album was released by Warner Brothers Records on April 7, 1978, as a 3-LP set. The first five sides feature live performances from the concert, and the last side contains studio recordings from the MGM sound stage sessions. The album peaked at #16 on the Billboard charts, and remained in the Top 40 for 8 weeks.
The Last Waltz film was released to theatres on April 26, 1978. The film fared well with both rock and film critics. Robertson and Scorsese made appearances throughout America and Europe to promote the film. Over time, The Last Waltz has become lauded by many as an important and pioneering rockumentary. Its influence has been felt on subsequent rock music films such as Talking Heads' Stop Making Sense (1984), and U2's Rattle and Hum (1988).
Production and session work outside of the Band 1970–1977
Robertson produced Jesse Winchester's debut self-titled album, which was released in 1970 on Ampex Records. The album features Robertson playing guitar throughout the album, and co-credits the track "Snow" to Robertson as well.
Robertson played guitar on ex-Beatle Ringo Starr's third solo album, Ringo (1973), performing with four-fifths of the Band on the track "Sunshine Life For Me (Sail Away Raymond)". Robertson contributed a guitar solo on the track "Snookeroo" on Starr's fourth album, Goodnight Vienna (1974).
Robertson played guitar for Joni Mitchell on the track "Raised on Robbery", which was released on her album Court and Spark. In 1974, Robertson also played guitar on Carly Simon's version of "Mockingbird", which featured Simon singing with her then-husband James Taylor.
In 1975, Robertson produced and played guitar on singer/guitarist Hirth Martinez's debut album Hirth From Earth. Bob Dylan had heard Martinez, and recommended him to Robertson. Robertson identified strongly with Martinez' music, helped him to secure a recording contract with Warner Bros. Records, and agreed to produce Martinez' debut album. He also played guitar on Martinez' follow-up album, Big Bright Street (1977).
In 1975, Eric Clapton recorded the album No Reason to Cry at the Band's Shangri-La Studios with help from members of the Band. Robertson played lead guitar on the track "Sign Language".
In the mid-1970s, Robertson connected with singer Neil Diamond, and the two began collaborating on a concept album about the life and struggles of a Tin Pan Alley songwriter. The resulting album, entitled Beautiful Noise, was recorded at Shangri-La Studios in early 1976. It reached #6 on the Billboard charts and remained in the Top 40 for sixteen weeks. Robertson produced the album, co-wrote the track "Dry Your Eyes" with Diamond, and played guitar on "Dry Your Eyes", "Lady-Oh", and "Jungletime". He produced Diamond's live double album Love at the Greek (1977), which was recorded in 1976 at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles. Love at the Greek reached #8 on the Billboard charts and remained in the Top 40 for nine weeks.
In 1977, Robertson contributed to two album projects from the Band alumni. Robertson played guitar on "Java Blues" on Rick Danko's self-titled debut album, and also played guitar on the Earl King-penned "Sing, Sing, Sing" on the album Levon Helm & the RCO All-Stars.
Also in 1977, Robertson contributed to the second self-titled album by singer-songwriter Libby Titus, who was the former girlfriend of Levon Helm. Robertson produced the track "The Night You Took Me To Barbados In My Dreams" (co-written by Titus and Hirth Martinez), and produced and played guitar on the Cole Porter standard "Miss Otis Regrets".
Film career 1980–1986
Carny (1980) film and soundtrack
After the release of The Last Waltz, MGM/UA, who released the film, viewed Robertson as a potential film actor, and provided Robertson with an office on the MGM lot. During this time, Martin Scorsese's agent, Harry Ulfand, contacted Robertson about the idea of producing a dramatic film about traveling carnivals, which Robertson was drawn to because of his childhood experiences working in carnivals. The screenplay for the film Carny was directed by documentary filmmaker Robert Kaylor.
Although Robertson was initially only intended to be the producer of Carny, he ended up becoming the third lead actor in the film, playing the role of Patch, the patch man. Gary Busey played "Frankie", the carnival bozo and Patch's best friend. Jodie Foster was selected to play the role of Donna, a small town girl who runs away to join the carnival and threatens to come between the two friends. The film cast real life carnies alongside professional film actors, which created a difficult atmosphere on set. Carny opened to theaters on June 13, 1980. Also in 1980, Warner Bros released a soundtrack album for Carny, which is co-credited to Robertson and composer Alex North, who wrote the orchestral score for the film. The soundtrack was re-released on compact disc by Real Gone Music in 2015.
Early collaborations with Martin Scorsese 1980–1986 (Raging Bull, The King of Comedy, The Color of Money)
After the production of Carny was completed, Robertson flew to New York to assist Martin Scorsese on the music for the film Raging Bull (1980).
Robertson and Scorsese would have a long-running working relationship. The former would find and/or create music to underscore the latter's films. Raging Bull was the first of these collaborations. Robertson credits his work on Raging Bull for sparking his interest in the work of sourcing and underscoring music for movies.
Robertson supplied three newly recorded instrumental jazz tracks for sourced music, which he also produced. These three tracks feature Robertson playing guitar, along with performances from the Band alumni Garth Hudson and Richard Manuel. One of the tracks, "Webster Hall", is co-written by Robertson and Garth Hudson. Robertson also worked with Scorsese on selecting the film's opening theme music, choosing the intermezzo from Cavalleria Rusticana by Italian opera composer Pietro Mascagni. The soundtrack was finally released by Capitol Records in 2005 as a 37 track, 2-CD set.
Robertson worked with Scorsese again on his next film, The King of Comedy (1983), and is credited in the film's opening credits for "Music Production". Robertson contributed one original song, "Between Trains," to the film's soundtrack. The song was written in tribute to "Cowboy" Dan Johnson, an assistant of Scorsese's who had recently died. Robertson produced the track, sings lead vocals, and plays guitar and keyboards; the Band alumni Garth Hudson and Richard Manuel appear on the track was well. A soundtrack album for the film was released by Warner Bros. in 1983.
In June 1986, Robertson began working with Scorsese on his next film The Color of Money. In addition to sourcing music for the film, Robertson also composed the film's score; it was the first time Robertson had ever written a dramatic underscore for a film. Robertson brought in Canadian jazz composer Gil Evans to orchestrate the arrangements.
The best known song on The Color of Money soundtrack is Eric Clapton's "It's in the Way That You Use It", which was co-written by Robertson. "It's in the Way That You Use It" reached #1 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart in January 1987. Robertson produced a song for the film with blues player Willie Dixon entitled "Don't Tell Me Nothin'"; Dixon's track was co-written with Robertson. The Color of Moneys soundtrack album was released by MCA Records.
Solo career
Geffen Records period
Robbie Robertson (1987)
Robertson began work on his first solo album, Robbie Robertson, in July 1986 after signing to Geffen Records. Robertson chose fellow Canadian Daniel Lanois to produce the album. Much of the album was recorded at The Village Recorder in West Los Angeles, California. He recorded at Bearsville Studios near Woodstock, New York, and also in Dublin, Ireland, with U2, and in Bath, England, with Peter Gabriel. He employed a number of guest artists on the album, including U2, Gabriel, the Bodeans, and Maria McKee. Garth Hudson and Rick Danko also made appearances on the album. Robertson wrote one track, "Fallen Angel", in honor of Richard Manuel, after his passing in March 1986.
Released on October 26, 1987, Robbie Robertson peaked at #35 on the Billboard 200, remaining in the top 40 for three weeks. The album charted even higher in the UK, peaking at #23 on the UK Albums Chart and remaining on the chart for 14 weeks. Robbie Robertson received overwhelming critical acclaim at the time of its release, being listed in the Top-Ten Albums of the Year by several critics in Billboard magazine's 1987 "The Critics' Choice" end of the year feature. The album was listed as #77 in Rolling Stones 1989 list "100 Best Albums of the Eighties."
Robertson had his single largest hit in the UK with "Somewhere Down The Crazy River", which features his spoken word verses contrasted with singing in the choruses. The song reached #15 in the UK Hit Singles chart, and remained in the chart for 11 weeks. The video for "Somewhere Down The Crazy River" was directed by Martin Scorsese, and features Maria McKee in an acting role.
In the US, Robbie Robertson produced several hits on the Billboard Mainstream Rock charts, with "Showdown At Big Sky" coming in the highest (#2) and "Sweet Fire Of Love" the second highest (#7). The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for "Best Rock / Vocal Album", and was certified gold in the United States in 1991. In Canada, Robertson won Album Of The Year, Best Male Vocalist Of The Year and Producer Of The Year at the Juno Award ceremony in 1989.
In 1991, Rod Stewart recorded a version of "Broken Arrow" for his album Vagabond Heart. Stewart's version of the song reached #20 on the Billboard 100 chart in the US and #2 on the Billboard Top Canadian Hit Singles chart in Canada. "Broken Arrow" was performed live by the Grateful Dead with Phil Lesh on vocals.
Storyville (1991)
Storyville was released on September 30, 1991. Robertson headed to New Orleans to collaborate with some of the city's natives like Aaron and Ivan Neville and the Rebirth Brass Band. Once again, Robertson brought in Band alumni Garth Hudson and Rick Danko as contributors. The album reached #69 on the Billboard 200 chart. Storyville received numerous positive reviews, with Rolling Stone giving it 4 1/2 stars out of 5, and the Los Angeles Times awarding it 3 stars out of 4. Two tracks from the album, "What About Now" and "Go Back To Your Woods", charted on the Billboard Mainstream Rock charts at #15 and #32 respectively. The album was nominated for Grammy awards in the categories "Best Rock Vocal Performance (solo)" and "Best Engineer".
Production and session work 1984–1992
In 1984, Robertson co-produced the track "The Best of Everything" with Tom Petty for the Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers album Southern Accents. Robertson also worked on the horn arrangements for the track, and brought in Band alumni Richard Manuel and Garth Hudson as guests.
In 1986, Robertson appeared as a guest on the album Reconciled by the Call, playing guitar on the track "The Morning".
Also in 1986, Robertson was brought on as creative consultant for Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll (1987), a feature film saluting Chuck Berry. Robertson appears in film, interviewing Chuck Berry, and then playing guitar while Berry recites poetry.
In 1988, Robertson collaborated as a songwriter with Lone Justice lead singer Maria McKee. One of the songs they co-wrote, "Nobody's Child", was released on McKee's self-titled debut album in 1989.
In 1989, Robertson recorded and produced a new version of the Band's "Christmas Must Be Tonight" for the Scrooged soundtrack. In 1990, Robertson appeared as a guest on the Ryuichi Sakamoto album Beauty, playing guitar on the song "Romance". He also contributed to the world music video and album production One World One Voice.
In 1992, Robertson produced the song "Love in Time" for Roy Orbison's posthumous album King of Hearts. "Love In Time" was a basic demo Orbison had recorded that was believed to be lost, but had just recently been rediscovered. Robertson set about augmenting Orbison's basic vocal track with new arrangements and instrumentation, with the intent of making it sound like the arrangements were there from the beginning instead of later additions.
Later solo albumsMusic for the Native Americans (1994):
In 1994, Robertson returned to his roots, forming a Native American group called the Red Road Ensemble for Music for the Native Americans, a collection of songs that accompanied a television documentary series produced by TBS. Like his songs, "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down," and "Acadian Driftwood," Robertson touches on history that connects to his life and family. The Battle Of Wounded Knee and the near extinction of the buffalo in the United States are outlined in the song, "Ghost Dance." Robertson was recognized with a Juno Award for Producer of the Year. The international success of "Mahk Jchi (Heartbeat Drum Song)" inspired a concert in Agrigento, Italy, celebrating Native American music. Robertson headlined the festival along with other Native American musicians, and portions of the live performance appeared in a PBS documentary.
Contact from the Underworld of Redboy (1998):
On Contact from the Underworld of Redboy, Robertson departed from his typical production style and delved deep into a mix of rock, native, and electronic music. He employed the services of Howie B, DJ Premier, and producer Marius de Vries (Björk, Massive Attack). Through the songs on the album, he takes a close look at native traditions like Peyote Healing. The album's opening track, "The Sound Is Fading", samples a recording of a young Native American singer from the 1940s that Robertson got from the Library Of Congress, and the song "Sacrifice" includes parts of an interview from prison with Leonard Peltier set to a soundscape produced by Robertson and de Vries. The racial epithet in the album's title comes from an experience Robertson had where some bullies referred to him as "Red Boy" while he was playing with his cousins. Rolling Stone gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, and Robertson received a Juno Award for Best Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording.
How to Become Clairvoyant (2011):
Released on April 5, 2011, How To Become Clairvoyant is the fifth solo release from Robertson. The album arose from some impromptu demo sessions in Los Angeles with long time friend Eric Clapton. It features Eric Clapton, Steve Winwood, Trent Reznor, Tom Morello, Robert Randolph, Rocco Deluca, Angela McCluskey, and Taylor Goldsmith of Dawes. Robbie performed "He Don't Live Here No More" on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman and Later... with Jools Holland in support of the album. He also appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon performing the song "Straight Down The Line," with Robert Randolph and the Roots.
The album was released in a deluxe edition containing five bonus tracks (four demos and the exclusive track "Houdini", named after the magician Harry Houdini). "How To Become Clairvoyant" debuted at No. 13 on the Billboard 200, marking the highest debut and highest chart position for Robbie's solo works in his career. He teamed with painter and photographer Richard Prince to produce a special limited-edition collector's release of the album. The resulting LP-sized box included an art book, an individually numbered set of five lithographs (including pieces by Prince and photographer Anton Corbijn), a set of original tarot cards, and the original album plus ten bonus tracks. Only 2,500 were made.
Sinematic (2019):
Released on September 20, 2019, Sinematic is Robertson's sixth solo album. It features Van Morrison joining Robertson as dueling hitmen on the track “I Hear You Paint Houses," as well as other allusions to the world of Scorsese's films. Citizen Cope, Derek Trucks, and Frédéric Yonnet make guest appearances on the album.
Later career
Robertson worked on Martin Scorsese's movies Casino, The Departed, and Gangs of New York, and he provided music supervision for Shutter Island, The Wolf of Wall Street, and Silence. In Rome, he headlined the 1995 annual Labour Day concert festival with supporting acts Andrea Bocelli, Elvis Costello, and Radiohead.
In 1996, as executive soundtrack producer, Robertson heard a demo of Change the World and sent it to Clapton as a suggestion for the soundtrack of Phenomenon, starring John Travolta. Babyface produced the track. Change the World won 1997 Grammy awards for Song of the Year and Record of the Year. In 1999, Robertson contributed songs to Oliver Stone's film, Any Given Sunday.
In 2000, David Geffen and Mo Ostin convinced Robertson to join DreamWorks Records as creative executive. Robertson, who persuaded Nelly Furtado to sign with the company, is actively involved with film projects and developing new artist talent, including signings of A.i., Boomkat, eastmountainsouth, and Dana Glover. On February 9, 2002, Robertson performed "Stomp Dance (Unity)" as part of the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, Utah. In 2004, he contributed the song "Shine Your Light" to the Ladder 49 soundtrack.
In 2005, Robertson was executive producer of the definitive box set for the Band, entitled A Musical History. In 2006, he recorded with Jerry Lee Lewis on the track "Twilight", a Robertson composition, for Lewis' album Last Man Standing. On July 28, 2007, at Eric Clapton's Crossroads Guitar Festival in Bridgeview, Illinois, Robertson made a rare live appearance. Also in 2007, Robertson accepted an invitation to participate in Goin' Home: A Tribute to Fats Domino (Vanguard). With the group Galactic, Robertson contributed a version of Domino's "Goin' to the River".
For the 2019 Martin Scorsese movie The Irishman, Robertson provided the score and consulted with music supervisor Randall Poster on the entire soundtrack.
Honours and awards
In 1989, the Band was inducted into the Canadian Juno Hall of Fame. In 1994, The Band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 1997, Robertson received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Academy of Songwriters. At the 2003 commencement ceremonies at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, Robertson delivered an address to the graduating class and was awarded an honorary degree by the university. In 2003, Robertson received the Indspire Aboriginal Lifetime Achievement Award.
In 2003, Robertson was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.
In 2005, Robertson received an honorary doctorate from York University. In 2006, he received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts. In 2008, Robertson and the Band received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
In 2011, Robertson was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame. On May 27, 2011, Robertson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada by Governor General David Johnston.
In 2014, the Band was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.
October 14, 2017 Robbie Robertson receives the Lifetime Achievement Award at the Native American Music Awards
In 2019, Robertson was given a key to the city of Toronto by Mayor John Tory during a TIFF press conference for Once Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and The Band, a documentary about Robertson.
2019 Robbie Robertson the recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award in the Canadian Music Industry Hall of Fame from Canadian Music Week (CMW)
As author
Robertson co-authored Legends, Icons and Rebels: Music That Changed the World with his son, Sebastian Robertson, and colleagues Jim Guerinot and Jared Levine. He also wrote Hiawatha and the Peacemaker, illustrated by David Shannon. His autobiography, Testimony, written over the course of five years, was published by Crown Archetype in November 2016.
Personal life
In 1967, Robertson married Dominique Bourgeois, a Canadian journalist. They later divorced. They have three children: daughters Alexandra and Delphine and son Sebastian.
Robertson is a member of the Canadian charity Artists Against Racism.
Discography
Robbie Robertson (1987)
Storyville (1991)
Music for the Native Americans (soundtrack) (1994)
Contact from the Underworld of Redboy (1998)
How to Become Clairvoyant (2011)
Sinematic (2019)
Filmography
1978 – The Last Waltz (performer/producer)
1980 – Carny (actor/writer/producer/composer)
1980 – Raging Bull (music producer)
1982 – The King of Comedy (music producer)
1986 – The Color of Money (composer)
1994 – Jimmy Hollywood (composer)
1995 – Robbie Robertson: Going Home (documentary)
1995 – Casino (music consultant)
1995 – The Crossing Guard (actor – Roger)
1996 – Phenomenon (executive soundtrack producer)
1996 – Dakota Exile (narrator)
1999 – Forces of Nature (creative music consultant)
1999 – Wolves (narrator)
1999 – Any Given Sunday (songs)
2001 – The Life and Times of Robbie Robertson
2002 – Gangs of New York (executive music producer)
2002 – Skins (writer)
2003 – Festival Express (performer)
2004 – Jenifa (executive producer)
2004 – Ladder 49 (original song "Shine Your Light")
2006 – The Departed (music producer)
2007 – Eric Clapton: Crossroads Guitar Festival 2007 (performer)
2010 – Shutter Island (music supervisor)
2012 – Curse of the Axe (narrator)
2013 – Eric Clapton: Crossroads Guitar Festival 2013 (performer)
2013 – The Wolf of Wall Street (executive music producer)
2016 – Silence (executive music producer)
2017 – Rumble: The Indians Who Rocked The World (performer)
2018 – Native America (narrator)
2019 – The Irishman (executive music producer, musical director, musician)
2019 – Once Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and The Band (himself)
TBA – Killers of the Flower Moon
See also
Notable Aboriginal people of Canada
References
Further reading
External links
Robbie Robertson Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2017)
1943 births
Canadian country rock musicians
Canadian expatriate musicians in the United States
Canadian folk rock musicians
Canadian male singers
Canadian people of Jewish descent
Canadian Mohawk people
Canadian rock guitarists
Canadian male guitarists
Canadian rock singers
Canadian singer-songwriters
Cayuga people
First Nations musicians
Governor General's Performing Arts Award winners
Juno Award for Indigenous Music Album of the Year winners
Living people
Musicians from Toronto
Officers of the Order of Canada
The Band members
Indspire Awards
Native American musicians
Jewish Canadian musicians
Jewish musicians
Jewish rock musicians
Jewish singers
Juno Award for Album of the Year winners
Juno Award for Artist of the Year winners
Jack Richardson Producer of the Year Award winners | [
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261935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Blassie | Freddie Blassie | Frederick Kenneth Blassman (February 8, 1918 – June 2, 2003), better known as "Classy" Freddie Blassie, was an American professional wrestling villain and manager. Renowned as "The Hollywood Fashion Plate", he was a one-time NWA World Junior Heavyweight Champion, and was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994.
Childhood
Blassie's parents, Jacob and Anna (née Sind), immigrated to the United States from Germany prior to the start of World War I, settling in St. Louis. Fred was an only child, which he claimed was because he weighed 15 pounds when he was born and his mother didn't want to go through childbirth again. His father was abusive and an alcoholic, and Fred often had to take refuge with his grandparents whenever Jacob would beat his mother. His parents continually separated, then reunited. At the age of 13, after his father hit his mother again, Fred threatened to attack his father with a baseball bat, but didn't do it and stayed with his aunt for six months until his mother asked him to return home. Throughout his life, Fred didn't touch alcohol after seeing what kind of person it turned his father into.
As a teenager, Blassie went to McKinley High School; after graduating he got a job at a meatpacking plant, which his family hoped he would turn into a lucrative meat cutting job with the local trade union. However, he started boxing at Seward Community Center and won the heavyweight championship. He was more interested in wrestling, though, and would sneak into the matches whenever he could. He would often go to matches at Harry Cook's Gym to watch the hookers (wrestling shoot fighters) of the day lock up. As they began to recognize him, the wrestlers would teach him a hold here and there. His first wrestling match was actually a shoot fight which he accepted in order to impress a girl he brought to the show. Later, he began to get regular work wrestling at local carnivals. His cousin John Frank Holaus would often referee his matches.
Early career
Blassie came up with his famous "pencil-neck geek" catchphrase early in his career to describe a fellow carnival performer known as "The Geek", who bit the heads off chickens and snakes. Blassie described this geek as having a neck like a stack of dimes, and that he was a real pencil-neck geek. He soon got work from more established promoters: Tom Packs in St. Louis and George Simpson in Kansas City.
Military service
After the US entered World War II, Blassie enlisted in the Navy and served in the Pacific Theater for 42 months. He married a Jewish girl named Nettie Needles in California while on shore leave. He achieved the rank of petty officer second class before he was discharged.
Career
Upon Blassie's return from the war, he was billed as "Sailor" Fred Blassie to capitalize on the wave of war-time patriotism sweeping the country, but that gimmick was unsuccessful. He worked for Jack Pfefer, who he claimed would only employ people who looked like sideshow freaks at his shows, and whose wrestlers included Tor Johnson, who made movies with director Ed Wood, and Lillian Ellison, the Fabulous Moolah. During this time, he went to New York City to work for promoter Jess McMahon.
NWA Los Angeles (1952–1953)
In 1952, Blassie moved to Los Angeles to work for Jules Strongbow. He teamed with Billy McDaniel as the McDaniel Brothers, but when they went east, they were known as the Blassie Brothers.
Georgia (1953–1960)
In 1953, he worked in the Atlanta, territory for Paul Jones (the wrestler of the 1930s, not the wrestler/manager of the 1980s). While there, he won the NWA Georgia Southern Heavyweight Championship, the holder of which was generally first in line to challenge the NWA World Heavyweight Champion whenever he passed through the territory. It was also during this period of his career when he dropped his babyface gimmick and became a full-fledged heel. The fans consistently booed him because he was considered a "Yankee". He also bleached his hair at this time, as many of the other stars of the era did, such as Gorgeous George, Johnny Valentine, and "Nature Boy" Buddy Rogers. He was often billed as "The Vampire" during this time for biting his opponents and filing his teeth during interviews and promos.
Worldwide Wrestling Associates (1960–1968)
In 1960, Blassie returned to Strongbow's promotion in Los Angeles, where he was a big star for Worldwide Wrestling Associates (WWA) of southern California, drawing many fans to the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles. He was so hated there that uniformed police officers were regularly brought in to protect him as he made his way to and from the ring. He had main event-level feuds against stars such as The Destroyer.
On June 12, 1961, Blassie defeated the "Flying Frenchman" Édouard Carpentier in a best-of-three-falls match for his first WWA World Heavyweight Championship. On July 7, Blassie successfully defended his title against the former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Lou Thesz. During that same title reign, in a match against Lord James Blears a fan threw acid on his back, and he had to return immediately to the locker room to wash it off; he was also stabbed 21 times and lost vision in his right eye after being hit with a hard-boiled egg over the course of his career. Blassie lost the title to Rikidōzan on March 28, 1962.
Blassie claims that he made Regis Philbin into the celebrity he is today. When Philbin had a late-night weekend talk show in San Diego, Blassie would routinely show up to yell at the audience, throw furniture, and threaten Philbin; both of them were friends when the camera's weren't rolling. In later years, Blassie also appeared on The Mike Douglas Show when Philbin was a guest host.
After regaining the WWA Championship from Rikidōzan on July 25, 1962, Blassie lost the title two days later to the "Masked Destroyer" Dick Beyer. In 1963, Bearcat Wright defeated him to become champion, and it was quite a statement during the fight for civil rights that an African-American had won such a title. In 1964, Dick the Bruiser defeated Blassie to become champion, and Blassie headed east to work for the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF).
Blassie returned to WWA in 1968 just as promoter Mike LeBell decided to rejoin the NWA. In the early 1970s, Blassie "turned face", or became a good guy, since so many fans were cheering his famous antics. While there, he feuded with Soulman Rocky Johnson, The Sheik, and "The Golden Greek" John Tolos. One of his most famous feuds took place in southern California in 1971, against Tolos. The final match of their series took place in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, and set new California records for both attendance and gate.
Japan (1962–1968)
In 1962, Blassie had a feud with Japanese wrestling icon Rikidōzan that established his reputation in Japan. After Blassie lost the WWA World Heavyweight Championship to Rikidōzan in Los Angeles, the two had a rematch on live Japanese television. Many of the viewers were horrified by Blassie's treatment of their hero. One of Blassie's gimmicks was to file his teeth, and draw blood from his opponents by biting their foreheads. The sight of the Japanese legend covered in his own blood gave several viewers heart attacks, and some reportedly even died.
Blassie divorced his wife after leaving on Christmas to wrestle in Knoxville. He claims he isn't sure if she knew of his philandering ways, but Blassie had repeatedly bragged of his infidelity to his ex-wife Nettie. As a result, of his three children Gary, Cheryl, and Ron, only Ron ever spoke to Blassie on a regular basis.
While touring Japan in 1965, Blassie met the woman who would later become his third wife, Miyako Morozumi, at a train station. However, later that year Blassie suffered from kidney stones and had surgery to remove them. While recuperating the following year, he sold cars and married a second time to a woman whose name Blassie claimed not to remember.
In 1968, Blassie returned to Japan and was reunited with Miyako. When he asked for her parents' blessing, they were unsure of Blassie because of his reputation with Rikidōzan and because he was 28 years older than she. However, he eventually got their blessing and took her home to the United States; they were married on September 30, 1968.
World Wide Wrestling Federation (1964; 1971)
In 1964, Blassie feuded with Bruno Sammartino and Bobo Brazil. Blassie came into the WWWF with his own world title belt, claiming to be the Pacific World Champion, and was coming to Sammartino's "back yard" to unify the world title. The series began at Roosevelt Stadium, Jersey City, New Jersey in 1964, with Blassie winning on a technicality, but not a pin. The rematches were held at Madison Square Garden in New York, with Sammartino winning out. He returned to the company in 1971, reaching the final of a tournament in January for the vacant WWWF United States Heavyweight Championship before losing to Pedro Morales. Blassie later challenged Morales for the WWWF Championship, but came up short. During this stint with the company, Blassie was managed by his future nemesis, "Captain" Lou Albano.
Management career (1974–86)
Blassie retired from active wrestling in 1974, due to a California law that prohibited anyone over 55 from getting a wrestling license. His knees were also in terrible condition, which also contributed to his retirement. Afterwards he became a manager in the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) and its subsequent incarnation the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). He performed for that promotion until his full retirement from professional wrestling in 1986. Blassie, Lou Albano, and The Grand Wizard were named "The Three Wise Men of the East", as the top three heel managers in the company.
Among the men he managed were Nikolai Volkoff, The Iron Sheik, Blackjack Mulligan, High Chief Peter Maivia, "The Crippler" Ray Stevens, Adrian Adonis, Jesse Ventura, Dick Murdoch, Swede Hanson, Killer Khan, George 'The Animal' Steele, Professor Tanaka, Mr. Fuji, Ivan Koloff, Tor Kamata, Masa Saito, Lou Albano, Victor Rivera, Kamala, Hercules Hernandez, and Hulk Hogan. Blassie also managed Muhammad Ali in his boxer vs. wrestler match in 1976 against Antonio Inoki. Blassie also publicly represented Ali for media events and interviews for a period in the mid-1970s.
One of Blassie's most famous proteges was The Iron Sheik. Blassie led Shiek to the WWF World Heavyweight Championship over Bob Backlund on December 26, 1983, in Madison Square Garden. After Sheik lost the belt to Blassie's former managed wrestler Hulk Hogan, Blassie managed Sheik in various rematches around the country throughout the first half of 1984, culminating into another major televised rematch on December 28, 1984, once again in Madison Square Garden. In this match Hogan was once again victorious. After managing Sheik through a brief feud with Andre the Giant, he also became the manager of Nikolai Volkoff, with Sheik and Volkoff later becoming a tag team. Blassie would gain even more gold when Volkoff and Sheik defeated The US Express for the WWF Tag Team Championship at the first ever Wrestlemania. Blassie got involved when he threw his cane into the ring, with Sheik and Volkoff using it to their advantage to gain the victory. When Gene Okerlund confronted Blassie in an interview after the match, Blassie said, "what cane, I didn't have no cane!"
Blassie would continue to manage Sheik and Volkoff even after they lost the tag team titles. Blassie unsuccessfully campaigned along with the other managers to manage "Macho Man" Randy Savage when Savage first entered the WWF in June 1985. Blassie would continue to interfere from ringside in matches, especially during Volkoff's feud with Corporal Kirchner. Blassie's interference at Wrestlemania 2 cost Volkoff his match with Kirchner, when the cane was grabbed by Kirchner instead of Volkoff. In the summer of 1986, Blassie started to slowly phase himself out of the WWF and into retirement.
On an episode of WWF Championship Wrestling, Blassie barged into the announcer booth to proclaim that he had sold half of the contracts of Sheik and Volkoff to a mysterious benefactor for a large sum of money. This benefactor was later revealed to be Slick. Blassie appeared alongside Slick to co-manage Sheik and Volkoff for a few television appearances before finally bowing out in November 1986, with Albano, the final member of the Three Wise Men, retiring a few weeks later.
Because of his close relationship with Vince McMahon, Sr. and his family, Blassie remained on the WWF payroll until the day he died. He would sporadically return to make brief appearances following his retirement in 1986, mostly in produced video packages hyping the "new generation" of wrestling. He was given a commentary tryout in 1986 and 1987 for WWF Wrestling Challenge, calling a few matches with Gorilla Monsoon. He briefly turned face in 1989, making an appearance on Prime Time Wrestling angry with Bobby Heenan over money Heenan hadn't paid him back. He returned again in 1990 briefly to do color commentary for Prime Time in April with Vince McMahon, as an emergency fill-in after Tony Schiavone quit, playing a heel once again.
Guest appearances and death
Blassie was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994 by Shane McMahon. In 1998, Blassie was the winner at the fourth annual Cauliflower Alley Club East Coast Banquet. In 1999, he was shown making the opening narration of Wrestlemania XV. In 2000, Blassie made an appearance at the Royal Rumble as a judge in the Miss Rumble 2000 Swimsuit contest, which was won by Mae Young. Blassie also appeared in the SummerSlam opening video. In 2001, Blassie appeared in a special July 16, 2001 Raw is War segment for the Invasion storyline, wherein he exhorts a gathering of WWF wrestlers to stand tall against The Alliance – and later gets mocked by Alliance leaders Shane and Stephanie McMahon. Because of this, Blassie is one of, if not the only man to have worked with all four generations of the McMahon family. Images from his Wrestlemania XV promo were also included in the opening of the 2001 Survivor Series. Blassie also appeared in a segment at the Vengeance pay-per-view event in December 2001, where an "undisputed" champion would be crowned. His final wrestling appearance was May 12, 2003 in Philadelphia on Monday Night Raw, three weeks before his death. The segment featured Blassie, his wife, and Raw GM Eric Bischoff, who was about to allow 3 Minute Warning to attack him, until Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Dudley Boyz stepped in. His final words on WWE television were "D-Von, get the table!", to a monstrous applause. His book, Listen You Pencil Neck Geeks, was released on May 13, 2003.
On June 2, 2003, Blassie died of heart and kidney failure at the age of 85. His death was announced by Jim Ross, 20 minutes into that same day's episode of Raw.
Music career
In 1975, Blassie recorded voiceovers for the songs "Blassie, King of Men" and "Pencil Neck Geek", which were performed by Johnny Legend, featuring Billy Zoom on guitar, Jay Phillips on guitar, Lon Osgood on bass and Steve Clark on drums. They received acclaim on the Dr. Demento Radio Show, and the latter song was featured on several albums, including Dr. Demento's 20th Anniversary Collection, "The Very Best of Dr. Demento", and "Dr. Demento Presents the Greatest Novelty CDs of All Time". In 1983, Rhino Records released a 14-track album by Blassie, titled I Bite the Songs.
Film career
Blassie appeared in an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show that featured a new dance craze called The Twizzle. Rose Marie's character Sally Rogers brought him on at the end of the episode claiming to have discovered another new dance sensation. In the demonstration of the dance, Blassie picked up Rob Petrie and twirled him over his head.
Filmed in 1982, My Breakfast with Blassie featured Andy Kaufman and Freddie Blassie eating at a Sambo's in Los Angeles. (The film was referenced by American rock band R.E.M. in their 1992 song about Kaufman, "Man on the Moon".) The movie’s title and premise are parodies of the 1981 art-house classic My Dinner with Andre.
"Classy" Freddie Blassie appeared in a live-action segment of the cartoon "Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling." In the segment he is interviewed by "Mean" Gene Okerlund when the two are interrupted by a little old lady in a housekeeper outfit that Blassie claims to be his own mother.
"Classy" Freddie Blassie also made a cameo appearance as himself, along with "Wrestling's Living Legend" Bruno Sammartino, and Ric Flair in the 1986 film Body Slam starring Dirk Benedict, "Captain" Lou Albano, and "Rowdy" Roddy Piper.
In the early 1990s, the wrestler starred in a documentary directed by Jeff Krulik, titled Mr. Blassie Goes To Washington. In it, Blassie is picked up at the Washington, D.C., airport by a limo full of young women, escorted around the nation's capital, gives his opinions and confronts tourists. When meeting someone, he would ask where they were from, and no matter their response, he would reply with, "Oh, that's God's country!"
Championships and accomplishments
50th State Big Time Wrestling
NWA North American Heavyweight Championship (Hawaii version) (1 time)
Cauliflower Alley Club
Other honoree (1998)
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Florida version) (1 time)
NWA World Tag Team Championship (Florida version) (1 time) – with Tarzan Tyler
Mid-South Sports
NWA Georgia Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA International Tag Team Championship (Georgia version) (3 times) – with Kurt von Brauner (1), Bob Shipp (1) and Eric Pederson (1)
NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Georgia version) (17 times)
NWA World Tag Team Championship (Georgia version) (2 times) – with Bill Blassie
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2011)
NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
North American Wrestling Alliance/Worldwide Wrestling Associates/ NWA Hollywood Wrestling
NAWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (4 times)
NWA Americas Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Don Carson
WWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WWA International Television Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Mr. Moto (2) and Don Leo Jonathan (1)
WWA World Heavyweight Championship (4 times)
WWA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Mr. Moto (1), and Buddy Austin (1)
NWA Mid-America
NWA Southern Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Stanley Weston Award (2000)
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Television Era (Class of 2004)
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1994)
Slammy Award (1 time)
Lifetime Achievement Award (1996)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Worked Match of the Year (1985)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)
References
External links
1853 Shepherd Circle SW, Blassie's Atlanta home (1960)
1950 Campbellton Road SW, Blassies Atlanta home (1966)
WWE Hall of Fame Profile of Freddie Blassie
The Other Arena biography covering his wrestling years
1918 births
2003 deaths
American male professional wrestlers
American people of German descent
Andy Kaufman
Deaths from kidney failure
Professional wrestlers from Missouri
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Sportspeople from St. Louis
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy sailors
WWE Hall of Fame inductees | [
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261936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watcom | Watcom | Watcom International Corporation was founded in 1981 by Wes Graham and Ian McPhee. Founding staff (Fred Crigger, Jack Schueler and McPhee) were formerly members of Professor Graham's Computer Systems Group at the University of Waterloo, in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Watcom produced a variety of tools, including the well-known Watcom C/C++ compiler introduced in 1988.
The first company started by Graham and McPhee was Structured Computing Systems, incorporated in 1974. Then the software development company, WATCOM Systems Inc, started in 1981 with three full-time employees, but had been incorporated two years earlier as Waterloo Basic Enterprises Limited. In 1984, the various subsidiary companies of The WATCOM Group software organization—marketing and sales, publications, seminars and systems (software development) -- were all renamed as WATCOM companies for consistent branding. These were later all merged into one full-service software company, WATCOM International Inc.
History
Waterloo BASIC programming language was one of the earliest Watcom products and predates the existence of the company. During 1978 to 1979 Waterloo BASIC was developed targeting the IBM Series/1. In 1979 the system was ported to VM/CMS running on the IBM 370, 3030, and 4300 computers and an agreement was reached with IBM to market the compiler. Between 1980 and 1983 updated versions were released including ports to the MVS/TSO and VM/CMS. In addition to Waterloo BASIC some of the other early products included WATCOM APL, WATCOM GKS, WATCOM COBOL, WATCOM FORTRAN (WATFIV and WATFOR-77), WATCOM Pascal and the Waterloo 6809 Assembler. These were the basis and provided with the Commodore SuperPET .
In the mid 1980s Watcom developed compilers for the Unisys ICON computers running the QNX operating system. The Watcom C/C++ compiler with QNX developed a market for embedded applications.
In 1988, Watcom released their first C compiler for the IBM PC platform (and compatibles). It was released with a version number of 6 at a time when the latest version numbers of Borland's and Microsoft's C Compilers were version 5. These version numbers signified nothing and were used for marketing purposes. The compiler could create tighter and faster code than its competition.
In 1992, Watcom began a move into the client-server arena with the introduction of Watcom SQL, a SQL database server product. Being a very small company (about 8 developers) they managed to produce high quality software, famous among software developers. Watcom SQL is still in production, now under the name SAP SQL Anywhere.
In 1993, the VX-REXX system was released.
Watcom was acquired by Powersoft in 1994, and Powersoft merged with Sybase in 1995. In May 2000, Sybase spun off their mobile and embedded computing division into its own company, Sybase iAnywhere (formerly iAnywhere Solutions Inc.). Sybase tried to re-target the Watcom compiler into a visual RAD tool, Optima++, but in 2003, because the product competed directly with the Sybase offering PowerBuilder, the product was discontinued. Its sister product, Optima-J, was continued. In 2003, the Watcom C/C++ and Fortran compilers were released as an open source project under a new name, Open Watcom.
Users and reception
Doom, Descent, Magic Carpet, Grand Theft Auto, System Shock, Fast Attack, Atomic Bomberman, Duke Nukem 3D and Fallout are among well known games that were compiled with Watcom C and DOS/4GW.
Novell's Netware386 and Fox Software's FoxPro 2 were compiled with Watcom C/C++.
See also
Sybase
References
Graham, J. W., J. W. Welch, K. I. McPhee 1983. Waterloo BASIC Primer and Reference Manual. WATCOM Publications.
Footnotes
External links
History of Watcom C/C++ Compilers
Open Watcom project website
iAnywhere Solutions website
Companies based in Waterloo, Ontario | [
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261938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Athletic%20Conference | New Jersey Athletic Conference | The New Jersey Athletic Conference (NJAC), formerly the New Jersey State Athletic Conference, is a college athletic conference affiliated with the NCAA's Division III. All of its full members are public universities in New Jersey. Affiliate members (track-only, men's tennis-only, or football-only) are located in Delaware, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
History
Chronological timeline
1957 - In 1957, the NJAC was founded as the New Jersey State Athletic Conference (NJSAC). Charter members included Glassboro State College (now Rowan University), Montclair State College (now Montclair State University), Jersey City State College (now New Jersey City University), Newark State College (now Kean University), Trenton State College (now The College of New Jersey), and William Paterson College (now William Paterson University).
1976 - Ramapo College of New Jersey joined the NJSAC, effective the 1976-77 academic year.
1977 - Stockton State College (now Stockton University) joined the NJSAC, effective the 1977-78 academic year.
1985 - Women's programs became part of the NJSAC, when the Jersey Athletic Conference (a women's sports athletic conference) was merged into the NJSAC. Therefore it was rebranded as the New Jersey Athletic Conference (NJAC), effective the 1985-86 academic year.
1985 - Rutgers University at Camden and Rutgers University at Newark joined the NJAC, effective the 1985-86 academic year.
2000 - The State University of New York at Cortland joined the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2000 fall season (2000-01 academic year).
2004 - New Jersey City left the NJAC to become an NCAA Division III Independent school, effective the 2003-04 academic year.
2004 - Western Connecticut State University joined the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2004 fall season (2004-05 academic year).
2005 - New Jersey City re-joined back to the NJAC after spending one season as an NCAA Division III Independent school, effective the 2005-06 academic year.
2006 - Buffalo State College joined the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2006 fall season (2006-07 academic year).
2008 - The State University of New York at Brockport and the State University of New York at Morrisville joined the NJAC as associate members for football, effective the 2008 fall season (2008-09 academic year).
2011 - The State University of New York at Farmingdale (Farmingdale State College) and St. Joseph's College–Long Island joined the NJAC as associate members for men's and women's indoor and outdoor track & field, effective the 2011-12 academic year).
2012 - Buffalo State left the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2011 fall season (2011-12 academic year).
2013 - Western Connecticut State left the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2012 fall season (2012-13 academic year).
2014 - SUNY Brockport left the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2013 fall season (2013-14 academic year).
2014 - Southern Virginia University joined the NJAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2014 fall season (2014-15 academic year).
2015 - SUNY Cortland and SUNY Morrisville left the NJAC as associate members for football, effective the 2014 fall season (2014-15 academic year).
2015 - Christopher Newport University, Frostburg State University, Salisbury University and Wesley College joined the NJAC as associate members for football, effective the 2015 fall season (2015-16 academic year).
2019 - Frostburg State and Southern Virginia left the NJAC as associate members for football, effective the 2018 fall season (2018-19 academic year).
2019 - Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg joined the NJAC as an associate member for men's and women's indoor and outdoor track & field, while the State University of New York at Oneonta, the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse and the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater joined the NJAC as associate members for men's tennis, effective the 2019-20 academic year.
2021 - Wesley (Del.) left the NJAC as an associate member for football after the school closed down to later be acquired by Delaware State University, effective the 2020 fall season (2020-21 academic year).
Member schools
Current members
Notes
Affiliate members
Former affiliate members
Notes
Membership timeline
Sports
The NJAC sponsors championships in the following sports:
National championship teams
Since the NCAA established the three division system in 1973, NJAC members have won a total of 63 team championships.
Baseball
Kean: 2007
Montclair State: 1987, 1993, 2000
Ramapo: 1984
Rowan: 1978, 1979
William Paterson: 1992, 1996
Men's Basketball
Rowan: 1996
Field Hockey
Rowan: 2002
TCNJ: 1981, 1983, 1985, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2011
Men's Golf
Ramapo: 1982
Women's Lacrosse
TCNJ: 1985, 1987, 1988, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2005, 2006
Men's Soccer
Kean: 1992
Richard Stockton: 2001
Rowan: 1981, 1990
TCNJ: 1996
Women's Soccer
TCNJ: 1993, 1994, 2000
Softball
Rutgers-Camden: 2006
TCNJ: 1983, 1987, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1996
Women's Tennis
TCNJ: 1986
Men's Outdoor Track
Rowan: 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984
Wrestling
Montclair State: 1976, 1986
TCNJ: 1979, 1981, 1984, 1985, 1987
References
External links | [
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261939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration%20of%20war | Declaration of war | A declaration of war is a formal act by which one state announces existing or impending war activity against another. The declaration is a performative speech act (or the signing of a document) by an authorized party of a national government, in order to create a state of war between two or more states.
The legality of who is competent to declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations, that power is given to the head of state or sovereign. In other cases, something short of a full declaration of war, such as a letter of marque or a covert operation, may authorise war-like acts by privateers or mercenaries. The official international protocol for declaring war was defined in the Hague Convention (III) of 1907 on the Opening of Hostilities.
Since 1945, developments in international law such as the United Nations Charter, which prohibits both the threat and the use of force in international conflicts, have made declarations of war largely obsolete in international relations, though such declarations may have relevance within the domestic law of the belligerents or of neutral nations. The UN Security Council, under powers granted in articles 24 and 25, and Chapter VII of the Charter, may authorize collective action to maintain or enforce international peace and security. Article 51 of the United Nations Charter also states that: "Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right to individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a state."
Few nations have formally declared war upon another since then. In addition to this, non-state or terrorist organizations may claim to or be described as "declaring war" when engaging in violent acts. These declarations may have no legal standing in themselves, but they may still act as a call to arms for supporters of these organizations.
Definitions
Theoretical perspectives
A definition of the three ways of thinking about a declaration of war was developed by Saikrishna Prakash. He argues that a declaration of war can be seen from three perspectives:
Categorical theory, under which the power to declare war includes "the power to control all decisions to enter war". This means that the power to 'declare war' in effect rests with the ability to engage in combat.
Pragmatic theory, which states that the power to declare war can be made unnecessary by an act of war in itself.
Formalist theory, under which the power to declare war constitutes only a formal documentation of executive war-making decisions. This sits closest to traditional legal conceptions of what it is to declare a war.
History
The practice of declaring war has a long history. The ancient Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh gives an account of it, as does the Old Testament. The Roman Republic formalized the declaration of war by a special ceremony, the ritual of the Fetials, though the practice started to decline into the Imperial era.
However, the practice of declaring war was not always strictly followed. In his study Hostilities without Declaration of War (1883), the British scholar John Frederick Maurice showed that between 1700 and 1870 war was declared in only 10 cases, while in another 107 cases war was waged without such declaration (these figures include only wars waged in Europe and between European states and the United States, not including colonial wars in Africa and Asia).
In modern public international law, a declaration of war entails the recognition between countries of a state of hostilities between these countries, and such declaration has acted to regulate the conduct between the military engagements between the forces of the respective countries. The primary multilateral treaties governing such declarations are the Hague Conventions.
The League of Nations, formed in 1919 in the wake of the First World War, and the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War of 1928 signed in Paris, France, demonstrated that world powers were seriously seeking a means to prevent the carnage of another world war. Nevertheless, these powers were unable to stop the outbreak of the Second World War, so the United Nations was established following that war in a renewed attempt to prevent international aggression through declarations of war.
Denigration of formal declarations of war before WWII
In classical times, Thucydides condemned the Thebans, allies of Sparta, for launching a surprise attack without a declaration of war against Plataea, Athens' ally – an event that began the Peloponnesian War.
The utility of formal declarations of war has always been questioned, either as sentimental remnants of a long-gone age of chivalry or as imprudent warnings to the enemy. For example, writing in 1737, Cornelius van Bynkershoek judged that "nations and princes endowed with some pride are not generally willing to wage war without a previous declaration, for they wish by an open attack to render victory more honourable and glorious." Writing in 1880, William Edward Hall judged that "any sort of previous declaration therefore is an empty formality unless the enemy must be given time and opportunity to put himself in a state of defence, and it is needless to say that no one asserts such a quixotism to be obligatory."
Agreed Procedure for the Opening of Hostilities according to the Hague Convention
In the first Hague Convention of 1899, the signatory states agreed that at least one other nation be used to mediate disputes between states before engaging in hostilities:
1899
Title II, Article 2
In case of serious disagreement or conflict, before an appeal to arms, the signatory Powers agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly Powers.
1907
The Hague Convention (III) of 1907 called "Convention Relative to the Opening of Hostilities" gives the international actions a country should perform when opening hostilities. The first two Articles say:
Article 1
The Contracting Powers recognize that hostilities between themselves must not commence without previous and explicit warning, in the form either of a reasoned declaration of war or of an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war.
Article 2
The existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral Powers without delay, and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be given by telegraph. Neutral Powers, nevertheless, cannot rely on the absence of notification if it is clearly established that they were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war.
Formal declarations of war during World War I
Formal declarations of war during World War II
After World War II
In 1989, Panama declared itself to be in a state of war with the United States.
On 13 May 1998, at the outbreak of the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, Ethiopia, in what Eritrean radio described as a "total war" policy, mobilized its forces for a full assault against Eritrea. The Claims Commission found that this was in essence an affirmation of the existence of a state of war between belligerents, not a declaration of war, and that Ethiopia also notified the United Nations Security Council, as required under Article 51 of the UN Charter.
In December 2005, the government of Chad declared that a state of war existed with Sudan, after Sudan hosted Chadian rebel groups that were behind fatal cross border raids.
In 2008, after armed clashes broke out during the Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict, Djibouti's President Guelleh, when asked if his country was at war with Eritrea, replied with "absolutely".
On 11 April 2012, Sudan declared war on South Sudan after weeks of border clashes.
Declared wars since 1945
Declarations of war, while uncommon in the traditional sense, have mainly been limited to the conflict areas of the Western Asia and East Africa since 1945. Additionally, some small states have unilaterally declared war on major world powers such as the United States, United Kingdom, or Russia when faced with a hostile invasion and/or occupation.
This is a list of declarations of war (or the existence of war) by one sovereign state against another since the end of World War II in 1945. Only declarations that occurred in the context of a direct military conflict are included.
Legality of declarations of war since 1945
The United Nations Charter is the foundation of modern international law. The UN Charter is a treaty ratified by members of the UN, which are therefore legally bound by its terms. Article 2(4) of the UN Charter generally bans the use of force by states except when carefully circumscribed conditions are met, stating:
All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.
This rule was "enshrined in the United Nations Charter in 1945 for a good reason: to prevent states from using force as they felt so inclined", said Louise Doswald-Beck, Secretary-General International Commission of Jurists.
Therefore, in the absence of an armed attack against a country or its allies, any legal use of force, or any legal threat of the use of force, has to be supported by a United Nations Security Council resolution authorizing member states to use force.
United Nations and war
In an effort to force nations to resolve issues without warfare, framers of the United Nations Charter attempted to commit member nations to using warfare only under limited circumstances, particularly for defensive purposes.
The UN became a combatant itself after North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950, which begun the Korean War. The UN Security Council condemned the North Korean action by a 9–0 resolution (with the Soviet Union absent) and called upon its member nations to come to the aid of South Korea. The United States and 15 other nations formed a "UN force" to pursue this action. In a press conference on 29 June 1950, US President Harry S. Truman characterized these hostilities as not being a "war" but a "police action".
The United Nations has issued Security Council Resolutions that declared some wars to be legal actions under international law, most notably Resolution 678, authorizing the 1991 Gulf War which was triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. UN Resolutions authorise the use of "force" or "all necessary means".
Requirements by country
Commonwealth realms
Throughout the Commonwealth realms (the UK, Australia, Canada, et al.) the formal right to declare war rests with the monarch, currently Elizabeth II, or their representative (the governor-general), as part of the royal prerogative and exercised by the Prime Minister (for example in the UK) or that realm's written constitution. It is a very recent development in the United Kingdom that parliamentary approval be sought before deployment of combat forces overseas, for example in the Iraq War (2003) and airstrikes on Daesh (ISIL), but this is not a legal requirement.
Brazil
According to article 84 of Brazilian constitution the President of Brazil has the power to declare war, in the event of foreign aggression, when authorized by the National Congress or, upon its ratification if the aggression occurs between legislative sessions, and decree full or partial national mobilization under the same conditions.
Finland
According to article 93 of the Finnish constitution, the President of Finland may declare war, or declare peace, with permission from the Parliament of Finland.
France
According to Article 35 of the French constitution, the French Parliament has the authority to authorize the declaration of war.
Germany
Article 115a GG says that unless attacked by an opposing military force, Germany must vote a two-thirds majority vote in the Bundestag if the federal republic is under the threat of war.
Ireland
Article 28.3.1° of the Constitution of Ireland states that "war shall not be declared and the State shall not participate in any war save with the assent of Dáil Éireann."
Ireland has taken a policy of non-alignment (what many confuse with neutrality see: Irish Neutrality) in military terms and is thus not a member of NATO.
Italy
According to the 11° article of the Italian Constitution, Italy rejects war as an instrument of aggression. Parliament has the power to declare war if it is necessary to create an order that ensures peace and justice among Nations; the most reliable authors exclude that among the circumstances in which it can be declared the state of war under Article 78 of the Constitution may be included also the state of internal civil war.
Mexico
According to Article 89 § VIII of the Mexican Constitution the President may declare war in the name of the United Mexican States after the correspondent law is enacted by the Congress of the Union.
The Netherlands
Article 96 of the constitution of the Kingdom of The Netherlands states as follows:
"A declaration that the Kingdom is in a state of war shall not be made without the prior approval of the States General."
"Such approval shall not be required in cases where consultation with Parliament proves to be impossible as a consequence of the actual existence of a state of war."
"The two Houses of the States General shall consider and decide upon the matter in joint session."
"The provisions of the first and third paragraphs shall apply mutatis mutandis to a declaration that a state of war has ceased."
Spain
According to the Spanish constitution of 1978, Art. 63, the King, with prior authorization by the Parliament, has the power to declare war and make peace.
Sweden
According to 2010:1408 15 kap. 14 § entitled "Krigsförklaring" (declaration of war) the Swedish cabinet (regeringen) may not declare Sweden to be at war without the parliaments (riksdagen) consent unless Sweden is first attacked.
United States
In the United States, Congress, which makes the rules for the military, has the power under the constitution to "declare war". However neither the US Constitution nor any Act of Congress stipulate what format a declaration of war must take. War declarations have the force of law and are intended to be executed by the President as "commander in chief" of the armed forces. The last time Congress passed joint resolutions saying that a "state of war" existed was on June 5, 1942, when the US declared war on Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania. Since then, the US has used the term "authorization to use military force," as in the case against Iraq in 2003.
Sometimes decisions for military engagements were made by US presidents, without formal approval by Congress, based on UN Security Council resolutions that do not expressly declare the UN or its members to be at war. Part of the justification for the United States invasion of Panama was to capture Manuel Noriega (as a prisoner of war) because he was declared a criminal rather than a belligerent.
In response to the September 11 attacks, the United States Congress passed the joint resolution Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists on September 14, 2001, which authorized the US President to fight the War on Terror.
See also
Ongoing wars (mostly undeclared)
Frozen conflict
List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity
Letter of protest
Declarations of war during World War I
Declarations of war during World War II
Declaration of war by Canada
Declaration of war by the United Kingdom
Declaration of war by the United States
United States declaration of war upon the United Kingdom (1812)
German declaration of war against the Netherlands (1940)
United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan (1941)
State of emergency
Jihad, a declaration of war in Islam
Undeclared war
References
External links
Declarations of war during World War II
Hague Convention (III) in 1907 defines the protocol for starting hostilities
Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications, US Congressional Research Service
Laws of war
Chronology of war | [
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261941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest%20Conference | Northwest Conference | The Northwest Conference (NWC) is an athletic conference which competes in the NCAA's Division III. Member teams are located in the states of Oregon and Washington. It was known as the Pacific Northwest Conference from 1926 to 1984.
History
The NWC was formed in 1926, making it one of the oldest continuously existing athletics conferences in the western United States. For 60 years, the Northwest Conference sponsored sports exclusively for men, but in 1984 it joined with the Women's Conference of Independent Colleges to become the Northwest Conference of Independent Colleges, shortening the name to its current moniker in 1996 when it joined the NCAA.
The charter members included Willamette University, Pacific University, Whitman College, the College of Puget Sound (now the University of Puget Sound), Linfield College and the College of Idaho. In 1931, Albany College joined, left in 1938, and re-joined in 1949 using its present name of Lewis & Clark College. Pacific Lutheran University was added in 1965, and Whitworth University in 1970. In 1978, the College of Idaho dropped out of the conference. Whitworth also left in 1984, but then returned in 1988. In 1996, George Fox University joined when the conference moved to the NCAA and Puget Sound re-joined in that same year since 1948. From 2006 to 2010, Menlo College was also a part of the conference as an associate member in football.
The College of Idaho reinstated its football program in 2014 after a 37-year hiatus and joined the Frontier Conference for football. C of I is now a member of the NAIA's Cascade Collegiate Conference for other sports. Whitworth left the NWC in 1984 but returned in 1988. George Fox University and Seattle University joined the conference in 1997. Seattle dropped out again in 1999 to become members of NCAA Division II. Menlo College joined the conference in 2005 as a football-only member.
Member schools
Current members
The NWC currently has nine full members, which all of them are private schools:
Notes
Former members
The NWC had two former members, which both were private schools:
Former associate members
The NWC had one former associate member, which was also a private school:
Membership timeline
Sports sponsored
The Northwest Conference sponsors championships in baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track and field, and volleyball.
All Sports Trophy
Each year the NWC awards one of its member institutions the NWC All Sports Trophy. In each sport the Conference Champion is awarded 18 points, second place is awarded 16 points, and so on. The school with the most points at the conclusion of the academic year wins the trophy. Football, women's volleyball, men's and women's cross country, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's swimming, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's golf, men's baseball, women's softball, and men's and women's track and field are the 18 sports in which points are awarded.
Most recently, Whitworth won the NWC All Sports Trophy for 2017-18, their twelfth overall and eleventh in a row. Pacific Lutheran has won the award 15 times, more than any other school. Linfield has won the trophy three times while Puget Sound has won it twice.
National championships
† - Whitworth was not a member of the NWC until 1970.
Football champions
1926 – College of Idaho
1927 – College of Idaho
1928 – Whitman
1929 – Willamette
1930 – Whitman
1931 – Whitman
1932 – Puget Sound
1933 – Puget Sound
1934 – Willamette
1935 – Linfield and Willamette
1936 – Willamette
1937 – Willamette
1938 – Pacific (OR) and Willamette
1939 – Pacific
1940 – Willamette
1941 – Willamette
1942 – Willamette
1943 – No champion
1944 – No champion
1945 – No champion
1946 – Willamette
1947 – Willamette
1948 – College of Idaho
1949 – College of Idaho, Lewis & Clark, and Pacific (OR)
1950 – Lewis & Clark
1951 – Lewis & Clark and Pacific (OR)
1952 – Lewis & Clark and Pacific (OR)
1953 – College of Idaho
1954 – College of Idaho, Lewis & Clark, and Willamette
1955 – College of Idaho and Lewis & Clark
1956 – Linfield
1957 – Linfield
1958 – Willamette
1959 – Willamette
1960 – Willamette
1961 – Linfield
1962 – Linfield
1963 – Lewis & Clark
1964 – Linfield
1965 – Linfield
1966 – Lewis & Clark
1967 – Lewis & Clark, Linfield, and Willamette
1968 – Willamette
1969 – Lewis & Clark, Linfield, Pacific Lutheran, and Whitman
1970 – Linfield
1971 – Linfield
1972 – Linfield
1973 – Pacific Lutheran
1974 – Linfield
1975 – Linfield, Pacific Lutheran, and Whitworth (WA)
1976 – Linfield
1977 – Linfield
1978 – Linfield
1979 – Pacific Lutheran
1980 – Linfield
1981 – Pacific Lutheran
1982 – Linfield
1983 – Pacific Lutheran
1984 – Linfield
References
External links | [
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261946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio%20Athletic%20Conference | Ohio Athletic Conference | The Ohio Athletic Conference (OAC) was formed in 1902 and is the third oldest athletic conference in the United States. Its current commissioner is Tim Gleason. Former commissioners include Mike Cleary, who was the first General Manager of a professional basketball team to hire an African American head coach, and would later run the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA). The Ohio Athletic Conference competes in the NCAA's Division III. Through the years, 31 schools have been members of the OAC. The enrollments of the current ten member institutions range from around 1,000 to 4,500. Member teams are located in Ohio.
History
The Ohio Athletic Conference was found in 1902 with six charter members—Case Tech, Kenyon, Oberlin, Ohio State, Ohio Wesleyan, and Western Reserve. By 1934, the conference reached an all-time high of twenty-four members, seeing many schools come and go throughout the upcoming decades. By 2000, the conference solidified to its current form with the addition of its final school, Wilmington, to ten members.
Conference timeline
1902 - The Ohio Athletic Conference (OAC) was founded. Charter members included Case Institute of Technology, Kenyon College, Oberlin College, Ohio State University, Ohio Wesleyan University and Western Reserve University, effective the 1902-03 academic year.
1907 - Denison University, Heidelberg College (now Heidelberg University) and the College of Wooster joined the OAC, effective the 1907-08 academic year.
1909 - Wittenberg College (now Wittenberg University) joined the OAC, effective the 1909-10 academic year.
1910 - The University of Cincinnati and Ohio University joined the OAC, effective the 1910-11 academic year.
1911 - Miami University of Ohio joined the OAC, effective the 1911-12 academic year.
1912 - Ohio State left the OAC, effective the 1911-12 academic year.
1914 - Mount Union College (now the University of Mount Union) joined the OAC, effective the 1914-15 academic year.
1915 - The University of Akron and Baldwin Wallace College (now Baldwin Wallace University) joined the OAC, effective the 1915-16 academic year.
1916 - Ohio Northern University joined the OAC, effective the 1916-17 academic year.
1919 - Baldwin Wallace left the OAC, effective the 1918-19 academic year.
1920 - Hiram College joined the OAC, effective the 1920-21 academic year.
1921 - Otterbein College (now Otterbein University) and St. Xavier College (now Xavier University) joined the OAC, effective the 1921-22 academic year.
1922 - Muskingum College (now Muskingum University) joined the OAC, effective the 1922-23 academic year.
1923 - Baldwin Wallace re-joined back to the OVC for a second time, effective the 1923-24 academic year.
1924 - Cincinnati left the OAC, effective the 1923-24 academic year.
1926 - Marietta College joined the OVC, effective the 1926-27 academic year.
1927 - Capital University joined the OVC, effective the 1927-28 academic year.
1928 - Denison, Miami, Ohio, Ohio Wesleyan and Wittenberg left the OAC to form the Buckeye Conference alongside Cincinnati (who left 4 years prior), effective the 1927-28 academic year.
1931 - Ashland College (now Ashland University) joined the OAC, effective the 1931-32 academic year.
1932 - Western Reserve left the OAC, effective the 1931-32 academic year.
1932 - John Carroll University, Kent State College (now Kent State University) and Toledo University (now the University of Toledo) joined the OAC, effective the 1932-33 academic year.
1933 - Bowling Green State College (now Bowling Green State University) joined the OAC, with Denison re-joining for a second time as well, effective the 1933-34 academic year.
1934 - Wittenberg re-joined back to the OAC for a second time, effective the 1934-35 academic year.
1935 - Hiram left the OAC, effective the 1934-35 academic year.
1936 - Baldwin Wallace, Case Tech, John Carroll, Toledo and Xavier were suspended from the OVC for a violation of the opening date of football practice, all of them (except Xavier (Oh.)) were re-instated back the following school year.
1936 - Akron and Xavier (Oh.) left the OAC, effective the 1935-36 academic year.
1942 - Bowling Green State left the OAC, effective the 1941-42 academic year.
1947 - Ohio Wesleyan re-joined back to the OAC for a second time, effective the 1947-48 academic year.
1944 - Akron re-joined back to the OAC for a second time, effective the 1944-45 academic year (with football re-joining in the 1948 fall season (1948-49 academic year).
1947 - Ohio Northern left the OAC, effective the 1946-47 academic year.
1947 - Ohio Wesleyan re-joined back to the OAC for a second time, effective the 1947-48 academic year.
1948 - Ashland and Case Tech, alongside Baldiwn Wallace for a second time, left the OAC, effective the 1947-48 academic year.
1949 - John Carroll and Toledo left the OAC, effective the 1948-49 academic year.
1951 - Kent State left the OAC, effective the 1946-47 academic year.
1951 - Hiram re-joined back to the OAC for a second time, effective the 1951-52 academic year.
1961 - Baldwin Wallace re-joined back to the OAC for a third time, effective the 1946-47 academic year.
1966 - Akron left the OAC for a second time, effective the 1965-66 academic year.
1971 - Hiram left the OAC for a second time, effective the 1970-71 academic year.
1973 - Ohio Northern re-joined back to the OAC for a second time, effective the 1973-74 academic year.
1984 - Kenyon, Oberlin and Wooster left the OAC, alongside Denison and Ohio Wesleyan for a second time, to form the North Coast Athletic Conference (NCAC), effective the 1983-84 academic year.
1989 - Wittenberg left the OAC for a second time, effective the 1988-89 academic year.
1989 - Hiram re-joined back to the OAC for a third time, alongside John Caroll who re-joined for a second time, effective the 1989-90 academic year.
1999 - Hiram left the OAC for a third time, effective the 1998-99 academic year.
2000 - Wilmington College of Ohio joined the OAC, effective the 2000-01 academic year.
2011 - Defiance College joined the OAC as an associate member for men's and women's swimming and diving, effective the 2011-12 academic year.
2012 - Transylvania University joined the OAC as an associate member for men's and women's swimming and diving, effective the 2012-13 academic year.
2015 - Manchester University joined the OAC as an associate member for men's and women's swimming and diving, effective the 2015-16 academic year.
Member schools
Current members
Notes
Former members
Notes
Former associate members
Membership timeline
Sports
In 2018–19, the OAC sponsors the following championships:
Facilities
OAC Tournament Championship History
Men's Swimming & Diving
2016-19: John Carroll
2006-16: Ohio Northern
Women's Swimming & Diving
2017-19: John Carroll
2015-16: Mount Union
Men's Basketball
2020-21: Marietta
2019-20: Mount Union
2018-19: Baldwin Wallace
2017-18: John Carroll
2016-17: Marietta
2015-16: John Carroll
2014-15: Mount Union
2013-14: Wilmington
2012-13: Marietta
2011-12: Capital
2010-11: Marietta
2009-10: Wilmington
2008-09: John Carroll
2007-08: Heidelberg
2006-07: Capital
Women's Basketball
2020-21: John Carroll
2019-20: Baldwin Wallace
2018-19: John Carroll
2017-18: Marietta
2016-17: Ohio Northern
2015-16: Mount Union
2014-15: Baldwin Wallace
2013-14: Capital
2012-13: Ohio Northern
2009-10, 2010–11, 2011-12: Mount Union
2008-09: Capital
2007-08: Baldwin Wallace
2005-06, 2006-07: Wilmington
2002-03, 2003-04: Wilmington
Football
2017–19: Mount Union
2016: John Carroll
1992–2015: Mount Union
1990: Baldwin Wallace
1989: John Carroll
1988: Wittenberg
Baseball
2021: Marietta
2019: Otterbein
2018: Baldwin Wallace
2017: Otterbein
2015–16: Marietta
2014: John Carroll
2013: Mount Union
2011–12: Marietta
2010: Heidelberg
Men's Soccer
2018-19: John Carroll
2017: Otterbein
2016: John Carroll
2015: Ohio Northern
2014: Heidelberg
2010–13: Ohio Northern
2009: Capital and Ohio Northern (tie)
2008: Ohio Northern
2004: Wilmington
2000: Wilmington
Women's Soccer
2019: Ohio Northern
2018: Otterbein
2017: Ohio Northern
2016: Mount Union
2013–15: Capital
2012: Ohio Northern
2011: Capital
2010: Otterbein
Women's Volleyball
2018–19: Ohio Northern
2017: Otterbein
2016: Ohio Northern
2015: Heidelberg
2011–14: Mount Union
2010: Heidelberg
2009: Ohio Northern
2008: Heidelberg
Men's Golf
2015–19: Otterbein
2014: Baldwin Wallace
2011: Mount Union
2009–10: Otterbein
2007–08: Mount Union
1998–06: Otterbein
1997: John Carroll
1996: Otterbein
1994–95: John Carroll
1992–93: Otterbein
1991: Heidelberg and Hiram (tie)
1990: John Carroll
1988–89: Wittenberg
1987: Muskingum
Men's Wrestling
2016–19: Baldwin Wallace
2012–14: Heidelberg
2011: Mount Union
2006–10: Heidelberg
2002–05: John Carroll
2001: Ohio Northern
2000: Muskingum
Men's Cross Country
2018-2019: Otterbein
2015–2017: Ohio Northern
2012–2014: Mount Union
2011: Ohio Northern
2010: Mount Union
2009: Heidelberg
2007–2008: Ohio Northern
2005–2006: Mount Union
2003–2004: Otterbein
2001–2002: Mount Union
2000: Heidelberg
Women's Cross Country
2015–18: Otterbein
2014: Mount Union
2013: John Carroll
2010–12: Ohio Northern
2009: Baldwin Wallace
2008: Ohio Northern
2007: Baldwin Wallace
2006: Ohio Northern
Men's Lacrosse
2016–19: John Carroll
2013–15: Otterbein
Women's Lacrosse
2014–19: Mount Union
References
External links | [
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261948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental%20Mindoro | Oriental Mindoro | Oriental Mindoro (: ; Hiligaynon: Sidlanganong Mindoro; ) is a province in the Philippines located on the island of Mindoro under Mimaropa region in Luzon, about southwest of Manila. The province is bordered by the Verde Island Passage and the rest of Batangas to the north, by Marinduque, Maestre de Campo (or known as Sibale but official name is Concepcion) Island, Tablas Strait and the rest of Romblon to the east, by Semirara and the rest of Caluya Islands, Antique to the south, and by Occidental Mindoro to the west. Calapan, the only city in the island, is the provincial capital.
Oriental Mindoro is touted as the country's emerging eco-tourism destination. In 2005, the Philippines was found to be the center of marine fish biodiversity and the home of the most diverse marine ecosystem in the world, by American biologists Kent Carpenter and Victor Springer. Most of the endemic species in the Philippines are found in the Verde Island Passage between Mindoro island and the main island of Luzon. The passage houses 2,983 individual species of algae, corals, crustaceans, mollusks, fishes, marine reptiles, and marine mammals, based on a study conducted by Carpenter and Springer in 2005.
UNESCO declared Puerto Galera a biosphere reserve under its Man and the Biosphere Programme in the 1970s. The Verde Island Passage is at the apex of the so-called Coral Triangle – the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia – which has the distinction of being the "center of the center of the world's marine biodiversity" and the "center of the center of marine shorefish biodiversity".
History
World War II
A Japanese force landed on northeastern Mindoro in the Philippine Islands on 27 February 1942.
Almost three years later, after the invasion of Mindoro by Allied forces, they proceeded to land to Bongabong and heading to and capturing Calapan, the capital of the united Mindoro Province at the time on 24 January 1945.
Creation
After World War II, reconstruction and rehabilitation of infrastructure and economy took place on the island, which then constituted a single province. This was partitioned on 13 June 1950 into Oriental Mindoro and Occidental Mindoro by virtue of Republic Act No. 505.
In the decades after the War, Mindoro attracted settlers from overpopulated provinces in the Philippines. Apart from the hope to become landowners or to have better tenancy conditions, the Hukbalahap Rebellion in Central Luzon was an important factor for migration. Under the settlement program of the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) founded in 1954, families from Central Luzon were settled in the Bongabong-Pinamalayan area. This project ended in 1956 after 606 families (3,636 people) were settled on of public land. Since then, new settlers continue to migrate to Mindoro until today.
On November 15, 1994, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck the Verde Island Passage located north of Oriental Mindoro, killing 69 people in the province, with most casualties due to the tsunami caused by the earthquake. Within a year after the calamity, however, the provincial government under Governor Rodolfo G. Valencia was able to successfully rehabilitate the province in a brisk manner, and was thus conferred the Disaster Management Award by the National Disaster Coordinating Council in July 1995.
Armed conflict
The island currently sees an ongoing conflict between the Armed Forces of the Philippines and insurgents. On March 6, 2010, eleven soldiers were killed and seven were hurt in a gun battle with the New People's Army in Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro.
Geography
Oriental Mindoro covers a total area of occupying the eastern section of Mindoro island in Mimaropa region. The province is bordered by the Verde Island Passage to the north, by Marinduque, Maestre de Campo, Tablas Strait and the rest of Romblon to the east, by Semirara and the rest of Caluya Islands, Antique to the south, and by Occidental Mindoro to the west.
The western portion of the province is mountainous or rugged, while the east has hills and flood plains. Mount Halcon, standing above sea level, is the 18th highest mountain in the country and is the province's and island's highest peak. Lake Naujan, the fifth largest lake in the country with an area of approximately of open water, is located at the northeastern part of the island and the province.
Administrative divisions
Oriental Mindoro comprises 14 municipalities, with one city, Calapan serving as the provincial capital.
Climate
Oriental Mindoro has no distinct wet or dry season. Average temperature ranges from . The province experiences maximum rainfall during the months of June to September. Relative humidity is registered at 87%.
Demographics
The population of Oriental Mindoro in the was people, with a density of .
The province is largely rural, with 70% of the population engaged in agriculture and fishing and with only 30% living in urban centers. Tagalog is widely spoken in the province. Other languages spoken are Ilocano and Visayan. Dialects of the Mangyan language are Arayan, Alagnan, Buhid, Hanunoo, and Tadyawan. Because of the RORO trips coming from Caticlan, a few people from the southern part can understand Hiligaynon.
Religion
A very large portion of the population are of Roman Catholic conviction (81%). Other Christian and Islamic belief constitute most of the remaining religious affiliation in the province. Other populations practice indigenous Philippine folk religions, animism, or atheism.
Indigenous people
The indigenous people of Oriental Mindoro are the Mangyans (Manguianes in Spanish, Mañguianes in Old Tagalog), consisting of seven distinct tribes. They occupy the interior, specially the highlands. Mangyans have inhabited the island since pre-history. They are believed to have originally traveled from Indonesia and settled down for good in the island.
Economy
Oriental Mindoro's rich and arable land is suitable for agriculture. It produces large quantities of rice, corn, coconut, vegetables and fruits like calamansi, banana, rambutan, marang or uloy, lanzones and durian. For that, Oriental Mindoro is also known as the Rice Granary and Fruit Basket of Southern Tagalog. It still is the Banana King and Calamansi King of the region. Its total agricultural area is . Based on agricultural statistics, are devoted to palay production while s to coconut plantation. For 2019, the province has been one of the top producers of rice becoming a source of rice for the National Food Authority's rice procurement target.
Tourist attractions
Access from Luzon via the Batangas ports mostly goes through the Verde Island Passage to reach Puerto Galera, the key entry point to Oriental Mindoro. In November 2004, Puerto Galera was voted a member of the UNESCO-affiliated ‘The Club of the Most Beautiful Bays in the World. Puerto Galera features a natural harbor which also protects ships, yachts and bancas from strong typhoons sweeping in from the Pacific.
Puerto Galera, known for white sand beaches and the accompanying honky tonk bar scene on some key beaches, is known for its dive sites with a biodiversity of marine life in and around the coral reefs. Underwater rock formations and coral gardens are home to a variety of marine life, which include numerous species of nudibranch, mantis shrimp, sea anemone, moray and sea fan sea horses. The seas off the coast are host to passing dolphin pods and even the rarer whale shark, and are part of the migratory small whale route from the Visayas.
Towering above sea level, Mount Halcon in Baco, is a popular mountain climbing destination. Local and migratory birds allow birdwatching activities. The province is home to endemic wildlife like the tamaraw, a straight-horned water buffalo.
Other tourist destinations include:
Hidden Paradise
The attraction consists of a natural spring with a swimming pool and picnic cottages. It is located in Baco, and can be reached in 45 minutes by taking a jeepney bound for the Calapan market.
Alibatan Island
The island measures 5 ha and is noted for its white sand. The place serves as the breeding place of seagulls and turtles. Corals and oysters can be found all around the area. The island is also called "Target Island" because Americans used the island for bombing practice in 1946. It is located in Baco, and can be reached in an hour through a motorized banca from the market square.
Buyayao Island
It is a rocky island, except for the area facing Buyayao Peninsula. Big snakes called "sobre kama" are found in the mountains. The water around the island is suitable for deep-sea fishing. It is located off the coast of Mansalay, and can be reached in 30 minutes by motorized banca from Mansalay market.
Suqui Beach
This is a public beach with cottages and other facilities. It is a favorite place for the local people, especially during the summer. It is located in Suqui, Calapan, and can be reached in 15 minutes by taking a tricycle from the town proper.
Banilad Beach
The place is a good spot for picnicking and swimming, especially during the summer. It is located in Pili, Pinamalayan, and can be reached by taking a jeepney to the port of Barangay Wawa, then an hour's ride by motorized banca to the beach.
Bongol Beach
It is a secluded beach, with a white sand beach. It is located in Bongol, Pinamalayan, and can be reached in two hours by boarding a Bongol-bound jeepney from the town proper of Pinamalayan and then a tricycle to the beach area.
Tamaraw Falls
The waterfalls, situated alongside the road, is actually a series of asymmetrical falls, leading to the grand one, dropping to a frothy waterbed below. The cascading waterfalls are a great attraction to passers-by. Tamaraw Falls is located in Barangay Villaflor, Puerto Galera. It can be reached in two hours by taking a jeepney bound for Barangay Villaflor from Puerto Galera, or Calapan.
La Laguna Beach
An ideal place for swimming, snorkeling, and scuba diving. There are a number of resorts that offer accommodation and other travel and aqua sports facilities to both domestic and international tourists. It is located in La Laguna, Puerto Galera, and can be reached in 30 minutes from the town proper of Puerto Galera by taking a jeepney bound for La Laguna.
Sabang Beach
This area is ideal for swimming, snorkeling, and scuba diving. A cluster of nightspots abound in this area, which make it popular for evening socials. Cottages with entertainment facilities stand close to each other. Low-budget accommodations are available. It is located east of Puerto Galera, and can be reached in 15 minutes from the Puerto Galera pier by taking a jeepney or an outrigger banca.
Small La Laguna
Contrary to its name, Small La Laguna is bigger than La Laguna, and has more facilities. It has coral reefs, and its water is ideal for snorkeling and scuba diving. There are diving equipment for rent at nearby dive shops. It is located beside Sabang Beach, and can be reached in 20 minutes from the pier by taking a jeepney bound for Sabang.
Talipanan Beach
This area is not as busy as the other beaches in Puerto Galera. Thus, it is an ideal site for private swimming. It is located in Puerto Galera, and can be reached in 40 minutes by taking a jeepney or an outrigger boat from the town pier.
White Sand Beach
The white sandy strips of this beach offer excellent opportunities for swimming. Resorts in this area provide entertainment facilities for tourists' greater amusement and leisure. It is located in Barangay San Isidro, Puerto Galera, and is accessible in 30 minutes from the town proper by a jeepney or a boat.
Punta Guarda Beach
This beach is far from the busy areas of Puerto Galera; thus, it is ideal for those who seek privacy and retreat. It is located in Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro, and can be reached by taking a 10-minute jeepney ride from the town proper, to about one kilometer on the beach mark. The remaining distance is covered on foot.
Melco Beach
It is a beige-colored sandy beach with cottages for rent. It is located in Roxas, Oriental Mindoro, and can be reached in 10 minutes by a banca from the pier.
Education
Higher education institutions in the province:
Abada College
ACMCL College
AMA CLC College of Calapan (ACLC College)
Baco Community College
Clarendon College
CLCC Institute of Computer, Arts & Technology
Dalubhasaan ng Lungsod ng Calapan (City College of Calapan)
Divine Word College of Calapan
Eastern Mindoro College
Eastern Mindoro Institute of Technology and Sciences
Erhard Science and Technological Institute - Oriental Mindoro Inc.
Filipino Academy of Scientific Trades
Grace Mission College
Innovative College Of Science in Information Technology
IATEC Computer College
Institute of Business Science and Medical Arts
John Paul College
Luna Goco Colleges
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology
Mindoro Bible College
Paradigm College of Science and Technology
Pinamalayan Maritime Foundation and Technological College, Inc.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines - Bansud
Prince of Peace College
Southwestern Institute of Business and Technology
Southwestern Maritime Institute Foundation
Saint Augustine Seminary
Simeon Suan Vocational and Technical college
St. Anthony College Calapan City
References
External links
Local Governance Performance Management System
Bird Watching Philippines
Provinces of the Philippines
Mindoro
Mimaropa
States and territories established in 1950
1950 establishments in the Philippines | [
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261949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified%20Chinese%20characters | Simplified Chinese characters | Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters used in Mainland China and Singapore, as prescribed by the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters. Along with traditional Chinese characters, they are one of the two standard character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the People's Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s to encourage literacy. They are officially used in the People's Republic of China, Malaysia and Singapore, while traditional Chinese characters are remained in common use in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan (and as well as in South Korea to a certain extent).
Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially . In its broadest sense, the latter term refers to all characters that have undergone simplifications of character "structure" or "body", some of which have existed for millennia mainly in hand writing alongside traditional characters. On the other hand, the official name refers to the modern systematically simplified character set, which (as stated by then-Chairman Mao Zedong in 1952) includes not only structural simplification but also substantial reduction in the total number of standardized Chinese characters.
Simplified character forms were created by reducing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. Some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the same pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest amongst all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies.
A second round of simplifications was promulgated in 1977, but was later retracted in 1986 for a variety of reasons, largely due to the confusion caused and the unpopularity of the second round simplifications.
In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 (simplified and unchanged) characters was officially implemented for use by the State Council of the People's Republic of China on June 5, 2013.
History
China
Before 1949
Although most simplified Chinese characters in use today are the result of the works moderated by the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the 1950s and 1960s, the use of some of these forms predates the PRC's formation in 1949. Caoshu, cursive written text, was the inspiration of some simplified characters, and for others, some are attested as early as the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) as either vulgar variants or original characters.
One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lufei Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China as quickly as possible. Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged and subsequently blamed for their problems. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and therefore proposed that a reform be initiated. It was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, "If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" (). Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time.
In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and a large number of the intelligentsia maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China. In 1935, 324 simplified characters collected by Qian Xuantong were officially introduced as the table of first batch of simplified characters, but they were suspended in 1936 due to fierce opposition within the party.
After 1949
Within the PRC, further character simplification became associated with the leftists of the Cultural Revolution, culminating with the second-round simplified characters, which were promulgated in 1977. In part due to the shock and unease felt in the wake of the Cultural Revolution and Mao's death, the second round of simplifications was poorly received. In 1986, the authorities retracted the second round completely. Later in the same year, the authorities promulgated a final list of simplifications, which is identical to the 1964 list except for six changes (including the restoration of three characters that had been simplified in the first round: , , ; note that the form is used instead of in regions using Traditional Chinese). In 1965, the PRC published the Yinshua tongyong hanzi zixing biao (zh) (List of commonly used characters for printing), which included the standardized printing forms of 6196 characters.
There had been simplification initiatives aimed at eradicating characters entirely and establishing the Hanyu Pinyin romanization as the official written system of the PRC, but the reform never gained quite as much popularity as the leftists had hoped. After the retraction of the second round of simplification, the PRC stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. Years later in 2009, the Chinese government released a major revision list which included 8,300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. However, six characters previously listed as "traditional" characters that have been simplified, as well as 51 other "variant" characters, were restored to the standard list. In addition, orthographies (e.g., stroke shape) for 44 characters were proposed to be modified slightly to fit traditional calligraphic rules. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until August 31, 2009 for feedback from the public. The proposed orthographic changes to 44 characters were not implemented due to overwhelmingly negative public opinion.
The officially promulgated version of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters, announced in 2013, contained 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents.
Singapore and Malaysia
Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification, eventually arriving at the same set of simplified characters as Mainland China.
The first round, consisting of 498 Simplified characters from 502 Traditional characters, was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969. The second round, consisting of 2287 Simplified characters, was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the Mainland China system; those were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted the six revisions made by Mainland China in 1986. However, unlike in mainland China where personal names may only be registered using simplified characters, parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters in Singapore.
Malaysia promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, which were also completely identical to the simplified characters used in Mainland China. Chinese-language schools use these.
Traditional characters are still often seen on shop signs, calligraphy, and some newspapers in both countries.
Hong Kong
A small group called Dou Zi Sei () or Dou Zi Wui () attempted to introduce a special version of simplified characters using romanizations in the 1930s. Today, however, traditional characters remain dominant in Hong Kong.
Japan
After World War II, Japan also simplified a number of Chinese characters (kanji) used in the Japanese language. The new forms are called shinjitai. Compared to Chinese, the Japanese reform was more limited, simplifying only a few hundred characters. Further, the list of simplifications was exhaustive, unlike Chinese simplification – thus analogous simplifications of not explicitly simplified characters (extended shinjitai) are not approved, and instead standard practice is to use the traditional forms.
The number of characters in circulation was also reduced, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established. The overall effect was to standardize teaching and the use of kanji in modern literature and media.
Method of simplification
Structural simplification of characters
All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in Jianhuazi zong biao (), "Complete List of Simplified Characters" announced in 1986.
Chart 1 lists all 350 characters that are used by themselves, and can never serve as 'simplified character components'.
Chart 2 lists 132 characters that are used by themselves as well as utilized as simplified character components to further derive other simplified characters. Chart 2 also lists 14 'components' or 'radicals' that cannot be used by themselves, but can be generalized for derivation of more complex characters.
Derivation based on simplified character components
Chart 3 lists 1,753 characters which are simplified based on the same simplification principles used for character components and radicals in Chart 2. This list is non-exhaustive, so if a character is not already found in Chart 1, 2 or 3, but can be simplified in accordance with Chart 2, the character should be simplified.
Elimination of variants of the same character
Series One Organization List of Variant Characters accounts for some of the orthography difference between Mainland China on the one hand, and Hong Kong and Taiwan on the other. These are not simplifications of character structures, but rather reduction in number of total standard characters. For each set of variant characters that share the identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are obsoleted. After rounds of revisions, by 1993, some 1,027 variant characters have been declared obsolete by this list. Amongst the chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly.
Adoption of new standardized character forms
New standardized character forms originated from the "List of character forms of General Used Chinese characters for Publishing" containing 6,196 characters, published in 1965. The new forms tend to adopt vulgar variant forms for most of its characters. The List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese list, published in 1988, contains 7,000 commonly used characters, and replaces the 1965 list. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters.
Structural simplification of characters
All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the Complete List of Simplified Characters. Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3 is derived.
Merging two or more usually homophonous characters :
→ ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Using printed forms of cursive shapes ():
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Replacing a component of a character with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as and ):
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Omitting entire components:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → 气; etc.
Further morphing a character after omitting some components:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Preserving the basic outline or shape of the original character
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compound characters:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Replacing uncommon phonetic component of a character with a more common one:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Replacing entire character with a newly coined phono-semantic compound character:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Removing radicals from characters
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Only retaining radicals from characters
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Adopting obscure ancient forms or variants:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Adopting ancient vulgar variants:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
Re-adopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters:
→ ; → ; → ; etc.
Modifying a traditional character to simplify another traditional character:
→ ; → ; → ; → etc.
Derivation based on simplified character components
Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List of Simplified Characters, the 1,753 'derived' characters found in the non-exhaustive Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as a conversion table. While exercising such derivation, following rules should be observed:
The "Complete List of Simplified Characters" employs character components, not the traditional definition of radicals. A component refers to any conceivable part of a character, regardless of its position within the character, or its relative size compared to other components in the same character. For instance, in the character , not only is (a traditional radical) considered a component, but so is .
Each of the 132 simplified characters in Chart 2, when used as a component in compound characters, systematically simplify compound characters in exactly the same way the Chart 2 character itself was simplified. For instance, is simplified in Chart 2 to . Based on the same principle, these derivations can be made: → ; → ; → ; etc.
The 14 simplified components in Chart 2 are never used alone as individual characters. They only serve as components. Example of derived simplification based on the component , simplified to (), include: → ; → ; → ; etc.
Chart 1 collects 352 simplified characters that generally cannot be used as components. Even in rare cases where a Chart 1 character is found as a component in a compound character, the compound character cannot be simplified in the same way. For instance, is simplified in Chart 1 to , but cannot be simplified to .
A character that is already explicitly listed as simplified character in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" cannot be alternatively simplified based on derivation. For instance, and are simplified in Chart 1 to and respectively, thus they cannot be simplified alternatively by derivation via and in Chart 2 to and . is simplified in Chart 2 to , thus it cannot be alternatively derived via in Chart 2 as .
Sample Derivations:
→ (), thus → ; → ; → ; etc.
→ , thus → ; → ; → ; etc.
→ , thus → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
→ , thus → ; → ; → ; etc.
→ , thus → ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
→ , thus → ; → ; → ; etc.
Elimination of variants of the same character
The "Series One Organization List of Variant Characters" reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are obsoleted. Then amongst the chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow:
Sample reduction of equivalent variants:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; → ; → etc.
In choosing standard characters, often ancient variants with simple structures are preferred:
→ ; → ; → ; etc.
Vulgar forms simpler in structure are also chosen:
→ ; → ; → ; → ; etc.
The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1:
→ → ; → → ; → → ; → → ; → → ; → → ; etc.
In some instance, the chosen variant is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character which is eliminated in favor of the variant form . Note that the "hand" radical , with three strokes, on the left of the eliminated is now "seen" as more complex, appearing as the "tree" radical , with four strokes, in the chosen variant .
Not all characters standardised in the Simplified set consists of fewer strokes. For instance, the traditional character , with 11 strokes is standardised as , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters.
Adoption of new standardized character forms
The new standardized character forms ( xīn zìxíng) started in the List of character forms of General Used Chinese characters for Publishing and revised through the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow:
The traditional component becomes :
→ ; → ; etc.
The traditional component becomes :
→ ; → ; etc.
The traditional "Break" stroke becomes the "Dot" stroke:
→ ; → ; etc.
The traditional components and become :
→ ; → ; etc.
The traditional component becomes :
→ ; → ; etc.
Inconsistencies
A commonly cited example of the irregularity of simplification involving characters that share the "hand" component , which is used in many simplified characters. While there is an observable pattern involving the replacement of 𦰩 with 又 as seen in → , → , → , → , → , etc., when observing that → , → , → , (not simplified) and (not simplified), an inconsistency arises. This is due to the fact that in the Complete List of Simplified Characters, → appears in Chart 1 while → is listed in Chart 2 and → as a derived character in the non-exhaustive list in Chart 3. Therefore, is defined as a 'simplified character component' according to the standard, while is not. Based on , is simplified to , and to . Since both → and → appear in Chart 1, they are not defined as derived characters. There are therefore no characters or components found in Chart 2 usable for derivation of and . Further investigation reveals that these two characters do not appear in Chart 1 nor in "Series One Organization List of Variant Characters". Thus they remain unchanged from traditional forms in the "List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese".
Distribution and use
The People's Republic of China and Singapore generally use simplified characters. They appear very sparingly in printed text produced in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and overseas Chinese communities, although they are becoming more prevalent as China opens to the world. Conversely, the mainland is seeing an increase in the use of traditional forms, where they are often used on signs, and in logos, blogs, dictionaries, and scholarly works.
Mainland China
The Law of the People's Republic of China on the National Common Language and Characters implies simplified Chinese as the standard script, with Traditional Chinese being used for purposes such as ceremonies, cultural purposes (e.g. calligraphy), decoration, publications and books on ancient literature and poetry, and research purposes. Traditional Chinese remains ubiquitous on buildings predating the promotion of simplified characters, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese is also often used for commercial purposes, such as shopfront displays and advertisements.
As part of the one country, two systems model, the PRC has not attempted to force Hong Kong or Macau into using simplified characters. The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in Traditional characters. For example, it prints versions of the People's Daily in Traditional characters and both the People's Daily and Xinhua websites have versions in Traditional characters using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use Traditional characters on their displays and packaging to communicate with consumers (the reverse is true as well).
Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their Traditional counterparts. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use Traditional Chinese characters.
Hong Kong
Textbooks, official statements, newspapers, including the PRC-funded media, show no signs of moving to simplified Chinese characters. However, some students may opt to use the simplified form when taking notes or doing test papers to write faster.
It is common for Hong Kong people to learn traditional Chinese characters in school, and some simplified Chinese in passing (either through reading mainland-published books or other media). For use on computers, however, people tend to type Chinese characters using a traditional character set such as Big5. In Hong Kong, as well as elsewhere, it is common for people who use both sets to do so because it is much easier to convert from the traditional character set to the simplified character set because of the usage of the aforementioned methods 8 and 9 of simplification.
Taiwan
Simplified Chinese characters are not officially used in governmental and civil publications in Taiwan. However, it is legal to import simplified character publications and distribute them. Certain simplified characters that have long existed in informal writing for centuries also have popular usage, while those characters simplified originally by the Taiwanese government are much less common in daily appearance.
In all areas, most handwritten text will include informal simplifications (alternative script) which are not the same as the simplifications officially promulgated by the PRC and are often instead influenced by the shinjitai used in Japan. The informal simplification of the first character of "Taiwan" from to rivals its orthodox form in commonality, even in print and in answers to school exams. This character is also used in the names of Taipei in Taiwan and Sendai in Japan, even though their respective governments do not officially use simplified characters. This is because the adoption of simplified characters has been gradual and predates the Chinese Civil War by several decades and some are used beyond mainland China to some extent.
Singapore and Malaysia
In Singapore, where Mandarin Chinese is one of the official languages, simplified characters are the official standard and are generally used in all official publications as well as the government-controlled press. While simplified characters are taught exclusively in schools and are generally used in all official publications, the government does not officially discourage the use of traditional characters and still allow parents to choose whether to have their child's Chinese name registered in simplified or traditional characters. Furthermore, traditional characters are widely used by older generations and are widespread on signboards, stall menus, decorations, etc.
In Malaysia, Chinese is not an official language, but over 90% of ethnic-Chinese students are educated in Chinese schools, which have taught simplified characters since 1981. Likewise, traditional characters are also widely used by older generations and are widespread on signboards, etc., albeit more common than in Singapore. Most of Malaysia's Chinese newspapers compromise by retaining traditional characters in article headlines but using simplified characters for content.
As there is no restriction of the use of traditional characters in the mass media, television programmes, books, magazines and music CD's that have been imported from Hong Kong or Taiwan are widely available, and these almost always use traditional characters. Most karaoke discs, being imported from Hong Kong or Taiwan, have song lyrics in traditional characters as well. Many shop signs continue to be written in traditional characters. Menus in hawker centres and coffee shops are also commonly seen in traditional characters.
Education
In general, schools in Mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore use simplified characters exclusively, while schools in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan use traditional characters exclusively.
Today, simplified Chinese characters predominate among college and university programs teaching Chinese as a foreign language outside of China, such as those in the United States.
Mainland China
In December 2004, Ministry of education authorities rejected a proposal from a Beijing CPPCC political conference member that called for elementary schools to teach traditional Chinese characters in addition to the simplified ones. The conference member pointed out that many, especially young people, have difficulties with traditional Chinese characters; this is especially important in dealing with non-mainland communities such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. The educational authorities did not approve the recommendation, saying that it did not fit in with the "requirements as set out by the law" and it could potentially complicate the curricula. A similar proposal was delivered to the 1st Plenary Session of the 11th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in March 2008.
Hong Kong
Most, if not all, Chinese language text books in Hong Kong are written in traditional characters. Before 1997, the use of simplified characters was generally discouraged by educators. After 1997, while students are still expected to be proficient and utilize traditional characters in formal settings, they may sometimes adopt a hybrid written form in informal settings to speed up writing. With the exception of open examinations, simplified Chinese characters are considered acceptable by the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority for their speed.
Singapore and Malaysia
Chinese textbooks in Singapore and Malaysia are written exclusively in simplified characters, and only simplified characters are taught in school. Traditional characters are usually only taught to those taking up calligraphy as a co-curricular activity or Cantonese as an elective course at school.
Chinese as a foreign language
As the source of many Mandarin Chinese textbooks is mainland China, the majority of textbooks teaching Chinese are now based on simplified characters and Hanyu Pinyin – although there are textbooks originating in China which have a traditional version. For practical reasons, universities and schools prepare students who will be able to communicate with mainland China, so their obvious choice is to use simplified characters.
In places where a particular set is not locally entrenched, e.g., Europe and the United States, instruction is now mostly simplified, as the economic importance of mainland China increases, and also because of the availability of textbooks printed in mainland China. Teachers of international students often recommend learning both systems.
Europe
In the United Kingdom, universities mainly teach Mandarin Chinese at the undergraduate level using the simplified characters coupled with pinyin. However, they will require the students to learn or be able to recognise the traditional forms if they are studying in Taiwan or Hong Kong (such as taking Cantonese courses). In Australia and New Zealand, schools, universities and TAFEs use predominantly simplified characters.
Russia and most East European nations are traditionally oriented on the education of the PRC's system for teaching Chinese, which uses simplified characters but exposes the learners to both systems.
East Asia
In South Korea, universities have used predominantly simplified characters since 1990s. In high school, Chinese is one of the selective subjects. By the regulation of the national curricula standards, MPS I and traditional characters had been originally used before (since the 1940s), but by the change of regulation, pinyin and simplified characters have been used to pupils who enter the school in 1996 or later. Therefore, MPS I and traditional characters disappeared after 1998 in South Korean high school Chinese curriculum.
In Japan there are two types of schools. Simplified Chinese is taught instead of traditional Chinese in pro-mainland China schools. They also teach Pinyin, a romanization system for standard Chinese, while the Taiwan-oriented schools teach Zhuyin, which uses phonetic symbols. However, the Taiwan-oriented schools are starting to teach simplified Chinese and Pinyin to offer a more well-rounded education.
Southeast Asia
In the Philippines, the use of simplified characters is getting more and more popular. Before the 1970s, Chinese schools in the Philippines were under the supervision of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. Hence, most books were using the Traditional Characters. Traditional Characters remained prevalent until the early 2000s. However, institutions like the Confucius Institute, being the cultural arm of the People's Republic of China, are strong proponents of the use of Simplified Characters. Also, many new schools are now importing their Mandarin textbooks from Singapore instead of Taiwan.
Public universities such as the Linguistics and Asian Languages Department of the University of the Philippines use Simplified Characters in their teaching materials. On the other hand, private schools such as Chiang Kai Shek College and Saint Jude Catholic School remain major proponents of the usage of Traditional Characters. However, some private universities, such as the Ateneo de Manila University, now use Simplified Characters.
Computer encoding and fonts
In computer text applications, the GB encoding scheme most often renders simplified Chinese characters, while Big5 most often renders traditional characters. Although neither encoding has an explicit connection with a specific character set, the lack of a one-to-one mapping between the simplified and traditional sets established a de facto linkage.
Since simplified Chinese conflated many characters into one and since the initial version of the GB encoding scheme, known as GB2312-80, contained only one code point for each character, it is impossible to use GB2312 to map to the bigger set of traditional characters. It is theoretically possible to use Big5 code to map to the smaller set of simplified character glyphs, although there is little market for such a product. Newer and alternative forms of GB have support for traditional characters. In particular, mainland authorities have now established GB 18030 as the official encoding standard for use in all mainland software publications. The encoding contains all East Asian characters included in Unicode 3.0. As such, GB 18030 encoding contains both simplified and traditional characters found in Big-5 and GB, as well as all characters found in Japanese and Korean encodings.
Unicode deals with the issue of simplified and traditional characters as part of the project of Han unification by including code points for each. This was rendered necessary by the fact that the linkage between simplified characters and traditional characters is not one-to-one. While this means that a Unicode system can display both simplified and traditional characters, it also means that different localization files are needed for each type.
The Chinese characters used in modern Japanese (called Kanji characters) have also undergone simplification, but generally to a lesser extent than with simplified Chinese. It is worth mentioning that Japan's writing system utilizes a reduced number of Chinese characters in daily use, resulting partly from the Japanese language reforms; thus, a number of complex characters are written phonetically. Reconciling these different character sets in Unicode became part of the controversial process of Han unification. Not surprisingly, some of the Chinese characters used in Japan are neither 'traditional' nor 'simplified'. In this case, these characters cannot be found in traditional/simplified Chinese dictionaries.
In font filenames and descriptions the acronym SC is used to signify the use of Simplified Chinese characters to differentiate fonts that use TC for traditional Chinese characters.
Web pages
The World Wide Web Consortium's Internationalization working group recommends the use of the language tag as a language attribute value and Content-Language value to specify web-page content in simplified Chinese characters.
Criticism
There are ongoing disputes among users of Chinese characters related to the introduction of simplified Chinese characters.
Author Liu Shahe was an outspoken critic of the simplification of Chinese characters. He wrote a dedicated column entitled "Simplified Characters are Unreasonable" (简化字不讲理) in the Chinese edition of the Financial Times.
Traditional Chinese supporters may refer to simplified Chinese as 殘體字 (cántǐzì - crippled characters).
See also
Ambiguities in Chinese character simplification
Chinese Character Simplification Scheme
Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters
Ryakuji
Xin Zixing
Shinjitai ( or – Japanese simplified characters)
Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters
Traditional Chinese characters
Notes and references
Further reading
External links
Andrew West, Proposal to Encode Obsolete Simplified Chinese Characters
Stroke Order Animation and Dictionary of Simplified Chinese Characters
Simplified to Traditional Chinese Conversion Table
Chinese language
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261951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occidental%20Mindoro | Occidental Mindoro | Occidental Mindoro (, , , ) (ISO: PH-MDC) is a province in the Philippines located in the Mimaropa region. The province occupies the western half of the island of Mindoro. Its capital is Mamburao, but the largest municipality is San Jose. As of 2020, Occidental Mindoro has 525,354 inhabitants.
The province is bordered on the east by the province of Oriental Mindoro, and on the south by the Mindoro Strait. The South China Sea is to the west of the province and Palawan is located to the southwest, across the Mindoro Strait. Batangas is to the north, separated by the Verde Island Passage, a protected marine area and the center of the center of the world's marine biodiversity.
History
Mindoro Island was originally known to the ancients as Ma-i. It was formally called Mait, and known to the Chinese traders before the coming of the Spanish. Its existence was mentioned in the old Chinese chronicles in 775 A.D. and more elaborately in 1225. It was a major anchorage in the Southeast Asia trade route during the pre-Philippines period. Chinese, Arab and Indian merchants traded with the natives. In 1570, the Spanish began to explore the island and named it Mina de Oro ("mine of gold") after finding some of the precious metal, though no major gold discoveries were ever made.
The natives of Mindoro were called Manguianes by the Spaniards. But the natives refer to themselves by their ethnic or clan identification. There were seven such ethnic or clan distinctions, which are differentiated by language and areas where each can be found.
The Mangyans, as they are now anthropologically known, do not have a warrior society. They are a peaceful, shy but friendly people. They are rarely known to be hostile, and have had no significant record of violent conflict with other people in the entire history of the province. They grow root crops in forest clearings (slash and burn farms), and hunt wild animals in the forest for their meat needs.
There are no authentic documents in existence explaining the original stock of the Mangyan people, but later theoreticians postulate that they migrated from Indonesia before 775 A.D. They hopped from island to island, until finally settling down permanently in Mindoro. It appeared that clan settlements existed in the North as well as in the southern ends of the island. By 779, the southwest coast of the island was already a known trading center, and its fine natural harbor frequented by Arab, Indian and Chinese maritime traders who plied the route. But there was no attempt of subjugation, just trading.
The first semblance of a political system in Mindoro's experience was provided by China in the 13th century. Chinese imperial forces under Admiral Cheng Ho with a powerful armada of 60 war junks visited Mindoro and other parts of the archipelago in the 13th century, with the purpose of gaining more trading favors for Chinese merchants.
For a time, Admiral Ho tried to exert some effort of rule as a prelude to Sino annexation. Internal trouble in the Chinese home front, however, recalled the armada, and the attempts of the empire to annex the archipelago did not materialize.
Some time after the Ho overture, Islamic influence reached the island, probably, through Suluanons who traded with the natives. Moslem peoples, possibly - Orang Dampuans (economic refugees from Sulu) crossed Mindoro Strait from Paragua (now Palawan) and settled along the coastal areas, developing progressive maritime communities.
In 1572, Captain Juan de Salcedo of the Spanish expeditionary army set sail from Cebu and explored the west coast of the island, encountering the Mangyans, who appeared used to seeing foreigners and were not at all a bit surprised at their arrival. On the contrary, it was Salcedo and Martin de Goiti who were surprised to see cross designs on the clothing and basketwork of the natives, and thought some early Christian missionary had been there before them. But later scholars believed the design was Indic in origin and had no religious meaning.
The Spaniards also encountered Moro settlers in Lubang Island that were vassals of and paid tribute to the kingdom of Maynila in the North, under Rajah Sulayman. This was the first real political system in the island. The Moros, who apparently had heard of the invaders from their kinsmen in the south, engaged the small Spanish force who landed on their shore, but the Spaniards' arquebuses and cannon fire from the ships hoved-to broadside to the island took the field. The Moros fled to the hills, and Salcedo burned their village.
After the defeat of Sulaiman in the same year, Mindoro and other vassal states of Maynila became subject of Castillan rule. The island was officially referred to from then on as Mina de Oro (Mine of Gold), compressed later on into Mindoro. The free land name, Ma-i, fell into disuse. The Spanish-Moro war would rage on in Mindoro until toward the end of the Spanish regime in the 19th century.
In 1602, Moro forces plundered the most important Spanish towns along the coasts of Mindoro and Southern Luzon, and subsequently reestablished their hold in Mindoro by constructing a fort at Mamburao. From 1720 onwards, Moro raids became devastating not only to the island's Hispanized communities but to other parts of the archipelago as well.
In 1757, the Moros, more particularly, the Iranuns (a relative of the Maranaws of the Lake Lanao regions) organized a war fleet of 74 fast native ships called prahus. They destroyed several settlements in the island, carrying off their inhabitants to be sold as slaves in Jolo.
The fact that a Moro fort at Mamburao threatened Manila, the capital of the colonial government, embarrassed the conquerors in the eyes of their native subjects, which was politically intolerable to the Spanish administrators. So in 1766, the Spaniards gathered a large force of 1,200 marines, augmented by a large army of native mercenaries, and burned the Iranun fort. But the Moros simply faded into the hills to escape, and came back when the counter-raid was over and the raiders returned to Manila.
The Moros not only plundered goods, but also took prisoners of war which they sold as slaves. Many Islamic leaders in Mindanao, in spite of the peace settlement with the Spaniards contained in treaties and formal agreements, supported piratical raids with arms, ammunition and food, not only because it was a patriotic act (defending Moroland), but this patriotism was also giving them handsome profits. They received part of the "prisoners of war" when a successful raider returned, which earned them huge amounts.
Most of the raids were successful because of the fast watercraft in the employ of the raiders. It was not until the commission of the vapor, fast steamships, in the mid-18th century that the Spanish navy successfully patrolled the archipelagic waters, and fared well against the wind-powered native seacraft of the pirates. Many pirate fleets were sunk at sea, or confined to their hiding places.
The invention of machines during the industrial revolution, which gradually replaced manual labor, and the consecutive abolitions of slave ownership in many liberalized countries, caused a great decline in the demand for slave labor. Many of the pirate markets closed, and prices fell severely for captives.
With losses to the Spanish navy increasing, and the eventual fall in profits from slave selling, raiding became less appealing to the Iranuns and their Islamic supporters. Uneconomical patriotism simply did not make quite an appeal. Thus, it came to pass that the Moro pirates faded from Mindoro's history. The pirate fort in Mamburao was abandoned, and the Moros retreated to Mindanao to consolidate their forces and continue the Moslem resistance at the homefront. Mindoro Island then became a Spanish possession in a truer sense for the first time. But not for long.
In 1896, the Philippine Revolution begun, which spread throughout the islands. In 1897, the Spaniards posted a rifle company of 140 troops and 51 marines to Calapan to secure the island from the forces of General Emilio Aguinaldo and his revolutionary army, then beginning to overrun Spanish positions in the archipelago. Only Mindoro was relatively safe. In 1898, the revolutionaries attacked and overwhelmed the settlement that is now Bongabong. The revolution also ignited in the western part (Occidental Mindoro), which seized control of the settlements there from the Spaniards. Finally, they marched against the capital of Calapan with some 1,000 ill-armed foot soldiers.
The attack came to nothing. The Spanish defenses held. It was only the arrival of 1,000 regular army troops with artillery, all under the command of General Malvar in Batangas, that compelled the surrender of the Spaniards under Governor Morales. Hence on July 1, 1898, the Spanish rule in Mindoro Island, lasting for 328 years, ended.
A new battalion "Mindoro", with two rifle companies, was formed under the command of Captain Ruperto Hernandez and Estanislao Cayton, both from Batangas. The revolutionary political reins were held by the elite, who also held the same reins under the Spaniards (and later under the Americans). The revolution, therefore, was for liberation against colonial rule but not a war for social change, which was to be defeated late in the US-Filipino war that followed.
In 1910, the successor United States politico-military administration granted over of land to the Welch and Fargo Sugar Company in what is now San Jose, which built the first modern and biggest sugar mill in the Far East at Siete Central (now barangay Central). In the same year, the boldly developing community of sugar cane planters, mill workers, company professionals and businessmen enabled the creation of San Jose as an official Philippine town.
In 1950, the province of Mindoro was divided into Oriental Mindoro and Occidental Mindoro by virtue of Republic Act No. 505.
Geography
Occidental Mindoro covers a total area of occupying the western section of the Mindoro island, and includes outlying islands in the northwest.
General land surface features that characterize Occidental Mindoro are mountains, rivers, hills, valleys, wide plains and some small fresh water lakes. The taller mountains can be found in the interior that it shares with Oriental Mindoro.
Mountain ranges converge on the two central peaks, Mount Halcon in the north, and Mount Baco in the south. There is also a mountain known as bundok ng susong dalaga, the "Maiden's breast mountain", that looks like a reclined woman.
The northern part of the province has relatively fewer plains, while the southern parts have wider flatlands. Most of the plains are cultivated fields, with few remaining untouched forests. Significant hilly areas can be found rolling off in Santa Cruz in the north, and in San Jose and Magsaysay in the south. These are grassed-over rather than forested.
There are several major drainage or river systems flowing on a generally westerly course: Mamburao River, Pagbahan, Mompong, Biga, Lumintao, Busuanga and Caguray. Swamp areas are restricted to the south, specially, along the river mouths.
The province is also home to one of the more popular coral reefs in the Philippines, Apo Reef.
Climate
Occidental Mindoro has two distinct weather types: rainy season and dry season. Rains begin to fall in the province in late May, intensifying through June, July, August, September and October, then gradually subsides in November. The months of August and September are the wettest period, with storms directly passing through the area.
On the other hand, dry season starts in November, with rainfall subsiding in intensity, and altogether ceasing in January, February, March and April. March and April are the driest period, with cloudless skies and parched earth characterizing the general area.
Temperature range is from in the windy uplands to in the lowlands.
Administrative divisions
Occidental Mindoro comprises 11 municipalities and 2 legislative districts.
Demographics
The population of Occidental Mindoro in the was people, with a density of .
Major languages spoken are Tagalog and the Mangyan languages. Ilokano, Visayan, and Bikolano, are spoken by people who migrated from the provinces where they are spoken. Occidental Mindoro is a cultural melting pot, populated mostly by recent immigrants.
The indigenous people in the province are the Mangyans (Manguianes in Spanish, Mañguianes in Old Tagalog), consisting of 7 distinct tribes. They occupy the foothills and interior. The Mangyan have inhabited the island since pre-history. They are believed to have originally traveled from Indonesia and settled down for good in the island.
There is much evidence, historical and geophysical, that the Mangyan tribes formerly lived near the coastlines. They were compelled, however, to move into the interior jungles of the island when the inter-island immigrants came, in order to avoid confrontations, which the peace-loving tribes wished to avoid at all costs. They also wished to avoid cultural changes and to preserve their way of life.
Today, the Mangyan number to only around 80,000 (freely moving in and out in both provinces of Oriental and Occidental Mindoro). But there is no accurate accounting of them since many still live elusively in the upper regions of the island, avoiding contact with lowlanders.
Religion
Like the Eastern half of the island, most of the population of Occidental Mindoro are of Roman Catholic conviction (82%) while minor religions are usually represented by various Christian denominations, Islam, indigenous Philippine folk religions, animism, and atheism.
Economy
Occidental Mindoro is an agricultural area devoted to the production of food. Its economic base is rice production (Oryza sativa culture), a Philippine staple crop. It is the leading activity and source of seasonal employment in the province, participated in by almost 80 per cent of the population, including children.
Wetland or lowland rice is a rainy season crop, heavily dependent on water and therefore produced from July (planting season) to October (harvest season). Tobacco, onions, garlic and vegetables are grown during the dry season (November to May) since they are not water-intensive crops, and require longer photoperiodicity.
Rice, corn, onions, garlic, salt, fishes (both wild and cultured) are some of the relatively significant surpluses produced in the province in exportable quantities. Mangoes, cashew nuts, cooking bananas (saba) and some other fruits grown in upland orchards are among the other exports of Occidental Mindoro that have traditionally contributed to its income. Peanuts are also grown in some parts of the province, as well as cassava, sweet potatoes, ginger and other minor cultivars.
Forest resources include timber and minerals, among them gold, copper, silver, chrome, and non-metallic minerals such as lime for making cement, and greenstones for ornaments. Timber groups include many species of hardwoods, such as mahogany, and other types of trees in high demand for durability.
There is no large industry in the province. The government is the biggest employer, absorbing most of the off-farm labor force. The local electric cooperative, Occidental Mindoro Electric Cooperative (OMECO), is the biggest employer in the private sector, with nearly 150 regular employees. The rest of the population is engaged in private trades.
Problems
There are many multi-faceted problems in Occidental Mindoro's economy. In rice farming, the biggest issue confronting the producers is the high cost of production. This is attributed mainly to the spiraling prices of farm inputs. A study concluded that from 1997 to 2003, the cost of production rose by 47 percent, while the income derived from marketing rice maintained 1997 levels. There are also confused reports that the average production rate has declined due to the reduced application of necessary farm chemicals. In street language, this means that the farmers simply cut the amount of inputs because they cannot afford the high capital requirements of following all the recommended inputs in the farming calendar.
Another structural problem is the inadequacy of irrigation. Most of the river systems in the province no longer have the demanded volume of water to make irrigation feasible. This is attributed to the greatly deforested watersheds.
Flora and fauna
References
External links
Local Governance Performance Management System
Provinces of the Philippines
Mindoro
Mimaropa
States and territories established in 1950
1950 establishments in the Philippines | [
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261953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgate%20Las%20Vegas | Westgate Las Vegas | The Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino is a hotel, casino, and timeshare resort in Winchester, Nevada. Located near the northern end of the Las Vegas Strip, it is owned by Westgate Resorts. It opened in 1969 as the International Hotel, and was known for many years as the Las Vegas Hilton, then briefly as the LVH – Las Vegas Hotel and Casino, until taking its current name in 2014. From 1981 to 1990, it was the largest hotel in the world.
Facilities
The Westgate is located on a site on the east side of Paradise Road, approximately east of Las Vegas Boulevard. It is adjacent to the Las Vegas Convention Center to the south and Las Vegas Country Club to the east.
The hotel has 2,956 rooms. The hotel tower is tall, with 30 floors. The top floor consists of three "Sky Villas" geared towards "high roller" customers, each with a private swimming pool and at least of space.
The casino has of gaming space as of 2017, with 576 slot machines, 38 table games, 10 poker tables, and a race and sports book. The casino's sportsbook, the SuperBook, is billed as the largest in the world.
The Westgate has various eateries, including fine dining restaurants, a buffet, and a food court. Benihana Village, opened in 1974, is a Japanese-themed area with streams and gardens, with several restaurants centered around its namesake teppanyaki grill.
The Westgate's convention center has of event space, including the Paradise Event Center (formerly the Hilton Center) and the Pavilion (formerly the Hilton Pavilion).
Recreation amenities at the Westgate include a pool deck, a fitness center, a spa, and six tennis courts. The hotel also has several retail shops, a wedding chapel, and a business center.
The Westgate station of the Las Vegas Monorail is located at the front of the property.
History
International Hotel (1969–1971)
The hotel site was previously part of the grounds of Las Vegas Park, a defunct racetrack. In 1965, the track site was purchased by National Equities, a real estate development firm chaired by Marvin Kratter. Kratter announced development plans for the site to include a 40-floor, 1,500-room hotel, as well as a golf course and private homes.
Meanwhile, Kirk Kerkorian, the chairman of Trans International Airlines and landlord of Caesars Palace, began formulating plans to build a 1,000-room casino hotel in Las Vegas. After considering several potential locations, he selected the racetrack site, reasoning that it was natural to put a hotel next to the Convention Center. Kratter had decided not to build a hotel himself, and in 1967, National Equities sold a portion of the site to Kerkorian for $5 million. Kerkorian announced that he would build a 30-story hotel with 1,510 rooms, at a cost of $50 million. Some believed it was very risky to build such a property away from the Strip, but Kerkorian believed that it would spark the development of a "second Strip" along Paradise Road.
Kerkorian's hotel would be named the International Hotel, matching the name of Kratter's International Country Club (now the Las Vegas Country Club). He hired airline executive Fred Benninger to oversee the development, and Martin Stern, Jr., who had designed several noted Las Vegas high-rises, as the hotel's architect. The general contractor selected to build the hotel was Taylor Construction Co. Construction began with an elaborate groundbreaking ceremony in February 1968.
With planning for the hotel underway, Kerkorian purchased the Flamingo casino, to serve as a training ground for the International's staff. Later, during the International's construction, Kerkorian formed the publicly traded company International Leisure to own the two casinos.
Howard Hughes, the eccentric billionaire who had purchased several Las Vegas casinos, saw Kerkorian as a rival and the International as unwelcome competition. He attempted to deter Kerkorian from building the project, first by making a sham announcement of a major planned expansion of his Sands Hotel, and then by conveying false claims to Kerkorian about damage to buildings from nearby nuclear tests. When these ruses failed, Hughes schemed to buy the project from Kerkorian and halt its construction, but this plan came to nothing. Ultimately, Hughes decided to compete head-on with the International by purchasing the unfinished Landmark Hotel and Casino, located across the street. Hughes completed construction of the Landmark and opened it one day before Kerkorian's hotel.
The International Hotel opened on July 2, 1969. At the time, it was Nevada's tallest building and largest hotel. Entertainment director Bill Miller signed Barbra Streisand to open in the showroom, along with Peggy Lee performing in the hotel's lounge.
In keeping with the hotel's name, rooms were furnished with different international decors, with each floor featuring either a Spanish, Italian, or French theme. There was also a complex of international restaurants, offering Bavarian, Italian, Japanese and Mexican cuisines. Employees were outfitted in costumes from different cultures, such as Scottish kilts, Slavic shirts, and French gendarme uniforms.
On July 31, 1969, immediately following Streisand's engagement, Elvis Presley performed the first show of what would become a seven-year run at the hotel, encompassing 636 consecutive sold-out shows. Presley's appearances became a major part of the hotel's identity, and an iconic chapter in the history of Las Vegas entertainment.
Late in 1969, Kerkorian made plans to raise $29 million through a secondary offering of International Leisure stock. He needed the money to help pay off loans that he had taken out to purchase major stakes in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Western Airlines. The offering was rejected, however, by the Securities and Exchange Commission, because the company was unable to provide five years of financial history for the Flamingo. Short on cash, Kerkorian was forced to put International Leisure up for sale.
Las Vegas Hilton (1971–2012)
In 1970 and 1971, Kerkorian sold his shares of International Leisure to Hilton Hotels. The International was renamed in July 1971 as the Las Vegas Hilton. Hilton took complete ownership in 1972, acquiring all outstanding shares of International Leisure.
The hotel had performed unevenly in its early years as the International, but as the Hilton, it soon came to be regarded as the most successful hotel in Las Vegas.
An east tower extension with 620 rooms was completed in 1975 at a cost of $20 million. In 1977, the hotel opened the Hilton Pavilion, a $7.5-million venue for sports and entertainment events, with a seating capacity of up to 5,000 people. A $23-million expansion added another 644 rooms to the north tower. The general contractor selected to build the expansion was Del E. Webb Corporation. Ground was broken in 1977 and it was completed in 1979.
1981 fire
On the night of February 10, 1981, a major fire occurred at the Hilton. Philip Bruce Cline, a hotel busboy who was under the influence of drugs, set fire to a curtain in an elevator lobby on the eighth floor of the east tower. The fire spread to the exterior of the tower and then traveled up to the top of the building within 25 minutes. Eight people were killed, and approximately 350 were injured, including 48 firefighters. Among the victims treated for smoke inhalation was singer Natalie Cole.
The casino and hotel reopened nine days after the fire with 1,000 available rooms. The rest of the rooms were repaired over the following three months, at an estimated cost of $10 million.
Cline was convicted in 1982 of arson and murder, and sentenced to life in prison without parole. Hilton and other companies involved in the hotel paid a $23 million settlement to victims. The tragedy, in combination with the MGM Grand fire that had occurred months earlier, inspired major changes to Nevada's fire safety regulations.
1981–2012
Around the end of 1981, another extension to the north tower was completed, adding 391 rooms at a cost of $21 million. This made the Las Vegas Hilton the largest hotel in the world, with a total of 3,174 rooms. (The Rossiya Hotel in Moscow had more rooms, but was not deemed to be a larger hotel by the Guinness Book of World Records because many of its rooms were used as dormitories.) It held this title until 1990, when it was surpassed by the Flamingo.
In 1984, the hotel completed construction of the $10-million Hilton Center, a convention and event space at the southwest corner of the property, west of the Hilton Pavilion.
In 1986, amid growing popularity of sports betting in Nevada, the Hilton opened its race and sports book, the Superbook, at a cost of $17 million.
In 1991, the Hilton was at the center of the Tailhook scandal, in which numerous United States Navy officers were accused of acts of sexual assault during a convention at the hotel. One of the victims, Paula Coughlin, sued the Hilton for providing inadequate security for the convention, and eventually was paid a $5.2 million judgment. The lawsuit led Hilton to successfully lobby for the so-called "Tailhook bill", a state law shielding hotels from liability for injuries to patrons caused by third parties.
The hotel completed a new , $4-million marquee sign in 1994. Later that year, however, it was partially destroyed by a windstorm. The sign was reconstructed in 1997 for $9 million with a reduced height of , making it the world's tallest free-standing advertising sign.
In 1994, the hotel entered an arrangement with the Sahara Country Club, which was renamed as the Las Vegas Hilton Country Club. This lasted until 1997, when the course became the Las Vegas National Golf Club. Hilton attempted to buy the neighboring Las Vegas Country Club the following year, but its $60-million offer was rejected.
In 1995, the Hilton completed a $40-million renovation of its penthouse floor to construct the Sky Villas. The hotel also spent $12 million on a new room for baccarat, a favorite game of Asian high rollers. The Hilton at the time was one of only four Las Vegas casinos able to compete for the business of the "whales", the top tier of high rollers.
In 1998, Hilton spun off its casino properties, including the Las Vegas Hilton, as Park Place Entertainment.
Hilton's timeshare arm, Hilton Grand Vacations, began construction of a complex at the northeast corner of the property in 1998. It opened in 1999 with 230 suites.
Around 1999, Park Place began seeking a buyer for the Las Vegas Hilton, because the company hoped to concentrate on its properties on the Las Vegas Strip, especially the newly acquired Caesars Palace. In 2000, Park Place agreed to sell the Hilton to Edward Roski Jr. for $365 million. Roski planned to transform the Hilton to shift its focus away from high rollers and toward convention attendees. The deal fell through, however, and the property was locked up in litigation between Park Place and Roski until 2003, when they settled their claims against each other.
The Las Vegas Monorail opened in 2004, with one of its stations located at the Hilton. The system had been under construction since 2001. Hilton had led the group of hotels that had promulgated the proposal for the monorail as early as 1996.
In June 2004, Caesars Entertainment (formerly Park Place) sold the Las Vegas Hilton to Colony Capital for $280 million. Colony partnered in the purchase with Goldman Sachs, which also lent $200 million of the purchase price. In 2005, the Hilton was placed under the banner of Colony's newly formed casino affiliate, Resorts International Holdings, which was headquartered at the property.
The Hilton prospered in its first few years under Colony's management, but began losing money in the face of the Great Recession and an oversupply of hotel rooms in Las Vegas. In June 2011, the Hilton began defaulting on payments to Goldman Sachs on the loan. The same month, Hilton Worldwide opted to terminate its franchise agreement with the property, effective at the end of the year, because the facilities had fallen below the standards of the Hilton brand.
Goldman Sachs issued a foreclosure notice in September 2011. At Goldman's request, a court appointed a receiver to take control of the property.
LVH (2012–2014)
On January 3, 2012, the Las Vegas Hilton became the LVH – Las Vegas Hotel and Casino, as the contract to use the Hilton brand ended.
Colony Capital initially tried to fight against foreclosure of the property, but ultimately concluded that its equity in the LVH was worthless, and agreed to let the foreclosure proceed. Goldman Sachs formed a joint venture with Gramercy Capital to acquire the property. They bought the property at its foreclosure auction in October 2012, where they were the only bidder. The Navegante Group was retained to manage the LVH on their behalf.
In 2013, the LVH affiliated with the Leo Hotel Collection, a network of independent hotels newly created by Red Lion Hotels.
Westgate Las Vegas (2014–present)
On June 30, 2014, timeshare developer Westgate Resorts bought the LVH from Goldman and Gramercy for a price between $150 and $170 million. Westgate CEO David Siegel was hoisted to the top of the hotel's sign the following day to begin removing the letters "LVH" to make way for the property's new name, Westgate Las Vegas. Siegel stated that the company would spend at least $160 million on renovations, and that it would begin converting hotel rooms into timeshare units. According to Siegel, the timeshare conversion would take 15 to 20 years, and, even after its completion, at least 30 percent of the units would remain available as hotel rooms at any given time.
Westgate retained Paragon Gaming to replace Navegante as the property's manager in 2015. In 2020, GVII LLC, a company formed by former gaming regulator Mark Lipparelli, replaced Paragon as the casino manager.
Architecture
Martin Stern designed the hotel in the International Style of architecture. Architect Stefan Al described the building's aesthetics as a milestone in the corporatization of Las Vegas: "Characterized by its rectilinear forms and bare surfaces, stripped of ornamentation, this elite form of architecture stood miles away from the Mafia-tainted neon of existing casinos." Architecture critic Alan Hess also noted the simplicity of the International (and the nearby Landmark Hotel) in comparison to older casinos: "As singular, self-contained forms, they showed none of the complexity of the different pieces and sequential additions that made the original Strip visually and urbanistically richer."
The Y-shaped plan for the hotel tower was inspired by the UNESCO Headquarters building; it was chosen to maximize the number of rooms that could be fit into a square plot while allowing each room to have a satisfactory view. This design was imitated by later Las Vegas hotels such as the Mirage, Mandalay Bay, and Venetian.
The International has been cited as the first Las Vegas "megaresort" (though that distinction is often instead credited to the Mirage, opened in 1989). It was the first to house all of the hotel's functions in a single large structure, whereas earlier casinos had housed them in separate buildings. The design of the property, along with the next Kerkorian/Stern project, the original MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, had a major influence on the development of the modern casino resort. As gaming historian David G. Schwartz describes it:
Entertainment
International Theater
The property's main entertainment venue is the 1,607-seat International Theater. Since 2018, the theater hosts Barry Manilow's residency show, The Hits Come Home.
From the opening of the hotel in 1969, the main showroom was a "star policy" venue, meaning that popular musical artists and comedians were booked to perform for two to four weeks at a time. The typical schedule comprised two shows per night: a dinner show at 8pm and a cocktail show at midnight.
One of the most famous engagements at the hotel was that of singer and pianist Liberace. A longtime mainstay of Las Vegas showrooms, Liberace debuted at the Hilton in 1972, and began appearing regularly in 1973. He performed in the showroom for as many as 17 weeks out of the year, earning as much as $175,000 per week. Liberace's shows were known for his flamboyant costumes and for his being driven onstage in a Rolls Royce limousine. He appeared at the Hilton as late as 1982. Hilton chairman Barron Hilton remembered Liberace as "one of the most popular entertainers ever to grace the stage of the Las Vegas Hilton showroom."
In 1982, the production show Bal du Moulin Rouge opened in the theater, featuring a cast of acrobats, dancers, and variety acts. The show centered around a 45-minute slot for a headline performer, which was filled at times by Suzanne Somers, Charo, and others. Shifting to a production show was intended to reduce the Hilton's entertainment costs by avoiding the need to book bigger stars, whose salaries had been spiraling ever higher. The show closed in 1986, and the theater returned to star policy.
Singer Wayne Newton, another longtime Las Vegas star, headlined the Hilton showroom from 1987 to 1993. By the end of his run, he was performing there twenty weeks out of the year, and was described as the highest-paid entertainer on the Las Vegas Strip. Newton's shows were known for beginning with him descending onto the stage in a spaceship amid a laser show. He made over 950 performances in total.
In 1993, the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Starlight Express opened in the main theater. The Hilton Showroom was renamed as the Hilton Theatre, and underwent a $12-million renovation to add bridges and embankments to accommodate the show, which features performers on roller skates. The opening of the show was cited as part of a trend in Las Vegas toward family-friendly attractions and away from individual headliner acts. The show was signed to a five-year contract, but closed early in 1997 amid lagging ticket sales. The hotel then adopted a "limited star policy" for the theater, booking headline acts for runs of less than a week at a time.
In the early 2000s, the theater kept a rotating stable of headliners who each performed for ten weeks out of the year, including at times The Commodores, The Righteous Brothers, Sheena Easton, The Fab Four, Engelbert Humperdinck, and The Smothers Brothers.
Manilow began an extended run at the Hilton in 2005. His engagement was an early example of the trend of major recording artists establishing residency shows in Las Vegas, which was begun by Celine Dion at Caesars Palace in 2003. His show began as Manilow: Music and Passion, and was then revamped in 2008 as Ultimate Manilow: The Hits. The show ended in 2009.
During the summer of 2006, Reba McEntire performed her residency show, Reba: Key to the Heart, which ran for five non-consecutive weeks.
The $250,000 Game Show Spectacular ran from October 2007 to April 2008. The show rotated through three hosts: creator Bob Eubanks, Chuck Woolery, and Jamie Farr. A temporary "American TV Game Show Hall of Fame" opened and closed on site in conjunction with the show, inducting Peter Marshall, Hugh Downs, Wink Martindale, and Monty Hall. The concept was originated by entertainment publicist Jerry Digney. The logo was designed by Dan Acree.
Recent long-running shows in the theater include the classic rock tribute show Raiding the Rock Vault, from 2013 to 2014, and the Prince tribute show Purple Reign, from 2016 to 2017.
Westgate Cabaret
Smaller shows are hosted in the 400-seat Westgate Cabaret. This venue hosts comedian George Wallace and magician Jen Kramer (since 2018), Motown tribute act Soul of Motown (since 2019), and rock band The Bronx Wanderers (since 2021).
Starting in the 1990s, the venue was known as The NightClub. Combining elements of a dance club and a traditional Las Vegas lounge, it helped pave the way for dance clubs to open in many Las Vegas casinos.
The NightClub was renamed as the Shimmer Cabaret in 2004 when the Hilton came under the ownership of Colony Capital. Long-running acts at the Shimmer Cabaret included comedian David Brenner (2004–05),
musical comedies Menopause the Musical (2006–09)
and Nunsense (2010–13),
show band The Scintas (2007–09),
singer Lani Misalucha (2009–10),
topless revue Sin City Bad Girls (2009–10),
impressionists Greg London (2011–12)
and Rich Little (2012–13),
a Rat Pack tribute show led by Sandy Hackett (2011–13),
Purple Reign (2014–16),
and the "Icons of Comedy" series (2011–12), featuring comedians such as Gilbert Gottfried and Hal Sparks.
In 2015, after the hotel was purchased by Westgate, the room was given its current name. Previous productions and headliners at the Westgate Cabaret include the adult revue Sexxy (2015–21), and funk band Cameo and comedian Vinnie Favorito, (both 2016–17).
Star Trek: The Experience
In January 1998, Star Trek: The Experience opened, featuring a motion simulator ride, a museum, and Quark's Bar. A portion of the casino floor was transformed into the SpaceQuest Casino, a space-themed casino complete with high-tech table games, which served as the gateway to the Experience.
In March 2004, a new Borg Invasion 4D ride was added.
The attraction closed in September 2008, after the operator, Cedar Fair, could not agree on terms for a renewed lease with the Hilton.
Elvis performances and legacy
Elvis Presley was signed for a four-week engagement in 1969 as the second performer to appear in the International's showroom, following Barbra Streisand. It would be his first public stage appearance in eight years. Presley's first show proved so popular that the hotel immediately signed him to a five-year contract for two month-long engagements per year. He would go on to perform a total of 636 shows at the hotel from 1969 to 1976, with every show sold out. Presley's run of performances at the Hilton was cut short by his death in August 1977.
During his engagements at the hotel, Presley famously resided in the Imperial Suite on the 30th floor. Years after his death, the suite was renamed as the Elvis Presley Suite. It was demolished in 1994 to make way for the Sky Villas.
Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, lived at the Hilton for several years after Presley's death, and was a fixture at the hotel as an entertainment consultant for much of the remainder of his life.
The hotel has recognized and capitalized on Presley's legacy in assorted ways through the years. A year after his death, a bronze statute of Presley was unveiled at the hotel; it has since occupied various spots around the property. Various festivals and conventions for Elvis fans and impersonators have been held at the hotel.
Elvis: An American Musical, a multimedia production incorporating archival footage with live songs and re-enactments, premiered at the Hilton showroom in 1988, where it ran for two months before going on a national tour. Elvis impersonator Trent Carlini performed at the Hilton in various runs, both on the main stage and in the cabaret, from 2000 to 2004 and again from 2010 to 2015.
"Elvis: The Exhibition" opened at the Westgate in April 2015 in the former Star Trek attraction space. The exhibit, developed in association with Elvis Presley Enterprises, featured of artifacts and memorabilia from the singer's life. In conjunction with the opening of the exhibit, the hotel's theater was renamed as the Elvis Presley International Showroom, and was set to feature rotating shows inspired by Presley, starting with The Elvis Experience. The show fared poorly in its two-month run, however, and the plans for further shows did not materialize. The exhibition closed suddenly in February 2016, leading to a protracted legal dispute.
In 2016, the Westgate successfully petitioned to rename the street leading from the hotel to Las Vegas Boulevard as Elvis Presley Boulevard.
Popular culture
Television
Ann-Margret – When You're Smiling, a 1973 NBC television special starring actress and singer Ann-Margret, was recorded mainly in the Hilton showroom.
Perry Como, Las Vegas Style, a 1976 NBC special starring singer Perry Como, was recorded at the Hilton.
The game show Let's Make a Deal filmed its 1976–77 season in the Hilton showroom.
The Mrs. America Pageant was televised from the hotel annually from 1977 to 1983, in 1986, 1987, 1996, and 1997, from 2015 to 2019, and in 2021.
Liberace recorded parts of two CBS specials, 1978's Leapin' Lizards, It's Liberace and 1979's Liberace – A Valentine's Special, and the 1980 Showtime special, Liberace in Las Vegas, at the Hilton.
The CBS New Year's Eve special, Happy New Year, America, was anchored at the Hilton's Grand Ballroom in 1979 and 1980, and included segments at the Hilton in 1981 and 1982.
In 1980, singer Lou Rawls starred in two specials recorded at the Hilton, An Evening with Lou Rawls on HBO and The Lou Rawls Parade of Stars on CBS.
On May 2, 1982, the National Cable Television Association held its annual convention in the ballroom of the Hilton for the inaugural telecast of The Weather Channel.
Wayne Newton Live in Concert, a 1989 pay-per-view special, was aired live from the Hilton showroom.
Two episodes of Roseanne were taped here in 1991.
Prime Time Country, a nightly talk show on The Nashville Network, came to the Hilton theater four times between 1997 and 1999, recording a week's worth of episodes on each occasion.
The Oak Ridge Boys Live, a variety show starring country music group The Oak Ridge Boys that ran for one season on the Nashville Network, was taped over the span of two weeks in the Hilton Theatre in 1998.
Penn & Teller's Sin City Spectacular, an FX variety show that ran for one season starting in 1998, recorded some of its episodes at the Hilton theater.
Two live pay-per-view concert specials were televised from the Hilton theater under the name For the Record in 1998 and 1999, starring, respectively, Alabama and Merle Haggard.
The syndicated game show Wheel of Fortune came to the Hilton four times, taping two or three weeks of episodes on each occasion. The show was aired from the Hilton Center in 1998, and from the theater in 1999, 2002, and 2005.
The Mrs. World pageant was recorded at the Hilton in 2000, 2001, and 2003, to be aired on Pax TV.
In 2001, the game show Jeopardy! taped two weeks of episodes in the Hilton theater, comprising one week of Celebrity Jeopardy! and one week of International Jeopardy!
The Entertainer, a 2005 reality competition series on the E! network starring Wayne Newton, was set primarily at the Hilton, with contestants living in the Sky Villas.
The 2006 PBS special Barry Manilow: Music and Passion was filmed during one of the singer's shows at the Hilton.
World Series of Blackjack, a Game Show Network series, recorded its 2006 and 2007 seasons at the Hilton.
Louis Theroux: Gambling in Las Vegas, a 2007 BBC documentary, was filmed mainly at the Hilton, where it follows several of the casino's regulars and employees.
The 37th and 38th Daytime Emmy Awards ceremonies were held in the Hilton's theater in 2010 and 2011.
Film
The 1970 documentary Elvis: That's the Way It Is primarily covers several of Presley's concerts at the hotel.
In the 1971 James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever, the hotel's exterior is depicted as the Whyte House casino.
Over the Top, a 1987 Sylvester Stallone drama, depicts an arm wrestling tournament at the Hilton, incorporating footage from an actual tournament that was held there.
The Hilton appears in the 1993 film Indecent Proposal as the hotel where Robert Redford stays and makes the titular proposition to Demi Moore.
Sporting events
Boxing
The hotel has a history as a prominent professional boxing venue. In 1969, the showroom hosted the first major boxing match held at a Las Vegas hotel, Sonny Liston vs. Leotis Martin (previous fights had been held at the Convention Center). The Hilton Pavilion was the site in 1978 of Leon Spinks's victory over Muhammad Ali for the world heavyweight championship, which is remembered as one of the biggest upsets in the sport's history. The hotel then took a seven-year hiatus from hosting boxing matches.
In 1985, Donald Curry defeated Milton McCrory at the Hilton Center to unify and become the undisputed welterweight champion. The success of the Curry–McCrory fight led the Hilton to begin pursuing more major matches, to challenge Caesars Palace as the premier boxing venue in Las Vegas. The hotel struck a deal to host several fights in the heavyweight unification series, a tournament to establish an undisputed heavyweight champion. A 14,600-seat outdoor arena was temporarily erected in the Hilton's parking lot for some of the fights. The series culminated in Mike Tyson's defeat of Tony Tucker at the Hilton Center in 1987 to unify and become the undisputed champion.
By 1995, the Hilton had reportedly backed away from seeking to host the biggest fights, because of escalating costs. The hotel hosted no boxing matches between 2002 and 2008; since then, it has occasionally hosted minor fights.
Other sports
The Hilton Pavilion hosted two nationally televised tennis events in 1978: the WCT Tournament of Champions and the World Team Tennis All-Star Match.
The hotel was the venue for Evo 2014, a major competitive video gaming tournament.
Gallery
References
External links
1969 establishments in Nevada
Casinos in the Las Vegas Valley
Convention centers in the Las Vegas Valley
Hotel buildings completed in 1969
Hotels established in 1969
Del E. Webb buildings
Siegel family
Skyscraper hotels in Winchester, Nevada | [
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261954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Dominion%20Athletic%20Conference | Old Dominion Athletic Conference | The Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC) is an NCAA Division III athletic conference. Of its 14 member schools, all but one are located in Virginia; the other full member is in North Carolina. The conference also has two associate members in North Carolina and Virginia
History
The conference was founded in May 1975 as the Virginia College Conference. On January 1, 1976, the name was changed to the Old Dominion Athletic Conference. The 1976–77 season was the first in which championships were offered. In 1982–83, women's sports were added. In 1981, Catholic University joined the conference after leaving Division I's Colonial Athletic Association. In 1988, Virginia Wesleyan was added as a member, and, in 1990, Guilford became the first member located outside D.C. and Virginia. Maryville College was an all-sports member in the 1980s. In 1989 Catholic left the conference to become a charter member of the Capital Athletic Conference, returning in 1999 as a football-only member. The next school to leave the conference was Mary Baldwin College, which left in 1999 to join the Atlantic Women's Colleges Conference.
In 2010 the ODAC announced the addition of Shenandoah University as a full-time member, with its first full year of involvement during the 2012–13 academic year.
The league office moved its physical location from Salem, to Forest in Bedford County located just outside centrally located Lynchburg, Virginia. They also contracted Jim Ward Design for its new marks.
On March 3, 2015, Sweet Briar College announced it was to close (cease operations) at the end of the 2015 summer session. However, on June 20, 2015, the Virginia Attorney General announced a mediation agreement that will keep Sweet Briar College open for the 2015–16 academic year. Sweet Briar reactivated its sports teams in the 2015–16 season and remained a full member of the ODAC.
On September 29, 2015, it was announced that Catholic University would withdraw in 2017 as associate member to join the new football league at the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference.
In June 2017, it was announced that Ferrum College would become the 15th full-time member of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference after it moved from the USA South Conference.
Southern Virginia University, which joined the ODAC as a football only member in 2019, announced in December of that year that it will be leaving both the ODAC and Coast to Coast Athletic Conference to join the football-sponsoring USA South Athletic Conference as a full member.
The conference has hosted Division III championships in football and men's basketball, both of which were held in Salem, Virginia. D-III softball has also used Salem as a championship host along with Division III women's lacrosse and volleyball on several occasions. Since 1993 - the conference and city have hosted over 80 Division III national championships.
It was announced on November 17, 2020, that Emory & Henry College will leave the ODAC and begin its transition to Division II in July 2021 and compete in the South Atlantic Conference in 2022.
The most recent change in conference membership was announced on March 8, 2021, that Averett University will leave the USA South and join its former USA South counterpart Ferrum College in the ODAC as a full member in 2022.
Chronological timeline
1975 - The ODAC was founded as the Virginia Athletic Conference. Charter members included Bridgewater College, Eastern Mennonite College (now Eastern Mennonite University), Emory & Henry College, Hampden–Sydney College, Lynchburg College (now the University of Lynchburg), Randolph–Macon College, Roanoke College and Washington and Lee University. However, it was renamed to become the Old Dominion Athletic Conference on 1 January 1976, effective the 1976-77 academic year, their first year of competition.
1980 - Maryville University joined the ODAC, effective the 1980-81 academic year.
1981 - Catholic University joined the ODAC, effective the 1981-82 academic year.
1982 - Women's sports were instated in the ODAC, also three women's sports institutions of Hollins College (now Hollins University), Randolph–Macon Woman's College (now Randolph College) and Sweet Briar College joined the ODAC, effective the 1982-83 academic year.
1984 - Mary Baldwin College joined the ODAC, effective the 1984-85 academic year.
1988 - Maryville left the ODAC, effective the 1987-88 academic year.
1989 - Catholic (D.C.) left the ODAC, effective the 1988-89 academic year.
1989 - Virginia Wesleyan College (now Virginia Wesleyan University) joined the ODAC, effective the 1989-90 academic year.
1991 - Guilford College joined the ODAC, effective the 1991-92 academic year.
1992 - Mary Baldwin left the ODAC, effective the 1991-92 academic year.
1999 - Catholic (D.C.) re-joined back to the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective the 1999 fall season (1999-2000 academic year).
2010 - Shenandoah University announced that it would join the ODAC, effective the 2012-13 academic year.
2011 - Greensboro College and Notre Dame Maryland University joined the ODAC as associate members for women's swimming, effective the 2011-12 academic year.
2015 - Ferrum College joined the ODAC as an associate member for men's and women's swimming, effective the 2015-16 academic year.
2016 - Notre Dame (Md.) joined the ODAC as an associate member for women's swimming by dropping the sport, effective the 2015-16 academic year.
2017 - Catholic (D.C.) left the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2016 fall season (2016-17 academic year).
2018 - Ferrum joined the ODAC for all sports, effective the 2018-19 academic year.
2019 - Southern Virginia University joined the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2019 fall season (2019-20 academic year).
2021 - Southern Virginia left the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective the 2020 fall season (2020-21 academic year).
2021 - Emory & Henry left the ODAC to join the NCAA Division II ranks, by becoming an NCAA Division II independent school (and would join the South Atlantic Conference in 2022-23), effective the 2020-21 academic year.
2022 - Averett University announced that it will join the ODAC, effective the 2022-23 academic year.
Member schools
Current members
Notes
Future members
Associate members
Former members
Notes
Former associate members
Notes
Membership timeline
This timeline is expressed with color bars.
Purple denotes football playing member.
Green denotes non-football playing member.
Red denotes associate member (football-only).
Blue denotes associate member (swimming only).
Sports
The conference sponsors championships in the following sports:
References
External links | [
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261955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugela%20Falls | Tugela Falls | Tugela Falls is a complex of seasonal waterfalls located in the Drakensberg (Dragon's Mountains) of Royal Natal National Park in KwaZulu-Natal Province, Republic of South Africa. It is now accepted as the world's tallest waterfall as a revisited validation was done and that it is actually the tallest waterfall in the world, rather than Venezuela's Angel Falls.
The combined total drop of its five distinct free-leaping falls is officially . In 2016, however, a Czech scientific expedition took new measurements, making the falls 983 m tall. The data were sent to the World Waterfall Database for confirmation. The source of the Tugela River (Zulu for 'sudden') is the Mont-Aux-Sources plateau which extends several kilometers beyond The Amphitheatre escarpment from which the falls drop.
Height controversy
There is an argument that Tugela Falls is the tallest waterfall in the world, rather than the more commonly cited Angel Falls. This argument is based on two likely inaccuracies regarding the presumed heights of the respective falls.
Firstly, many now believe that Angel Falls is not as tall as it was initially surveyed by American journalist Ruth Robertson in 1949. The quoted figure of corresponds almost precisely with the difference in altitude between the top of the falls and the confluence of the Rio Gauja and the Río Churún, which is roughly away from the base of the Auyan Tepui escarpment and downstream from the last segment of the Rio Gauja that could possibly be considered a ‘waterfall’.
The starting altitude of Angel Falls is often given as , from which the falls plunge a vertical , then proceed to cascade for approximately with relatively little altitude loss, before a final drop of below the Talus Rapids, near the famous viewpoint known as Mirador Laime. After this the Rio Gauja flows with very little altitude loss, with nothing approaching a waterfall or even cascade before it empties into the Río Churún. However, the altitude of Mirador Laime is usually given as approximately , which would suggest that Angel Falls is only about 800 meters in total height (roughly the height of the first drop).
Angel Falls, however, is almost universally regarded as having the tallest single uninterrupted drop of any waterfall in the world (the total height of Tugela Falls, even though possibly the tallest on Earth, is divided into five smaller tiers, and its tallest individual tier is ). Even this measurement invites some debate, however, as some botanical sources list the height of Angel Falls' tallest drop as , rather than the usually cited .
Access
At the right time of year, the falls are easily visible from the main road into the park, especially after a heavy rain. There is an undeveloped camp site and mountain hut immediately above the falls.
There are two trails to Tugela Falls. The most spectacular trail is to the top of Mont-Aux-Sources, which starts at "The Sentinel" car park (through Phuthaditjhaba on the R57, approximately two hours drive from Royal Natal National Park via the R74, 90 minutes from Harrismith via the R712, or 80 minutes from Golden Gate Highlands National Park). From here it is a relatively easy climb to the top of the Amphitheatre, however it does take about 4.5 to 8 hours round-trip depending on fitness level. Access to the summit is via two chain ladders. This is the only day hiking trail which leads to the top of the Drakensberg escarpment. Another trail to the foot of the Tugela Falls starts at Royal Natal National Park. The easy gradient up the Tugela Gorge winds through indigenous forests. The last part of the hike to Tugela Falls is a boulder hop. A little chain ladder leads over the final stretch for a view of the falls rushing down the amphitheater in a series of five cascades.
See also
List of waterfalls by height
Tugela River
Royal Natal National Park
Drakensberg
Geography of South Africa
References
External links
Tugela Falls at World Waterfall Database
Tourism information around Tugela Falls
Guided viewing of the Tugela Falls
Tugela River
Waterfalls of South Africa
Landforms of KwaZulu-Natal
Tourist attractions in KwaZulu-Natal
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261960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takakkaw%20Falls | Takakkaw Falls | Takakkaw Falls (; also spelled Takkakaw) is a waterfall located in Yoho National Park, near Field, British Columbia in Canada. The falls have a total height of , making them the second tallest waterfall in Canada. The main drop of the waterfall has a height of .
"Takakkaw" translates to "magnificent” in Cree. The falls are fed by the meltwater of the Daly Glacier, which is part of the Waputik Icefield. The glacier keeps the volume of the falls up during the warm summer months, and they are a tourist attraction, particularly in late spring after the heavy snow melts, when the falls are at peak condition.
Height
Various sources place the total vertical height of Takakkaw Falls between and .
The waterfall was formerly thought to be the tallest in Canada, but a new survey in 1985 found that it is actually shorter than Della Falls on Vancouver Island. The results of that survey also concluded that the main drop of the falls is high.
In popular culture
The Takakkaw Falls were featured in the 1995 film Last of the Dogmen.
Gallery
See also
List of waterfalls
List of waterfalls of Canada
Yoho National Park
Wapta Falls
Della Falls
References
External links
Yoho National Park - Parks Canada
Yoho National Park
Waterfalls of British Columbia
Plunge waterfalls
Kootenay Land District | [
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261961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applegate | Applegate | Applegate may refer to:
Places
Applegate, California, United States
Applegate, Michigan, United States
Applegate, Oregon, United States
The Applegate River in Oregon
Applegate Lake, on the Applegate River
Applegate Valley, along the Applegate River
Applegate Valley AVA, an American Viticultural Area
Applegate Trail, a pioneer trail through the Oregon Territory
Applegate language, a language in the Athabaskan group
Applegate tribe, a Native American people
Other uses
Applegate (surname)
See also
Apple (disambiguation)
Gate (disambiguation) | [
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261963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basaseachic%20Falls | Basaseachic Falls | Basaseachic Falls (Spanish: Cascada de Basaseachi) on the Basaseachic River is the second-highest waterfall in Mexico, located in the Parque Nacional Basaseachic (Basaseachic Falls National Park) at Cañón Basaseachic in the Copper Canyon region of northwest Mexico, near Creel, Chihuahua. It is 246 meters (807 ft) tall, second in Mexico only to the Cascada de Piedra Volada (Flying Stone Falls).
Basaseachic Falls is located in the high mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental, in the Municipality of Ocampo, from Basaseachi community and about west of Chihuahua. It is reached via Federal Highway 16 and its surroundings make up the Basaseachic Falls National Park (Parque Nacional Cascada de Basaseachic).
The waterfall is made by two streams, Arroyo del Durazno and Arroyo de Basaseachic, which merge in the high mountains and then fall down the canyon wall. Past the falls, the stream is called Río Candameña (Candameña River), which is the namesake of the canyon it flows through, Candameña Canyon (Cañón Candameña). The Candameña River is a tributary of the Río Mayo (Mayo River).
Basaseachic Falls was considered the tallest waterfall in México until the measurement in September, 1994 of the Cascada de Piedra Volada. Both of these waterfalls are seasonal, drying up in the Spring and Autumn dry seasons.
References
External links
Cascada de Basaseachi
Cascada de Basaseachi en México Desconocido
Waterfalls of Mexico
Plunge waterfalls
Landforms of Chihuahua (state)
Landforms of the Sierra Madre Occidental
Tourist attractions in Chihuahua (state) | [
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261964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20%28text%20editor%29 | Sam (text editor) | Sam is a multi-file text editor based on structural regular expressions. It was originally designed in the early 1980s at Bell Labs by Rob Pike with the help of Ken Thompson and other Unix developers for the Blit windowing terminal running on Unix; it was later ported to other systems. Sam follows a classical modular Unix aesthetic. It is internally simple, its power leveraged by the composability of a small command language and extensibility through shell integration.
Design and features
Sam is designed as two synchronous programs: a command interpreter and a mouse-oriented bitmap windowing interface. The interpreter's command set is modeled after the UNIX editor ed and may be used to operate the editor from a standard text terminal. By default, however, Sam presents its own graphical user interface (GUI) window, samterm, which additionally allows point-and-click operations through pop-up context menus. This two-process structure allowed sam to access files on networked host systems through remote execution of the file-access process while running the windowing interface locally, thereby bypassing latency over slow connections.
Samterm presents windows to files being edited and to a persistent command window which accepts input as sam commands. Most common editing operations are quickly and naturally accomplished with the point-and-click interface, which also functions inside the command window. This latter fact allows commands to be edited (and resubmitted) just as any other text, a function inherited from the DMD 5620 terminal interface.
Command syntax
Sam's command syntax is formally similar to ed's or ex's, containing (structural-) regular expression based conditional and loop functions and scope addressing, even sharing some of ed's syntax for such functions. But while ed's commands are line-oriented, sam's are selection-oriented. Selections are contiguous strings of text (which may span multiple lines), and are specified either with the mouse (by sweeping it over a region of text) or by a pattern match. Sam's commands take such selections as basic—more or less as other Unix tools treat lines; thus, multi-line and sub-line patterns are as naturally handled by Sam as whole-line patterns are by ed, vi, AWK, Perl, etc. This is implemented through a model called structural regular expressions, which can recursively apply regular-expression matching to obtain other (sub)selections within a given selection. In this way, sam's command set can be applied to substrings that are identified by arbitrarily complex context.
Sam extends its basic text-editing command set to handling of multiple files, providing similar pattern-based conditional and loop commands for filename specification. Any sequence of text-editing commands may be applied as a unit to each such specification.
Infinite undos
Sam was one of the first text editors to support "infinite" undo to revert any number of editing errors. This feature, combined with Sam's facility to easily edit its own commands and, fundamentally, its small, orthogonal command set (containing only 33 commands), represent the program's bias toward a low learning threshold over other more expressive "power editors."
Endorsers
Sam is the preferred text editor of several eminent programmers. It was the first full screen editor Ken Thompson liked. Sam is the text editor used by Bjarne Stroustrup, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy and Tom Duff. Others, like Dennis Ritchie, Rob Pike and Russ Cox, have transitioned to acme, an editor with the same command language as sam, but with an assortment of additional features, including mouse chording and automatic tiling of opened files.
The latest version of sam was written as part of the Plan 9 operating system, but there are Microsoft Windows, macOS and X Window System ports available.
See also
acme (text editor) — Rob Pike's other popular text editor and successor of sam.
ed (text editor) — The original Unix text editor by Ken Thompson
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
List of Unix commands
Notes
References
External links
ssam(1): stream interface to sam
Sam Resources
sam(1): screen editor with structural regular expressions
A Win32 version of sam
Another Win32 version of sam (and other Plan 9 utilities)
A new Win32 version of sam and other plan9 utilities based on plan9port
A new Unix version of sam as part of Plan 9 from User Space
Another version of sam for Unix, without any Plan 9 from User Space dependencies and with scalable font support
A sam quick reference card
Free text editors
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Inferno (operating system)
Unix text editors
MacOS text editors
Windows text editors | [
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261965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fort%20Stedman | Battle of Fort Stedman | The Battle of Fort Stedman, also known as the Battle of Hare's Hill, was fought on March 25, 1865, during the final weeks of the American Civil War. The Union Army fortification in the siege lines around Petersburg, Virginia, was attacked in a pre-dawn Confederate assault by troops led by Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon. The attack was the last serious attempt by Confederate troops to break the Siege of Petersburg. After an initial success, Gordon's men were driven back by Union troops of the IX Corps commanded by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke.
Background
During March 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee continued to defend his positions around Petersburg, but his Army was weakened by desertion, disease, and shortage of supplies and he was outnumbered by his Union counterpart, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, by about 125,000 to 50,000, and he asked Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon for advice. Gordon replied that he had three recommendations, in decreasing order of preference: first, offer peace terms to the enemy; second, retreat from Richmond and Petersburg, link up with the Confederate army in North Carolina under General Joseph E. Johnston, jointly defeat Sherman, and then go after Grant; third, fight without delay. An argument ensued, with Lee rejecting the political implications of the first choice and indicating the difficulty of the second, but Gordon left the meeting with the impression that Lee was considering those options. On March 6, however, Gordon was summoned back to headquarters and Lee told him that "there seemed to be but one thing that we could do—fight. To stand still was death. It could only be death if we fought and failed."
Gordon later wrote in his memoirs that he "labored day and night at this exceedingly grave and discouraging problem, on the proper solution of which depended the commander's decision as to when and where he would deliver his last blow for the life of the Confederacy." He worked on his plans until March 23 and decided to recommend a surprise attack on the Union lines that would force Grant to contract his lines and disrupt his plans to assault the Confederate works (which, unbeknownst to Lee and Gordon, Grant had already ordered for March 29).
Gordon planned a pre-dawn assault from the Confederate stronghold known as Colquitt's Salient against Fort Stedman, one of the fortifications in Union lines that encircled Petersburg, named for Griffin A. Stedman, a Union colonel from Connecticut who had been killed in the vicinity in August 1864. It was one of the closest spots to the Confederate works, there were fewer wooden chevaux de frise obstructions protecting it, and a supply depot on the U.S. Military Railroad was less than a mile behind the fort. Directly after capturing Fort Stedman and its artillery, Confederate soldiers would move north and south along the Union lines to clear the neighboring fortifications and make way for the main attack, which would lead to the main Union supply base of City Point (also Grant's headquarters), ten miles (16 km) northeast where the Appomattox River joins the James River.
The assault force was three divisions of Gordon's Second Corps (under Brig. Gen. Clement A. Evans, Maj. Gen. Bryan Grimes, and Brig. Gen. James A. Walker), two brigades from the Fourth Corps division of Maj. Gen. Bushrod R. Johnson (under Brig. Gens. Matt W. Ransom and William H. Wallace) in close support, and two brigades from Maj. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox's Third Corps division in reserve. Lee had also ordered the division of Maj. Gen. George Pickett of the First Corps to move from its position north of the James River in time to join the action. This represented almost half of Lee's infantry of the Army of Northern Virginia: 11,500 men from Gordon's corps and Bushrod Johnson's division, 1,700 of Wilcox's men nearby, and 6,500 from Pickett moving up. Maj. Gen. W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee's cavalry division was designated to exploit the expected infantry breakthrough. Opposing them were the Union IX Corps commanded by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, defending the first south from the Appomattox River, and manning in Gordon's front (from north to south) artillery Batteries IX and X, Fort Stedman, and Batteries XI and XII. Parke's 3rd Division, under Brig. Gen. John F. Hartranft, was in reserve behind the lines. While Maj. Gen. George G. Meade was away at City Point with Grant, Parke was the acting commander of the Army of the Potomac, although he would not realize that until after Gordon's attack started.
Opposing forces
Union
Confederate
Battle
Confederate attack
Gordon's attack started at 4:15 a.m. Lead parties of sharpshooters and engineers masquerading as deserting soldiers headed out to overwhelm Union pickets and to remove obstructions that would delay the infantry advance. They were followed by three groups of 100 men assigned to storm the Union works and stream back into the Union rear area. These men relied on surprise and speed—they carried unloaded muskets so that no one could accidentally fire and alert the enemy. The main thrust was between Batteries XI and X, with one group moving north for Battery XI and the other two for X and Stedman. The movement achieved complete surprise.
Brevet Brig. Gen. Napoleon B. McLaughlen, the officer responsible for the Fort Stedman sector, heard the sounds of the attack, dressed quickly in the predawn darkness, and rode to Fort Haskell, just to the south of Battery XII, which he found to be ready to defend itself. As he moved north, McLaughlen ordered Battery XII to open fire on Battery XI and ordered a reserve infantry regiment, the 59th Massachusetts, to counterattack, which they did with fixed bayonets, briefly re-capturing Battery XI. Assuming that he had sealed the only breach in the line, McLaughlen rode into Fort Stedman. He recalled, "I crossed the parapet and meeting some men coming over the curtains, whom in the darkness I supposed to be part of the picket, I established them inside the work, giving directions with regard to position and firing, all of which were instantly obeyed." He suddenly realized that the men he was ordering were Confederates and they realized he was a Union general, capturing him. He was taken back across no man's land and surrendered his sword personally to Gordon.
Gordon soon arrived at Fort Stedman and found his attack had so far exceeded his "most sanguine expectations." Within minutes, Batteries X, XI (Retaken from the 59th Massachusetts), and XII and Fort Stedman had been seized, opening a gap nearly long in the Union line. Confederate artillerists under Lt. Col. Robert M. Stribling used the captured guns in Stedman and Battery X to open up enfilading fire on the entrenchments to the north and south. The attack began having difficulty at Battery IX to the north, where the Union troops formed a battle line and the Confederates were too confused by the maze of trenches to attack it effectively. Gordon turned his attention to the southern flank of his attack and Fort Haskell, against which he launched his division under Clement Evans. The defenders successfully employed canister rounds from three cannons, halting the assault. The Confederate artillery from Colquitt's Salient began bombarding Fort Haskell and the Federal field artillery returned fire, along with the massive siege guns in the rear. When the Union flag was knocked down, the Union gunners assumed that it had fallen to the Confederates and opened fire on their own men. Volunteers were found to raise the flag again and four of them were killed before the Federal artillery ceased fire.
Gordon sent a message back to Lee that the attack was going well, but he was unaware of the trouble developing. His three 100-man detachments were wandering around the rear area in confusion and many had stopped to satisfy their hunger with captured Federal rations. The cavalry had not found an avenue through which to advance into the rear. Pickett's Division had such difficulty with rail transportation that only three of its four brigades departed on schedule, and they did not arrive until midday, too late to take part in the battle. And the main Union defense force was beginning to mobilize. Parke acted decisively, ordering Hartranft's reserve division to close the gap while his reserve artillery under Col. John C. Tidball took up positions on a ridge east of Fort Stedman and began shelling the Confederates.
Union counterattack
Hartranft, in the words of historian Noah Andre Trudeau, "was a man possessed. From the instant he received word that Fort Stedman had fallen, Hartranft worked furiously to limit the Confederate penetration and, once that objective has been achieved, to eliminate the pocket." Finding that Maj. Gen. Orlando B. Willcox, Parke's 1st Division commander and a more senior officer, was preparing his headquarters to withdraw, Hartranft was able to convince Willcox to yield tactical command and he organized defensive forces that completely ringed the Confederate penetration by 7:30 a.m., stopping it just short of the military railroad depot, Meade Station. The Union artillery, aware that Confederates occupied the batteries and Fort Stedman, launched punishing fire against them.
Gordon, who was in Fort Stedman, realized his plan had failed when his lead men started returning and reported remarkable Union resistance. With permission from Lee, who had arrived to watch the battle, Gordon scrambled to get his forces back to safety. By 7:45 a.m., 4,000 Union troops under Hartranft were positioned in a semicircle of a mile and a half, ready to counterattack. A messenger arrived with word from Parke to delay the attack while reinforcements came up from the VI Corps, but Hartranft ordered his line to charge, writing afterward that "I saw that the enemy had already commenced to waver, and that success was certain. I, therefore, allowed the line to charge; besides this, it was doubtful whether I could have communicated with the regiments on the flanks in time to countermand the movement." The retreating Confederates came under Union crossfire, suffering heavy casualties. Their attack had failed. Fort Stedman was recaptured by a squad from the 208th Pennsylvania.
Aftermath
A distinguished visitor came close to witnessing the action on March 25. President Abraham Lincoln was conferring with General Grant and a division-size review parade was scheduled nearby for that morning. Because of the Confederate attack, the review was postponed until that afternoon. A Confederate prisoner was amazed to see the general and president so soon after what he considered a massive attack, riding "by us seemingly not the least concerned and as if nothing had happened." He and his fellow prisoners took note of this self-confidence and "with one accord agreed that our cause was lost." Lincoln had telegraphed to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton that morning, "Arrived here all safe about 9 P.M. yesterday. No war news ... Robert [Lincoln's son, serving as an aide to Grant] just now tells me there was a little rumpus up the line this morning, ending about where it began."
The attack on Fort Stedman turned out to be a four-hour action with no impact on the Union lines. The Confederate Army was forced to set back its own lines, as the Union attacked further down the front line. To give Gordon's attack enough strength to be successful, Lee had weakened his own right flank. The II Corps and VI Corps seized much of the entrenched Confederate picket line southwest of Petersburg, but found the main line still well manned. This Union advance prepared the ground for Grant's breakthrough attack in the Third Battle of Petersburg on April 2, 1865.
Union casualties in the Battle of Fort Stedman were 1,044 (72 killed, 450 wounded, 522 missing or captured), Confederate casualties a considerably heavier 4,000 (600 killed, 2,400 wounded, 1,000 missing or captured). But more seriously, the Confederate positions were weakened, and irreplaceable men lost. After the battle, Lee's defeat was only a matter of time. His final opportunity to break the Union lines and regain the momentum was gone. The Battle of Fort Stedman was the final offensive action of the Army of Northern Virginia. One week later the Union Army broke the Confederate lines ending the Richmond–Petersburg Campaign. Immediately following was the Appomattox Campaign and the final surrender of Lee's army on April 9, 1865.
Notes
References
Bonekemper, Edward H., III. A Victor, Not a Butcher: Ulysses S. Grant's Overlooked Military Genius. Washington, DC: Regnery, 2004. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Greene, A. Wilson. The Final Battles of the Petersburg Campaign: Breaking the Backbone of the Rebellion. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2008. .
Horn, John. The Petersburg Campaign: June 1864 – April 1865. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1999. .
Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. .
Korn, Jerry, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Pursuit to Appomattox: The Last Battles. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1987. .
Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. .
Trudeau, Noah Andre. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia, June 1864 – April 1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991. .
Petersburg National Battlefield from the National Park Service
National Park Service battle description
CWSAC Report Update from the National Park Service
External links
Battle of Fort Stedman: Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news from the Civil War Trust
Battle of Fort Stedman Map and Order of Battle from beyondthecrater.com
Fort Stedman
Fort Stedman
Petersburg, Virginia
Fort Stedman
Fort Stedman
1865 in the American Civil War
1865 in Virginia
March 1865 events | [
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261966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%20%28windowing%20system%29 | Rio (windowing system) | rio is Plan 9 from Bell Labs' windowing system. It is well known for making its window management transparent to the application. This allows running rio inside of another window manager.
History
rio is the latest in a long series of graphical user interfaces developed at Bell Labs, mostly developed by Rob Pike, the concurrent window system, and the Blit (which predated X).
rio was a complete rewrite of 8½ in Alef. Its main change was that it stopped parsing and rewriting graphical commands and let the client write pixels directly. This was done mainly for efficiency. As Alef disappeared due to being too difficult to maintain given the number of people working on Plan 9 at the time, rio was rewritten in C. This was done using the Plan 9 thread library which was inspired by Alef and had most of its features, such as blocking channels for interthread and interprocess communication. Another important change, due more to the environment than to rio per se, is that rio supports full colour, using alpha compositing, whereas 8½ uses bitblt operations.
Design concepts
Many of its features embody key Plan 9 design concepts:
Each window runs in its own private namespace.
It exports a file system interface to running applications. This interface is the same rio receives from the operating system, so rio can run inside a rio window without any special arrangements. Because the interface uses 9P, rio is network transparent even if it doesn't include any network-aware code.
Windows are treated as completely editable text.
See also
Plan 9 from Bell Labs - rio's native environment
Plan 9 from User Space - Includes a window manager that emulates the rio user interface
Rob Pike - The author of rio and 8½
Blit - A terminal developed at Bell Labs that pioneered some of the UI concepts used in Rio.
External links
Rio: Design of a Concurrent Window System by Rob Pike
The 8½ paper - Describes rio's predecessor which had a very similar design
2002 software
Free software programmed in C
Free windowing systems
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261967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture | Fracture | Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially, it is called a shear crack, slip band or dislocation.
Brittle fractures occur with no apparent deformation before fracture. Ductile fractures occur after visible deformation. Fracture strength, or breaking strength, is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures. A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics.
Strength
Fracture strength, also known as breaking strength, is the stress at which a specimen fails via fracture. This is usually determined for a given specimen by a tensile test, which charts the stress–strain curve (see image). The final recorded point is the fracture strength.
Ductile materials have a fracture strength lower than the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), whereas in brittle materials the fracture strength is equivalent to the UTS. If a ductile material reaches its ultimate tensile strength in a load-controlled situation, it will continue to deform, with no additional load application, until it ruptures. However, if the loading is displacement-controlled, the deformation of the material may relieve the load, preventing rupture.
The statistics of fracture in random materials have very intriguing behavior, and was noted by the architects and engineers quite early. Indeed, fracture or breakdown studies might be the oldest physical science studies, which still remain intriguing and very much alive. Leonardo da Vinci, more than 500 years ago, observed that the tensile strengths of nominally identical specimens of iron wire decrease with increasing length of the wires (see e.g., for a recent discussion). Similar observations were made by Galileo Galilei more than 400 years ago. This is the manifestation of the extreme statistics of failure (bigger sample volume can have larger defects due to cumulative fluctuations where failures nucleate and induce lower strength of the sample).
Types
There are two types of fractures :
Brittle
In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. Brittle fracture typically involves little energy absorption and occurs at high speeds—up to 2133.6 m/s (7000 ft/s) in steel. In most cases brittle fracture will continue even when loading is discontinued.
In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage planes). In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline structure results in a conchoidal fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to the applied tension.
The fracture strength (or micro-crack nucleation stess) of a material was first theoretically estimated by Alan Arnold Griffith in 1921:
where: –
is the Young's modulus of the material,
is the surface energy, and
is the micro-crack length (or equilibrium distance between atomic centers in a crystalline solid).
On the other hand, a crack introduces a stress concentration modeled by
(For sharp cracks)
where: –
is the loading stress,
is half the length of the crack, and
is the radius of curvature at the crack tip.
Putting these two equations together gets
Sharp cracks (small ) and large defects (large ) both lower the fracture strength of the material.
Recently, scientists have discovered supersonic fracture, the phenomenon of crack propagation faster than the speed of sound in a material. This phenomenon was recently also verified by experiment of fracture in rubber-like materials.
The basic sequence in a typical brittle fracture is: introduction of a flaw either before or after the material is put in service, slow and stable crack propagation under recurring loading, and sudden rapid failure when the crack reaches critical crack length based on the conditions defined by fracture mechanics. Brittle fracture may be avoided by controlling three primary factors: material fracture toughness (Kc), nominal stress level (σ), and introduced flaw size (a). Residual stresses, temperature, loading rate, and stress concentrations also contribute to brittle fracture by influencing the three primary factors.
Under certain conditions, ductile materials can exhibit brittle behavior. Rapid loading, low temperature, and triaxial stress constraint conditions may cause ductile materials to fail without prior deformation.
Ductile
In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture. The terms "rupture" and "ductile rupture" describe the ultimate failure of ductile materials loaded in tension. The extensive plasticity causes the crack to propagate slowly due to the absorption of a large amount of energy before fracture.
Because ductile rupture involves a high degree of plastic deformation, the fracture behavior of a propagating crack as modelled above changes fundamentally. Some of the energy from stress concentrations at the crack tips is dissipated by plastic deformation ahead of the crack as it propagates.
The basic steps in ductile fracture are void formation, void coalescence (also known as crack formation), crack propagation, and failure, often resulting in a cup-and-cone shaped failure surface. Voids typically coalesce around precipitates, secondary phases, inclusions, and at grain boundaries in the material. Ductile fracture is typically transgranular and deformation due to dislocation slip can cause the shear lip characteristic of cup and cone fracture.
Characteristics
The manner in which a crack propagates through a material gives insight into the mode of fracture. With ductile fracture a crack moves slowly and is accompanied by a large amount of plastic deformation around the crack tip. A ductile crack will usually not propagate unless an increased stress is applied and generally cease propagating when loading is removed. In a ductile material, a crack may progress to a section of the material where stresses are slightly lower and stop due to the blunting effect of plastic deformations at the crack tip. On the other hand, with brittle fracture, cracks spread very rapidly with little or no plastic deformation. The cracks that propagate in a brittle material will continue to grow once initiated.
Crack propagation is also categorized by the crack characteristics at the microscopic level. A crack that passes through the grains within the material is undergoing transgranular fracture. A crack that propagates along the grain boundaries is termed an intergranular fracture. Typically, the bonds between material grains are stronger at room temperature than the material itself, so transgranular fracture is more likely to occur. When temperatures increase enough to weaken the grain bonds, intergranular fracture is the more common fracture mode.
Testing
Fracture in materials is studied and quantified in multiple ways. Fracture is largely determined by the fracture toughness (), so fracture testing is often done to determine this. The two most widely used techniques for determining fracture toughness are the Three-point flexural test and the compact tension test.
By performing the compact tension and three-point flexural tests, one is able to determine the fracture toughness through the following equation:
Where:-
is an empirically-derived equation to capture the test sample geometry
is the fracture stress, and
is the crack length.
To accurately attain , the value of must be precisely measured. This is done by taking the test piece with its fabricated notch of length and sharpening this notch to better emulate a crack tip found in real-world materials. Cyclical prestressing the sample can then induce a fatigue crack which extends the crack from the fabricated notch length of to . This value is used in the above equations for determining .
Following this test, the sample can then be reoriented such that further loading of a load (F) will extend this crack and thus a load versus sample deflection curve can be obtained. With this curve, the slope of the linear portion, which is the inverse of the compliance of the material, can be obtained. This is then used to derive f(c/a) as defined above in the equation. With the knowledge of all these variables, can then be calculated.
Ceramics and inorganic glasses
Ceramics and inorganic glasses have fracturing behavior that differ those of metallic materials. Ceramics have high strengths and perform well in high temperatures due to the material strength being independent of temperature. Ceramics have low toughness as determined by testing under a tensile load; often, ceramics have values that are ~5% of that found in metals. However, ceramics are usually loaded in compression in everyday use, so the compressive strength is often referred to as the strength; this strength can often exceed that of most metals. However, ceramics are brittle and thus most work done revolves around preventing brittle fracture. Due to how ceramics are manufactured and processed, there are often preexisting defects in the material introduce a high degree of variability in the Mode I brittle fracture. Thus, there is a probabilistic nature to be accounted for in the design of ceramics. The Weibull distribution predicts the survival probability of a fraction of samples with a certain volume that survive a tensile stress sigma, and is often used to better assess the success of a ceramic in avoiding fracture.
Fiber bundles
To model fracture of a bundle of fibers, the Fiber Bundle Model was introduced by Thomas Pierce in 1926 as a model to understand the strength of composite materials. The bundle consists of a large number of parallel Hookean springs of identical length and each having identical spring constants. They have however different breaking stresses. All these springs are suspended from a rigid horizontal platform. The load is attached to a horizontal platform, connected to the lower ends of the springs. When this lower platform is absolutely rigid, the load at any point of time is shared equally (irrespective of how many fibers or springs have broken and where) by all the surviving fibers. This mode of load-sharing is called Equal-Load-Sharing mode. The lower platform can also be assumed to have finite rigidity, so that local deformation of the platform occurs wherever springs fail and the surviving neighbor fibers have to share a larger fraction of that transferred from the failed fiber. The extreme case is that of local load-sharing model, where load of the failed spring or fiber is shared (usually equally) by the surviving nearest neighbor fibers.
Disasters
Failures caused by brittle fracture have not been limited to any particular category of engineered structure. Though brittle fracture is less common than other types of failure, the impacts to life and property can be more severe. The following notable historic failures were attributed to brittle fracture:
Pressure vessels: Great Molasses Flood in 1919, New Jersey molasses tank failure in 1973
Bridges: King Street Bridge span collapse in 1962, Silver Bridge collapse in 1967, partial failure of the Hoan Bridge in 2000
Ships: Titanic in 1912, Liberty ships during World War II, SS Schenectady in 1943
See also
Environmental stress fracture
Fatigue (material)
Forensic engineering
Forensic materials engineering
Fractography
Fracture (geology)
Fracture (mineralogy)
Gilbert tessellation
Microvoid coalescence
Notch
Notes
References
Further reading
Dieter, G. E. (1988) Mechanical Metallurgy
A. Garcimartin, A. Guarino, L. Bellon and S. Cilberto (1997) " Statistical Properties of Fracture Precursors ". Physical Review Letters, 79, 3202 (1997)
Callister, Jr., William D. (2002) Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction.
Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004), Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies.
External links
Virtual museum of failed products at http://materials.open.ac.uk/mem/index.html
Fracture and Reconstruction of a Clay Bowl
Ductile fracture
Materials science
Building defects
Elasticity (physics)
Plasticity (physics)
Solid mechanics
Fracture mechanics
Mechanics
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51350430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alisa%20Kolosova | Alisa Kolosova | Alisa Vladimirovna Kolosova (; born 29 July 1987 in Moscow) is a Russian mezzo-soprano.
Kolosova studied music from age five, focusing on piano and choral singing, then enrolled in the Russian Academy of Theatre Arts in 2004, where she studied under Yevgeny Zhuravkin. In 2005, she began studies at the Academic Music College of the Moscow State Conservatory, where she notably took masterclasses with Makvala Kasrashvili, Sergei Leiferkus, Thomas Quasthoff, and Christa Ludwig.
She was a semi-finalist at the International Hans Gabor Belvedere Singing Competition in Vienna in 2007, and a finalist in the Competizione dell' Opera, held in Dresden, Germany, in 2008. She was awarded the special jury prize at the Francisco Viñas Competition in Barcelona, and at the Tibor Varga Competition in Switzerland in 2009. In October 2009, she joined the Paris Opera's Atelier Lyrique, and subsequently performed with the Paris Opera many times.
Kolosova's breakthrough occurred in 2010 at the Salzburg Whitsun Festival, where she performed Mozart's La Betulia liberata, directed by Riccardo Muti. She has since performed with major orchestras and opera companies around the world, and was a member of the ensemble of the Vienna State Opera from 2011 to 2014. In 2015, she was nominated for the Warner Music Prize.
External links
Kolosova's page on the InterMusica website
Biography on the Medici.tv website
Biography in Russian
References
Russian mezzo-sopranos
Living people
1987 births
21st-century Russian singers
21st-century Russian women singers | [
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261970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse%20chording | Mouse chording | Mouse chording is the capability of performing actions when multiple mouse buttons are held down, much like a chorded keyboard and similar to mouse gestures.
One common application of mouse chording, called rocker navigation, is found in Opera and in mouse gesture extensions for Mozilla Firefox. Rocker navigation typically involves the following two mouse chords:
Hold the left button and click the right button to move forward in the browser's history.
Hold the right button and click the left button to move backward in the browser's history.
The operating systems Plan 9 and Oberon and the acme development environment make heavy use of mouse chording. OS/2 Presentation Manager can also use chording to copy and paste text using two buttons however Common User Access key combinations are more frequently used.
Limitations
Like mouse gestures, chorded actions may lack feedback and affordance and would therefore offer no way for users to discover possible chords without reference. A similar feature such as a context menu would require less training.
When Project Athena used equipment from both IBM and DEC, DEC mice had three buttons and IBM mice had two. Athena simulated the third (middle) button on IBM mice by chording the two buttons together. This does not enable chords which involve the middle click. The Apple Mighty Mouse does not support mouse chording due to the design of the button sensors.
Applications that support mouse chording
3DS Max - Any action in the main UI that involves clicking and dragging can be cancelled by right clicking while left button is still held down.
Microstation - CAD software, uses chording to snap to elements.
CATIA - CAD/CAM/CAE software, uses middle and left mouse button chording to zoom, pan and rotate screen representation
Acme and Wily text editors
Opera (web browser)
Vivaldi (web browser)
Maxthon
Blender 3D
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Oberon operating system
Sketchup
Valve Hammer Editor
Celestia - Pressing both mouse buttons allows the user to adjust distance from an object.
Minesweeper (Windows) - Pressing both mouse buttons clears around a square after the correct number of flags have been placed in the surrounding squares.
UDE
World of Warcraft
Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas - The weapon aiming system in the PC version of San Andreas implements mouse chording, as it requires the user to hold the right mouse button to aim while clicking or holding the left button to fire a weapon or use an item, such as a camera.
Eve Online - Pressing both the left and right mouse buttons allows for an alternative method of camera control.
Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas 2 - On the PC version of the game, by default the right mouse button must be held to take cover and the left mouse button to fire a weapon.
The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim - On the PC version, holding both buttons activates dual casting, shield bashing, or a powerful flurry of attacks when dual-wielding melee weapons.
Any number of other First-person shooter. When the Iron sights view is mapped to the right mouse button.
Symbolics Genera (operating system) - the user interface management system Dynamic Windows is fully object oriented. It remembers objects for all output. Output is mouse sensitive depending on context. A three-button mouse is supported and mouse buttons can be modified additionally with shift keys (shift, control, meta, shift-control, ...). A mouse documentation line at the bottom of the screen shows the available mouse commands for the object under the mouse cursor and is continuously updated.
References
External links
acme manual page, describes the various chords in acme
rio manual page, describes chording inside the Plan 9 window system
Copying and Pasting using the Mouse, describes chording in OS/2.
User interface techniques | [
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261972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing%20committee%20%28United%20States%20Congress%29 | Standing committee (United States Congress) | In the United States Congress, standing committees are permanent legislative panels established by the United States House of Representatives and United States Senate rules. (House Rule X, Senate Rule XXV.) Because they have legislative jurisdiction, standing committees consider bills and issues and recommend measures for consideration by their respective chambers. They also have oversight responsibility to monitor agencies, programs, and activities within their jurisdictions, and in some cases in areas that cut across committee jurisdictions. Due to their permanent nature, these committees exist beyond the adjournment of each two-year meeting of Congress.
Most standing committees recommend funding levels—authorizations—for government operations and for new and existing programs. A few have other functions.
For example, the Appropriations Committees recommend legislation to provide budget authority for federal agencies and programs. The Budget Committees establish aggregate
levels for total spending and revenue that serve as guidelines for the work of the authorizing and appropriating panels. Committees also provide oversight of federal agencies and programs.
The Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 greatly reduced the number of committees. The membership of each committee is adopted at the beginning of each Congress, usually by adoption of a formal resolution. Each committee is assigned its own staff to assist with its legislative, investigative, and research functions. Several committees divide their work into sub units called subcommittees.
Committee sizes range from 6 to 50 members per committee. In the House, one person may not serve on more than two standing committees and four subcommittees at one time, though waivers can be granted to serve on additional committees. Also in the House, the House Republican Steering Committee assigns Republican representatives to their committee(s), while the Steering and Policy Committee is in charge of assigning Democratic representatives to committees. The Senate follows similar procedures, with senators being limited to no more than three full committees and five sub-committees.
Current number of standing committees
16 standing committees and the House had 20 standing committees. (The count is for standing committees only and does not include select or special committees or joint committees. See those articles for that information.)
See also
List of current United States House of Representatives committees
List of current United States Senate committees
Select or special committee
Standing Committee
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC)
Standing Committee (UK)
References
Standing
Terminology of the United States Congress
United States Congress | [
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261973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20officer | Political officer | Political officer may refer to:
Political officer (military), occasionally, a synonym for political commissar
Political officer (British Empire), in the context of the British Empire, for a pseudo-ambassadorial role in areas bordering imperial territories
Political Officer, one of five tracks for Foreign Service Officers in the United States Department of State | [
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261976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel%20Falls | Angel Falls | Angel Falls (; Pemon language: Kerepakupai Merú meaning "waterfall of the deepest place", or Parakupá Vená, meaning "the fall from the highest point") is a waterfall in Venezuela.
It is the world's tallest uninterrupted waterfall, with a height of and a plunge of . The waterfall drops over the edge of the Auyán-tepui mountain in the Canaima National Park (Spanish: Parque Nacional Canaima), a UNESCO World Heritage site in the Gran Sabana region of Bolívar State. The height figure, , mostly consists of the main plunge but also includes about of sloped cascade and rapids below the drop and a plunge downstream of the talus rapids.
The falls are along a fork of the Río Kerepacupai Merú which flows into the Churún River, a tributary of the Carrao River, itself a tributary of the Orinoco River.
History
Etymology
The waterfall has been known as the Angel Falls since the mid-20th century; they are named after Jimmie Angel, a U.S. aviator, who was the first person to fly over the falls. Angel's ashes were scattered over the falls on 2 July 1960.
The common Spanish name Salto Ángel derives from his surname. In 2009, President Hugo Chávez announced his intention to change the name to the purported original indigenous Pemon term ("Kerepakupai-Merú", meaning "waterfall of the deepest place"), on the grounds that the nation's most famous landmark should bear an indigenous name. Explaining the name change, Chávez was reported to have said, "This is ours, long before Angel ever arrived there ... this is indigenous land." However, he later said that he would not decree the change of name, but only was defending the use of Kerepakupai Vená.
Exploration
Sir Walter Raleigh, in his expedition to find the fabled city of El Dorado, described what was possibly a tepui (table top mountain), and he is said to have been the first European to view Angel Falls, although these claims are considered far-fetched. Some historians state that the first European to visit the waterfall was Fernando de Berrío, a Spanish explorer and governor from the 16th and 17th centuries. Other sources state that the first Westerner to see the waterfall was the Spanish explorer Fèlix Cardona in 1927.
They were not known to the outside world until American aviator Jimmie Angel, following directions given by Cardona, flew over them on 16 November 1933 on a flight while he was searching for a valuable ore bed.
Returning on 9 October 1937, Angel tried to land his Flamingo monoplane El Río Caroní atop Auyán-tepui, but the plane was damaged when the wheels sank into the marshy ground. Angel and his three companions, including his wife Marie, were forced to descend the tepui on foot. It took them 11 days to make their way back to civilization by the gradually sloping back side, but news of their adventure spread and the waterfall was named Angel Falls in his honor. The name of the waterfall—"Salto del Ángel"—was first published on a Venezuelan government map in December 1939.
Angel's plane remained on top of the tepui for 33 years before being lifted out by helicopter. It was restored at the Aviation Museum in Maracay and now sits outdoors on the front of the airport at Ciudad Bolívar.
The first recorded European to reach the base of the falls was the Latvian explorer Aleksandrs Laime, also known as Alejandro Laime to the native Pemon tribe. He reached the falls alone in 1946. He was the first to reach the upper side of falls in the late 1950s, by climbing up the back side, where the slope is not vertical. He also reached Angel's plane 18 years after the crash landing. On 18 November 1955, Latvian independence day, he announced to the Venezuelan newspaper El Nacional that this stream without any known local name should be named after a Latvian river, Gauja. The same year, this name was registered in the National Cartographic Institution of Venezuela. There is no convincing proof that the indigenous Pemon people had named the local streams, as Auyán-tepui was considered to be a dangerous place and was not visited by the indigenous people. However, lately the Pemon name Kerep is used as well.
Laime was also the first to clear a trail that leads from the Churún River to the base of the falls. On the way is a viewpoint commonly used to capture the falls in photographs. It is named Mirador Laime ("Laime's Viewpoint" in Spanish) in his honor. This trail is used now mostly for tourists, to lead them from the Isla Ratón camp to the small clearing.
The official height of the falls was determined by a survey carried out by an expedition organized and financed by American journalist Ruth Robertson on 13 May 1949. Robertson's expedition, which began on 23 April 1949, was also the first to reach the foot of the falls. The first known attempt to climb the face of the cliff was made in 1968 during the wet season. It failed because of slippery rock. In 1969, a second attempt was made during the dry season. This attempt was thwarted by lack of water and an overhang from the top. The first climb to the top of the cliff was completed on 13 January 1971. The climbers, a 4-man team lead by American mountaineer, George Bogel, an electrical engineer from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, required nine and a half days to ascend and one and a half days to rappel down.
Tourism
Angel Falls is one of Venezuela's top tourist attractions, though a trip to the falls is a complicated affair. The falls are located in an isolated jungle. A flight from Maiquetia Airport or Puerto Ordaz or Ciudad Bolívar is required to reach Canaima camp, the starting point for river trips to the base of the falls. River trips generally take place from June to December, when the rivers are deep enough for use by the Pemon guides. During the dry season (December to March), there is less water seen than in the other months.
See also
List of waterfalls by height
References
External links
Salto-angel.com
Geography of Bolívar (state)
Orinoco basin
Rivers of Venezuela
Waterfalls of Venezuela
Plunge waterfalls
Canaima National Park | [
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261978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuquenan%20Falls | Cuquenan Falls | Kukenan Falls (or Salto Kukenan, Kukenaam, Cuquenan or similar) is the second tallest major waterfall in Venezuela after Angel Falls. It is also the second tallest free-leaping waterfall in the world. Overall, it is usually cited as the 11th highest waterfall in the world. The falls drop in a single leap of around and the final portion of the falls trickles down towards the base of the Kukenan Tepui.
The Kukenan Tepui is located near Mount Roraima, which serves as the geographical marker of the border between Brazil, Venezuela, and Guyana. Mount Roraima also hosts its own waterfall, usually referred to as Roraima Falls, which leaps off the tepui in four tiered leaps. The height is estimated at approximately .
References
Waterfalls of Venezuela
Geography of Bolívar (state) | [
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261980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negros%20Oriental | Negros Oriental | Negros Oriental (; ), is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region. Its capital is the city of Dumaguete. It occupies the southeastern half of the large island of Negros, and borders Negros Occidental, which comprises the northwestern half. It also includes Apo Island, a popular dive site for both local and foreign tourists..
Negros Oriental faces Cebu to the east across the Tañon Strait and Siquijor to the south-east (which happened to be part of the province before). The primary spoken language is Cebuano and the predominant religious denomination is Roman Catholicism. Dumaguete City is the capital, seat of government and most populous city of the province. With a population of inhabitants, it is the second most-populous province in Central Visayas after Cebu, the fifth most-populous province in the Visayas and the 19th most-populous province of the Philippines.
History
Negros, the second largest island in the Visayas and fourth largest island in the Philippines, is believed to have once been part of a larger landmass, but was cut off by rising waters at the end of the last ice age. Among the early inhabitants of the island were the Negritos and the Austronesians, and later the Han Chinese, who are mainly merchants. They called the island "Buglas", a native word which is believed to mean "cut off".
Spanish explorers on the expedition of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi first came to the island in April 1565. Legazpi dropped anchor in Bohol and sent his men to scout the island. Because of the strong currents of the Tañon Strait between Cebu and Negros, they were carried for several days and forced to land on the western side of the island. They reported seeing many dark-skinned inhabitants, and they called the island "Negros" (Negro means "black" in Spanish). The island was sparsely settled at the time, except for a few coastal settlements including Ilog and Binalbagan. In 1571, Legaspi assigned encomiendas on the island to 13 of his men. Augustinian friars began the Christianization of the island the next year. The island was administered as part of the jurisdiction of Oton until 1734 when it became a military district, and Ilog became the capital of the island. The capital was transferred to Himamaylan in 1795. Negros became a politico-military province in 1865 and the capital was transferred to Bacolod.
Due to its proximity to Mindanao, the southeastern coasts of Negros was in constant threat from Moro marauders looking for slaves, so watchtowers were built to protect the Christian villages. The Moro raids and Negros Oriental's distance from the Negrense capital of Bacolod, induced 13 Recollectionist priests to petition for the division of the island in July 1876. The island of Negros was then divided into the provinces of Negros Oriental and Negros Occidental by a royal decree executed by Governor General Valeriano Weyler on January 1, 1890. Dumaguete was made the first and only capital of Negros Oriental. In 1892, Siquijor became a part of Negros Oriental, having previously been administered by Spain under the politico-military province of Bohol.
The Philippine Revolution reached Negros in 1898, disrupting government functions but without extreme violence and bloodshed. Revolutionary troops in the island were composed mostly of farm labourers and other prominent people of the province of Negros Oriental, who were organized and led by Don Diego de la Viña. The Spanish colonial government in Dumaguete and the rest of the island was overthrown on November 24, 1898. Later, the Negros Occidental area under the leadership of Gen. Araneta, along with the Negros Oriental area under the leadership of Don Diego de la Viña, merged to form the Cantonal Republic of Negros, a separate government from the more familiar Malolos Republic established in Luzon.
In 1901, the Negros Oriental province was reorganized by the United States and a civil government was established with Demetrio Larena as governor. The American government made Siquijor a "sub-province" of Negros Oriental. Negros Oriental became a province under the American civil government on March 10, 1917, through Act 2711. In 1934, Negros Oriental became a corregimiento, a separate military district. Under the American colonial government, transportation infrastructure was developed with improvements of roads and new bridges.
During World War II, both Negros provinces were invaded by Imperial Japanese forces, resorting many residents to flee to the inland mountains. Negros Island was liberated by combined Philippine & American troops with the local Negrense guerillas attacking the Japanese on August 6, 1945. The 7th, 73rd, 74th and 75th Infantry Divisions of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were established from January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, and the 7th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary was active from October 28, 1944, to June 30, 1946, at the Military General Headquarters in Negros Oriental. They started the engagements of the Anti-Japanese Imperial Military Operations in Negros from 1942 to 1945 against the Japanese Imperial forces.
Modern-day history
On September 17 of 1971, Siquijor finally became an independent province by virtue of Republic Act No. 6396.
On 29 May 2015, the Negros Island Region was formed when Negros Oriental was separated from Central Visayas and transferred to the new region along with Negros Occidental and Bacolod, when President Benigno Aquino III signed Executive Order No. 183, s. 2015. But it was abolished on August 9, 2017, when President Rodrigo Duterte revoked Executive Order No. 183, s. 2015 through the signage of Executive Order No. 38, citing the reason of the lack of funds to fully establish the NIR according to Benjamin Diokno, the Secretary of Budget and Management, reverting Negros Oriental back into Central Visayas. However, with the Philippines' current presidential administration promoting federalism, the idea of the twin provinces of Negros Oriental and Negros Occidental reunified into one federal state/region is already in the talks of local provincial politicians, with some additional support from the native Negrenses. There is also a suggestion, jointly approved by the provincial governors, that Negros Oriental along with Negros Occidental, be renamed with their pre-colonial names as "Buglas Sidlakan" and "Buglas Nakatundan" respectively, with Negros, as a federal state, be named as "Negrosanon Federated Region", due to the negative racial connotation associated with the name "Negros".
Geography
Negros Oriental occupies the south-eastern half of the island of Negros, with Negros Occidental comprising the north-western half. It has a total land area of . A chain of rugged mountains separates Negros Oriental from Negros Occidental. Negros Oriental faces Cebu to the east across the Tañon Strait and Siquijor to the southeast. The Sulu Sea borders it to the south to southwest. Negros is basically volcanic, making its soil ideal for agriculture. Eighty percent of all arable land in the island region is cultivated.
Topography
The province's topography is characterized by low, grooved mountain ranges of which some lie close to the shoreline. At the southern end of the province is Mount Talinis, also known as Cuernos de Negros ("Horns of Negros"), which is a dormant complex volcano which rises to a height of . At the northern end of the province is the active Kanlaon Volcano, the highest peak of the island region with a height of . There are a few flatlands and plateaus in the interior to the southwest of the province, which includes the Tablas Plateau.
One of the landmarks of Dumaguete is the Dumaguete Bell Tower which stands next to the Saint Catherine of Alexandria Cathedral. It once used to warn the city of impending pirate attacks.
Climate
Negros Oriental has a tropical climate. Because of the mountain range running from the north to the south, the province has two types of climatic conditions. The eastern part of the province is characterized by unpronounced maximum rainfall with a short dry season lasting from one to three months. The western half of the province is characterized by a distinct wet season and dry season.
Administrative divisions
Negros Oriental comprises 19 municipalities and 6 cities, further subdivided into 557 barangays.
Dumaguete City is the provincial capital and seat of government. It is also the province's most populous city, despite having the smallest land area among all component cities and municipalities of Negros Oriental.
For purposes of legislative representation, the cities and municipalities are grouped into three congressional districts, with each district electing a congressman to the House of Representatives of the Philippines.
Demographics
The population of Negros Oriental in the was 1,354,995 people, with a density of . As of 2010, its registered voting population are 606,634. 34.5% of the population are concentrated in the six most populous component cities of Dumaguete, Bayawan, Guihulngan, Tanjay, Bais and Canlaon. Population growth per year is about 0.99% over the period of 2010–2015, lower than the national average of 1.72%.
Residents of Negros are called "Negrenses" (and less often "Negrosanons") and many are of either pure/mixed Austronesian heritage, with foreign ancestry (i.e. Chinese and/or Spanish) as minorities. Negros Oriental is predominantly a Cebuano-speaking province due to its close proximity to Cebu, with 72% of residents reporting it as a first language. Hiligaynon is spoken by the remaining 28% and is common in areas close to the border with Negros Occidental. Filipino and English, while seldom used as first languages, are generally understood and used for official, literary, and educational purposes.
Religion
Christianity is the predominant religion in the province with Roman Catholicism (77%) as the largest single denomination . However, there is a strong and growing presence of mainline and evangelical Protestant which forms about 12% of the province population. The Iglesia ni Cristo(1.4%), the Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses and the Aglipayan Church, also known as the Philippine Independent Church also has some presence. Adherents of Islam and Buddhism constitute a minority of the population.
Economy
Negros Oriental has, for a long time, been a major supplier of electricity to its neighboring provinces in the Visayas with its excess power capacity generated by the 192.5-MW Palinpinon geothermal plant. This plant has recently been expanded with an additional 49MW capacity, bringing total power output of the province to over 240MW. Despite the huge power excess of the Province, other power sources such as hydro, wind and solar are being explored to provide additional power capacities that can be sold to neighboring areas.
With its vast fertile land resources, Negros Oriental's other major industry is agriculture. The primary crops are sugarcane, sweetcorn, coconut and rice. In the coastal areas, fishing is the main source of income. People are also involved in cattle ranches, fish ponds and rubber plantations, especially in Bayawan City. There are also mineral deposits like gold, silver and copper found throughout the inner areas of the province.
The province is already emerging as a major technological center in Visayas, with its growing business process outsourcing (BPO) that has started to penetrate the province's secondary cities and other technology-related industries. Vehicle assembly is a growing industry in Amlan. Construction of mass housing and subdivisions is very evident in the periphery of Dumaguete City and is expected to spillover into the province's secondary cities and fast-growing towns.
Other industries include water bottling and warehousing, as well as cold and dry storing. Retailing has penetrated other urban areas outside Dumaguete, with the entry of supermarkets and shopping malls in cities such as Bayawan, Tanjay and Bais. The town of Bacong, which borders Dumaguete in the south, hosts many industrial plants geared for the local and export markets, which can bolster economic growth. Negros Oriental is also a notable tourist destination in the Visayas.
Transportation
Negros Oriental has a network of roads, including a national road that spans the circumference of Negros Island. National and provincial roads in the province total more than 900 kilometers, though only about half of these are paved.
A large portion of residents do not own private vehicles, and are totally reliant on public transport. Buses and jeepneys link the cities and municipalities of the province. For short distances within a town, motorized tricycles (locally known as pedicabs) are available. Moreover, motorcycles for hire locally called as habal-habal is the primary mode of transportation in the hinterlands or places wherein it can't be reached with other types of vehicles.
The Dumaguete Airport located in Sibulan is the province's only commercial airport. It is a domestic airport with multiple daily flights to and from Manila, served by Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific. The airport also serves flights to and from Cebu and Cagayan de Oro. Based on 2002 statistics, an average of 5,800 outgoing passengers and 5,700 incoming passengers pass through the airport every month. However, this airport is due for transfer to Bacong because of congestion in its current location.
The primary seaport of the province is located in Dumaguete City. Additionally, there are five other seaports in the province classified as tertiary.
Education
Most colleges and universities in the province are concentrated in Dumaguete City, which befit the role as Center of Learning in the South and is widely known as a university city. Here are the list of some universities, colleges and other tertiary institutions located in the province of Negros Oriental:
Culture
Each town in Negros Oriental celebrates an annual town fiesta, usually dedicated to a patron saint of a particular town or city. In some of the larger towns, there are particular fiestas for specific neighborhoods or barangays.
Jimalalud: January 15 - Sr. Sto. Nino
Sibulan: June 13 - St. Anthony of Padua
Tayasan: June 13 - St. Anthony of Padua
Tanjay City: July 25 - St. James the Greater
Bacong: August 28 - St. Augustine of Hippo
Bais City: September 10 - St. Nicholas of Tolentino
Dauin: September 10 - St. Nicholas of Tolentino
Manjuyod: October 4 - St. Francis of Assisi
Dumaguete City: November 25 - St. Catherine of Alexandria
Amlan: November 30 - St. Andrew
Additionally, the Buglasan Festival, which was revived in 2001, is celebrated annually in October in the provincial capital of Dumaguete and is hailed as Negros Oriental's "festival of festivals". It is a week-long celebration where you can see unique booths of each town and city in Negros Oriental featuring their native products and tourist attractions. The highlight of the occasion is the float parade and street dancing competition.
The province is the home of the last living remnants of the Inata language speakers. The Sebwano language is spoken throughout the province, while the indigenous Minagahat language is spoken in the south.
Media
There are at least seven local
media publications in general circulation around the province. These publications include The Negros Times, Dumaguete MetroPost, The Negros Chronicle, Dumaguete Star Informer, Times Focus, and Island News . Sun.Star Dumaguete publishes news online bi-weekly. PLDT, Globe Telecom and their subsidiaries are major providers of network connection within the province. Major providers, in TV and radio are ABS-CBN, GMA, The 5 Network and CNN Philippines. Cable TV provides access to BBC, ESPN and other international programs. The province is mainly served by one regional newscast: TV Patrol Central Visayas (shared with ABS-CBN Cebu).
See also
Negros Oriental State University
Silliman University
Dumaguete City
Balinsasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park
References
External links
Official Website of the Provincial Government of Negros Oriental
Local Governance Performance Management System
Official Website of the Buglasan Festival
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1890
1890 establishments in the Philippines | [
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261981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramnefjellsfossen | Ramnefjellsfossen | Ramnefjellsfossen (also known as: Utigardsfossen or Utigordsfossen) is unofficially listed as the third-highest waterfall in the world in several publications. On the other hand, The World Waterfall Database, a waterfall enthusiast website, which includes all minor and seasonal waterfalls in the country, lists it as eleventh-tallest. The falls are located on the mountain, Ramnefjellet, in the municipality of Stryn in Vestland county, Norway–about southeast of the villages of Loen and Olden.
The tiered horsetail waterfall has four drops measuring , with the longest single drop measuring . The average width of the falls are over the long run from top to bottom. The average flow of the falls are , with the best flow in the summer.
The falls are fed by the Ramnefjellbreen glacier, an arm of the great Jostedalsbreen glacier. After the falls, the water flows into the lake Lovatnet. The falls are easily reached by boat, sea plane, or road, and a campsite is located within hiking distance of the base of the falls. The total drop is from three free-leaping cascades. Due to the small flow of water it is one of the few major waterfalls in Norway that has not been slated for hydroelectric usage.
The mountain, Ramnefjellet, has killed over 100 people as a result of major landslides in 1905 and 1936. A 2008 photograph of the falls taken from Lovatnet lake was included in the Emirates "Skywards" brochure.
See also
List of waterfalls by height
References
External links
The Lodal incident
Stryn
Tiered waterfalls
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261984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Confederacy | USS Confederacy | USS Confederacy was a 36-gun sailing frigate of the Continental Navy in the American Revolutionary War. The British Royal Navy captured her in March 1781, took her into service for about half-a-year as HMS Confederate, and broke her up in 1782.
Career
She was launched on 8 November 1778 at Chatham (Norwich), Connecticut, and towed to New London to be prepared for sea. From 1 May to 24 August 1779 she cruised on the Atlantic coast under the command of Captain Seth Harding. While convoying a fleet of merchantmen, on 6 June, she and captured three prizes, drove off two British frigates and brought the convoy safely into Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
On 17 September 1779 Confederacy was ordered to carry the French Minister and his family back to France. Later John Jay, the first American Minister to Spain, his secretary, and family were added to the passenger list. During the passage on 7 November 1779 Confederacy was completely dismasted and almost lost, but managed through the skillful seamanship of Captain Harding to reach Martinique early in December. After repairs, she returned to convoy duty.
Captain Nicholson replaced Harding in on 20 October 1780.
Confederacy was homeward bound from Cape Francois in the West Indies in 1781 with military stores and other supplies and escorting a fleet of 37 merchantmen, when on 14 April she encountered (44) and (32) off the Delaware Capes. The British ships forced Confederacy to strike her flag. Most of the merchantmen she was escorting escaped. Many of her crew were sent to the old prison hulk , though some ended up in Mill and Forton prisons.
Fate
The Royal Navy took her into service as HMS Confederate, under the command of Captain James Cumming. He paid her off in September 1781. She was broken up at Woolwich in March 1782.
See also
List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Bibliography of early American naval history
Citations and references
Citations
References
External links
The Frigate Confederacy Papers, including correspondence, bills, receipts and other materials pertaining to the construction of USS Confederacy, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Ships of the Continental Navy
Ships built in Norwich, Connecticut
1778 ships
Captured ships
Fifth-rate frigates of the Royal Navy
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy | [
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261985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20E.%20Huntington | Henry E. Huntington | Henry Edwards Huntington (February 27, 1850 – May 23, 1927) was an American railroad magnate and collector of art and rare books. Huntington settled in Los Angeles, where he owned the Pacific Electric Railway as well as substantial real estate interests. In addition to being a businessman and art collector, Huntington was a major booster for Los Angeles in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many places in California are named after him.
History in Southern California
Born in 1850 in Oneonta, New York, to Solon Huntington and his wife, Henry Huntington grew up hearing about his uncle Collis P. Huntington. His uncle became one of The Big Four, instrumental in creating the Central Pacific Railroad (later part of the Southern Pacific), one of the two railroads that built the transcontinental railway in 1869.
Henry Huntington later worked with his uncle, holding several executive positions under him with the Southern Pacific. After Collis Huntington's death in 1900, Henry Huntington assumed the senior Huntington's leadership role with Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Virginia. He later married his uncle's widow Arabella Huntington.
In 1910 Huntington divorced his first wife Mary Alice Prentice Huntington. They had four children together: Howard Edward, Clara Leonora, Elizabeth Vincent, and Marian Prentice. His wife Mary died in 1913. She was the birth sister of Clara Elizabeth Prentice-Huntington, whom his Uncle Collis and his first wife Elizabeth had adopted.
Huntington's marriage to the widowed Arabella Huntington in 1913 shocked San Francisco society. They were about the same age, so had no children.
Huntington expected to assume control of the Central and Southern Pacific after his uncle's death. He was blocked by bondholder's representative James Speyer, forcing him to sell his interests to E. H. Harriman.
In 1898, in friendly competition with his uncle's Southern Pacific, Huntington bought the narrow gauge city-oriented Los Angeles Railway (LARy), known as the 'Yellow Car' system. In 1901, Huntington formed the sprawling interurban, standard gauge Pacific Electric Railway (the PE), known as the 'Red Car' system, centered at 6th and Main streets in Los Angeles. Huntington succeeded in this competition by providing passenger-friendly streetcars on 24/7 schedules, which the railroads could not match. This was in the period of a boom in Southern California land development. Housing was built in places such as Orange County's Huntington Beach, a Huntington-sponsored development, and streetcars served passenger needs that the railroads had not considered. Connectivity to Downtown Los Angeles made such suburbs feasible.
By 1910, the Huntington trolley systems spanned approximately of Southern California. At its greatest extent, the system contained over 20 streetcar lines and 1,250 trolleys, most running through the core of Los Angeles and serving such nearby neighborhoods as the Crenshaw district, West Adams, Echo Park, Westlake, Hancock Park, Exposition Park, Vernon, Boyle Heights and Lincoln Heights. The system integrated the 1902 acquisition, the Mount Lowe Scenic Railway above Altadena, California in the San Gabriel Mountains.
In 1905 Huntington, A. Kingsley Macomber, and William R. Staats developed the Oak Knoll subdivision, located to the west of his San Marino estate in the oak-covered hilly terrain near Pasadena.
In 1906, Huntington, along with Frank Miller, owner of the Mission Inn, and Charles M. Loring, formed the Huntington Park Association, with the intent to purchase Mount Rubidoux in Riverside, build a road to the summit, and develop the hill as a park to benefit the city of Riverside. The road was completed in February 1907. The property was later donated to the city of Riverside by the heirs of Frank Miller, and today the hill is a city park.
Huntington was a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California.
Huntington retired from business in 1916. In 1927 Henry E. Huntington died in Philadelphia while undergoing surgery. He and Arabella are buried, with a large monument, in the Gardens of the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.
Hotel
The Huntington Hotel was originally named Hotel Wentworth when it opened on February 1, 1907. Financial problems and a disappointing first season forced it to close indefinitely. Henry Huntington purchased the Wentworth in 1911, renaming it the Huntington Hotel. It reopened in 1914, transformed into a winter resort. The 1920s were prosperous for the hotel, as Midwestern and Eastern entrepreneurs discovered California's warm winter climate.
The hotel's reputation for fine service began with long-time general manager and later owner Stephen W. Royce. By 1926, the hotel's success prompted Royce to open the property year-round. The "golden years" ended with the stock market crash and the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s. By the end of the 1930s the hotel was vibrant again. When World War II began, all reservations were cancelled and the hotel was rented to the Army for $3,000 a month. Following the war, the Huntington's fortunes improved again. In 1954 Stephen Royce sold the hotel to the Sheraton Corporation, serving as general manager until his retirement in 1969. The hotel operated until 1985, when it closed because of its inability to meet seismic standards. The structure was built of reinforced concrete in 1906.
After a -year major renovation, the hotel reopened in March 1991 as the Ritz Carlton Huntington Hotel and Spa. The hotel completed a $19 million renovation in January 2006; it changed hands in early 2007 and became Langham Brand International, Huntington Hotel & SPA.
Legacy
Huntington left a prominent legacy with the Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens on his former estate in San Marino near Pasadena. Other legacies in California include the cities of Huntington Beach and Huntington Park, as well as Huntington Lake.
Also in greater Los Angeles are the Huntington Hospital in Pasadena, Henry E. Huntington Middle School in San Marino, and the grand boulevard, Huntington Drive, running eastbound from downtown Los Angeles. Its landscaped central parkway was previously the right-of-way for the Northern Division of the Pacific Electric.
Riverside's city park on Mount Rubidoux was originally named Huntington Park, and the road to the top was named Huntington Drive. After Frank Miller's heirs donated the property to the city, the city renamed the park the Frank A. Miller Rubidoux Memorial Park, and the road has become known as Mount Rubidoux Drive. A plaque that was dedicated to Huntington in 1907, in recognition of his contributions to the development of Mount Rubidoux, remains on a large boulder known as Huntington Rock. After Huntington's death a second tablet was placed on the north side of the hill at a place named the Huntington Shrine.
His legacy on the East Coast includes the Huntington Memorial Library in Oneonta, New York, opened July 9, 1920 in his childhood home.
As well as a portrait by Oswald Birley at the Huntington Library, portraits of Huntington were also painted by the Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury who built a studio less than a mile from Huntington's estate in San Marino in 1924-1925: a full-length, based on a photograph, is at the Collis Potter & Howard Edwards Huntington Memorial Hospital in Pasadena, and two seated versions, a small one of which was acquired by Huntington's son-in-law John Metcalf, and a larger one (which is presumed lost) which was engraved by an artist called Witherspoon in 1928. The artist also painted Huntington's granddaughter Mary Brockway Metcalf (this is on long-term loan to the offices of the Director of the Huntington Library and Art Gallery).
See also
Huntington family
1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles
Pacific Electric Railway strike of 1903
Footnotes
References
Breithaupt, Jr., Richard Hoag, 1994, Sons of the Revolution in the State of California. Centennial Register 1893-1993, Walika Publishing Company,
Dickinson, Donald C., 1995, Henry E. Huntington's Library of Libraries, Huntington Library Press,
Gale, Zona. Frank Miller of the Mission Inn, New York, D. Appleton-Century Company, 1938.
Hutchings, DeWitt V. The Story of Mount Rubidoux, Riverside, California.
Thorpe, James, 1994, Henry Edwards Huntington, A Biography, University of California Press,
Wenzel, Glenn. Anecdotes on Mount Rubidoux and Frank A. Miller, Her Promoter, Glenn E. Wenzel, 2010.
External links
Find A Grave, Henry Edwards Huntington
Find A Grave, Arabelle Huntington
American art collectors
American book and manuscript collectors
Philanthropists from New York (state)
20th-century American railroad executives
American railway entrepreneurs
Bibliophiles
Museum founders
People from Oneonta, New York
People from the San Gabriel Valley
Philanthropists from California
History of Riverside, California
People from San Marino, California
1850 births
1927 deaths
Pacific Electric Railway
People associated with the Huntington Library
Huntington family | [
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261986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongefossen | Mongefossen | Mongefossen () is a waterfall in the Rauma Municipality of Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is the fourth tallest single-drop waterfall in the world. It's located near the European route E136 highway and the Rauma River, which it flows into. There is some dispute as to the height, but it is generally listed at . As is the case with many of Norway's waterfalls, it has been targeted for hydroelectric power, which results in a greatly diminished water flow during the summer tourist season.
Mongefossen also holds the distinction as being the highest waterfall in the world which may be viewed from a railway station on the Rauma Line, on the north side between the villages of Flatmark and Marstein.
See also
List of waterfalls by height
References
External links
Old picture of the unregulated falls
Rauma, Norway
Horsetail waterfalls
Waterfalls of Møre og Romsdal | [
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261987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanban | Kanban | Kanban (Chinese: , meaning signboard or billboard) is a scheduling system for lean manufacturing (also called just-in-time manufacturing, abbreviated JIT). Taiichi Ohno, an industrial engineer at Toyota, developed kanban to improve manufacturing efficiency. The system takes its name from the cards that track production within a factory. Kanban is also known as the Toyota nameplate system in the automotive industry.
Kanban became an effective tool to support running a production system as a whole, and an excellent way to promote improvement. Problem areas are highlighted by measuring lead time and cycle time of the full process and process steps. One of the main benefits of kanban is to establish an upper limit to work in process inventory to avoid overcapacity. Other systems with similar effect exist, for example CONWIP. A systematic study of various configurations of kanban systems, such as Generalized Kanban or Production Authorization Card (PAC) and Extended Kanban, of which CONWIP is an important special case, can be found in Tayur (1993), and more recently Liberopoulos and Dallery (2000), among other papers.
A goal of the kanban system is to limit the buildup of excess inventory at any point in production. Limits on the number of items waiting at supply points are established and then reduced as inefficiencies are identified and removed. Whenever a limit is exceeded, this points to an inefficiency that should be addressed.
Origins
The system originates from the simplest visual stock replenishment signaling system, an empty box. This was first developed in the UK factories producing Spitfires during the Second World War, and was known as the “two bin system.” In the late 1940s, Toyota started studying supermarkets with the idea of applying shelf-stocking techniques to the factory floor. In a supermarket, customers generally retrieve what they need at the required time—no more, no less. Furthermore, the supermarket stocks only what it expects to sell in a given time, and customers take only what they need, because future supply is assured. This observation led Toyota to view a process as being a customer of one or more preceding processes and to view the preceding processes as a kind of store.
Kanban aligns inventory levels with actual consumption. A signal tells a supplier to produce and deliver a new shipment when a material is consumed. This signal is tracked through the replenishment cycle, bringing visibility to the supplier, consumer, and buyer.
Kanban uses the rate of demand to control the rate of production, passing demand from the end customer up through the chain of customer-store processes. In 1953, Toyota applied this logic in their main plant machine shop.
Operation
A key indicator of the success of production scheduling based on demand, pushing, is the ability of the demand-forecast to create such a push. Kanban, by contrast, is part of an approach where the pull comes from demand and products are made to order. Re-supply or production is determined according to customer orders.
In contexts where supply time is lengthy and demand is difficult to forecast, often the best one can do is to respond quickly to observed demand. This situation is exactly what a kanban system accomplishes, in that it is used as a demand signal that immediately travels through the supply chain. This ensures that intermediate stock held in the supply chain are better managed, and are usually smaller. Where the supply response is not quick enough to meet actual demand fluctuations, thereby causing potential lost sales, a stock building may be deemed more appropriate and is achieved by placing more kanban in the system.
Taiichi Ohno stated that to be effective, kanban must follow strict rules of use. Toyota, for example, has six simple rules, and close monitoring of these rules is a never-ending task, thereby ensuring that the kanban does what is required.
Toyota's Six Rules
Toyota has formulated six rules for the application of kanban:
Each process issues requests (kanban) to its suppliers when it consumes its supplies.
Each process produces according to the quantity and sequence of incoming requests.
No items are made or transported without a request.
The request associated with an item is always attached to it.
Processes must not send out defective items, to ensure that the finished products will be defect-free.
Limiting the number of pending requests makes the process more sensitive and reveals inefficiencies.
Kanban (cards)
Kanban cards are a key component of kanban and they signal the need to move materials within a production facility or to move materials from an outside supplier into the production facility. The kanban card is, in effect, a message that signals a depletion of product, parts, or inventory. When received, the kanban triggers replenishment of that product, part, or inventory. Consumption, therefore, drives demand for more production, and the kanban card signals demand for more product—so kanban cards help create a demand-driven system.
It is widely held by proponents of lean production and manufacturing that demand-driven systems lead to faster turnarounds in production and lower inventory levels, helping companies implementing such systems be more competitive.
In the last few years, systems sending kanban signals electronically have become more widespread. While this trend is leading to a reduction in the use of kanban cards in aggregate, it is still common in modern lean production facilities to find the use of kanban cards. In various software systems, kanban is used for signalling demand to suppliers through email notifications. When stock of a particular component is depleted by the quantity assigned on kanban card, a "kanban trigger" is created (which may be manual or automatic), a purchase order is released with predefined quantity for the supplier defined on the card, and the supplier is expected to dispatch material within a specified lead-time.
Kanban cards, in keeping with the principles of kanban, simply convey the need for more materials. A red card lying in an empty parts cart conveys that more parts are needed.
Three-bin system
An example of a simple kanban system implementation is a "three-bin system" for the supplied parts, where there is no in-house manufacturing. One bin is on the factory floor (the initial demand point), one bin is in the factory store (the inventory control point), and one bin is at the supplier. The bins usually have a removable card containing the product details and other relevant information, the classic kanban card.
When the bin on the factory floor is empty (because the parts in it were used up in a manufacturing process), the empty bin and its kanban card are returned to the factory store (the inventory control point). The factory store replaces the empty bin on the factory floor with the full bin from the factory store, which also contains a kanban card. The factory store sends the empty bin with its kanban card to the supplier. The supplier's full product bin, with its kanban card, is delivered to the factory store; the supplier keeps the empty bin. This is the final step in the process. Thus, the process never runs out of product—and could be described as a closed loop, in that it provides the exact amount required, with only one spare bin so there is never oversupply. This 'spare' bin allows for uncertainties in supply, use, and transport in the inventory system. A good kanban system calculates just enough kanban cards for each product. Most factories that use kanban use the colored board system (heijunka box).
Electronic kanban
Many manufacturers have implemented electronic kanban (sometimes referred to as e-kanban) systems. These help to eliminate common problems such as manual entry errors and lost cards. E-kanban systems can be integrated into enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, enabling real-time demand signaling across the supply chain and improved visibility. Data pulled from e-kanban systems can be used to optimize inventory levels by better tracking supplier lead and replenishment times.
E-kanban is a signaling system that uses a mix of technology to trigger the movement of materials within a manufacturing or production facility. Electronic kanban differs from traditional kanban in using technology to replace traditional elements like kanban cards with barcodes and electronic messages like email or electronic data interchange.
A typical electronic kanban system marks inventory with barcodes, which workers scan at various stages of the manufacturing process to signal usage. The scans relay messages to internal/external stores to ensure the restocking of products. Electronic kanban often uses the Internet as a method of routing messages to external suppliers and as a means to allow a real-time view of inventory, via a portal, throughout the supply chain.
Organizations like the Ford Motor Company and Bombardier Aerospace have used electronic kanban systems to improve processes. Systems are now widespread from single solutions or bolt on modules to ERP systems.
Types of kanban systems
In a kanban system, adjacent upstream and downstream workstations communicate with each other through their cards, where each container has a kanban associated with it. Economic Order Quantity is important. The two most important types of kanbans are:
Production (P) Kanban: A P-kanban, when received, authorizes the workstation to produce a fixed amount of products. The P-kanban is carried on the containers that are associated with it.
Transportation (T) Kanban: A T-kanban authorizes the transportation of the full container to the downstream workstation. The T-kanban is also carried on the containers that are associated with the transportation to move through the loop again.
The Kanban philosophy and Task Boards are also used in Agile project management to coordinate tasks in project teams. An online demonstration can be seen in an Agile simulator.
Implementation of kanban can be described in the following manner:
The workflow consists of logical steps.
There are two steps to a workflow viz. queue and work in progress/process.
The team in charge decides on the maximum amount of work each step of the workflow can hold.
Work is pushed into the queue step and pulled into the process step.
If need be, work is halted in two successive stages to clear bottleneck.
Kanbrain
A third type involves corporate training. Following the just-in-time principle, computer-based training permits those who need to learn a skill to do so when the need arises, rather than take courses and lose the effectiveness of what they've learned from lack of practice.
See also
Backflush accounting
CONWIP
Material requirements planning
Manufacturing resource planning
Scheduling (production processes)
Supply chain management
Drum-buffer-rope
List of software development philosophies
Lean software development
Visual control
Continuous-flow manufacturing
Kanban (development)
Just-in-time manufacturing
Lean manufacturing
References
Further reading
External links
Toyota: Kanban System
Lean Lab: How to Calculate the number of Kanban
Japanese business terms
Lean manufacturing
Business terms
Enterprise resource planning terminology | [
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261988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20of%20Toulouse | County of Toulouse | The County of Toulouse () was a territory in southern France consisting of the city of Toulouse and its environs, ruled by the Count of Toulouse from the late 9th century until the late 13th century.
The territory is the center of a region known as Occitania.
Counts of Toulouse
Under the Carolingians, counts and dukes were appointed by the royal court. Later, this office became hereditary. The counts of Toulouse ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 1271. At times, the counts of Toulouse or family members were also counts of Quercy, Rouergue, Albi, Nîmes, Provence and marquesses of Gothia.
Carolingian period
The Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis fell to the Visigothic Kingdom in the 5th century. Septimania, the Visigothic province roughly corresponding to the later county of Toulouse, fell briefly to the Emirate of Córdoba in the 750s before it was conquered into the Kingdom of the Franks by Pippin the Short in 759 following the Siege of Narbonne. Septimania within the Frankish realm would become known as Gothia or Marca Gothica by the end of the 9th century.
Pippin died in 768 and was followed by his sons Charlemagne and Carloman. Because of this event, Hunald II, son of the late Duke Waifer, raised an insurrection against Frankish power in Aquitaine. Charlemagne soon intervened and defeated him. In 771, Carloman died and Charlemagne was left as the only ruler of the Frankish realm. In 778, Charlemagne led his army into Spain against the Arabs. On his way back the famous event of Roncesvalles (Roncevaux in French) occurred: Charlemagne's rear-guard was attacked in the pass of the same name by some Basque warriors. This led him to realize that Frankish power in Gascony and Aquitaine was still feeble, and that the local populations were not entirely loyal to the Franks. Consequently, that same year, he completely reorganized the administration of the region: direct Frankish administration was imposed, and Frankish counts were established in key cities, such as Toulouse.
In 781, Charlemagne set up the Kingdom of Aquitaine, comprising the whole of Aquitaine (including Gascony) plus the Mediterranean coast from Narbonne to Nîmes (an area then known as Gothia), and gave the crown of Aquitaine to his three-year-old son Louis. Other such sub-kingdoms were created inside the wider Carolingian empire in places such as Bavaria or Lombardy. They were meant to ensure the loyalty of local populations in territories freshly conquered and with strong local idiosyncrasies. Crowns were given to the sons of Charlemagne.
General supervision of this Basque frontier seems to have been placed in the hands of Chorson, count or duke of Toulouse. These politics displeased the Basques, and in 787 or 789 Chorson was captured by Odalric "the Basque", probably son of Duke Lupus, who forced Chorson into an agreement which Charlemagne considered so shameful that he replaced him by the Count William in 790.
Toulouse was a major Carolingian military stronghold close to Muslim Spain. Military campaigns against the Muslims were launched from Toulouse almost every year during Charlemagne's reign. Barcelona was conquered in 801, as well as a large part of Catalonia. Together with the northern areas of Aragon and Navarre along the Pyrenees, the region became the southern march (the Spanish March) of the Frankish empire.
In 814, Charlemagne died, and his only surviving son was Louis, king of Aquitaine, who became Emperor Louis the Pious (Louis le Pieux). The Kingdom of Aquitaine was transmitted to Pippin, the second son of Louis the Pious. Gothia was detached from the Kingdom of Aquitaine and administered directly by the emperor, thus recreating the limits of the former duchy of Aquitaine. Problems soon arose. Louis the Pious had three sons, and in 817 he arranged an early allocation of the shares in the future inheritance of the empire: Pippin was confirmed king in Aquitaine (Pippin I of Aquitaine), Louis the German was made king in Bavaria, while the eldest son Lothair was made co-emperor with future authority over his brothers.
In 823, Charles the Bald (Charles le Chauve) was born from the second wife of Louis the Pious. Soon enough, she wished to place her son in the line of succession. Louis the Pious was rather weak, and a fight started between the three sons on one side, and their father and his new wife on the other side, which eventually would lead to the total collapse of the Frankish empire. Louis the Pious was toppled from power, then re-installed, then toppled, then re-installed again. In 838 Pippin I of Aquitaine died, and Louis the Pious and his wife managed to install Charles the Bald as the new king of Aquitaine. At the Assembly of Worms in 839 the empire was re-divided: Charles the Bald was given the western part of the empire, Lothar the central and eastern part, while Louis the German was keeping only Bavaria. Pippin II of Aquitaine, the son of Pippin I, was not going to accept such a decision. He was hailed king by the Aquitanians (but not by the Basques, who by then had seceded and detached Vasconia from Aquitaine), and he resisted his grandfather. Louis the German in Bavaria also opposed his father's decision.
Eventually Louis the Pious died in 840. Lothar, the eldest son, claimed the whole empire and a general war broke out. First allied with his nephew Pippin II, Louis the German soon allied with his half-brother Charles the Bald and they jointly defeated Lothar. Then in August 843, they signed the Treaty of Verdun, and the empire was partitioned into three kingdoms: Charles the Bald was given the western part (West Francia, soon to be called France), Louis the German was given the eastern part (East Francia, soon to become the Kingdom of Germany, later one of the constituent kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire), and Lothar was given the central part (Middle Francia, soon to be conquered and divided by his two brothers).
Following the Treaty of Verdun, Charles the Bald moved south to defeat Pippin II and add Aquitaine to his territory. He first conquered Gothia from its rebellious count, who had taken advantage of the Carolingian feud, and had him executed. In 844, he moved west and besieged Toulouse, the capital of King Pippin II of Aquitaine. However, he had to withdraw without being able to capture the city. That same year, the Vikings entered the mouth of the Garonne River, took Bordeaux, and sailed up as far as Toulouse, plundering and killing all along the Garonne River valley. They moved back when they reached Toulouse, without attacking the city. It is still a matter of debate among historians whether they were called by Pippin II in his fight against Charles the Bald (as Charles' propaganda later claimed), helped defeat Charles the Bald, and left with due payment from Pippin II of Aquitaine, or whether they just took advantage of the war to invade unchecked but moved back at the sight of the strong garrison of Toulouse who had just resisted successfully Charles the Bald.
In 845, following these events, Charles the Bald signed a treaty recognizing Pippin II as king of Aquitaine in exchange for him relinquishing the northern part of Aquitaine (the county of Poitiers) to Charles the Bald. However, the Aquitanians grew very unhappy with their king Pippin II, perhaps for his friendliness towards the Vikings who inflicted terrible damage on the population, and so in 848 they called Charles the Bald to topple Pippin II. In 849 Charles the Bald moved south again and was presented the capital of Aquitaine, Toulouse, by Frédelon, the count of Toulouse recently appointed by Pippin II. Charles the Bald then officially confirmed Frédelon as count of Toulouse. Soon the whole of Aquitaine was submitting to Charles the Bald. In 852, Pippin II was taken prisoner by the Basques and handed over to his uncle Charles the Bald who put him in a monastery.
In 852, Count Frédelon of Toulouse died and Charles the Bald appointed Frédelon's brother Raymond (Raimond) as the new count. This was a special favor, normally counts were only administrative agents not chosen in the same family. However, it would prove to be the start of the dynasty of the counts of Toulouse, who were all descendants of Count Raymond I of Toulouse (Raimond I). In 855, following the example of his grandfather Charlemagne, Charles the Bald recreated the kingdom of Aquitaine (without Gothia), and he gave the crown to his son Charles the Child (Charles l'Enfant). Meanwhile, Pippin II of Aquitaine had escaped from his monastery in 854, and he was raising an insurrection in Aquitaine. It did not prove very popular among Aquitanians though, and he was unsuccessful. He then resorted to calling the Vikings for help. In 864, at the head of a Viking army, Pippin II of Aquitaine besieged Toulouse where the count of Toulouse resisted fiercely. The siege failed, and the Vikings left to plunder other areas of Aquitaine. Pippin II, abandoned by all, saw the ruins of his ambitions. He was captured and again put in a monastery by his uncle, where he died soon after.
In 866, Charles the Child died. Charles the Bald then made his other son, Louis the Stammerer (Louis le Bègue), the new king of Aquitaine. By then, the central state in the kingdom of France was rapidly losing authority. Charles the Bald was rather unsuccessful at containing the Vikings, local populations had to rely on their local counts to resist the Vikings, and the counts soon became the main source of authority, challenging the central authority of Charles the Bald in Paris. As they grew in power, they started to be succeeded in the same family and establish local dynasties. Wars between the central power and the counts arose, as well as wars between the competing counts, which further debilitated the defenses against the Vikings. Western Europe, and France in particular, was again entering a new Dark Age, which would prove even more disastrous than those of the 6th and 7th centuries.
In 877, Charles the Bald had to give in: he signed the Capitulary of Quierzy, which allowed counts to be succeeded by their sons when they died. This was the founding stone of feudalism in western Europe. Charles the Bald died four months later. The new king of France was his son Louis the Stammerer, formally king of Aquitaine. Louis the Stammerer did not choose any of his sons to become the new king of Aquitaine, thus in effect putting an end to the kingdom of Aquitaine, which would never be revived again. Louis the Stammerer died shortly after in 879 and was succeeded by his two sons, Louis III and Carloman. Louis III inherited northwest France, while Carloman inherited Burgundy and Aquitaine. However, in practice, during the years 870–890 the central power was so weakened that the counts in southern France achieved complete autonomy. The dynasties they established ruled independently. The central state in Paris would not be able to reassert its authority over the south of France for the next four centuries.
Independence
By the end of the 9th century, Toulouse had become the capital of an independent county, the county of Toulouse, ruled by the dynasty founded by Frédelon, who in theory was under the sovereignty of the king of France, but in practice was totally independent. The counts of Toulouse had to fight to maintain their position at first. They were mostly challenged by the dynasty of the counts of Auvergne, ruling over the northeastern part of the former Aquitaine, who claimed the county of Toulouse as their own, and even temporarily ousted the counts of Toulouse from the city of Toulouse. However, during these Dark Ages, the counts of Toulouse managed to preserve their own and, unlike many local dynasties that disappeared, they achieved survival. Their county was just a small fraction of the former Aquitaine, the southeastern part of it in fact. However, on the death of Count William the Pious of Auvergne (Guillaume le Pieux) in 918 they came into the possession of Gothia which had been in the family of the counts of Auvergne for two generations. Thus, they more than doubled their territory, once again reuniting Toulouse with the Mediterranean coast from Narbonne to Nîmes. The county of Toulouse took its definite shape, from Toulouse in the west to the Rhone River in the east, a unity that would survive until the French Revolution as the province of Languedoc. Toulouse would never again be part of the Aquitaine polity, whose capital in later times would become Poitiers, then Bordeaux. At first though, the memories of Aquitaine lived strong in Toulouse. Count William the Pious of Auvergne was the first to recreate the title of Duke of Aquitaine for himself in the 890s. Then the count of Poitiers inherited the title in 927. In 932 the king of France Raoul was fighting against the count of Poitiers, and he transferred the title of Duke of Aquitaine to his new ally Count Raymond III Pons of Toulouse (Raimond III). However, the title did not mean much. The various counts of the former Aquitaine were all independents, and did not recognize a superior authority.
Various factions were competing for the throne of France, but since all central authority had disappeared, the position of King of France had become an almost empty title. After Raoul's death, another faction succeeded in establishing an English bred Carolingian prince to the throne, Louis IV from Overseas (Louis IV d'Outremer). Raymond III Pons was from the opposite faction and so when he died in 950 Louis IV awarded the title of Duke of Aquitaine to Count William III Towhead of Poitiers (Guillaume III Tête d'Étoupe) who was an ally of Louis IV. From then on the title of Duke of Aquitaine would be used in the family of the counts of Poitiers, whose power base of Poitou was in the northwestern part of the former Aquitaine. The counts of Toulouse would soon forget any dreams about Aquitaine. Eventually, on the death of the Carolingian king of France Louis V in 987, the Robertian faction succeeded in having its chief, Hugh Capet (Hugues Capet) elected to the French throne. This time, the Carolingian dynasty effectively ended. Hugh Capet was the founder the Capetian dynasty, which would rule in France for the next eight centuries. However, from this point forward, the history of France is irrelevant to Toulouse, at least until the 13th century.
The counts of Toulouse had extended their rule to the Mediterranean coast, but they would not long enjoy the large domain they had succeeded in carving out for themselves. The 10th century was perhaps the worst century for western Europe in the last two millennia. Four centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, civilization had declined, arts and education were in a very poor state. There had been a momentary rebirth of culture and order in the time of Charlemagne, but soon with the return of invasions (especially the Vikings), western Europe was falling again. This conjugated with dramatic civil wars as explained above, as well as bad weather, plagues, and population loss. Entire areas of western Europe returned to wilderness. Cities were completely depopulated. Churches were abandoned or plundered; the Church was experiencing a sharp decline in morals. It seemed as if the legacy of the Roman Empire would completely disappear. Culture from the Antiquity only survived in a few scattered monasteries. This was in sharp contrast with the then flourishing emirate of Córdoba in Spain or the Byzantine Empire. Another phenomenon of these times was the complete disappearance of central authority. Power fragmented, falling first into the hands of counts, then viscounts, then in the hands of thousands of local feudal lords. By the end of the 10th century, France was ruled by thousands of local rulers who controlled only one town, or one castle and the few villages around. Toulouse and its county was exactly reflecting this situation. Between 900 and 980 the counts of Toulouse gradually lost control over the county, with the emergence of local dynastic rulers in every part of it. By the end of the 10th century the counts of Toulouse only had authority over a few estates scattered around the county. Even the city of Toulouse was ruled by a viscount independent from the counts of Toulouse.
Abd al-Rahman III of Córdoba managed to reunite Muslim Spain, and carried the emirate of Córdoba to its zenith, transforming it into the prestigious caliphate of Córdoba in 929. In the 920s he launched a general offensive against the Christian kingdoms in the north of Spain. In 920 (and possibly also in 929) one of his armies crossed the Pyrenees and went as far north as Toulouse, without capturing the city. In 924, the Magyars (ancestors of the Hungarians) launched an expedition toward the west and went as far as Toulouse, but they were defeated by Count Raymond III Pons of Toulouse. At the end of the 10th century all the Carolingian wars and subsequent invasions had left the county of Toulouse in disarray. Large expanses of lands were left uncultivated as many farms had been abandoned. Toulouse was perhaps faring a little better than northern France in the sense that its proximity to Muslim Spain meant there was a strong flow of knowledge and culture coming from the schools and printing houses of Córdoba. Toulouse had also retained Roman Law unlike northern France, and had in general kept more of the Roman legacy, even in these troubled times. The ground was there for a recovery of civilization.
At the beginning of the second millennium, the drifting attitude of the clergy and the confiscation of the Church by the Toulouse administration initiated a degradation of the worship. The Saint-Sernin church, the Daurade basilica, and the Saint-Étienne cathedral were not maintained properly. New religious currents appeared, like the Cluniac reform.
Bishop Isarn, helped by Pope Gregory VII, tried to put everything back in order. He gave the Daurade Basilica to the Cluniac abbots in 1077. In Saint-Sernin, he met a strong opposition in the person of Raimond Gayrard, a provost who had just built a hospital for the poor and was proposing to build a basilica.
Supported by count Guilhem IV, Saint Raymond finally gained permission from Pope Urban II to dedicate the building in 1096. The religious quarrels had just awoken the faith of Toulouse. This rebirth was accompanied by a new demographic progression, supported by technically more efficient agriculture.
The suburbs of Saint-Michel and Saint Cyprien were built during this period. The Daurade bridge connected in 1181 the Saint-Cyprien suburb to the gates of the city. The suburbs of Saint-Sernin and Saint-Pierre des Cuisines also had a remarkable expansion.
The end of the 11th century marked the departure of count Raymond IV to the crusades. Various succession wars followed, besieging Toulouse several times. In 1119, the population of Toulouse proclaimed Alphonse Jourdain count. Alphonse Jourdain, willing to be grateful to his people, reduced the taxes immediately, for example on salt and wine.
From the middle years of the 12th century, the people of Toulouse seem to have begun to free themselves from the most oppressive feudal dues. With the death of the count, an administration of eight "capitulaires" was created. Under the direction of the count, they had the responsibility of regulating the exchanges and making sure the laws were applied. These were the Capitouls, whose first acts were dated in 1152. In 1152 we have traces of a commune consilium Tolosae making police ordinances in its own name "with the advice of Lord Raymond, count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence". This act was witnessed by six capitularii, four duly appointed judges (judices constiluti), and two advocates. Twenty-three years later there were twelve capitularii or consuls, six for the city and six for its suburbs, all of them elected and sworn to do justice in whatever municipal matters were brought before them.
In 1176, the "chapitre" already had twelve members, each of them representing a district of Toulouse, or a suburb. The consuls quickly opposed count Raimond V. The population of Toulouse was divided on the subject and in 1189, after ten years of fighting, the town council finally obtained the submission of the count.
In 1190 the construction of the future Capitole, the common house, the town council headquarters began. With twenty-four members, probably elected, the Capitouls granted themselves the rights of police, trade, imposition and started some conflicts with the closest cities. Toulouse was usually victorious, extending the domination of the patria tolosana.
Despite the intervention of the king, the administration of the Capitouls gave a relative independence to the city, for nearly 600 years, until the French Revolution.
In 1222 the number of capitularii was increased to twenty-four; but they were forbidden to touch the city property, which was to remain in the charge of certain communarii chosen by themselves.
Women's rights
As a successor state for the Visigothic Kingdom and the Kingdom of Aquitaine, Toulouse, along with Aquitania and Languedoc (but not Gascony), inherited the Visigothic Law and Roman Law which had combined to allow women more rights than their contemporaries would enjoy until the 20th century. Particularly with the Liber Judiciorum as codified in 642/643 and expanded on in the Code of Recceswinth in 653, women could inherit land and title and manage it independently from their husbands or male relations, dispose of their property in legal wills if they had no heirs, and women could represent themselves and bear witness in court by age 14 and arrange for their own marriages by age 20. As a consequence, male-preference primogeniture was the practiced succession law for the nobility.
Albigensian Crusade
Catharism is a doctrine professing the separation of the material and the spiritual existences, one of its possible inspiration may be Bogomilism of Bulgaria. It conflicts with the orthodox confession. Called "heretics", the Cathars found a strong audience in the south of France, and during the 12th century. Simon de Montfort tried to exterminate them.
Toulouse was reached by the Cathar doctrine too. The orthodox White Brotherhood pursued the heretical Blacks in the streets of the city. The abbot of Foulques took advantage of this because the heretics were his creditors, and encouraged this inquisition.
Some people joined the white fighters, others chose to assist the besieged population. The consuls did not wish to encourage the division of Toulouse, and defied the pontifical authority, refusing to identify the heretics. Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, a Catholic, who was excommunicated for his dispute with the pope, later sympathised with the heretics because he saw the crusade take an unholy path with the extermination at Bézier.
In 1211, the first siege of Toulouse by Simon de Montfort was unsuccessful but two years later, he successfully defeated the Toulouse army. Though Simon was practical the Count of Toulouse by 1214, it was not Pope Innocent III's decision following the Fourth Council of the Lateran in November 1215 that it was made official
Simon de Montfort was killed by a stone at the Siege of Toulouse in 1218. Until the last siege, the "whites" were fought against by the Toulouse populace. Louis VII finally decided to give up in 1219. Raymond VI recognized the support he had received from the population, helping him to preserve his interests, gave up his last prerogatives to the Capitouls.
Within the Kingdom of France
The 13th century went in a political direction opposite to the path drawn by the past centuries. In the Treaty of Paris of 1229, Toulouse formally submitted to the crown of France. The county's sole heiress Joan was engaged to Alphonse, Count of Poitiers, a younger brother of Louis IX of France. The marriage became legal in 1241, but it remained childless so that after Joan's death the county fell to the crown of France by inheritance.
Also in 1229, the University of Toulouse was established after the Parisian model, intended as a means to dissolve the heretic movement. Various monastic orders, like the congregation of the order of frères prêcheurs, were started. They found a home in Les Jacobins. In parallel, a long period of inquisition began inside the walls of Toulouse. The fear of repression obliged the notabilities to exile, or to convert themselves. The inquisition lasted nearly 400 years, making Toulouse its capital.
Count Raimond VII was convicted of heresy and died in 1249 without an heir. The Toulouse county was given to the king of France, who imposed his laws through appointed seneschals. The power of the Capitouls was reduced.
In 1323 the Consistori del Gay Saber was established in Toulouse to preserve the lyric art of the troubadours. Toulouse became the center of Occitan literary culture for the next hundred years; the Consistori was last active in 1484.
Reinforcing its place as an administrative center, the city grew richer, participating in the trade of Bordeaux wine with England, as well as cereals and textiles.
Accompanying the inquisition, many threats affected the city. Plague, fire and flood devastated the districts. The Hundred Years' War decimated Toulouse. Despite strong immigration, the population lost 10,000 inhabitants in 70 years. Toulouse only had 22,000 people in 1405.
References
Sources
History of Toulouse
Medieval France
778 establishments
8th-century establishments in Francia
1271 disestablishments in Europe
1270s disestablishments in France
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261989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin%20Mine%20Falls | Tin Mine Falls | The Tin Mine Falls is a cascade waterfall located in the remote Pilot Wilderness Area within the Kosciuszko National Park in the Snowy Mountains region of New South Wales, Australia. Described from top to bottom, the falls consist of non-segmented tiered cascades over bedrock with a few smaller plunges, followed by a single large plunge into a pool. The falls are recessed into a punchbowl feature making it impossible to view the entire waterfall from a single location on the ground.
Location and features
The falls are located in remote country within the Kosciuszko National Park. The closest access point is the Cascade Fire Trail, a hiking trail that runs south from the Alpine Way, west of Thredbo Village.
The height of Tin Mine Falls is listed as or , and quote a story concerning the origin of this figure: "The falls were apparently measured in 1990 by a Dr. John Pease ... using a plumb line". According to the World Waterfall Database, Tin Mine Falls is the 462nd tallest waterfall in the world, with a total height of . Official data from Geoscience Australia list the most significant waterfalls in Australia as:
Wallaman Falls - Queensland, 305m
Wollomombi Falls - New South Wales, with a single drop
Ellenborough Falls - New South Wales in a single drop
Conclusions
The estimated height of corresponds with topography but contradicts Geoscience Australia's list of the tallest waterfalls in Australia (this would make Tin Mine Falls the 3rd highest on the continent). Unless the upper limit of the falls is fixed well upstream, to include a long section of shallow-slope non-bedrock streambed, the rumoured height of cannot be substantiated.
See also
List of waterfalls of New South Wales
References
Waterfalls of New South Wales
Cascade waterfalls
Kosciuszko National Park | [
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261991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutherland%20Falls | Sutherland Falls | Sutherland Falls is a waterfall near Milford Sound in New Zealand's South Island. At 580 metres (1,904 feet) the falls were long believed to be the tallest waterfall in New Zealand. Terror Falls, in the Poseidon Valley (nearby), are 750m, and Browne Falls cascades 843 metres (2,766 feet) down a mountainside in Doubtful Sound, leading some to view that as the tallest.
The water falls from Lake Quill in three cascades: the upper is 229 m tall, the middle is 248 m, and the lower is 103 m tall. A vertical fall of 580 m is made over 480 m of horizontal distance, thus the mean grade of falls is approximately 56 degrees.
The base of Sutherland Falls is a 90 minutes (return) walk from Quintin Public Shelter on the Milford Track.
Sutherland Falls are visible in the background of the eagle scene in Peter Jackson’s fantasy film The Hobbit.
History
Sutherland Falls was first known to Europeans when a Scottish settler, Donald Sutherland, saw them in 1880. He initially claimed the falls were over tall, which would have made them the highest in the world by far. Later surveys showed that this claim was significantly inflated, and they have been confirmed to actually be tall.
Lake Quill, which forms the source of the falls, was named for the first European explorer who climbed up the cliff face to find it in 1890.
References
External links
World of Waterfalls: Sutherland Falls
Waterfalls of Fiordland
Tiered waterfalls | [
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261993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochrome | Monochrome | A monochromic image is composed of one color (or values of one color). The term monochrome comes .
A monochromatic object or image reflects colors in shades of limited colors or hues. Images using only shades of grey (with or without black or white) are called grayscale or black-and-white. However, scientifically speaking, monochromatic light refers to visible light of a narrow band of wavelengths (see spectral color).
Application
Of an image, the term monochrome is usually taken to mean the same as black and white or, more likely, grayscale, but may also be used to refer to other combinations containing only tones of a single color, such as green-and-white or green-and-red. It may also refer to sepia displaying tones from light tan to dark brown or cyanotype ("blueprint") images, and early photographic methods such as daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes, each of which may be used to produce a monochromatic image.
In computing, monochrome has two meanings:
it may mean having only one color which is either on or off (also known as a binary image),
allowing shades of that color.
A monochrome computer display is able to display only a single color, often green, amber, red or white, and often also shades of that color.
In film photography, monochrome is typically the use of black-and-white film.
Originally, all photography was done in monochrome. Although color photography was possible even in the late 19th century, easily used color films, such as Kodachrome, were not available until the mid-1930s.
In digital photography, monochrome is the capture of only shades of black by the sensor, or by post-processing a color image to present only the perceived brightness by combining the values of multiple channels (usually red, blue, and green). The weighting of individual channels may be selected to achieve a desired artistic effect; if only the red channel is selected by the weighting then the effect will be similar to that of using a red filter on panchromatic film. If the red channel is eliminated and the green and blue combined then the effect will be similar to that of orthochromatic film or the use of a cyan filter on panchromatic film. The selection of weighting thus allows a wide range of artistic expression in the final monochromatic image.
For production of an anaglyph image the original color stereogram source may first be reduced to monochrome in order to simplify the rendering of the image. This is sometimes required in cases where a color image would render in a confusing manner given the colors and patterns present in the source image and the selection filters used (typically red and its complement, cyan).
In physics
In physics, monochromatic light is electromagnetic radiation of a single frequency. In the context of physics, no source of electromagnetic radiation is purely monochromatic, since that would require a wave of infinite duration as a consequence of the Fourier transform's localization property (cf. spectral coherence). Even very controlled sources such as lasers operate in a range of frequencies (known as the spectral linewidth). In practice, filtered light, diffraction grating separated light and laser light are all routinely referred to as monochromatic. Often light sources can be compared and one be labeled as “more monochromatic” (in a similar usage as monodispersity). A device which isolates a narrow band of frequencies from a broader-bandwidth source is called a monochromator, even though the bandwidth is often explicitly specified, and thus a collection of frequencies is understood.
See also
Duotone – the use of two ink colors in printing
Halftone – the use of black and white in a pattern that is perceived as shades of grey (may be extended also to color images)
Polychrome – of multiple colors, the opposite of monochrome
Monochromacy (color blindness)
Monochromatic color
Selective color – use of monochrome and color selectively within an image
Monochrome painting – monochromes in art
References
Color
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261994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Port%20Hudson | Siege of Port Hudson | The Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana, (May 22 – July 9, 1863) was the final engagement in the Union campaign to recapture the Mississippi River in the American Civil War.
While Union General Ulysses Grant was besieging Vicksburg upriver, General Nathaniel Banks was ordered to capture the lower Mississippi Confederate stronghold of Port Hudson, in order to go to Grant's aid. When his assault failed, Banks settled into a 48-day siege, the longest in US military history up to that point. A second attack also failed, and it was only after the fall of Vicksburg that the Confederate commander, General Franklin Gardner surrendered the port. The Union gained control of the river and navigation from the Gulf of Mexico through the Deep South and to the river's upper reaches.
Background
Strategy and politics on the Mississippi
From the time the American Civil War started in April 1861, both the U.S. and Confederates made controlling the Mississippi River a major part of their strategy. The Confederacy wanted to keep using the river to transport needed supplies; the Union wanted to stop this supply route and drive a wedge that would divide Confederate states and territories. Particularly important to the South was the stretch of the Mississippi that included the mouth of the Red River. The Red was the Confederacy's primary route for moving vital supplies between east and west: salt, cattle, and horses traveled downstream from the Trans-Mississippi West; in the opposite direction flowed men and munitions from the east.
In the spring and early summer of 1862, the Union advanced their control of the Mississippi from both the north and the south. From the mouth of the river, a fleet commanded by Flag Officer David G. Farragut fought its way through Confederate fortifications in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, resulting in the capture of New Orleans. A second Union fleet commanded by Charles H. Davis occupied Memphis, Tennessee, after defeating Confederate riverine forces in Battle of Memphis. To make sure it could continue to use the middle section of the river, the South fortified positions at both Vicksburg and Port Hudson.
The initial idea of fortifying the heights of Port Hudson came from the south's master of fixed defenses, General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, Commander, Army of the Mississippi. Writing to Major General Mansfield Lovell, Commander of the lower Mississippi in March 1862, Beauregard recommended, "...the fortification of Port Hudson as a measure of precaution against the fall of our defenses north of Memphis." In June 1862, Major General Earl Van Dorn wrote Jefferson Davis: "I want Baton Rouge and Port Hudson". A few days after the fall of Baton Rouge to the Union, Confederate General John C. Breckinridge with 4,000 men, carried out the wishes of General Van Dorn by occupying Port Hudson, situated between Baton Rouge and Bayou Sara, with troops under the command of General Daniel Ruggles. Soldiers of the 4th Louisiana Infantry arrived at the site on August 15, 1862.
According to historian John D. Winters, "Port Hudson, unlike Baton Rouge, was one of the strongest points on the river, and batteries placed upon the bluffs could command the entire river front." It was a position similar to that of Quebec City on the St. Lawrence River in the French and Indian War.
The political momentum behind the Union actions against Port Hudson came from the elections of November 1862. The Republican base, centered in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, had been shaken by embarrassing Democratic victories. A dramatic letter from Indiana Governor Oliver P. Morton to Lincoln claimed that "The fate of the North-West is trembling in the balance." His implication was that unless the independent trade of Union states along the Ohio River was restored by Union control of the entire Mississippi, further breakup of the Union was possible. Morton believed the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were in danger of breaking away from the Northeast to join the Confederacy, which was increasingly becoming the more lucrative opportunity. In addition, the southern areas of these states had been settled by people from the South, many of whom maintained their identification with that region and its culture.
The threat of political fractures galvanized the Lincoln administration into action. Major General Nathanial Banks was diverted from a possible expedition to Texas and given Benjamin Butler's command of the Department of the Gulf. The Union commander of all armies, Henry Wager Halleck, said to Banks that President Lincoln "regards the opening of the Mississippi River as the first and most important of all our military and naval operations, and it is hoped that you will not lose a moment in accomplishing it." On December 4, 1862, Banks and his expedition put to sea for New Orleans.
In May 1863, Union land and naval forces began a campaign they hoped would give them control of the full length of the Mississippi River. One army under Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant commenced operations against the Confederacy's fortified position at Vicksburg at the northern end of the stretch of the river still in Southern hands, while another army under Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks simultaneously attacked Port Hudson at the southern end.
Foundation of a fortress
Port Hudson was sited on an bluff on the east bank above a hairpin turn in the Mississippi River upriver from Baton Rouge. The hills and ridges in the area of the town represented extremely rough terrain, a maze of deep, thickly forested ravines, swamps, and cane brakes creating a natural fortress. The town was a port for shipping cotton and sugar downriver from the surrounding area. Despite its importance, the city had only a few buildings and 200 people at the start of the war. The river had shifted south and the docks had been moved about south.
In 1862, a railroad was constructed to the town of Clinton, to the northeast. The entire length of the Port Hudson and Clinton railroad was . It did not connect with the New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern railroad that connected Louisiana with other states and with Camp Moore, the main mustering point for Confederate forces in the department. Also by 1862 the railroad was run down, the track consisting of strips of iron nailed flat to rotten ties. The entire rolling stock consisted of one locomotive, one passenger car, and six box and flat cars. This train could accommodate only a few hundred troops at the most and was inadequate for hauling heavy guns and their ammunition. This lack of transport independent of the river would limit the defensibility of Port Hudson.
Initial plans for fortifications were drawn up with the assistance of Captain James Nocquet, chief engineer for General Breckinridge. Along with loaning his engineering staff, Breckinridge also authorized Ruggles to gather needed supplies and tools using the Clinton and Port Hudson railroad, and whatever labor the area could provide for construction. Three different layouts for earthworks were considered: a central fort mounting cannon supported by angled outworks, a line of lunettes arranged along a 400-yard line, and a continuous ring of redoubts, trenches, and parapets surrounding the entire position.
The first option was rejected for concentrating the positions armament into too small a target, and thus making it too vulnerable to bombardment. The third option was rejected because a siege was considered unlikely, and the task of building such extensive works too ambitious since the circumference of the ring would have been eight miles (13 km.) and required 35,000 men and 70 pieces of artillery for defense. The line of lunettes was determined to be the best plan for the defense of the Port Hudson heights, and construction started on a line of seven fronting the river.
General Breckinridge was soon ordered to take most of his troops to Kentucky, however, and on August 18 he left, leaving only 1,500 men to work on the fortifications under Ruggles's command. Ruggles did have a forty-two-pounder smoothbore cannon, which he mounted immediately, manned by former sailors of the CSS Arkansas, which had been destroyed in the Battle of Baton Rouge that year. Two thirty-two-pounders were shortly added from the abandoned wreck of the .
Union Navy assesses the defenses
General Ruggles was ordered to turn over command of Port Hudson to Brigadier General William Nelson Rector Beall on August 29, 1862, and take some of his troops to Mississippi. This was the day that the Union Navy began to contest the guns of Port Hudson for control of the Mississippi. The improvised Union gunboat USS Anglo-American, a wooden side-wheel steamboat, passed Port Hudson moving upriver to join with Commander David Dixon Porter's fleet at Vicksburg. Although struck many times by shot from Port Hudson, it was unable to return fire due to wet cartridges and an ammunition shortage. The Anglo-American joined Porter's fleet and reported the fortifications at Port Hudson.
Porter responded to the new threat by bombarding the Rebel position with the and the Anglo-American on September 7. The Union fleet did little damage to Port Hudson, but the Essex received significant damage. Porter reported 35 to 40 heavy guns at Port Hudson, a considerable exaggeration. During the lull in action when the Union delayed bringing more ships into the area, Beall slowly expanded the fortifications. This work was slowed because of interference from Union-controlled portions of the river and the inadequate rail and road system supporting his position. By this time, Confederate President Jefferson Davis realized that connecting the Port Hudson and Clinton railway to Jackson, Mississippi would be invaluable in allowing reserves to be switched between Vicksburg and Port Hudson, depending upon which was most threatened. A desperate shortage of iron and transport within the Confederacy made such construction impossible. Beall asked Davis to impose martial law in the region of Port Hudson in order to commandeer more workers for construction, but Davis denied this also.
Beall endeavored to set up a hospital at Centenary College at Jackson Louisiana for invalided troops from Port Hudson and Clinton, but the space proved inadequate. Confederate bureaucracy had made it difficult for Garrison Provost Marshal John C. Miller to construct a logistical system of warehouses and transports to supply the garrison with food, medical supplies, barracks, bedding, and other material necessary for their health. The use of earthworks for fortification, which required unending labor to maintain and were unhealthful to live in, also contributed to the poor health of the garrison.
Poor supply lines, starvation, and disease were to remain the constant problems of the Port Hudson position, and overwhelm efforts to improve conditions for the soldiers of the garrison. Louisiana Private Robert D. Patrick wrote: "...never since I have been in the army have I fared so badly and in truth I have been almost starved." At the same time commercial activity between Port Hudson and areas west of the Mississippi increased, because Port Hudson became the sole remaining link with the Trans-Mississippi. This tended to tie up even more of Port Hudson's limited transport facilities.
Change of commands
Lincoln's new commander of the Gulf, Nathaniel P. Banks, arrived in New Orleans on December 14, 1862, with the 31,000 men of his expedition. The former commander, Benjamin Butler left for Lowell, Massachusetts on December 24, but his 12,000 troops remained behind. This effectively more than doubled U.S. troop strength in the Gulf area. Banks ordered them to re-occupy Baton Rouge on December 17.
The Confederate command reacted to this increased Union commitment by sending a newly promoted major general to take command of Port Hudson. Major General Franklin Gardner arrived at his post on December 27, 1862. Gardner was a career Army officer who graduated from West Point 17th in his class in 1843. The native New Yorker commanded a cavalry brigade at Shiloh and was 39 years old at the time of his arrival. Upon taking command he reorganized the defenses at Port Hudson, concentrating the fields of fire of the heavy guns and rapidly setting up more earthworks by using packed earth and sod rather than the traditional gabions or sandbags.
Lacking an adequate engineering staff, he promoted Private Henry Glinder, formerly a member of the Coast Survey, to first lieutenant of engineers. He also increased the efficiency of the supply and storage operations, along with building protected roads within the defense system to speed the movement of troops to threatened positions. His energy in making improvements and promoting those worthy of command made him popular with his troops, and improved garrison morale. Despite the changes, Colonel Charles M. Fauntleroy, inspector-general for the department, criticized the fortifications for containing excessive numbers of civilians, badly placed magazines, poor transport and storage of grain, and no system for paying the troops on time.
As Gardner strengthened his command, and gathered reinforcements from Pemberton sent by steamboat from Vicksburg, Banks dithered in New Orleans. He had little faith in the system of organization and military government left by Butler's command and spent much time re-organizing the Union administration and establishing a more relaxed civil government to placate former Confederate backers in the city. Banks was a "political general" and felt more comfortable with political organizing and social affairs than leading armies into the field against reputedly formidable fortifications. This lack of military zeal was noted by his officers. Colonel Sidney A. Bean recorded in his diary that under Butler, "much was accomplished with small means. Now nothing is accomplished with great means." The Union leader most offended by this apparent inertia was Rear Admiral David G. Farragut of the U.S. Navy. Although Banks reluctantly agreed to move against Port Hudson, his slow progress and the increased Rebel activity on the Mississippi in the area of Port Hudson caused Farragut's patience to run out. In March 1863 Farragut prepared to confront Port Hudson without Army support.
Farragut's fleet defies Port Hudson
Farragut had gathered his attack force by March 13, 1863. This fleet consisted of four principal warships and three gunboats. The principal warships were the sloops-of-war , , and and the steam paddle frigate . The gunboats were , , and . Farragut commanded this fleet from his flagship, Hartford. The first six vessels were lashed together in an attack column of pairs, with Mississippi bringing up the rear by herself.
Farragut had made fairly elaborate preparations of the vessels themselves for a night attack resembling the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Phillip, clearing the ships for action, whitewashing the gun decks to improve visibility for night action, and bringing up mortar boats for support. He also had the anchor chains of the attacking ships lashed to the sides of the attack ships as improvised armor. He did not however, make the systematic survey of defenses and sustained bombardment that supported the battle for the passage of the forts guarding New Orleans.
The Confederate fortress was ready for the attack, having noticed increased naval activity downriver, and the ranging shots of the six mortar schooners which covered the advance of the Union fleet near Prophets Island, three miles (4.3 km) downriver from Port Hudson. At this time the Confederates had over twenty cannon covering the river arranged in eleven batteries of artillery, including nine batteries of heavy coastal artillery. Lieutenant Colonel Marshall J. Smith commanded these heavy guns, and had instructed the gun crews of his plans before the battle.
Battery Number Seven was a heated shot position, using ammunition particularly effective against wooden warships. Other preparations included preparing piles of pine wood to be ignited to illuminate the river for night action, and observation posts near the river to fire rockets to warn of the approach of enemy vessels. The first of these rockets was fired at 11:20 pm on March 14, 1863, at the approach of Farragut's fleet. Instantly an eight-inch (203-mm) smoothbore shell from Battery 9 was fired at Albatross, beginning the battle. The Union fleet advanced steadily upriver, beginning a general fire of broadsides as soon as their guns bore on the lower Confederate batteries on the Port Hudson slopes. The heavier Confederate guns, mounted over the walls of the seven lunettes on the crest of the bluffs, had difficulty aiming at the ships, which were hugging the shorelines of the bluffs in order to avoid shoals on the western shore near the curve of the river north of Port Hudson.
Coarse black powder was the artillery propellant of the period, and produced dense clouds of white smoke when fired from cannon. Combined with the smoke of the pine wood illumination fires, and the darkness of the night attack, the river valley was rapidly obscured. Blinded by the dense smoke, Hartford and Albatross ran aground on the eastern shore beneath the Rebel batteries. Despite remaining aground for ten minutes, the two lashed-together lead ships had passed the last Confederate gun position by 12:15 am and were out of range of Port Hudson by 12:45 am.
The rest of the fleet was not so lucky. Genesee and Richmond were next in the column. A trick of the wind cleared the smoke momentarily between the batteries and the ships, and Richmond was hammered by Rebel shot and shell. Just as Richmond made the turn in the river north of Port Hudson, a 6.4-inch (163 mm) solid conical shot tore through the starboard side, smashing both port and starboard boiler safety valves. This cut power to the engines and filled the ship with clouds of escaping steam. Genesee alone did not have enough power to stem the current, and both ships drifted back downriver.
Monongahela and Kineo were next in the column, and, also blinded by smoke, ran aground on the western shore. The impact separated the two ships. The stress of backing off the shore disabled Monongahelas engine, and a thirty-two-pounder (14.5 kg) round shot split Kineos rudder post, disabling her steering. Both ships drifted downriver.
Mississippi was last in line and also ran aground on the western shore. The large steam paddle frigate was an irresistible target, and was riddled with shot, shell, and hot shot. The vessel being afire in many places, with flames endangering the magazine, Captain Smith ordered her abandoned. The garrison of Port Hudson cheered loudly as the ship went up in flames and drifted loose from the shore and back downriver at about 3 am, panicking the remainder of the Union fleet downriver at the threat of her magazine exploding. At 5:05 am Mississippi disappeared in a terrific explosion, seen in New Orleans nearly 80 miles (129 km.) downriver.
Though Hartford and Albatross passed upriver to blockade the Red River, General Gardner and the Port Hudson garrison regarded the battle as a victory. They had sustained only three enlisted men killed and three officers and nineteen men wounded, compared to the seventy-eight killed or missing and thirty-five wounded on the Union fleet. The blockade of the Red River also had little effect on the strength of the Port Hudson position.
Banks's army moves against the fortress
After the naval attack, Banks retreated the 17,000 troops he had intended as a diversion to support Farragut back to Baton Rouge. The lack of an attack against Port Hudson, and a powerful rainstorm endured on the retreat lowered morale in the Union force. Other than sporadic naval bombardments against Port Hudson, Banks, under pressure from Washington to show progress, launched a campaign against Major General Taylor's Confederate forces in western Louisiana and gained control of Alexandria and a foothold on the Red River. What finally brought him to leading an attack directly against Port Hudson was the prospect of reinforcements from Grant's army arrayed against Vicksburg, and word that a significant part of the Port Hudson garrison had been sent to Pemberton in Vicksburg.
On May 11, 1863, the 3rd Louisiana Native Guards, one of Butler's black regiments, began building bridges to support the movement of Banks's forces against Port Hudson. Leading the advance was the cavalry brigade of Colonel Benjamin Henry Grierson, which had joined Banks's forces on May second after their famous raid through the Rebel lines. The entire advance involved a pincer movement with three army divisions advancing from the northwest from Bayou Sara meeting two divisions advancing from the south from Baton Rouge. The meeting of the two groups would surround Port Hudson.
One of Banks's lead divisions from Baton Rouge encountered Confederates on May 21 at the Battle of Plains Store. The Confederates were driven back, and by May 22, Banks's forces, which increased in strength from 30,000 to 40,000 men as the operation progressed, had completed an investment of the Port Hudson defenses. Banks hoped to overrun the entrenchments quickly, then take his army northward to assist Grant at Vicksburg.
Opposing forces
Union
Confederate
The fighting and siege
The first infantry assault
Sieges and the assault of fortified positions are probably the most complex and demanding of military operations. The foremost authority on these matters at the time of the civil war was still the seventeenth century French engineer, the Marquis de Vauban, who designed many European fortification systems, and organized many successful sieges. The Confederate earthworks of Port Hudson, and their use of artillery lunettes show his influence.
General Gardner reinforced the picket lines shielding the Confederate grain mill and support shops of the areas near Little Sandy Creek, previously left unfortified because he had not considered a siege probable. Other Confederate troops remained outside the fortifications, consisting of 1200 troops under the command of Colonel John L. Logan. These represented all of Gardner's cavalry, the 9th Louisiana Battalion, Partisan Rangers, and two artillery pieces of Robert's battery. These troops slowed the encirclement of Banks troops, and prevented them from discovering the weaknesses in the defenses. Due to these delays, the infantry assault was scheduled for May 27, 1863, five days after the encirclement and time enough for Gardner to complete the ring of defenses around Port Hudson. He also had sufficient time to move artillery from the river side of the fort to the east side fronting the Federal forces.
Weitzel's morning attacks
Banks had set up his headquarters at Riley's plantation and planned the attacks with his staff and division commanders. Many were opposed to the idea of trying to overwhelm the fort with a simple assault, but Banks wanted to end the siege as quickly as possible in order to support Grant, and felt that the 30,000 troops available to him would easily force the surrender of the 7,500 troops under Gardner, a four to one advantage. Four different assault groups were organized, under the commands of generals Godfrey Weitzel, Cuvier Grover, Christopher C. Augur, and Thomas W. Sherman (often mistakenly identified as a relative of General William Tecumseh Sherman). Banks did not choose a specific time for his intended simultaneous assault however, ordering his commanders to "...commence at the earliest hour practicable."
The effect of this was to break up the attack, with generals Weitzel and Grover attacking on the north and northeast sides of the fort at dawn, and generals Augur and Sherman attacking on the east and southeast sides at noon. The naval bombardment began the night before the attack, the 13" (330 mm) mortars firing most of the evening, and the upper and lower fleets beginning firing for an hour after 7 am. The army land batteries also fired an hour bombardment after 5:30 am. Weitzel's two divisions began the attack at 6 am on the north, advancing through the densely forested ravines bordering the valley of Little Sandy Creek. This valley led the assault into a salient formed by a fortified ridge known as the "bull pen" where the defenders slaughtered cattle, and a lunette on a ridge nicknamed "Fort Desperate" which had been hastily improvised to protect the fort's grain mill.
At the end of this ravine between the two was a hill described as "commissary hill" with an artillery battery mounted on it. The Union troops were caught in a crossfire from these three positions, and held in place by dense vegetation and obstacles placed by rebel troops that halted their advance. The combination of rugged terrain, a crossfire from three sides, and rebel sharpshooters inflicted many casualties. The Union troops advancing west of the bull pen were made up of Fearing's brigade. These soldiers were caught between the bull pen, which had been reinforced with the 14th, 18th, and 23rd Arkansas regiments from the east side of Port Hudson, and a more western fortified ridge manned by Lieutenant Colonel M. B. Locke's Alabama troops. Once again the combination of steep sided ravines, dense vegetation, and a rebel crossfire from ridge top trenches halted the Union advance. Premature shell bursts from the supporting artillery of the 1st Maine Battery also caused Union casualties.
Seeing that his advance had been stopped, Brigadier General William Dwight ordered the 1st and 3rd Louisiana Native Guard forward into the attack. These troops were not intended to take part in the attack due to the general prejudice against African-American troops on the part of the Union high command. Dwight was determined to break through the Confederate fortifications however, and committed them to the attack at 10 am. Since they had been deployed as pioneers, working on the pontoon bridge over Big Sandy Creek near its junction with the Mississippi, these troops were in the worst possible position for an attack of all the units in Weitzel's northern assault group.
The Guard first had to advance over the pontoon bridge, along Telegraph Road with a fortified ridge to their left manned by William B. Shelby's 39th Mississippi troops supported by a light artillery battery, the Confederate heavy artillery batteries to their front, and the Mississippi river to their immediate left. Despite the heavy crossfire from rifles, field artillery, and heavy coast guns, the Louisiana Native Guards advanced with determination and courage, led by Captain Andre Cailloux, a free black citizen of New Orleans. Giving orders in English and French, Cailloux led the Guard regiments forward until killed by artillery fire. Taking heavy losses, the attackers were forced to retreat to avoid annihilation. This fearless advance did much to dissipate the belief that black troops were unreliable under fire.
In an attempt to support Weitzel's unsuccessful assault, Brigadier Grover, commanding the northeast attack on the fortress, sent two of his regiments along the road leading northeast from Commissary Hill to assault Fort Desperate. This group had no more success than Weitzel's troops, so Grover sent three more regiments to attack the stubborn 15th Arkansas troops defending the fort. These piecemeal and sporadic efforts were also futile, and the fighting ended on the northern edge of the fortress by noon.
Thomas Sherman's afternoon attacks
While the infantry attacks raged against the northern section of the fortress, Brigadier General Sherman lined up 30 cannon opposite the eastern side of the fortress and conducted a steady bombardment of the rebel works and battery positions, supported by sharpshooters aiming for Confederate artillery crews. This effort had some success, but General Banks, upon hearing no rifle fire from the Union center, visited Sherman's headquarters and threatened to relieve him of command unless he advanced his troops. Sherman then began the attack on the eastern edge of the Port Hudson works at about 2 pm.
These attacks included the troops of Augur as well as his own, and had less in the way of natural terrain obstacles to contend with, but in this area the Confederates had more time to construct fortifications, and had put more effort and firepower into them. One feature of the earthworks in this region was a dry moat and more abatis or cut down trees in front of the parapet. The Union attackers therefore carried axes, poles, planks, cotton bags and fascines to fill in the ditch. Another feature of the rebel defense was a battery containing two 24-pounder smoothbore (5.82-inch, 148 mm bore) as canister throwers.
In this case the canister was composed of broken chains, segments of railroad rails, and other scrap iron. Confederate Colonel William R. Miles, commanding the infantry in the sector, had also removed all the rifles from the hospital that had been left by the sick and wounded. He was thus able to equip each of his soldiers with three weapons, greatly increasing their firepower. When the Union infantry closed within 200 yards they were met by a hail of rifle and canister fire, and few made it within 70 yards of the Confederate lines. Union commanders Sherman and Dow were wounded in these attacks, and Lieutenant Colonel James O'Brien, commanding the pioneer group, was killed. At 5 pm the commander of the 159th New York raised a white flag to signal a truce to remove the wounded and dead from the field. This ended the fighting for the day. None of the Union attacks had even made it to the Confederate parapets.
The last infantry attack on the Port Hudson fortifications
The successful defense of their lines brought a renewed confidence to Gardner and his garrison. They felt though a combination of well planned defensive earthworks and the skillful and deliberate reinforcement of threatened areas, the superior numbers of attackers had been repulsed. Learning from his experience, Gardner organized a more methodical system of defense. This involved dividing the fortifications into a network of defense zones, with an engineering officer in charge of strengthening the defense in each area. For the most part this involved once again charting the best cross fire for artillery positions, improving firepower concentrations, and digging protective pits to house artillery when not in use, to protect them from enemy bombardment.
Spent bullets and scrap metal were sewed into shirtsleeves to make up canister casings for the artillery, and the heavy coast guns facing the river that had center pivot mounts were cleared for firing on Union positions on the eastern side of the fortress. Three of these guns were equipped for this, and one columbiad in Battery Four was so effective in this that Union troops referred to it as the "Demoralizer." Its fearful reputation spawned the myth that it was mounted on a railroad car, and could fire from any position in the fortifications. Captain L.J. Girard was placed in charge of the function of the artillery, and despite material shortages, achieved miracles in keeping the artillery functional. Rifles captured from the enemy or taken from hospitalized soldiers were stacked for use by troops in the trench lines.
Positions in front of the lines were land mined with unexploded 13-inch (330 mm)mortar shells, known as "torpedoes" at the time. Sniper positions were also prepared at high points in the trench works for sharpshooters. These methods improved the defense, but could not make up for the fact that the garrison was short of everything except gunpowder. The food shortage was a drag on morale, and resulted in a significant level of desertion to the enemy. This drain on manpower was recorded by Colonel Steedman who wrote, "Our most serious and annoying difficulty is the unreliable character of a portion of our Louisiana troops. Many have deserted to the enemy, giving him information of our real condition; yet in the same regiments we have some of our ablest officers and men." Miles Louisiana Legion was considered the greatest offender.
On the Union side, astonishment and chagrin were near universal in reaction to the decisive defeat of the infantry assaults. Banks was determined to continue the siege in view of the fact that his political as well as military career would be destroyed by a withdrawal to Baton Rouge. The resources of his entire command were called into play, and men and material poured into the Union encirclement. Nine additional regiments appeared in the lines by June 1. 89 field guns were brought into action, and naval guns from the USS Richmond were added to the siege guns bearing on the fortress. These six naval guns were 9-inch (229 mm) Dahlgren smoothbores. The guns were originally intended for a battery at the Head of Passes in the Mississippi Delta. The fact that four were finally emplaced in Battery Number 10, just east of "Fort Desperate" and two in Number 24, gives some idea of the reach and progress of the Union Navy. Each of the Dahlgren guns weighed 9020 pounds and was 9 feet long, capable of firing a 73.5 pound (33.3 kg) exploding shell.
The second assault began with a sustained shelling of the Confederate works beginning at 11:15 am on June 13, 1863, and lasting an hour. Banks then sent a message to Gardner demanding the surrender of his position. Gardner's reply was, "My duty requires me to defend this position, and therefore I decline to surrender". Banks continued the bombardment for the night, but only gave the order for what was to be a simultaneous three prong infantry attack on 1 am of June 14. The attack finally began at 3:30 am, but the lack of any agreed upon plan, and a heavy fog disordered the attack as it began. Grover's column struck the Confederate line at "Fort Desperate" before the others, and the same formidable terrain combined with the enhanced Confederate defense stopped the attacks outside the rebel works. Auger's demonstration at the center arrived after the main attack had failed, and the attack on the southern end of the line was made after daylight, and stood little chance as a result. The infantry attack had only resulted in even more dead and wounded soldiers, 1,792 casualties against 47 rebel, including division commander Brig. Gen. Halbert E. Paine. He led the main attack and fell wounded, losing a leg. After this, the actions against Port Hudson were reduced to bombardment and siege.
Last stages of the siege, June 15 to July 9, 1863
The day after the last infantry assault, General Banks assembled some of his troops at the corps headquarters and thanked them for their previous efforts and sacrifices. He also asked for volunteers for a special attack group to be trained intensively to breach the Confederate trench line. His speech generated little enthusiasm, but a unit of 1036 men was formed and removed to a training camp in the rear to prepare for the attack. There they assembled siege ladders and organized into two battalions, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John B. Van Petten and Lieutenant Colonel A. S. Bickmore. Colonel Henry Warner Birge of the 13th Connecticut Infantry volunteered to lead the special assault regiment.
Regular siege operations were also reorganized under the command of a new chief engineer, Captain John C. Palfrey. He concentrated the efforts of the siege on three areas of the fortifications, Fort Desperate, the Priest Cap (Confederate batteries 14 & 15), and the Citadel, the southernmost bastion of the fortifications, nicknamed by Union forces as "the Devil's Elbow". These efforts did not involve infantry rushing the trenches, but a siege technique called sapping, or constructing a series of zigzag trenches, fortified batteries, and sharpshooter positions intended to isolate and suppress individual defensive bastions. The sharpshooter or sniper positions were described at the time as trench cavaliers and were raised mounds of earth, reinforced with timbers or other materials to allow riflemen to overlook the enemy trenches and fire down into them.
The Citadel was to be reduced by a powerful siege battery constructed on a hill just to the south, Union battery number 24, intended to suppress the Confederate position by superior firepower. Union batteries were also constructed on the west bank of the Mississippi opposite Port Hudson, completely surrounding it with Union artillery batteries. Union forces also made raids on opposing trenches and batteries, to enhance their own trench lines or disable enemy batteries. Some of the 6th Michigan troops opposite the Citadel were armed with the .54 caliber (14 mm) breech-loading Merrill carbine, which gave them a rapid fire edge in trench raids. On June 26, a general bombardment from Union batteries and guns of the Union fleet began, disabling or suppressing what remained of the Confederate artillery. Along with the trenching operations, the Federals also constructed three mines underneath the opposing works, two of them directed against the Priest Cap, and one under the Citadel. After the mines were finished, chambers at the end of the mines would be loaded with powder, and exploded under the Confederate works, destroying them, and blowing gaps in the trench lines. At this point an infantry assault would be launched, hopefully overrunning the entire fortification.
The Confederates responded to the siege techniques with increased efforts of their own. The grist mill at Fort Desperate had been destroyed by shelling. It was replaced by using the locomotive from the defunct railroad to power millstones, providing a steady supply of cornmeal for the garrison. Expended rifle and artillery shells were salvaged for reuse by the defense, small arms shot being recast for making new cartridges, artillery rounds reused and distributed to Confederate artillery of the same caliber, or reused as mines and grenades. Additional trench lines, obstacles, mines, and bunkers were added to the threatened bastions, making them more difficult to bombard, infiltrate, or overrun. The Priest Cap bastion had a particularly elaborate defense system, including the use of telegraph wire staked up to a height of , in order to trip attacking infantry. Additional field artillery and infantry were added to the defense of Fort Desperate, making sapping in that area more costly.
Various raids against Union saps were also conducted. On June 26, the Confederates launched a trench raid by the 16th Arkansas Infantry against the Priest Cap sap, taking seven prisoners, and capturing weapons and supplies. Rebel trench raiders and defenders were adept at constructing and using improvised hand grenades. Raids by Logan's cavalry were also made against Union positions outside the siege lines. On June 3 an advance by Grierson's Union cavalry against Logan's position at Clinton was repulsed. The 14th New York Cavalry was hit on June 15 near Newport, two miles from Port Hudson. Other raids struck Union foraging parties returning from Jackson, Louisiana, and captured the Union General Neal Dow, who was convalescing at Heath plantation. The biggest raid set fire to the Union supply center at Springfield Landing on July 2. These raids were annoying to Banks, but could not break the siege. On July 3, a countermine was exploded near one of the Federal mines under the Priests Cap. This collapsed the mine, but surprisingly did not cause any Union casualties. The defenders could not compensate for the constant losses of personnel resulting from starvation, disease, particularly scurvy, dysentery, and malaria, sniping, shell fragments, sunstroke and desertion. The use of mule meat and rats as rations could not maintain the health of the soldiers left standing, and was a further drain on morale.
The siege created hardships and deprivations for both the North and South, but by early July the Confederates were in much worse shape. They had exhausted practically all of their food supplies and ammunition, and fighting and disease had greatly reduced the number of men able to defend the trenches. When Maj. Gen. Gardner learned that Vicksburg had surrendered on July 4, 1863, he realized that his situation was hopeless and that nothing could be gained by continuing. The terms of surrender were negotiated, and on July 9, 1863, the Confederates laid down their weapons, ending 48 days of continuous fighting. It had been the longest siege in US military history.
Captain Thornton A. Jenkins accepted the Confederate surrender, as Admiral David Farragut was in New Orleans.
Aftermath
The surrender and that of Vicksburg gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River and its major tributaries, severing communications and trade between the eastern and western states of the Confederacy.
Both sides had suffered heavy casualties: between 4,700 and 5,200 Union men were casualties, and an additional 4,000 fell prey to disease or sunstroke; Gardner's forces suffered around 900 casualties, from battle losses and disease. Banks granted lenient terms to the Port Hudson garrison. The enlisted men were paroled to their homes, with transport for the sick and lightly wounded. Seriously sick or wounded were placed under Union medical care. 5,935 men and civilian employees of the Confederate Army were officially paroled. 405 officers were not paroled and were sent as prisoners to Memphis and New Orleans, half eventually winding up in Johnson's Island prison camp in Ohio. Since the terms of the parole were not in agreement with parole conditions acceptable to the Union and Confederate armies then current, the Confederate Army furloughed the returned troops until September 15, 1863, then returned them to duty. This outraged some leaders of the Union army, but General Halleck, in charge of US armies, admitted the paroles were in error.
The reputation of black soldiers in Union service was enhanced by the siege. The advance of the Louisiana Guard on May 27 had gained much coverage in northern newspapers. The attack was repulsed, due to its hasty implementation, but was bravely carried out in spite of the hopeless magnitude of opposing conditions. This performance was noted by the army leadership. In a letter home, Captain Robert F. Wilkinson wrote, "One thing I am glad to say, that is that the black troops at P. Hudson fought & acted superbly. The theory of negro inefficiency is, I am very thankful at last thoroughly exploded by facts. We shall shortly have a splendid army of thousands of them." General Banks also noted their performance in his official report, stating, "The severe test to which they were subjected, and the determined manner in which they encountered the enemy, leaves upon my mind no doubt of their ultimate success." These reports had an impact far from Louisiana, or the Union army. On June 11, 1863, an editorial from the influential and widely read New York Times stated, "They were comparatively raw troops, and were yet subjected to the most awful ordeal... The men, white or black, who will not flinch from that, will flinch from nothing. It is no longer possible to doubt the bravery and steadiness of the colored race, when rightly led." These observations did much to support abolitionist efforts in the northeast to recruit free blacks for the Union armed services. By the end of the war nearly 200,000 blacks had served in the Union forces.
A significant result of the siege was the blow it gave Banks's political ambitions. If Banks had overrun the position in May, he could then have taken command of Grant's siege of Vicksburg as the ranking officer and appeared a hero. This would have redeemed his military reputation, and bolstered his political hopes for a presidential candidacy. Since Vicksburg fell before Port Hudson, Grant reaped the promotions and reputation for victory in the west, and eventually attained the White House, Banks's cherished ambition. As it was, Banks had to settle for setting up cotton deals for his northeast constituency, and arrange political alliances for a new state government aligned with Union and Republican interests in mind. He was quite experienced in this kind of scheming, and in the absence of military opportunities, economic advantages beckoned. Banks's armies had gathered $3 million worth of livestock and supplies while engaged in operations in western Louisiana in the spring of 1863. This bounty impressed Banks, and it was also estimated that vast stores of cotton and many Union sympathizers were waiting on the Red River in eastern Texas. In response to these observations, Banks produced his one third holding plan, the idea of re-opening trade with Europe, and diverting one third of the proceeds for the Federal Treasury. This economic bonanza would once again revive his political prospects, and justify the beginning of the Red River Campaign, a military expedition into eastern Texas, the next step in military operations in Louisiana.
After the war, a small number of former soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions at Port Hudson, including George Mason Lovering of the 4th Massachusetts, and future Wyoming Governor, Francis E. Warren of the 49th Massachusetts.
Battlefield preservation
The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 256 acres of the Port Hudson Battlefield. (Port Hudson State Historic Site: steep riverside terraces with original artillery emplacements. Museum with displays and maps.)
See also
Port Hudson State Historic Site
Port Hudson National Cemetery
Notes
Footnotes
Abbreviations used in these notes
Official atlas: Atlas to accompany the official records of the Union and Confederate armies.
ORA (Official records, armies): War of the Rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies.
ORN (Official records, navies): Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion.
References
This text is partially based upon The Siege of Port Hudson: "Forty Days and Nights in the Wilderness of Death", a lesson plan written by Gregg Potts and Arthur W. Bergeron, Jr., for the National Park Service. This is a work of the U.S. Government and is in the public domain.
Banks, Raymond H. The King of Louisiana, 1862–1865, and Other Government Work: A Biography of Major General Nathaniel Prentice Banks. Las Vegas, NV: R. H. Banks, 2005. Chapters 27–35 .
Kennedy, Frances H., ed., The Civil War Battlefield Guide, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998, .
CWSAC Report Update
Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. .
Further reading
External links
Map of Port Hudson and its Defences Captain L.J. Fremaux, Chief Engineer, October 30, 1862.
National Park Service battle description
Louisiana State Historic Site
This site includes John D. Deforests first-hand account of a Union regiment at Port Hudson
The Siege of Port Hudson: "Forty Days and Nights in the Wilderness of Death", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Photographs of Louisiana during the Civil War. Compiled by Sgt. Marshall Dunham of the 159th New York Regiment. Select Search items in this Collection and enter Port Hudson in the exact phrase option: photograph collection
Certificate with illustration of the Charge on Port Hudson and roster of Company I of the 156th Regiment, New York Volunteer Infantry (Civil War item in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database)
James A. Goble Diary (containing a narrative of the siege written by a soldier in the First Alabama Infantry), W. S. Hoole Special Collections Library, The University of Alabama Libraries
Port Hudson
Port Hudson
East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana
East Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
July 1863 events
June 1863 events
May 1863 events
Military operations of the American Civil War in Louisiana
Port Hudson
Riverine warfare
Port Hudson
Port Hudson | [
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261995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrammelech | Adrammelech | Adrammelech (; Adramélekh) is an ancient Semitic god mentioned briefly by name in the Book of Kings, where he is described as a god of "Sepharvaim". Sepharvaim (a word which is grammatically dual) is commonly, but not certainly, identified with the twin cities of Sippar Yahrurum and Sippar Amnanum on the banks of the Euphrates, north of Babylon. The name Adrammelech probably translates to "Magnificent king."
(An unrelated person with the name of Adrammelech is described in Hebrew writings as a son and murderer of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, in and Isaiah 37:38. He was known in the Akkadian language as Arda-Mulissu, and was the rebellious son of Sennacherib.)
Historical background
Biblical account
reports: "The Sepharvites burned their children in the fire as sacrifices to Adrammelech and Anammelech, the gods of Sepharvaim" (NIV). The Sepharvites are given as a people deported by the Assyrians to Samaria. Adrammelech and the god Anammelech (about whom likewise little is known) are again seemingly alluded to in : "Where are the gods of Hamath and Arpad? Where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena and Ivvah? Have they rescued Samaria from my hand?" (NIV). has an almost identical passage.
Interpretation
According to A. R. Millard, Saul Olyan, and others, Adrammelech likely represents an original ʾAddîr-meleḵ, "majestic king" or "the majestic one is king". Cognate ʾAddîr-milk, along with similar Milk-ʾaddîr (with the morphemes inverted) and Baʿal-ʾaddîr ("majestic master" or "majestic Baal"), is recorded in ancient Semitic sources as an epithet of Baal, or a baal.
Adrammelech is commonly understood as a companion of Anammelech, due to their association in 2 Kings 17, the similarity of their names, and the similarity of their worship through child sacrifice.
Before the identification with epigraphic ʾAddîr-milk, various attempts (since generally rejected) were made to interpret the origin of the name Adrammelech.
The reconstructed form *Adar-malik (or the variant *Adru-malku) was once almost universally accepted as the original Akkadian form of the name. For example, Eberhard Schrader wrote in 1885:
Peter Jensen proposed in the late nineteenth century that (ʾAḏrammeleḵ, "Adrammelech") was a manuscript error for (*ʾĂḏaḏmeleḵ, "*Adadmelech"), due to the typographical similarity of (r) and (d), which Jensen thought was a variant of unrecorded (*Ḥăḏaḏmeleḵ, "King Hadad" or "Hadad is king"), thus identifying Adrammelech with the Canaanite god Hadad. Adad is in fact recorded as a variant of Hadad; but Millard writes: "If the Sepharvites were of Aramean or Phoenician origin, it is very unlikely that the name of their god would have lost its initial h, unless the Hebrew authors of Kings copied the information from a cuneiform text in Babylonian, which would not express it."
At the turn of the century, William Muss-Arnolt suggested that ʾAḏrammeleḵ could represent his own reconstructed Akkadian *Atra-malik, comparing the form to the names Atra-ḫasis and *(A)tar-ilu, writing, "Atra-malik would probably yield ."
In the Talmud
From the Jewish Encyclopedia:
Demonology
Like many pagan gods, Adrammelech is considered a demon in some Judeo-Christian traditions. So he appears in Milton's Paradise Lost, where he is a fallen angel who, along with Asmodeus, is vanquished by Uriel and Raphael. According to Collin de Plancy's book on demonology, Infernal Dictionary, Adrammelech became the President of the Senate of the demons. He is also the Chancellor of Hell and supervisor of Satan's wardrobe. He is generally depicted with a human torso, a mule's head, a peacock tail, and the limbs of a mule or peacock.
In the Ars Goetia, he was known as Andrealphus.
In fiction
A poet's description of Adrammelech (spelled Adramelech as in Greek) can be found in Robert Silverberg's short story "Basileus". He is described as "The enemy of God, greater in ambition, guile and mischief than Satan. A fiend more curst—a deeper hypocrite."
An attempt to summon Adrammelech (spelled Adramelech throughout) is central to the plot of Graham Masterton's 1978 horror novel "The Devils of D Day".
See also
Anammelech
Baal
Christian demons in popular culture
List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
References
Books of Kings
Deities in the Hebrew Bible
Mesopotamian gods
Demons in Christianity
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261996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Congress | USS Congress | USS Congress may refer to:
, was a galley built on Lake Champlain, which served as flagship in the Battle of Valcour Island
, was a 28-gun frigate built under authority of an act of the Second Continental Congress dated 13 December 1775
, was a 38-gun sailing frigate launched in 1799 and in service periodically until she was broken up in 1834
, was a 52-gun frigate launched in 1841 and destroyed by the ironclad CSS Virginia in 1862
, was a screw sloop in commission from 1870 to 1876
, was a patrol vessel in commission from 1918 to 1919
, a proposed guided missile frigate
United States Navy ship names | [
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261998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belphegor | Belphegor | In Christian demonology, Belphegor (or Beelphegor, Báʿal-pəʿór - Lord of the Gap) is a demon, and one of the seven princes of Hell. In later Kabbalah Belphegor is a demon who helps people make discoveries. He seduces people by suggesting to them ingenious inventions that will make them rich, stagnating that which could not be accredited to it.
Bishop and witch-hunter Peter Binsfeld believed that Belphegor tempts by means of laziness. Also, according to Peter Binsfeld's Binsfeld's Classification of Demons, Belphegor is the chief demon of the deadly sin known as Sloth in Christian tradition.
Literature
The novella by Italian diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli was first published in 1549, and regales how the demon comes to earth to find a mate.
Belphegor figures in Paradise Lost by John Milton, 1667.
According to the 1818 by Collin de Plancy Belphegor was Hell's ambassador to France. The same claim was repeated by Victor Hugo in Toilers of the Sea (1866).
In the grimoire Key of Solomon translated into English by S.L. Mathers in 1889, Belphegor is listed near the end of the book as an Assyrian idol, now destroyed.
The novella by Machiavelli became the basis for the opera Belfagor by Ottorino Respighi, which premiered at La Scala in Milan in 1923.
In popular culture
The PZL M-15 Belphegor, a 1970s Polish utility airplane, was named after the demon, due to its strange look and the noise of its jet engine
Belphegor appears as a young human male in the final season of the TV show Supernatural played by Alexander Calvert.
Belphegor is a recurring demon/persona in the Megami Tensei and video game series
Belphegor is the youngest demon brother in the otome game Obey Me. He appears as the avatar of sloth and the twin brother of Beelzebub.
Belphegor is a blackened death metal band.
Belphegor is the Storm Officer of the Varia in the Anime and Manga series, Hatekyo Hitman Reborn. He is also known as 'Prince the Ripper'.
Belphegor is the name one of the heretical gods, more specifically that of yellow luxin and sloth, in the Lightbringer saga by Brent Weeks.
Belphegor is a random demon/monster encounter in the Square Enix game Final Fantasy IV.
Belphegor is a young female demon in the series As Miss Beelzebub Likes. One of the main characters, and the love interest of Azazel.
References
Baal
Demons in Christianity | [
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262002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat%20of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party | Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party | The Central Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party, officially the Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of China, is a body serving the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party and its Standing Committee. The secretariat is mainly responsible for carrying out routine operations of the Politburo and the coordination of organizations and stakeholders to achieve tasks as set out by the Politburo. It is empowered by the Politburo to make routine day-to-day decisions on issues of concern in accordance to the decisions of the Politburo, but it must consult the Politburo on substantive matters.
The secretariat was set up in January 1934. It is nominally headed by the General Secretary, though the position of "General Secretary" was not always one and the same as the top party leader. Secretaries of the secretariat (Shujichu Shuji) are considered some of the most important political positions in the Communist Party and in contemporary China more generally. Each secretary of the secretariat is generally in charge of one of the major party departments directly under the jurisdiction of the Central Committee. By protocol, its members are ranked above the vice chairmen of the National People's Congress as well as State Councilors. The General Secretary presides over the work of the secretariat.
History
The Secretariat of the Central Committee was formed in January 1934 at the 5th Plenary Session of the 6th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, which was held in Shanghai. On March 20, 1943, the Politburo, in a joint decision, decreed that the secretariat will be responsible for carrying out the work of the Politburo according to the general policy framework determined by the Politburo, and that it is vested with the power to make decisions within this general framework.
In 1956, the party created the position of the "General Secretary" to head its secretariat. The position is not that of the foremost leader in the party, which at the time was the "Chairman of the Central Committee". Rather, the general secretary was in charge of carrying out the day-to-day work of the Communist Party's Politburo. Its inaugural general secretary was Deng Xiaoping, with prominent political figures such as Peng Zhen and Tan Zhenlin being secretaries.
During the Cultural Revolution, the post of general secretary as well as the secretariat itself completely ceased to function. Beginning at the 9th Party Congress, party documents made no mention of the secretariat. The body was restored after the Cultural Revolution in February 1980, with Hu Yaobang occupying the position of first-ranked secretary, which is analogous to the position formerly called the "General Secretary". Since its reinstatement, the composition of the secretariat has varied between 6 and 12 members. Wan Li, Hu Qili, Hu Jintao, Zeng Qinghong, Xi Jinping, and Liu Yunshan have all successively held the position of the first-ranked Secretary of the secretariat.
The secretaries of the secretariat are ranked highly in the order of precedence among "Party and State Leaders". The secretaries rank under the Politburo, but ranks above the Vice-Chairpersons of the National People's Congress Standing Committee.
List of secretaries
6th CCP Central Committee
From the 5th Plenary Session to the March 1943 Politburo meeting: Bo Gu, Zhang Wentian, Zhou Enlai, Xiang Ying (Until his death in January 1941)
Since the Zunyi Conference: Mao Zedong (Chairman of the Secretariat since March 1943), Kang Sheng (Took office December 1937)
Since the March 1943 Politburo meeting: Liu Shaoqi, Ren Bishi
7th CCP Central Committee
Mao Zedong (Chairman of the Secretariat), Zhu De, Liu Shaoqi (Acting Chairman of the Secretariat, August - October 1945), Ren Bishi (Until his death in October 1950), Chen Yun (Alternate secretary from August 1945, promoted from alternate secretary October 1950)
Alternate secretary: Peng Zhen (From August 1945)
8th CCP Central Committee
Deng Xiaoping, Peng Zhen (Until the May 1966 Expanded Politburo Meeting), Wang Jiaxiang, Tan Zhenlin, Tan Zheng (Until the 10th Plenary Session), Huang Kecheng (Until the 10th Plenary Session), Li Xuefeng
Since the 5th Plenary Session: Li Fuchun, Li Xiannian
Since the 10th Plenary Session: Lu Dingyi (Until the May 1966 Expanded Politburo Meeting), Kang Sheng, Luo Ruiqing (Until the May 1966 Expanded Politburo Meeting)
Since the May 1966 Expanded Politburo Meeting: Tao Zhu (Executive Secretary), Ye Jianying, Xie Fuzhi, Liu Ningyi
Alternate secretaries: Liu Lantao, Yang Shangkun (Until the May 1966 Expanded Politburo Meeting), Hu Qiaomu
9th CCP Central Committee: Not appointed
10th CCP Central Committee: Not appointed
11th CCP Central Committee
Wan Li, Wang Renzhong, Fang Yi, Gu Mu, Song Renqiong, Yu Qiuli, Yang Dezhi, Hu Qiaomu, Yao Yilin, Peng Chong, Xi Zhongxun (Since the 6th Plenary Session)
12th CCP Central Committee
Hu Qili, Wan Li, Yu Qiuli, Chen Pixian, Deng Liqun, Yang Yong (Until his death in January 1983)
Until the 4th Plenary Session: Xi Zhongxun, Gu Mu, Yao Yilin
Since the 4th Plenary Session: Qiao Shi (Promoted from alternate secretary), Tian Jiyun, Li Peng, Hao Jianxiu (Promoted from alternate secretary), Wang Zhaoguo
13th CCP Central Committee
Qiao Shi
Until the 4th Plenary Session: Hu Qili, Rui Xingwen, Yan Mingfu
Since the 4th Plenary Session: Li Ruihuan, Ding Guangen, Yang Baibing
Alternate secretary: Wen Jiabao
14th CCP Central Committee
Hu Jintao, Ding Guangen, Wei Jianxing, Wen Jiabao, Ren Jianxin
Since the 4th Plenary Session: Wu Bangguo, Jiang Chunyun
15th CCP Central Committee
Hu Jintao, Wei Jianxing, Ding Guangen, Zhang Wannian, Luo Gan, Wen Jiabao, Zeng Qinghong
16th CCP Central Committee
Zeng Qinghong, Liu Yunshan, Zhou Yongkang, He Guoqiang, Wang Gang, Xu Caihou, He Yong
17th CCP Central Committee
Xi Jinping, Liu Yunshan, Li Yuanchao, He Yong, Ling Jihua, Wang Huning
18th CCP Central Committee
Liu Yunshan, Liu Qibao, Zhao Leji, Li Zhanshu, Du Qinglin, Zhao Hongzhu, and Yang Jing (Mongol).
19th CCP Central Committee
Wang Huning, Ding Xuexiang, Yang Xiaodu, Chen Xi, Guo Shengkun, Huang Kunming, You Quan.
References
See also
Central Secretariat (imperial court of China)
General Office of the Chinese Communist Party
Chinese Communist Party
Secretariats of communist parties | [
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262003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Weyer | Johann Weyer | Johann Weyer or Johannes Wier ( or ; 1515 – 24 February 1588) was a Dutch physician, occultist and demonologist, disciple and follower of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa.
He was among the first to publish against the persecution of witches. His most influential work is ('On the Illusions of the Demons and on Spells and Poisons'; 1563).
Biography
Weyer was born in Grave, a small town in the Duchy of Brabant in the Habsburg Netherlands. He attended the Latin schools in 's-Hertogenbosch and Leuven and when he was about 14 years of age, he became a live-in student of Agrippa, in Antwerp. Agrippa had to leave Antwerp in 1532 and he and Weyer settled in Bonn, under the protection of prince-bishop Hermann von Wied. (Agrippa completed a work on demons in 1533 and perished two years later while on a trip to France). From 1534, Weyer studied medicine in Paris and later in Orléans, but it appears unlikely that he obtained the title of Doctor through these studies. Eventually, he practiced as a physician in his native Grave. Weyer was appointed city physician of Arnhem in 1545. In this capacity, he was asked for advice on witchcraft in a 1548 court case involving a fortune teller. In spite of a subsidy from emperor Charles V, the town of Arnhem was no longer able to pay Weyer's salary. Weyer moved to Cleves in 1550, where he became court doctor to duke William the Rich, through mediation by humanist Konrad Heresbach. Weyer published his major works on demons, magic, and witchcraft, in which he applied a skeptical medical view to reported wonders and supposed examples of magic or witchcraft. He retired from his post in 1578 and was succeeded by his son, Galenus Wier (1547-1619). After retirement he completed a medical work on a subject unrelated to witchcraft. He died on 24 February 1588 at the age of 73 in Tecklenburg, while visiting an individual who had fallen ill. He was buried in the local churchyard, which no longer exists.
Work and critical reception
Weyer's works include medical and moral works as well as his more famous critiques of magic and witchcraft:
('On the Illusions of the Demons and on Spells and Poisons'), 1563.
('The False Kingdom of the Demons'), an appendix to , 1577.
, 1567, translated into German as:
, 1580, ('A book of medical observations on rare, hitherto undescribed diseases')
1577, (A book on witches together with a treatise on false fasting), translated into German as:
... 1586
1577, ('On the disease of anger'), translated into German as:
1585
, 1564 ('On scurvy')
, 1579. 1885 translation printed , Paris France. Two volume set.
Weyer criticised the and the witch hunting by the Christian and Civil authorities; he is said to have been the first person that used the term mentally ill or melancholy to designate those women accused of practicing witchcraft. In a time when witch trials and executions were just beginning to be common, he sought to derogate the law concerning witchcraft prosecution. He claimed that not only were examples of magic largely incredible but that the crime of witchcraft was literally impossible, so that anyone who confessed to the crime was likely to be suffering some mental disturbance (mainly melancholy, a very flexible category with many different symptoms).
Some scholars have said that Weyer intended to mock the concept of the hellish hierarchy that previous grimoires had established by writing those two books and entitling his catalogue of demons ('The False Kingdom of the Demons').
Nevertheless, while he defended the idea that the Devil's power was not as strong as claimed by the orthodox Christian churches in , he defended also the idea that demons did have power and could appear before people who called upon them, creating illusions; but he commonly referred to magicians and not to witches when speaking about people who could create illusions, saying they were heretics who were using the Devil's power to do it, and when speaking on witches, he used the term mentally ill.
Moreover, Weyer did not only write the catalogue of demons , but also gave their description and the conjurations to invoke them in the appropriate hour and in the name of God and the Trinity, not to create illusions but to oblige them to do the conjurer's will, as well as advice on how to avoid certain perils and tricks if the demon was reluctant to do what he was commanded or a liar. In addition, he wanted to abolish the prosecution of witches, and when speaking on those who invoke demons (which he called spirits) he carefully used the word exorcist.
Weyer never denied the existence of the Devil and a huge number of other demons of high and low order. His work was an inspiration for other occultists and demonologists, including an anonymous author who wrote the (The Lesser Key of Solomon). There were many editions of his books (written in Latin), especially , and several adaptations in English, including Reginald Scot's "Discoverie of Witchcraft" (1584).
Weyer's appeal for clemency for those accused of the crime of witchcraft was opposed later in the sixteenth century by the Swiss physician Thomas Erastus, the French legal theorist Jean Bodin and King James VI of Scotland.
Tributes
The church of Tecklenburg displays a plaque in memory of Weyer and in 1884 the town erected a tower in his honor, the . The Dutch human rights organization for health workers is named the Johannes Wier Foundation after him. Alongside his tutor, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, he appears as a character in the video game Amnesia: The Dark Descent.
Kurt Baschwitz, a pioneer in communication studies and mass psychology, dedicated most of the content of his first Dutch monography on witchcraft and witch trials (1948) to the merits of Weyer. Later he extended this work to his German magnum opus, which discussed methods of fighting attempts at mass delusion (1963).
Family
Johan was the son of Agnes Rhordam and Theodorus (Dirk) Wier, a merchant of hops, coal and slate, who was a of Grave in the 1520s. Dirk and Agnes Wier came from Zeeland and were closely acquainted with Maximiliaan van Egmond and Françoise de Lannoy, the future in-laws of William the Silent. Johan had two known siblings, Arnold Wier and the mystic Mathijs Wier (c.1520–c.1560). In Arnhem, he married Judith Wintgens, with whom he had at least five children. After Judith's death he married Henriette Holst. Johan's oldest son, Diederik Wier, became a jurist and diplomat, who in 1566-7, while employed by Willem IV van den Bergh, was involved in the "petitions of grievances about the suppression of heresy" by the Dutch nobility to Philip II of Spain, the rejection of which led to the Eighty Years' War.
Name
Weyer signed all his correspondence with "Johannes Wier" or occasionally with "Piscinarius". His parents and children carried the name "Wier" as well, and in 1884 his memorial in Germany was still named "" rather than "". Nevertheless, since the 20th century the name "Johann Weyer" has become standard in German and English-language scholarship. The use of "Weyer" may stem from Carl Binz's 1896 monograph "", who in 1885 had already given a lecture "", in which he, apparently unaware of Weyer's Zeeland origin, claimed that and Wier was merely a dialect pronunciation of Weyer.
See also
Nicholas Remy
Notes
Editions
De praestigiis Daemonum ... Libri V. Basel: Oporinus, 1563.
De praestigiis Daemonum ... Libri V. Basel: Oporinus, 1564.
De praestigiis Daemonum ... Libri V. Basel: Oporinus, 1566.
Medicarum observationum rararum Liber I. Basel: Oporinus, 1567
De lamiis liber. Basel: Oporinus, 1577.
De praestigiis Daemonum ... Libri 6. Basel: Ex Officina Oporiniana, 1577.
De Praestigiis Daemonum, & incantationibus ac veneficiis Libri sex, postrema editione sexta aucti & recogniti. Basel: Oporinus, 1583.
Opera Omnia. Amsterdam: Peter Vanden Berge, 1660.
Further reading
Kurt Baschwitz, De strijd met den duivel - de heksenprocessen in het licht der massa-psychologie, Amsterdam, 1948.
Christopher Baxter, "Johann Weyer’s De Praestigiis Daemonum: Unsystematic Psychopathology," in The Damned Art: Essays in the Literature of Witchcraft, 53-75. London, 1977.
Stuart Clark. Thinking with Demons: the Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Jan Jacob Cobben. Jan Wier, devils, witches and magic, (translation by Sal A. Prins of Cobben's 1960 dissertation), Philadelphia: Dorrance 1976, .
Jan Jacob Cobben. Duivelse bezetenheid, beschreven door dokter Johannes Wier, 1515-1588. Rotterdam: Erasmus Publishing, 2002.
Charles D. Gunnoe. "The Debate between Johann Weyer and Thomas Erastus on the Punishment of Witches." In Cultures of Communication from Reformation to Enlightenment: Constructing Publics in the Early Modern German Lands, ed. James Van Horn Melton, 257-285. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Press, 2002.
Vera Hoorens, Een ketterse arts voor de heksen: Jan Wier (1515-1588), Bert Bakker Press, 2011,
Benjamin G. Kohl and Erik Midelfort. On Witchcraft. An Abridged Translation of Johann Weyer's De Praestigiis Daemonum. Ashville, 1998.
H. C. Erik Midelfort. "Johann Weyer and Transformation of the Insanity Defense." In The German People and the Reformation, ed. R. Po-Chia Hsia, 234-61. Ithaca: Cornell, 1988.
H. C. Erik Midelfort, A History of Madness in Sixteenth-Century Germany. Stanford University Press, 1998.
George Mora, et al., Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer, "De praestigiis daemonum". Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies vol. 73, Binghamton, NY, 1991.
Michaela Valente. Johann Wier: agli albori della critica razionale dell'occulto e del demoniaco nell'Europa del Cinquecento. Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 2003.
External links
To Prevent a "Shipwreck of Souls": Johann Weyer and "De Praestigiis Daemonum", an essay by Elisa Slattery
the Johannes Wier Foundation
Pseudomonarchia Daemonum
Witches, devils, and doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer, `De praestigiis daemonum, Review by Peter Elmer, Medical History,' 1992 July; 36(3): p. 351
Vera Hoorens Intro to her "Biography Jan Wier", Groningen University, 2010
1515 births
1588 deaths
People from Grave, North Brabant
Dutch occultists
Demonologists
16th-century Dutch physicians
16th-century Dutch writers
16th-century occultists | [
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262007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnational | Subnational | Subnational or sub-national may refer to:
Administrative division, all administrative divisions are under the national level
Subnational legislature, a type of regional legislature, under the national level
Subnational state, a type of state, under the national level
Subnational diplomacy, a form of diplomacy, under the national level
Subnational flag, a flag of an entity under the national level
See also
Supranational (disambiguation)
International (disambiguation)
Multinational (disambiguation)
Transnational (disambiguation)
National (disambiguation) | [
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262008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Congress%20%281799%29 | USS Congress (1799) | USS Congress was a nominally rated 38-gun wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. James Hackett built her in Portsmouth New Hampshire and she was launched on 15 August 1799. She was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized. The name "Congress" was among ten names submitted to President George Washington by Secretary of War Timothy Pickering in March of 1795 for the frigates that were to be constructed.Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so Congress and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than the standard frigates of the period.
Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi War with France and to defeat the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War. During the War of 1812 she made several extended length cruises in company with her sister ship and captured, or assisted in the capture of twenty British merchant ships. At the end of 1813, due to a lack of materials to repair her, she was placed in ordinary for the remainder of the war. In 1815 she returned to service for the Second Barbary War and made patrols through 1816. In the 1820s she helped suppress piracy in the West Indies, made several voyages to South America, and was the first U.S. warship to visit China. Congress spent her last ten years of service as a receiving ship until ordered broken up in 1834.
Construction
In 1785 Barbary pirates, most notably from Algiers, began to seize American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. In 1793 alone, eleven American ships were captured and their crews and stores held for ransom. To combat this problem, proposals were made for warships to protect American shipping, resulting in the Naval Act of 1794. The act provided funds to construct six frigates, but included a clause that if peace terms were agreed to with Algiers, the construction of the ships would be halted.
Joshua Humphreys' design was unusual for the time, being deep, long on keel and narrow of beam (width) and mounting very heavy guns. The design called for a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme intended to restrict hogging while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This design gave the hull a greater strength than a more lightly built frigate. Humphreys' design was based on his realization that the fledgling United States of the period could not match the European states in the size of their navies. This being so, the frigates were designed to overpower other frigates with the ability to escape from a ship of the line.
Congress was given her name by President George Washington after a principle of the United States Constitution. Her keel was reportedly laid down late in 1795 at a shipyard in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. James Hackett was charged with her construction and Captain James Sever served as a superintendent. Her construction proceeded slowly and was completely suspended when in March 1796, a peace treaty was signed with Algiers. Congress remained at the shipyard, incomplete, until relations with France deteriorated in 1798 with the start of the Quasi-War. At the request of then President John Adams, funds were approved on 16 July to complete her construction.
Armament
The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36-gun frigates. However, Congress and her sister-ship were re-rated to 38s because of their large dimensions, being in length and in width.
The "ratings" by number of guns were meant only as an approximation, and Congress often carried up to 48 guns. Ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns such as modern Navy ships carry. The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable and often were exchanged between ships as situations warranted. Each commanding officer outfitted armaments to their liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel aboard, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would change often during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.
During her first cruise in the Quasi-War against France, Congress was noted to be armed with a battery of forty guns consisting of twenty-eight and twelve . For her patrols during the War of 1812, she was armed with a battery of forty-four guns consisting of twenty-four 18 pounders and twenty .
Quasi-War
Congress launched on 15 August 1799 under the command of Captain Sever. After fitting-out in Rhode Island, she set off on her maiden voyage 6 January 1800 sailing in company with Essex to escort merchant ships to the East Indies. Six days later she lost all of her masts during a gale. Because her rigging had been set and tightened in a cold climate, it had slackened once she reached warmer temperatures. Without the full support of the rigging, all the masts fell during a four-hour period, killing one crew member trying to repair the main mast.
The crew rigged an emergency sail and limped back to the Gosport Navy Yard for repairs. While there, some of Sever's junior officers announced that they had no confidence in his ability as a commanding officer. A hearing was held, and Captain Sever was cleared of any wrongdoing and remained in command of Congress, though many of his crew soon transferred out to .
Remaining in port for six months while her masts and rigging were repaired, she finally sailed again on 26 July for the West Indies. Congress made routine patrols escorting American merchant ships and seeking out French ships to capture. On two occasions she almost ran aground; first while pursuing a French privateer, she ran into shallow water where large rocks were seen near the surface. Although their exact depth was not determined, Sever immediately abandoned pursuit of the privateer and changed course towards deeper waters. Her second close call occurred off the coast of the Caicos Islands, when during the night she drifted close to the reefs. At daybreak her predicament was discovered by the lookouts.
A peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801 and Congress returned to Boston in April. In accordance with an act of Congress passed on 3 March and signed by President John Adams, thirteen frigates then currently in service were to be retained. Seven of those frigates, including Congress, were to be placed in ordinary. En route to the Washington Navy Yard, she passed Mount Vernon on her way up the Potomac and Captain Sever ordered her sails lowered, flag at half mast, and a 13-gun salute fired to honor the recently deceased George Washington. Congress decommissioned at Washington along with and .
First Barbary War
During the United States' preoccupation with France during the Quasi-War, troubles with the Barbary States were suppressed by the payment of tribute to ensure that American merchant ships were not harassed and seized. In 1801 Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli, dissatisfied with the amount of tribute he was receiving in comparison to Algiers, demanded an immediate payment of $250,000. In response, Thomas Jefferson sent a squadron of frigates to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and pursue peace with the Barbary States.
The first squadron, under the command of Richard Dale in , was instructed to escort merchant ships through the Mediterranean and negotiate with leaders of the Barbary States. A second squadron was assembled under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in however, the performance of Morris's squadron was so poor that he was recalled and subsequently dismissed from the Navy in 1803. A third squadron was assembled under the command of Edward Preble in and by mid-1804 they had successfully fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor.
President Jefferson reinforced Preble's squadron in April and ordered four frigates to sail as soon as possible. President, Congress, Constellation and Essex were placed under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron. Congress was captained by John Rodgers and two months were spent preparing the squadron for the voyage. They departed in late June and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August. Congress and Essex were immediately sent to patrol off the coast of Tangier and when they returned to Gibraltar two weeks later, Congress continued on to Tripoli.
Congress, accompanied by Constellation, assumed blockade duties of Tripoli and captured one xebec before sailing for Malta on 25 October for repairs. On 6 November Rodgers assumed command of Constitution and in his place, Stephen Decatur assumed command of Congress. The next recorded activity of Congress is in early July 1805 when she was sent in company with to blockade Tunisia. They were joined on the 23rd by additional U.S. Navy vessels. In early September, Congress carried the Tunisian ambassador back to Washington DC. Afterward, placed in ordinary at the Washington Navy Yard, she served as a classroom for midshipmen training through 1807.
War of 1812
In 1811 Congress required extensive repairs before recommissioning with Captain John Rogers in command. She performed routine patrols early in 1812 before war was declared on 18 June. Captain John Smith assumed the command of her on 11 July 1812 and took her to join the squadron of Commodore Rodgers, where she sailed in company with , , President and .
Almost immediately Rogers was informed by a passing American merchant ship of a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica. Congress sailed along in pursuit, but was interrupted when President began pursuing HMS Belvidera on 23 June. Congress trailed behind President during the chase and fired her bowchasers at the escaping Belvidera. Unable to capture Belvidera, the squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet. On 1 July they began to follow a trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaican fleet had left behind them. Sailing to within one day's journey of the English Channel, the squadron never sighted the convoy and Rodgers called off the pursuit on the 13th. During their return trip to Boston, Congress assisted in the capture of seven merchant ships, including the recapture of an American vessel.
Making her second cruise against the British with President, Congress sailed from Boston on 8 October. On the 31st of that month, both ships began to pursue , which was escorting two merchant ships. Galatea and her charges were chased for about three hours, during which Congress captured the merchant ship Argo. In the meantime, President kept after Galatea but lost sight of her as darkness fell. Congress and President remained together during November but they did not find a single ship to capture. On their return to the United States they passed north of Bermuda, proceeded towards the Virginia capes, and arrived back in Boston on 31 December. During their entire time at sea, the two frigates captured nine prizes.
Congress and President were blockaded in Boston by the Royal Navy until they slipped through the blockade on 30 April 1813 and put to sea for their third cruise of the war. On 2 May they pursued but she outran them both and escaped. Congress parted company with President on the 8th and patrolled off the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Brazil. She only captured four small British merchant ships during this period and returned to the Portsmouth Navy Yard for repairs in late 1813. By this time of the war, materials and personnel were being diverted to the Great Lakes, which created a shortage of resources necessary to repair her. Due to the amount of repairs she needed, it was decided instead to place her in ordinary, where she stayed for the remainder of the war.
Louis F. Middlebrook in Vol. LXIII, October 1927 of Essex Institute Historical Collections listing following prizes taken by her under the command of Captain John Smith:November 1, 1812, off Western Islands, the British whaler , 10 guns and 26 men, with a cargo of oil and whalebone, bound for London, and ordered to the United States.May 19, 1813, in Lat. 28 N., Long. 42 W., the British brig Jean, 10 guns and 17 men, with a cargo of copper, hides, etc., bound to Greenock. After taking out the copper, the brig was burned.May 22, 1813, in Lat. 24 N., Long. 40 W., the British brig Diana, 10 guns and 14 men, with a cargo of copper and hides bound to London, and sent into Barbadoes with the prisoners, after throwing overboard her cargo.October 25, 1813, in Lat. 19 N., Long. 40 W., the British ship Rose, of 182 tons, crew of 12 men, with a cargo of wine and potatoes. Burned. All of her crew voluntarily enlisted in the service of the United States.December 5, 1813, in the North Atlantic, the British brig Atlantic, crew of 12 men and a cargo of sugar and cotton from the West Indies to Cork. This brig was sent into Boston.
Second Barbary War
Soon after the United States declared war against Britain in 1812, Algiers took advantage of the United States' preoccupation with Britain and began intercepting American merchant ships in the Mediterranean. On 2 March 1815, at the request of President James Madison, Congress declared war on Algiers. Work preparing two American squadrons promptly began—one at Boston under Commodore William Bainbridge, and one at New York under Commodore Steven Decatur.
Captain Charles Morris assumed command of Congress and assigned to the squadron under Bainbridge. After repairs and refitting, she transported the Minister to Holland William Eustis to his new post. Congress departed in June and after a few weeks at Holland, sailed for the Mediterranean and arrived at Cartagena, Spain in early August joining Bainbridge's squadron. By the time of Congresss arrival, however, Commodore Decatur had already secured a peace treaty with Algiers.
Congress, , and sailed in company with Bainbridge's flagship —the first commissioned ship of the line of the U.S. Navy—as a show of force off Algiers. The squadron subsequently made appearances off Tripoli and Tunis and arrived at Gibraltar in early October. From there, Congress and many other ships were ordered back to the United States. She arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, remained there shortly, and proceeded to Boston where she decommissioned in December and assigned to ordinary.
Later career
In June 1816 Charles Morris again commanded Congress and began preparations for a cruise to the Pacific Coast of the United States. His objective was taking possession of Fort Astoria from the British and conducting inquiries at various ports along the coast to further improve commercial trade. These plans were canceled, however, when a U.S. Navy ship collided with a Spanish Navy vessel in the Gulf of Mexico. Consequently, Morris commanded a squadron of ships in the Gulf to ensure that American merchant commerce in the area would continue unmolested.
Congress arrived in the Gulf of Mexico in December 1816 and made patrols through July 1817 performing duties that Morris described as "tedious and uninteresting". From there she sailed for Haiti where Morris and an agent of the United States negotiated a settlement with Henri Christophe over the case of a captured vessel. Afterward, Congress sailed for Venezuela to observe and gather information regarding the ongoing Venezuelan War of Independence. She arrived about 21 August and visited the Venezuelan city of Barcelona soon after.
Upon return to the Norfolk Navy Yard later the same year, Morris requested relief as commander due to failing health and Arthur Sinclair assumed command. Sinclair began preparing for a return voyage to South America carrying a diplomatic contingent to assure various South American countries of the United States' intention to remain neutral in their conflicts with Spain for independence. The diplomats included Caesar A. Rodney, John Graham, Theodorick Bland, Henry Brackenridge, William Reed, and Thomas Rodney. Congress departed on 4 December and returned to Norfolk in July 1818.
Early in 1819 Congress made a voyage under the command of Captain John D. Henley to China, becoming the first U.S. warship to visit that country. She returned to the United States in May 1821. Shortly afterward, pirates in the West Indies began seizing American merchant ships and in early 1822, she served as the flagship of Commodore James Biddle. She is recorded as collecting prisoners from the captured pirate ship Bandara D'Sangare on 24 July of that year. Her next recorded activity is returning to Norfolk in April 1823 where Biddle immediately prepared for a voyage to Spain and Argentina to deliver the newly appointed Ministers, Hugh Nelson and Caesar A. Rodney respectively.
Extensive modifications were required to the berth deck of Congress in order to accommodate Rodney's wife and eleven children. Additionally, Rodney's household goods and furniture, described by Biddle as "enough to fill a large merchant ship," were loaded into her hold that required much of the ships stores to be relocated. She departed from Wilmington, Delaware on 8 June and arrived at Gibraltar where Hugh Nelson disembarked for Spain. On 18 September Congress arrived at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where Rodney hired his own merchant ship to carry his family the rest of the distance to Buenos Aires. Congress subsequently returned to Norfolk on 17 December.
After her return, Congress served as a receiving ship; being moved between the Norfolk and Washington Navy Yards under tow as needed. She remained on this duty for the next ten years until a survey of her condition was performed in 1834, and found unfit for repair, she was broken up the same year.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Guide to the Journal of the USS Congress, 1816–1817 MS 22 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
Guide to the Remarks Made on Board the United States Frigate Congress, 1817 MS 23 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
Guide to the Journal of the USS Congress, the Citizen, and the Canton, 1816–1820 MS 24 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Kittery, Maine
1799 ships
Quasi-War ships of the United States
War of 1812 ships of the United States
Barbary Wars American ships | [
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262012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panay%20Gulf | Panay Gulf | Panay Gulf is an extension of the Sulu Sea, reaching between the islands of Panay and Negros in the Philippines. The gulf contains the island-province of Guimaras and extends into the Santa Anna Bay between Panay and Guimaras and into Guimaras Strait, between Guimaras and Negros. Guimaras Strait connects Panay Gulf with the Visayan Sea.
The Port of Iloilo is the busiest port on the gulf, which is a major route used by ships plying the areas between Iloilo City, Bacolod, and Zamboanga further to the south.
The Panay Landing during World War II occurred from the Panay Gulf.
Gulfs of the Philippines
Bodies of water of the Sulu Sea
Gulfs of the Pacific Ocean
Landforms of Iloilo
Landforms of Antique (province)
Landforms of Guimaras
Landforms of Negros Occidental | [
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262014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Binsfeld | Peter Binsfeld | Peter Binsfeld (alternate spelling Peter of Binsfeld, lat. Petrus Binsfeldius; c. 1540 – 1598 or 1603) was a German bishop and theologian.
Peter, a son of a farmer and craftsman, was born in the village of Binsfeld in the rural Eifel region, located in the modern state of Rhineland-Palatinate; he died in Trier as a victim of the bubonic plague. Binsfeld grew up in the predominantly Catholic environment of the Eifel region.
Education and career
Considered by a local abbot to be a very gifted boy, Peter Binsfeld was sent to Rome for study.
After his studies, Binsfeld returned to his home region and became an important personality in the anti-Protestant Catholic activities of the late 16th century. He was elected Auxiliary bishop of Trier and became a well-known writer on theology, who achieved notoriety as one of the most prominent witch-hunters of his time. Binsfeld was one of the main drivers of the Trier witch trials that ravaged the area under the dominion of Archbishop Johann von Schönenberg between 1581-93. Binsfeld wrote the influential treatise De confessionibus maleficorum et sagarum ('Of the Confessions of Warlocks and Witches'), translated into several languages (Trier, 1589). This work discussed the confessions of alleged witches, and claimed that even if such confessions were produced by torture, they should still be believed. He also encouraged denouncements.
He thought that girls under age twelve and boys under age fourteen could not be considered guilty of practising witchcraft, but due to the precocity of some children the law should not be completely strict. This point of view can be considered as moderate, taking into account that some tribunals had condemned children between two and five years of age to be burnt at the stake.
Contrary to other authors of the time, Binsfeld doubted the ability of shapeshifting and the validity of the diabolical mark.
In 1589 Binsfield published an influential list of demons and their associated sins, including the demons associated with the Seven Deadly Sins: Lucifer (pride), Mammon (greed), Asmodeus (lust), Leviathan (envy), Beelzebub (gluttony), Satan (wrath) and Belphegor (sloth).
See also
Binsfeld's classification of demons
References
1540s births
1598 deaths
1603 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
16th-century German Catholic theologians
Roman Catholic bishops of Trier
People from Bernkastel-Wittlich
16th-century deaths from plague (disease)
16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the Holy Roman Empire
Witch hunters
Demonologists
German male non-fiction writers
University of Trier faculty
16th-century German male writers
Witch trials in Germany | [
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262019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilbird | Oilbird | The oilbird (Steatornis caripensis), locally known as the guácharo, is a bird species found in the northern areas of South America including the Caribbean island of Trinidad. It is the only species in the genus Steatornis, the family Steatornithidae, and the order Steatornithiformes. Nesting in colonies in caves, oilbirds are nocturnal feeders on the fruits of the oil palm and tropical laurels. They are the only nocturnal flying fruit-eating birds in the world (the kakapo, also nocturnal, is flightless). They forage at night, with specially adapted eyesight. However they navigate by echolocation in the same way as bats, one of the few birds to do so. They produce a high-pitched clicking sound of around 2 kHz that is audible to humans.
Taxonomy and etymology
Oilbirds are related to the nightjars and have sometimes placed with these in the order Caprimulgiformes. However, the nightjars and their relatives are insectivores while the oilbird is a specialist fructivore, and it is sufficiently distinctive to be placed in a family (Steatornithidae) and suborder (Steatornithes) of its own. Some research indicates that it should even be considered a distinct order (Steatornithiformes).
The specific name caripensis means "of Caripe", and the generic name Steatornis means "fat bird", in reference to the fatness of the chicks. The oilbird is called a guácharo or tayo in Spanish, both terms being of indigenous origin. In Trinidad it was sometimes called diablotin (French for "little devil"), presumably referring to its loud cries, which have been likened to those of tortured men. The common name "oilbird" comes from the fact that in the past chicks were captured and boiled down in order to make oil.
The fossil record of the family suggests that they were once more widely distributed around the globe. The first fossil oilbird was described by Storrs Olson in 1987 from a fossil found in the Green River Formation in Wyoming. The species, Prefica nivea, was probably not adapted to hovering flight or living in caves, unlike the oilbird. Some of the same families and genera of plants the present day oilbird feeds on have been found in the Green River Formation, suggesting that prehistoric species may have eaten the same fruit and spread the same seeds. Another species from the Upper Eocene has been discovered in France.
Description
This is a large, slim bird at , with a wing span of . It has a flattened, powerfully hooked, bill surrounded by deep chestnut rictal bristles up to long. The adult weighs but the chicks can weigh considerably more, at up to , when their parents feed them a good deal of fruit before they fly. The feathers of the oilbird are soft like those of many nightbirds, but not as soft as those of owls or nightjars, as they do not need to be silent like predatory species. The oilbird is mainly reddish-brown with white spots on the nape and wings. Lower parts are cinnamon-buff with white diamond-shaped spots edged in black, these spots start small towards the throat and get larger towards the back. The stiff tail feathers are a rich brown spotted with white on either side.
The feet are small and almost useless, other than for clinging to vertical surfaces. The long wings have evolved to make it capable of hovering and twisting flight, which enables it to navigate through restricted areas of its caves. For example, the wings have deep wingtip slotting, like New World vultures, to reduce the stalling speed, and the wings have a low aspect ratio and low wing-loading, all to make the oilbird capable of flying at low speeds.
The eyes of oilbirds are highly adapted to nocturnal foraging. The eyes are small, but the pupils are relatively large, allowing the highest light-gathering capacity of any bird (f-number of 1.07). The retina is dominated by rod cells, 1,000,000 rods per mm2, the highest density of any vertebrate eye, which are organised in layers, an arrangement unique among birds but shared by deep-sea fish. They have low numbers of cone cells, and the whole arrangement would allow them to capture more light in low light conditions but probably have poor vision in daylight.
Although they have specially adapted vision to forage by sight, they are among the few birds known to supplement sight by echolocation in sufficiently poor light conditions, using a series of sharp audible clicks for this purpose. The only other birds known to do this are some species of swift.
In addition to clicks used for echolocation, oilbirds also produce a variety of harsh screams while in their caves. Entering a cave with a light especially provokes these raucous calls; they also may be heard as the birds prepare to emerge from a cave at dusk.
Distribution and habitat
The oilbird ranges from Guyana and the island of Trinidad to Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil. They range from sea-level to . The species has highly specific habitat requirements, needing both caves to breed in and roost in frequently, and forest containing fruiting trees. Where suitable caves are absent, oilbirds will roost and breed in narrow gorges and grottos with suitable rock shelves.
One such colony in Ecuador held a population of a hundred birds in a canyon with ledges protected by vegetation. Some smaller caves and gorges are used only for roosting. While it was once thought that oildbirds always or nearly always roosted in caves, canyons or gullies, researchers placing GPS trackers on non-breeding birds found that they regularly roost in trees in the forest as well as in caves.
It is a seasonal migrant across some of its range, moving from its breeding caves in search of fruit trees. It has occurred as a rare vagrant to Costa Rica, Panama and Aruba. The Guácharo Cave (Oilbird Cave), in the mountainous Caripe district of northern Monagas, Venezuela, is where Alexander von Humboldt first studied the species.
Behaviour
Oilbirds are nocturnal. During the day the birds rest on cave ledges and leave at night to find fruit outside the cave. It was once thought that oilbirds only roosted in caves, and indeed never saw daylight, but studies using GPS/acceleration loggers found that non-breeding birds only roosted in caves or other rock shelters one night in three, the other nights roosting in trees.
The scientists responsible for the discovery also found that birds roosting in caves were highly active through the night, whereas birds roosting in the forest were far less active. They hypothesised that each environment carried costs; birds roosting in the forest were more vulnerable to predators and birds roosting in caves expended considerable energy competing with rivals and defending nesting and roosting ledges.
Breeding
Oilbirds are colonial cave nesters. The nest is a heap of droppings, usually above water—either a stream or the sea—on which 2–4 glossy white eggs are laid which soon become stained brown. These are rounded but with a distinctly pointed smaller end and average by . The squabs become very fat before fledging, weighing around a third more than the adult birds.
Status and conservation
The Guácharo Cave was Venezuela's first national monument and is the centerpiece of a national park; according to some estimates there may be 15,000 or more birds living there. Colombia also has a national park named after its "Cueva de los Guácharos", near the southern border with Ecuador. Oilbirds have been reported in various other places along the Andean mountain chain, including near Ecuador's Cueva de los Tayos and in Brazil: they are known to dwell as far south as the Carrasco National Park in Bolivia. Dunston Cave, at the Asa Wright Nature Centre in Trinidad, is home to about 200 nesting pairs. The species is classified as 'Least Concern' by the IUCN red list as of October 2016, despite a decreasing population.
Footnotes
References
Herklots, G. A. C. (1961). The Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Collins, London. Reprint 1965.
Holland RA, Wikelski M, Kümmeth F, Bosque C, 2009 The Secret Life of Oilbirds: New Insights into the Movement Ecology of a Unique Avian Frugivore. PLoS ONE 4(12): e8264.
Stiles and Skutch, A gGuide to the Birds of Costa Rica.
Snow, D.W. (2008). Birds in Our Life. William Sessions Limited. (pbk).
Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club, volume 124 issue 6.
External links
Cueva del Guácharo (ShowCaves)
Oilbird videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
The oilbird's visual acuity
Caripe.net – La Puerta de Entrada
Oilbird Caves of Trinidad Accessed 30 March 2011
Steatornithiformes
Birds of Panama
Birds of the Northern Andes
Birds of the Caribbean
Birds of Colombia
Birds of Venezuela
Birds of Trinidad and Tobago
Birds of the Peruvian Amazon
Cave birds
Animals that use echolocation
Birds described in 1817
Taxa named by Alexander von Humboldt | [
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262025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporgery | Sporgery | Sporgery is the disruptive act of posting a flood of articles to a Usenet newsgroup, with the article headers falsified so that they appear to have been posted by others. The word is a portmanteau of spam and forgery, coined by German software developer, and critic of Scientology, Tilman Hausherr.
Sporgery resembles crapflooding, which is also intended to disrupt a forum. However, sporgery is not merely disruptive but also deceptive or libellous—it involves falsifying objectionable posts so they appear to come from newsgroup regulars. The purpose is not merely to jam the forum, but also to sully the reputations of its regular users by falsely signing their names to offensive posts.
Origins in alt.religion.scientology
The word sporgery was coined in the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology, an Internet newsgroup where people discuss the controversial belief system of Scientology. One of the various actions of the "war" between Scientology and the Internet involved various individuals who had posted more than a million forged newsgroup articles to the newsgroup, using the message headers (valid names and e-mail addresses) of articles written by Scientology critics and other legitimate posters, and appending to those headers the bodies of other articles harvested from racist newsgroups. The result was to flood the newsgroup with over one million forged articles that made the other posters appear to be hateful "racist bigots". (Critics accused Scientology of planning and conducting the spam flood, but the organization denied this.)
The apparent intent of this attack was to render the newsgroup useless for discussion and criticism of Scientology. Another purpose may have been to lower the reputation of the posters so that people would not take their criticisms of Scientology seriously.
At the peak of this attack, the attackers had six computers posting sporgeries into the newsgroup, dumping into USENET an average of 170 megabytes in 44,075 articles every month. From October 1998 to September 1999, 1,462,390,911 sporgery bytes were detected: that figure does not include the sporgery which was canceled (deleted from USENET) before it could propagate. Just before the sporgery attack ended, the sporgery resulted in more than 90% of the newsgroup's traffic.
To accomplish the sporgery attack, the spammers used several methods to acquire Internet access. Open NNTP servers were used when available, to such an extent that a great many had to be closed by their owners. When open NNTP servers eventually became scarce, open proxies were used. These proxies allowed Scientology partisans to use someone else's computer hardware to sporge. Because default security policies in many proxy server products at the time (late 1990s) were lax, many such proxies were available for abuse. Since that time, open proxies have become the most popular resource for other spammers to abuse, eclipsing open relays and other insecure hosts.
The third method used to acquire newsgroup posting access, and the method used the most, was to use volunteers to go out and buy Internet dialup access from an Internet service provider using a false name and address, and using cash or a money order. They were given a large amount of cash and air fare to fly to a city specifically to acquire Internet access for later use in sporging. One such volunteer, Tory Bezazian, later left Scientology and confessed to performing this task, giving the names of the Scientology staff members who were allegedly in charge of the sporgery project.
The sporgery attack against alt.religion.scientology ended a few months after the name and address of one of the perpetrators was acquired by one of the victims, at which time the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation got involved. No indictments were made, nor were there any arrests.
Other sporgery attacks
Since the emergence of this technique of disrupting a newsgroup, a few other groups have been targeted this way. One, news.admin.net-abuse.email, is used for discussion of spamming and other email abuse problems. A person or persons using the pseudonym "Hipcrime" have attacked this and other groups with sporgeries, usually nonsense or Dissociated Press text posted under random names of legitimate posters. Sporgery is also common in warez newsgroups.
See also
References
External links
The Attack Against ALT.RELIGION.SCIENTOLOGY Via Forged Article Flood (David M. Rice)
Scientology fought the Internet—and why it lost (Daily Dot)
Spamming
Usenet
Scientology and the Internet | [
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262028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potoo | Potoo | Potoos (family Nyctibiidae) are a group of birds related to the nightjars and frogmouths. They are sometimes called poor-me-ones, after their haunting calls. There are seven species in one genus, Nyctibius, in tropical Central and South America.
Potoos are nocturnal insectivores that lack the bristles around the mouth found in the true nightjars. They hunt from a perch like a shrike or flycatcher. During the day they perch upright on tree stumps, camouflaged to look like part of the stump. The single spotted egg is laid directly on the top of a stump.
These creatures are both adored and feared for their beady little eyes. In Mayan mythology, potoos were viewed as an omen of change, auspicious or not, and staring into their eyes for too long would wreak the wrath of the gods. In some rituals, well-nurtured potoos were sacrificed as an offering. Potoos get skittish and flighty at night, so chasing and catching potoos at night has become a hobby practiced in certain parts of South America.
Evolution and taxonomy
The potoos are today an exclusively New World family, but they apparently had a much more widespread distribution in the past. Fossil remains of potoos dating from the Oligocene and Eocene have been found in France and Germany. A complete skeleton of the genus Paraprefica has been found in Messel, Germany. It had skull and leg features similar to those of modern potoos, suggesting that it may be an early close relative of the modern potoos. Because the only fossils other than these ancient ones that have been found are recent ones of extinct species, it is unknown if the family once had a global distribution which has contracted, or if the distribution of the family was originally restricted to the Old World and has shifted to the New World.
A 1996 study of the mitochondrial DNA of the potoos supported the monophyly of the family although it did not support the previous assumption that it was closely related to the oilbirds. The study also found a great deal of genetic divergence between the species, suggesting that these species are themselves very old. The level of divergence is the highest of any genus of birds, being more typical of the divergence between genera or even families. This raises the possibility that there are several cryptic species to be discovered. For example, the northern potoo was for a long time considered to be the same species as the common potoo, but the two species have now been separated on the basis of their calls. In spite of this there is no morphological way to separate the two species.
Morphology
The potoos are a highly conservative family in appearance, with all the species closely resembling one another; species accounts in ornithological literature remark on their unusual appearance. Potoos range from in length. They resemble upright sitting nightjars, a closely related family (Caprimulgidae). They also resemble the frogmouths of Australasia, which are stockier and have much heavier bills. They have proportionally large heads for their body size and long wings and tails. The large head is dominated by a massive broad bill and enormous eyes. In the treatment of the family in the Handbook of the Birds of the World, Cohn-Haft describes the potoos as "little more than a flying mouth and eyes". The bill, while large and broad, is also short, barely projecting past the face. It is delicate, but has a unique "tooth" on the cutting edge of the upper mandible that may assist in foraging. Unlike the closely related nightjars, the potoos lack rictal bristles around the mouth. The legs and feet are weak and used only for perching.
The eyes are large, even larger than those of nightjars. As in many species of nocturnal birds, they reflect the light of flashlights. Their eyes, which could be conspicuous to potential predators during the day, have unusual slits in the lids, which allow potoos to sense movement even when their eyes are closed. Their plumage is cryptic, helping them blend into the branches on which they spend their days.
Habitat and distribution
The potoos have a Neotropical distribution. They range from Mexico to Argentina, with the greatest diversity occurring in the Amazon Basin, which holds five species. They are found in every Central and South American country. They also occur on three Caribbean islands: Jamaica, Hispaniola and Tobago. The potoos are generally highly sedentary, although there are occasional reports of vagrants, particularly species that have travelled on ships. All species occur in humid forests, although a few species also occur in drier forests.
Behavior
The potoos are highly nocturnal and generally do not fly during the day. They spend the day perched on branches with the eyes half closed. With their cryptic plumage they resemble stumps, and should they detect potential danger they adopt a "freeze" position which even more closely resembles a broken branch. The transition between perching and the freeze position is gradual and hardly perceptible to the observer.
The English zoologist Hugh Cott, describing Nyctibius griseus as "this wonderful bird", writes that it "habitually selects the top of an upright stump as a receptacle for its egg, which usually occupies a small hollow just, and only just, large enough to contain it ... the stump selected had thrown up a new leader just below the point of fracture ... and the birds sat facing this in such a way that when viewed from behind they came into line and blended with the grey stem."
Diet and feeding
Potoos feed at dusk and at night on flying insects. Their typical foraging technique is to perch on a branch and occasionally fly out in the manner of a flycatcher in order to snatch a passing insect. They occasionally fly to vegetation to glean an insect off it before returning to their perch, but they do not attempt to obtain prey from the ground. Beetles form a large part of their diet, but they also take moths, grasshoppers and termites. One northern potoo was found with a small bird in its stomach as well. Having caught an insect, potoos swallow it whole without beating or crushing it.
Breeding
Potoos are monogamous breeders and both parents share responsibilities for incubating the egg and raising the chick. The family does not construct a nest of any kind, instead laying the single egg on a depression in a branch or at the top of a rotten stump. The egg is white with purple-brown spots. One parent, often the male, incubates the egg during the day, then the duties are shared during the night. Changeovers to relieve incubating parents and feed chicks are infrequent to minimise attention to the nest, as potoos are entirely reliant on camouflage to protect themselves and their nesting site from predators. The chick hatches about one month after laying and the nestling phase is two months, a considerable length of time for a landbird. The plumage of nestling potoos is white and once they are too large to hide under their parents they adopt the same freeze position as their parents, resembling clumps of fungus.
Defense
The behaviors described above suggest that the common potoo adopts different defensive strategies to suit its circumstances. For a lone potoo, or a brooding adult with a potential predator close to the nest, the bird attempts to avoid detection by remaining motionless and relying on camouflage. If ineffective, the potoo, breaks cover and attempts to intimidate the predator by opening its beak and eyes wide open while vocalizing or simply flies out of reach. Nocturnal predators rely less on vision for locating prey therefore a different strategy may be required at night.
Species
Genus Nyctibius Vieillot 1816
Rufous potoo, Nyctibius bracteatus Gould 1846
Great potoo, Nyctibius grandis (Gmelin 1789)
Long-tailed potoo, Nyctibius aethereus (zu Wied-Neuwied 1820)
N. a. aethereus (zu Wied-Neuwied 1820) (Large-tailed Potoo)
N. a. chocoensis Chapman 1921
N. a. longicaudatus (von Spix 1825) (Long-tailed Potoo)
White-winged potoo, Nyctibius leucopterus (zu Wied-Neuwied 1821)
Andean potoo, Nyctibius maculosus Ridgway 1912
Common potoo or lesser potoo, Nyctibius griseus (Gmelin 1789)
N. g. griseus (Gmelin 1789) (Grey Potoo)
N. g. panamensis Ridgway 1912
Northern potoo, Nyctibius jamaicensis (Gmelin 1789)
N. j. jamaicensis subspecies-group
N. j. abbotti Richmond 1917 (Hispaniolan Potoo)
N. j. jamaicensis (Gmelin 1789) (Jamaica Potoo)
N. j. mexicanus subspecies-group
N. j. costaricensis Ridgway 1912 (Central American common potoo)
N. j. lambi Davis 1959
N. j. mexicanus Nelson 1900 (Mexican common potoo)
References
Cestari, C., Guaraldo, A., & Gussoni, C (n.d.). Nesting behavior and parental care of common potoo (Nyctibius griseus) in southern Brazil. The Wilson journal of ornithology, 102-106
Meek, K. (n.d.) Mobbing. Mobbing, 1-12
External links
Potoo videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Extant Eocene first appearances
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot | [
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] |
262029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit | Hit | Hit means to strike someone or something.
Hit or HIT may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
Fictional entities
Hit, a fictional character from Dragon Ball Super
Homicide International Trust, or HIT, a fictional organization in MacGyver
Film and television
H.I.T (TV series), a South Korean drama miniseries
HIT Entertainment, a British production company
Hit!, a 1973 crime film
TV HIT, a Bosnian television channel
HIT: The First Case, a Telugu-language film
Music
Hit song, a recorded song that becomes popular or commercially successful
Hit (album), by Peter Gabriel
"Hit" (The Sugarcubes song), a single by The Sugarcubes from their 1992 album Stick Around for Joy
"Hit", a song by Guided by Voices from the 1995 album Alien Lanes
"Hit", a song by The Wannadies from the 1997 album Bagsy Me
Hit Records (Croatia), a Croatian record label
Hit Records, a defunct American record company
Radio
Hit FM (disambiguation)
Hit Network, an Australian radio network
Brands and enterprises
Hit (drink), a Venezuelan carbonated soft drink
Hitachi, Ltd., a Japanese multinational conglomerate
Hongkong International Terminals Ltd.
Heavy Industries Taxila, a military complex in Pakistan
Computing
Hit (internet), a single request for a file from a web server
an intersection of the cursor and graphic object during hit-testing in computer graphics
Human Intelligence Task, an Amazon Mechanical Turk task
Education
Hanze Institute of Technology, in the Netherlands
Harare Institute of Technology, in Zimbabwe
Harbin Institute of Technology, in China
Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, in India
Holon Institute of Technology, in Israel
Language
Hit (pronoun), Old English, third-person singular neuter accusative, "it" in modern English
Hit, slang for contract killing
Hittite language
Places
Hit, Qasr-e Qand, a village in Iran
Hit, Iraq, a town
Hit District, a district centered on the town
Hit, Syria
Science and medicine
Health information technology
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
Herd immunity threshold; see herd immunity § Mechanism
Hibernation induction trigger
Sports
Hit (baseball) or base hit
High intensity training
See also
Hits (disambiguation)
The Hit (disambiguation) | [
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262030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Henman | Tim Henman | Timothy Henry Henman (born 6 September 1974) is a British retired professional tennis player. Henman played a serve-and-volley style of tennis. He was the first male player from the United Kingdom since Roger Taylor in the 1970s to reach the semi-finals of the Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship. Henman never reached a final of any Grand Slam but reached six Grand Slam semi-finals and won 15 career ATP titles (11 in singles and 4 in doubles), including the Paris Masters in 2003. He also scored 40 wins and 14 losses with the Great Britain Davis Cup team.
Henman was ranked British number 1 in 1996 and again from 1999 to 2005, from which point he was succeeded by Andy Murray. He reached a career high ranking of World No. 4 during three different periods between July 2002 and October 2004. He is one of Britain's most successful open era tennis players, winning $11,635,542 prize money. In the 2004 New Year Honours, he was appointed an OBE.
Henman started playing tennis before the age of three, and began systematic training in the Slater Squad at eleven. After suffering a serious injury which affected him for the better part of two years, he began touring internationally as a junior and achieved some successes. He rose quickly up the ATP rankings, and by 1996 had reached the quarter-finals of the Wimbledon Championships. Throughout his career, Henman was a noted grass specialist, only becoming truly comfortable on clay and hard court near the end of his career, when in 2004 he reached the semi-finals in both the French and US Open. The year 2005 began a decline for Henman, and from that year onwards he never managed to pass through the third round in a Grand Slam tournament. Henman retired from professional tennis in late 2007, but he remains active in the ATP Champions Tour (a tour for former professional tennis players).
Early life
Henman was born in Oxford, Oxfordshire, as the youngest of a family of three boys. Henman's father Anthony, a solicitor, was accomplished at various sports, including tennis, hockey and squash. His mother Jane, a dress designer, played Junior Wimbledon and introduced Tim and his elder brothers, Michael and Richard, to tennis as soon as they could walk on the family's grass tennis court. His great grandfather played at Wimbledon. His maternal grandfather, Henry Billington, played at Wimbledon between 1948 and 1951, and he represented Britain in the Davis Cup in 1948, 1950 and 1951. In 1901 his maternal great-grandmother, Ellen Stanwell-Brown, was reputedly the first woman to serve overarm at Wimbledon. His maternal grandmother, Susan Billington, appeared regularly at Wimbledon in the 1950s, playing mixed doubles on Centre Court with her husband Henry, reaching the third round of the ladies' doubles in 1951, 1955 and 1956.
Henman grew up in Weston-on-the-Green, Oxfordshire, a village between Oxford and Bicester with a population of around 500. At home, the family owned a grass tennis court in their back garden. Henman began playing tennis before the age of three with a shortened squash racket. At this stage, he was already teaching himself how to serve and volley. At an early stage in his life, Henman decided if he did not succeed in tennis, he would become a golf player instead.
Henman attended the Longbridge School for boys between the ages of five and seven, and was enrolled in the private Dragon School in Oxford from seven to 11. He excelled in all sports but was always best at tennis. But Henman was small for his age, a factor which would bode against him in the future. In 1985, he was appointed the school's captain of tennis and led the school's tennis team to win 21 out of 27 matches. He remains to this day the only pupil who has won both the school's junior and senior tennis tournaments in the same year. From the age of eight until his introduction to the Slater Squad, Henman received coaching from the David Lloyd Tennis Centre, where he was given personal lessons by former professional player Onny Parun from New Zealand. In retrospect, Parun stated that Henman's greatest strength "had always been his head." David Lloyd noticed the same mental toughness and was impressed.
He left the Dragon School after he attained a scholarship for Reed's School in Cobham, Surrey. Henman received the scholarship after a physical test: to run until you dropped. Henman, along with Marc Moreso and David Loosemore, did not drop, and was given a scholarship. At this point in his life, Lloyd persuaded Henman's parents to allow him to pursue a tennis career. In retrospect, Lloyd notes, Henman's parents understood what many don't: "you can always go back to higher education at 22 or 23 but that that is far too late to start a serious tennis career."
Henman was picked up by the Slater Squad, a group funded by financier Jim Slater, at the age of 11. The main goal of the Slater Squad was to pick and coach young players from the ages of nine or ten, instead of 11 and 12 as the Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) did. The original intake for the squad was eight players between the ages of eight and 11. In addition to Tim, the squad consisted of Jamie Delgado, Gary Le Pla, Paul Jessop, James Bailey, Adrian Blackman, James Davidson, Marc Moreso. In the squad, Henman worked on tennis three hours a day: two hours playing tennis and receiving advice from Donald Watt, and the last hour on gymnastics and learning about the game. In contrast to popular belief, Henman was not considered the best of the bunch, and Sue Barker, the British 1976 French Open Women's champion, judged that there was "nothing particularly special in his game in those days". She notes, however, that while Henman did not have the natural skills of a tennis player, he was "a hard worker". None of his fellow players in the Slater Squad saw Henman as a potential British number one, with most believing Marc Moreso to be the group's brightest hope. Not long after becoming a member of the Slater Squad, Henman was diagnosed with osteochondritis, a bone disease. He was unable to play tennis for six months, and it was two years before he could return to tournaments. Luckily for Henman, Slater kept funding him while he was recuperating, because of insistence from Lloyd who believed in Henman's tennis abilities.
At Reed's School he passed ten GCSE exams, but failed chemistry. Outside of school, he worked in Anji's emporium in order to save money for a new racquet. As Henman notes in retrospect, "I passed the others with a few As, a few Bs and a few Cs. It was nothing dazzling by any means, but I got by." At the age of 16, Henman told his mother that it was impossible for him to retain his good grades while keeping up in the tennis world. In 1990 he dropped out of school altogether and focused on becoming a singles player, though Lloyd and the leadership of the Slater Squad had confidence in him as a doubles player, not singles. On the statistics that were available to them, Henman had managed to win five doubles tournaments but only two singles tournaments. But Henman disagreed with the Slater Squad leadership and began playing for the LTA in 1991. At the age of 17, Henman toured South America for eight weeks.
Personal life
On 11 December 1999, Henman married his longtime girlfriend, TV producer Lucy Heald, in Hampshire. They have three daughters, Rose Elizabeth (born 19 October 2002), Olivia Susan (born 15 December 2004), and Grace (born 14 September 2007). Henman occasionally smoked cigarettes during his tennis career.
Tennis career
Junior tour
During his first tour year in 1991, Henman fared badly. He won the first round in the New South Wales Championship against Andrew Turner, 6–1, 6–3, but lost in the second round to Corrado Borroni 5–7, 1–6. He was defeated by Australian Michael Hill in the first round of the 1991 Australian Open junior class, 7–5, 3–6, 5–7. At the National Championships the same year, he reached the third round, but was defeated 6–1, 6–2 by Andrew Richardson. His performance in doubles matches was markedly better. Henman reached the quarter-finals in the New South Wales Championship with Richardson, and won the Midland Bank Junior Championship in doubles with Jamie Delgado, an associate from the Slater Squad days.
1992 began well, with Henman reaching the finals in Nottingham after defeating Delgado in straight sets in the semi-final. But Henman was defeated in the finals by top-seed Mark Schofield, and in the junior French Open by Björn Jacob in three sets, 6–7, 6–1, 9–7. He was defeated in the first round of the Wimbledon junior by Mexican clay specialist Enrique Abaroa in straight sets; 6–2, 6–1. However, things improved dramatically from then on, and in the National Junior Championships he reached the semi-finals without dropping a single set. In the semi-finals Henman met Schofield, and defeated him in four sets; 2–6, 6–3, 7–6, 6–2. Henman met Nick Baglin in the finals, and won the match 3–6, 7–5, 6–4, 6–4. In 1992 he turned 18, and Henman began his tennis career in the senior satellite tournaments.
Professional career
1993–1995: Early years
From July 1992 to July 1993, Henman grew six inches to six feet one, and went from seven stones to nine stones in weight. This would prove important for his career, as he acknowledged: "As a junior I had pretty good technique. Now I've got the strength and reach, and on the serve that has helped tremendously." Henman was ranked 774th in the world at the beginning of 1993, but by July he had come close to the top 600. In July, Henman received a wildcard to participate in the ATP Challenger tournament in Bristol, England. In the first round, he defeated Colombian Miguel Tobon, ranked 257th, in straight sets, 6–0, 6–3. In the second round he met the Frenchman Eric Winogradsky and defeated him also in straight sets, 7–6, 6–3. Henman was defeated in the quarter-final by British player Chris Bailey, 6–2, 6–1. By November Henman's rank had increased to 415th. Henman's next tournament was the Volkswagen National Championships in Telford, England; he reached the quarter-final but lost to top-ranked British male player Jeremy Bates, 7–5, 7–6. As 1993 drew to a close, Henman played one last tournament in Israel, which he won.
He started the 1994 season with the four-legged Indian satellite circuit; there he won 18 singles matches in a row. Henman was fairly successful at the British Satellite Masters in Croydon, and by the end of the tournament he was ranked 222nd in the world. Encouraged by his success in the satellite circuit, Henman tried his luck at the ATP tour. Henman travelled to the Far East with Bates, and qualified for his first ATP tournament in April, at the Japan Tennis Championship. In his first round he defeated Kelly Jones, 6–2, 6–3, in the second round he defeated Darren Cahill, 6–2, 7–5 and in the third round Henman was defeated by Pete Sampras, 6–1, 6–2. From this performance Henman increased his ranking to 184th. His success in the Japan Open was followed by a failure to qualify at the Hong Kong Open. Because of this failure, he ended the Far East tour by entering a number of satellite tournaments. Henman entered the Nagoya Open, and defeated eighth seed Eyal Ran in the first round, but lost in the second round to Gouichi Motomura. At the Manila Open, another satellite tournament, Henman reached the final but was defeated by fifth seed Michael Tebbutt, 2–6, 2–6.
After Manila he returned to Europe. In his first Grand Slam bid, Henman failed to qualify in the 1994 French Open, losing the first qualifier round to Australian Wayne Arthurs. His next tournament was the Annenheim Open in Austria, where he lost in the first round to Canadian Sébastien Lareau in straight sets, 6–3, 6–2. However, not all was bad, and Henman, ranked 161st at the time, received a wildcard to qualify for the Stella Artois Championship. In the first round Henman defeated Swedish Peter Lundgren, 7–5, 7–6, but in the second round he succumbed to the eventual champion American Todd Martin, 6–4, 6–4. Henman received a wildcard for the Manchester Open, where he lost in the first round to American Alex O'Brien, and the Wimbledon Championship, the first Grand Slam he had ever played (he failed to qualify to Wimbledon in 1993). At Wimbledon, Henman lost in the first round to German David Prinosil in four sets, 6–4, 3–6, 2–6, 2–6. His early defeat in Wimbledon forced Henman into short period of obscurity in the satellite circuit. Henman reached the semi-finals at the Bristol Open and the fourth round at the Winnetka Open (in Illinois).
By September Henman was ranked 146th, and in the same month he returned to the Far East. His first tournament in the Far East was the Seoul Open. Henman lost in the second round to Korean Kim Nam-Hoon, who was ranked outside the top 700. At the Singapore Challenger, he reached the quarterfinals and lost to fellow Brit Chris Wilkinson. He was forced to retire in the third set against Wilkinson when he fell and received a blow to his leg. When he returned to England not long after the tournament, it was revealed that Henman had broken his ankle in three places and would not play another tournament until February 1995. In fact, he was not fully recovered until May. While injured, his ranking went from 146th to 272nd in the world. That year's grass season would prove highly successful for Henman; he reached the semi-finals at the Annenheim Open, later at the Queen's Club Championship he reached the second round after defeating German Martin Sinner, and in Nottingham he reached the quarter-finals, his first quarter-final in the ATP tour. His success in these tournaments increased his ranking from 272nd to 219th. To make matters better for Henman, he won his first match ever in a Grand Slam event at the Wimbledon Championship over Kenyan Paul Wekesa in straight sets, 7–6, 6–0, 6–4. However, Henman's winning streak did not last long, and in the second round he met Sampras, and was defeated 6–2, 6–3, 7–6. Two days later he partnered Jeremy Bates in the first round of the doubles at Wimbledon but the pair became the first players in the Open era to be defaulted at Wimbledon after Henman accidentally hit a ballgirl on the side of head with a ball, having lashed out with his racket in frustration after losing a point to a net cord in the fourth set tie-break of their match against Jeff Tarango and Henrik Holm. Because he hit the ball in anger, the referee Alan Mills ruled that this was an automatic disqualification for unsportsmanlike conduct. He was very apologetic about the incident, presenting the girl with a bunch of flowers. The rest of the grass season was fairly successful for Henman, he appeared at the Manchester Open and reached the semi-final at the Newcastle Open. At the end of the grass season, Henman's rank had risen to 150th in the world.
After the grass season, Henman headed for the United States. He participated in the RCA Championships and defeated 16th seed Frenchmen Cédric Pioline, the 1993 US Open finalist, in straight sets. He lost the following round, but was later able to qualify for the US Open. In the first round, Henman defeated Spanish Juan Albert Viloca in four sets, 6–3, 4–6, 6–3, 6–2. In the second round, Henman was defeated by American Jared Palmer in four sets, 4–6, 7–6, 3–6, 1–6. Henman's 1995 end-of-year ranking was 95.
1996–2000: Breakthrough
Henman climbed up the rankings very quickly. In 1994, he was among the top 200 players in the world; by 1995, among the top 100; and by 1996, he had made it into the top 30 and won a medal at the Atlanta Olympics. He was the UK's highest-ranked player that year, and won the Most Improved Player trophy at the ATP awards. He was subsequently elected to the ATP Tour Player Council and went on to win his first championship in January 1997. In March of that year, he underwent surgery on his elbow which kept him out of action for two months.
Henman came to the attention of the wider tennis world in 1996 when he came from match point down, saving two successive match points with aces when serving at 3–5 and 15/40, and then breaking his opponent's serve twice in a row to win the final set 7–5 and beat reigning French Open champion Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the first round at Wimbledon, going on to reach the quarter finals before losing to Todd Martin. A few weeks later he was to reach the Men's Doubles final at the 1996 Summer Olympics in partnership with Neil Broad, losing to No. 1 seeds Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde to receive the silver medal. By the time he reached the last 16 at the US Open later in the year, he was firmly established as a top player.
He won his first ATP Tour title in January 1997, beating Carlos Moyá at the Sydney International event. He was seeded 14th at Wimbledon, and again reached the quarter-final, defeating reigning champion and 4th seed Richard Krajicek in the fourth round before falling to 1991 champion Michael Stich. In 1998 he went one better, reaching the semi-final for the first time, by which time he was ranked as one of the top 10 ATP players.
Henman came close to reaching the final on a number of occasions, losing in the semi-finals to the eventual champion in 1998, 1999, 2001 and 2002. The first two of those semi-final losses were to Pete Sampras; in 2001 he lost to Goran Ivanišević, a former two-time finalist; in 2002 he lost to Lleyton Hewitt, ranked number one in the world at the time. In 2000 Henman reached the fourth round at Wimbledon; and in 1996, 1997, 2003 and 2004 he lost in the quarter-finals.
One of the tournaments in which he has been most successful is Queen's Club. He reached the final in 1999, where he lost to Pete Sampras, and went on to reach the final again in 2001 and 2002, where both times he lost to Lleyton Hewitt. Based on that success he was expected, at least within England, to be the first man since Fred Perry in 1936 to win a major for Britain – which in the end he never managed, Wimbledon 2001 being the closest that he ever came to reaching a final. He became well known for the Henman fist, which would become his trademark on winning a point.
2001–2004: Career peak
Henman started the 2001 ATP season with a ranking of tenth in the world. At the Adelaide International Henman lost in the semi-finals to Nicolás Massú. His next tournament was the Australian Open; Henman had wins over Hicham Arazi, Nicolás Lapentti, and Wayne Arthurs, but lost to Patrick Rafter in the fourth round in straight sets. He then won the Copenhagen Open, dispatching Andreas Vinciguerra in two sets. Henman then lost in the second round of the Rotterdam Open. Rotterdam was followed by a defeat in the Scottsdale Open. In March, Henman reached the third round at Indian Wells, where he lost to Nicolás Lapentti in straight sets. The hard court season wrapped up with the Miami Masters where Henman lost in round two to Fabrice Santoro.
By the beginning of the clay season in April, Henman's ranking had slipped from 10th to 12th in the world. He reached the second round of the Estoril Open, the quarter-finals of Monte-Carlo, round two in Rome, and lost in round one at the Hamburg Masters. At the French Open Henman had wins over Tomas Behrend and Sjeng Schalken, but lost to Guillermo Cañas in five sets in round three. At the end of the clay season, Henman's ranking had risen back up to 11th.
On the grass at Queen's Club Championship Henman reached the final, where he was defeated in straight sets by Australian Lleyton Hewitt. Many commentators believed Henman had a chance to win that year's Wimbledon with several top-seeds being defeated early in the tournament. Henman came through the first three rounds with ease, winning over Artem Derepasko, Martin Lee, and Sjeng Schalken. However, it took five sets to defeat the 22nd American seed Todd Martin in round four. In the quarter-finals Henman beat a young Roger Federer in four tough sets, the latter having defeated Henman's longtime nemesis Sampras in the fourth round in the only tour match that Sampras and Federer would ever play. In his semi-final Henman met wildcard entrant, Goran Ivanišević where Ivanišević eventually managed to win in five sets in a match that spanned 3 days because of numerous rain delays. Henman had come back from losing the first set and played some stunning tennis – including crushing Ivanišević in the third set 6–0 – to take the lead by 2 sets to 1 before rain first stopped play. The players returned the following day but Henman couldn't recapture his form from the Friday and lost the fourth set in a tie break. Henman had got as close as 2 points from victory but serve was with his opponent and he was not able to hang on. Only 5 games into the deciding set, rain fell again and the players were forced to wait it out overnight to finish the epic encounter. When the pair finally returned on Sunday, Ivanišević was able to wrap up the final set and dash the English player's dream of reaching a Wimbledon final.
In August, Henman only reached the second round in the Canada Masters but bounced back and made it to the semi-finals of the Cincinnati Masters. There he lost to Gustavo Kuerten in three sets. His next tournament was nearly as successful, with Henman reaching the quarter-finals at the RCA Championship. Henman lost in the quarter-finals, again to Kuerten in three sets. At the US Open he reached the third round; Henman defeated Vacek and Fernando Meligeni, but was upset by Xavier Malisse in five sets. Near the end of the season, Henman won the Swiss Indoors, by defeating the previous runner-up Roger Federer in straight sets.
In 2002, Henman reached the 4th round at the Australian Open and the semi-finals at Wimbledon for the last time in his career, losing this time to Lleyton Hewitt: for the fourth time, his conqueror in the semi-finals went on to win the tournament. He was defeated in the second round of the French Open, and the third round of the US Open. At the ATP tour, Henman was the runner-up at three finals; at one ATP Masters Series, at one ATP 500 Series and at one normal ATP tournament. Henman did not participate in the 2003 Australian Open, reached the third round in the French Open, his best so far, reached the quarter-finals at the Wimbledon Championship and lost in the first round at the US Open to eventual champion Andy Roddick. He reached two ATP finals in 2003, one of them being the Paris Masters, winning both of them—his victory at the 2003 Paris Masters would be his only victory at an ATP Masters tour event.
In 2004, Henman failed to reach the fourth round of the Australian Open and failed to reach the semi-finals at the Wimbledon Championships. However, he reached, to the surprise of commentators, the semi-finals of the French Open and later, the semi-finals of the US Open. His ATP tour was not as successful, but he managed to reach the finals of the Indian Wells, where he was defeated by reigning champion Roger Federer in two sets, 3–6, 3–6. 2004 would be the last time Henman participated in the Tennis Masters Cup (a tournament between the eight best players of the world). 2004 would prove Henman's last successful year as a tennis player; he failed to reach beyond the third round in any of the Grand Slams from 2005 until his retirement in 2007.
At the Davis Cup World Group Play-off against Austria, Henman and Greg Rusedski played all five rubbers on the Austrian clay, but were beaten 3–2. Henman now decided to withdraw from the Davis Cup to concentrate on his own career.
2005–2007: Decline
His first tournament in 2005 was the Australian Open. Henman defeated Frenchmen Cyril Saulnier in four sets, 6–1, 6–2, 4–6, 6–3, and defeated Romanian Victor Hănescu in three sets, 7–5, 6–1, 6–4, but lost to the 28th seed Russian Nikolay Davydenko in straight sets; 4–6, 2–6, 2–6. The next tournament was the Rotterdam Open where he reached the third round, being defeated by Croatian Mario Ančić, 5–7, 4–6. He did not fare much better at the Dubai Open, and lost in the third round to Croatian Ivan Ljubičić, 5–7, 4–6. Henman's next tournament was the first ATP Masters Series event of the year; at the Indian Wells he reached the quarterfinals after receiving a bye (meaning he could skip the first round). He lost in the quarter-finals to Argentinian Guillermo Cañas, 6–7, 5–7. At the Miami Masters Henman again lost in the quarter-finals, this time to Swiss world no. 1 Roger Federer in straight sets, 4–6, 2–6.
At Henman's first clay tournament of 2005, the Monte-Carlo Masters, he lost in the first round to Argentinian Mariano Zabaleta, 4–6, 6–4, 2–6. Henman improved his clay record that year by reaching the third round at both the Italian Open and the Hamburg Masters, but he disappointed his fans by being defeated by Peruvian Luis Horna in the second round of the French Open in four sets, 5–7, 7–6, 3–6, 4–6. In contrast to the clay season, the grass season began well, with Henman reaching the quarter-finals at the Queen's Club Championships, losing to Swedish Thomas Johansson, 4–6, 4–6. However, after defeating Jarkko Nieminen in the first round of the Wimbledon Championship, he lost in the second round to Russian Dmitry Tursunov in five sets, 6–3, 2–6, 6–3, 3–6, 6–8. His hard court season was not much better; Henman was defeated in the first or second round in all the remaining tournaments he participated in that year. At the US Open he lost to Spaniard Fernando Verdasco in straight sets, 4–6, 2–6, 2–6. At his last match of the year, Henman was beaten by Britain's rising tennis star Andy Murray in the first round in three sets, 3–6, 7–5, 7–6.
His opening tournament of 2006 was the Qatar Open, where he lost in the second round to Tommy Haas 2–6, 6–7 and 7–5 in tie-break. In that year's Australian Open he was defeated in the first round by Russian Dmitry Tursunov, 7–5, 3–6, 4–6, 5–7. His early defeat in the Australian Open was followed by success in the Zagreb Open; Henman reached the semi-finals, but was defeated by Stefan Koubek, 3–6, 6–3, 2–6. His success in Zagreb was met by failure at the Rotterdam Open, where he was beaten in the second round by future world no. 1 Novak Djokovic in three sets, 7–5, 3–6, 4–6. At the Dubai Open Henman reached the quarter-finals, but lost the match to the Spanish world no. 2 Rafael Nadal in straight sets; 6–7 (1–7 in tie break), 1–6. Henman was defeated in the second round of Indian Wells by up-and-comer Tomáš Berdych in two sets, 4–6, 4–6. Henman ended an eight-match losing streak against Lleyton Hewitt on 25 March 2006, with a 7–6, 6–3 victory at the Miami Masters tournament, but lost in the third round to unseeded German Simon Greul in three sets; 6–0, 1–6, 5–7. He was defeated in the first round of the Monte-Carlo Masters by Argentinian world no. 8 Gastón Gaudio, 1–6, 3–6. At the Italian Open Henman managed to reach the third round, but lost to Nadal, 2–6, 2–6. His success in the Italian Open was met with a defeat in the second round of the French Open by Dmitry Tursunov in four sets; 3–6, 2–6, 6–4, 4–6. His run at the Queen's Club Championships was far more successful, with Henman losing to Lleyton Hewitt 6–3, 3–6, 6–2 in the semi-finals.
Henman was unseeded at Wimbledon in 2006 for the first time in a number of years after his world ranking slipped down to number 62. At that Wimbledon, he lost in the second round to eventual champion Federer, 6–4, 6–0, 6–2, after a five-set victory over Robin Söderling of Sweden in the first round. At the US Open, Henman reached the second round where he was defeated by Roger Federer, 3–6, 4–6, 5–7. Following his failure at the US Open, Henman played two tournaments in the far east. Starting in Bangkok, Henman reached the quarter-finals where he lost to Paradorn Srichaphan 6–7, 6–4, 7–6. Henman then reached his first final since 2004 at the AIG Open in Tokyo, losing to Roger Federer, 6–3, 6–3. Although Henman was scheduled to play in both Basel & Paris at the end of the 2006 season, he lost in the second round in Basel against the rising Swiss star Stanislas Wawrinka 2–6, 7–6, 6–4. He twisted a knee; he did not retire but resorted to a less mobile game that saw Wawrinka win.
On Henman's last practice session before departing for the Australian Open at the start of 2007, having recovered from his knee injury, he injured his hamstring which forced him to withdraw from the tournament. He returned in time to enter Masters Series events in Indian Wells and Miami after withdrawing from Rotterdam and Zagreb but lost in the first round in both of them. Henman's poor luck with injury and form continued into the 2007 clay court season with first round losses to Juan Carlos Ferrero, 5–7, 2–6 in Monaco, Nicolás Almagro, 5–7, 1–6 in Rome and a poor showing against 18-year-old grand slam debutant Ernests Gulbis, 4–6, 3–6, 2–6 in the French Open. Henman's clay-court season ended without a set won. His grass court season got underway on 12 June 2007 at Queens Club, but was put to an abrupt end by Croatian wildcard entry Marin Čilić. However, he ended the day with a doubles victory with partner Lleyton Hewitt over Australian Jordan Kerr and Austrian Alexander Peya. An early loss at a grass court event in Nottingham was followed up with a poor showing at Wimbledon, with Henman losing in the second round to Feliciano López in five sets. Henman played three more tournaments before retiring; at his last Grand Slam appearance ever, he lost in the second round to Frenchman Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in four sets; 6–7, 6–2, 5–7, 4–6.
Retirement and post-playing career
Henman announced at a press conference on 23 August 2007 that he would retire from tennis after playing in the US Open and Britain's Davis Cup tie against Croatia in September 2007.
Henman defeated his rival Dmitry Tursunov (who had won five of their six previous matches) in the first round of the US Open, 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, 6–4, in what many had assumed would be his final Grand Slam match. His actual final match was in the next round on 31 August 2007, losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, 6–7(2–7), 6–2, 5–7, 4–6. Henman seemed sluggish compared to his first-round match, he served for the first set but could not close it out and lost the tiebreaker.
Henman played his final match in the Davis Cup tie against Croatia on 22 September 2007. The doubles match with Jamie Murray was played on Court 1 at Wimbledon which they won, 4–6, 6–4, 7–6, 7–5. The match put Great Britain in an unassailable 3–0 lead and back in the World Group, with the doubles win being added to singles wins the previous day from Henman and Andy Murray. After the match Henman told Sue Barker in an interview on BBC Television and in front of the Court 1 crowd, "It's occasions like this and fans like this that I will miss so much".
At the time of his retirement, Henman had already committed to playing a Charity Exhibition at London's Royal Albert Hall during the Seniors Tennis Event The Blackrock Masters in December 2007. Henman's opponent was veteran Swede and former Wimbledon Champion Stefan Edberg, Tim won the pro-set 8–4.
Henman became part of the commentary team for the BBC coverage of the 2008 Wimbledon Championships and has remained there since.
Henman took part in a test event for the adoption of the centre court roof in May 2009, playing mixed doubles with Kim Clijsters against husband and wife team Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf.
Finally he became a member of AELTC board and became an important member of Wimbledon organisation.
Equipment
Henman's apparel was manufactured by Adidas and he wore Adidas Equipment Barricade shoes. He used Slazenger Pro Braided racquets.
Olympic finals
Doubles: 1 (0–1)
ATP career finals
Singles: 28 (11 titles, 17 runners-up)
Doubles: 6 (4 titles, 2 runners-up)
Singles performance timeline
Top 10 wins
References
Bibliography
External links
1974 births
Living people
English male tennis players
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at The Dragon School
People educated at Reed's School
People from Aston Tirrold
People from Oxford
Olympic medalists in tennis
Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain
Olympic tennis players of Great Britain
Sportspeople from Oxford
Tennis people from Oxfordshire
Tennis commentators
Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
British male tennis players | [
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262032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frogmouth | Frogmouth | The frogmouths are a group of nocturnal birds related to owlet-nightjars, swifts, and hummingbirds. Species in the group are distributed in the Indomalayan and Australasian realms.
Biology
They are named for their large flattened hooked bill and huge frog-like gape, which they use to capture insects. Their flight is weak. They rest horizontally on branches during the day, camouflaged by their cryptic plumage. Up to three white eggs are laid in the fork of a branch, and are incubated by the female at night and the male in the day. The three Podargus species are large frogmouths restricted to Australia and New Guinea, that have massive flat broad bills. They are known to take larger prey such as small vertebrates (frogs, mice, etc.), which are sometimes beaten against a stone before swallowing. The ten Batrachostomus frogmouths are found in tropical Asia. They have smaller, more rounded bills and are predominantly insectivorous. Both Podargus and Batrachostomus have bristles around the base of the bill, and Batrachostomus has other, longer bristles which may exist to protect the eyes from insect prey. In April 2007, a new species of frogmouth was described from the Solomon Islands and placed in a newly established genus, Rigidipenna.
Taxonomy
DNA-DNA hybridisation studies had suggested that the two frogmouth groups may not be as closely related as previously thought, and that the Asian species may be separable as a new family, the Batrachostomidae. Although frogmouths were formerly included in the order Caprimulgiformes, a 2019 study estimated the divergence between Podargus and Batrachostomus to between 30 and 50 mya and forming a clade well separated from the nightjars and being a sister group of the swifts, hummingbirds, and owlet-nightjars. The name Podargiformes proposed in 1918 by Gregory Mathews was reinstated for the clade.
Species
Genus Podargus
Tawny frogmouth, Podargus strigoides
Marbled frogmouth, Podargus ocellatus
Papuan frogmouth, Podargus papuensis
Genus Batrachostomus
Large frogmouth, Batrachostomus auritus
Dulit frogmouth, Batrachostomus harterti
Philippine frogmouth, Batrachostomus septimus
Gould's frogmouth, Batrachostomus stellatus
Sri Lanka frogmouth, Batrachostomus moniliger
Hodgson's frogmouth, Batrachostomus hodgsoni
Short-tailed frogmouth, Batrachostomus poliolophus
Javan frogmouth, Batrachostomus javensis
Blyth's frogmouth, Batrachostomus affinis
Sunda frogmouth, Batrachostomus cornutus
Genus Rigidipenna
Solomons frogmouth, Rigidipenna inexpectata
In culture
In a journal article published in April 2021, researchers Katja Thömmes and Gregor Hayn-Leichsenring from the Experimental Aesthetics group at the University Hospital Jena, Germany, found the frogmouth to be the most "instagrammable" bird species. Using an algorithm to analyze the aesthetic appeal of more than 27,000 bird photographs on Instagram, they found that photos depicting frogmouths received the highest number of likes relative to the posts' exposure to users. The journal article was picked up by several news outlets, including the New York Times and The Guardian.
References
External links
Frogmouth videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Video: Finding the Sri-Lanka Frogmouth, Southern India
Scientists discover new genus of frogmouth bird in Solomon Islands | [
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262037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge%20Arce | Jorge Arce | Jorge Armando Arce Armenta (; born July 27, 1979), best known as Jorge Arce, is a Mexican former professional boxer who competed from 1996 to 2014. He is a multiple-time world champion, and the second boxer from Mexico to win world titles in four weight divisions (after Érik Morales, who first achieved the feat two months prior). In a storied career, Arce held the WBO light flyweight title from 1998 to 1999; the WBC and lineal light flyweight titles from 2002 to 2004; the WBO super flyweight title in 2010; the WBO junior featherweight title in 2011; and the WBO bantamweight title from 2011 to 2012. Additionally he held the WBC interim flyweight title from 2005 to 2006, the WBA interim super flyweight title from 2008 to 2009, and challenged once for the WBC featherweight title in his final fight in 2014.
Arce remains a favorite fighter among boxing fans and is also the older brother of title contender Francisco Arce Armenta. Arce's trademark ring entrance featured him wearing a black cowboy hat (earning him the nickname "The Mexican Cowboy") and sucking a cherry lollipop.
Professional career
Early years at light flyweight
Arce turned pro at the age of 16, winning his first four fights. He lost to future champion Omar Romero and drew with Gabriel Munoz in back-to-back fights in the summer of 1996, but then won 10 straight bouts and a pair of regional belts before losing on points to veteran (and future IBF Light Flyweight Champion) Jose Victor Burgos on December 12, 1997.
He recovered from that setback with four straight wins, earning his first world title shot on December 4, 1998 against Juan Domingo Córdoba for the WBO Light Flyweight title. Arce won the fight and became a world champion at the age of 19.
After making one successful defense of his title, Arce drew a big-money fight in Tijuana against three-time former champion Michael Carbajal on July 31, 1999. Arce was ahead on all three judges' scorecards after 10 rounds, but in the 11th, the veteran Carbajal connected with a stunning right hand and captured the crown via a technical knockout, as Arce was unable to continue.
After a four-month layoff, Arce returned to the ring and won a WBO regional belt as he scored 7 consecutive wins while working his way back up the rankings for another title shot. That came on October 20, 2001, when he defeated Juanito Rubillar for the Interim WBC version of the Light Flyweight title. Nine months later, he beat Yo-Sam Choi, the reigning Lineal and WBC light flyweight champion who had been out with an injury, to take full distinction. He held the title until the summer of 2005 before relinquishing it to move up in weight. In his first defense, he defeated Augustin Lara. In 2003, he successfully defended his title three times against Ernesto Castro, Lee Marvin Sandoval, and Melchor Cob Castro.
Towards the end of 2003, he participated in the Televisa version of Big Brother, the Big Brother V.I.P. show that put celebrities together. He arrived in third place, then went training for his next defense, against former world champion Joma Gamboa on January 10 of the following year. Arce invited his Big Brother celebrity friends to the fight with Gamboa, his first fight of 2004, which he won by a second-round knockout. But during and after the fight, chaos ensued. One of his friends, actress Arleth Gonzalez, was kicked off her chair by another person. And Verónica Castro was pursued by the press when she was trying to leave the fight site, taking her more than two hours to get to the site's parking lot.
On April 24, 2004, Arce successfully defended his title in a rematch against former champ Melchor Cob Castro in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas. Arce had beaten Castro in May 2003, but the fight was called off after six rounds due to a clash of heads which injured Arce. The fight went to the scorecards and Arce won a narrow, but controversial, decision. He left no doubt in the rematch, knocking Castro out in the fifth round.
On September 4 of that same year, he retained the title with a twelve-round decision in a rematch with Rubillar. The fight caused some controversy afterwards, when Rubillar's manager accused the fight's judges of robbing his fighter, going on to offer Arce 100,000 US$ for a rematch, which would be held in the Philippines.
Arce moved on to defend his title for a seventh time on December 18, defeating Juan Centeno by a third-round TKO. He then decided to try his luck in the flyweight (112-pound) weight division.
Flyweight
On March 19, 2005, Arce stopped Hussein Hussein in the 10th round of a fight for the right to challenge Pongsaklek Wonjongkam for his WBC Flyweight title. He later relinquished his light flyweight crown and was matched by the WBC with Angel Priolo on July 30 for their interim title after Wonjongkam suffered an injury. Arce scored a third-round TKO win in the fight, held in La Paz, Mexico.
While waiting to fight Wongjongkam, Arce stayed busy by rematching Hussein on October 8 in Las Vegas. He retained his Interim WBC title with a second-round knockout.
On December 16, 2005, Arce defeated former two-time champion Adonis Rivas by 10th round tko. In his next bout, Arce defeated Rivas in a rematch.
On April 8, 2006, Arce took on the well regarded, former WBA Minimumweight and Light Flyweight Champion Rosendo Alvarez of Nicaragua, knocking Alvarez out in the sixth round. It was the 4th successful defense of his Interim Flyweight title.
Super flyweight
On September 23, 2006, he moved up to the super flyweight division where he defeated former Light Flyweight Champion Masibulele "Hawk" Makepula by fourth-round knockout (which, according to the HBO commentators, he had predicted earlier). On January 27, 2007, he defeated Argentinian Julio Ler in a 12-round decision, thus earning the WBC #1 super-flyweight ranking.
On April 14, 2007, he lost a 12-round unanimous decision to WBC Super Flyweight Champion Cristian Mijares in San Antonio, Texas. Mijares won the fight by a wide margin, with the official judges scoring the match 119–109, 118–110, 117–111, all in favor of Mijares.
Arce rebounded from the loss by defeating future champion Tomás Rojas by 6th-round technical knockout. On December 1, 2007, Arce defeated former Flyweight Champion Medgoen Singsurat by technical knockout in the first round.
On May 17, 2008, in a very close fight, Arce (49–4–1, 37 KOs) edged Devid Lookmahanak of Thailand (18–2, 9 KOs) with a majority decision in the main event at the Plaza Monumental Aguascalientes in Aguascalientes, Mexico. With a sold-out crowd of 18,000 fans cheering him on, Arce had to dig deep and work hard to pull past the once-beaten Lookmahanak, who turned out to be a very game southpaw and rarely took a step back. The difference in the fight, which also gave Arce the win, was a knockdown in the seventh round. The scores were 115–113, 115–114 and 114–114. Without the extra point for the knockdown, the fight would have been scored a draw. The bout was an eliminator for a shot at the WBC Super Flyweight title. Arce moves on to a rematch with Cristian Mijares, who earlier captured the WBA's version of the title with a points win over Alexander Muñoz.
On September 15, 2008, Arce won the Interim WBA Super Flyweight title from holder Rafael Concepción.
Arce blasted former champion Isidro García, on November 1, 2008, via (48 seconds of the) 4th round technical knockout for a super flyweight belt. He improved to 51–4–1, with 38 wins inside the distance, while Garcia, who has lost 3 of his last 4 fights, was down to 25–6–2.
On February 7, 2009, Arce was defeated by Undisputed Super Flyweight Champion Vic Darchinyan.
Arce fought Simphiwe Nongqayi on September 15, 2009 for the IBF Super Flyweight title which was recently vacated by Darchinyan. However, he ended losing by unanimous decision.
Arce defeated Indonesian Angky Angkota on January 30, 2010, winning the vacant WBO Super Flyweight title. Prior to the bout, Arce stated that he would retire from boxing if he would have lost.
Bantamweight
On April 24, 2010, Arce jumped to the bantamweight division to fight fellow Mexican Cecilio Santos (24–13–3; 14 KO) at the Centro de Usos Multiples in Ciudad Obregón, Sonora, Mexico. Arce defeated his opponent by KO in the 7th round, improving his record to 54–6–1. This was not his first fight as a bantamweight: he already fought once in the weight class in 2007.
Arce was scheduled to fight Eric Morel (42–2; 21 KO) of Puerto Rico on June 26, 2010 at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas, United States with the Interim WBO Bantamweight title at stake. The Los Mochis native withdrew from the fight a few weeks in advance due to a cut he received while in training.
In his next fight, on July 31, 2010, Arce took on fellow Mexican and former champion Martín "El Gallo" Castillo at the Palenque de la Feria in Tepic, Nayarit, Mexico. The Los Mochis native won the bout by KO in the first round.
Super bantamweight
On May 7, 2011 He beat a then undefeated WBO Super Bantamweight Champion, Wilfredo Vazquez, Jr. of Puerto Rico by twelfth-round technical knockout.
Arce vs. Donaire
On December 15, 2012, Arce fought Nonito Donaire. Arce suffered a defeat on the third round via knockout. After losing to Donaire, Arce announced his retirement.
Life outside of boxing
Arce has gained some popularity outside the ring as well, acting in various Televisa comedy sketches, and participating in Adal Ramones's show's dancing contest, "Bailando por un Sueño", where he and a fellow contestant arrived in eighth place out of nine couples. He has also done boxing commentary for TV Azteca.
Professional boxing record
Exhibition boxing record
See also
List of world light-flyweight boxing champions
List of world super-flyweight boxing champions
List of world bantamweight boxing champions
List of world super-bantamweight boxing champions
List of boxing quadruple champions
List of Mexican boxing world champions
Notable boxing families
References
External links
Jorge Arce profile at Cyber Boxing Zone
1979 births
Living people
Mexican male boxers
Boxers from Sinaloa
Sportspeople from Los Mochis
World Boxing Council champions
World Boxing Organization champions
World Boxing Association champions
World light-flyweight boxing champions
World super-flyweight boxing champions
World bantamweight boxing champions
World super-bantamweight boxing champions
Flyweight boxers
Featherweight boxers | [
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262039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammography | Mammography | Mammography (also called mastography) is the process of using low-energy X-rays (usually around 30 kVp) to examine the human breast for diagnosis and screening. The goal of mammography is the early detection of breast cancer, typically through detection of characteristic masses or microcalcifications.
As with all X-rays, mammograms use doses of ionizing radiation to create images. These images are then analyzed for abnormal findings. It is usual to employ lower-energy X-rays, typically Mo (K-shell X-ray energies of 17.5 and 19.6 keV) and Rh (20.2 and 22.7 keV) than those used for radiography of bones. Ultrasound, ductography, positron emission mammography (PEM), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are adjuncts to mammography. Ultrasound is typically used for further evaluation of masses found on mammography or palpable masses not seen on mammograms. Ductograms are still used in some institutions for evaluation of bloody nipple discharge when the mammogram is non-diagnostic. MRI can be useful for further evaluation of questionable findings, as well as for screening pre-surgical evaluation in patients with known breast cancer, in order to detect additional lesions that might change the surgical approach, for example, from breast-conserving lumpectomy to mastectomy. Other procedures being investigated include tomosynthesis.
For the average woman, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends (2016) mammography every two years between the ages of 50 and 74, concluding that "the benefit of screening mammography outweighs the harms by at least a moderate amount from age 50 to 74 years and is greatest for women in their 60s". The American College of Radiology and American Cancer Society recommend yearly screening mammography starting at age 40. The Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care (2012) and the European Cancer Observatory (2011) recommend mammography every 2 to 3 years between ages 50 and 69. These task force reports point out that in addition to unnecessary surgery and anxiety, the risks of more frequent mammograms include a small but significant increase in breast cancer induced by radiation. Additionally, mammograms should not be performed with increased frequency in patients undergoing breast surgery, including breast enlargement, mastopexy, and breast reduction. The Cochrane Collaboration (2013) concluded after ten years that trials with adequate randomization did not find an effect of mammography screening on total cancer mortality, including breast cancer. The authors of this Cochrane review write: "If we assume that screening reduces breast cancer mortality by 15% and that overdiagnosis and over-treatment is at 30%, it means that for every 2,000 women invited for screening throughout 10 years, one will avoid dying of breast cancer and 10 healthy women, who would not have been diagnosed if there had not been screening, will be treated unnecessarily. Furthermore, more than 200 women will experience important psychological distress including anxiety and uncertainty for years because of false positive findings." The authors conclude that the time has come to re-assess whether universal mammography screening should be recommended for any age group. They state that universal screening may not be reasonable. The Nordic Cochrane Collection updated research in 2012 and stated that advances in diagnosis and treatment make mammography screening less effective today, rendering it "no longer effective". They conclude that "it therefore no longer seems reasonable to attend" for breast cancer screening at any age, and warn of misleading information on the internet. On the contrary, a report in the New England Journal of Medicine attributes the poor effectiveness of national mammography screening programs at reducing breast cancer mortality to radiation-induced cancers.
Mammography has a false-negative (missed cancer) rate of at least ten percent. This is partly due to dense tissue obscuring the cancer and the appearance of cancer on mammograms having a large overlap with the appearance of normal tissue. A meta-analysis review of programs in countries with organized screening found a 52% over-diagnosis rate.
History
As a medical procedure that induces ionizing radiation, the origin of mammography can be traced to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895.
In 1913, German surgeon Albert Salomon performed a mammography study on 3,000 mastectomies, comparing X-rays of the breasts to the actual removed tissue, observing specifically microcalcifications. By doing so, he was able to establish the difference as seen on an X-ray image between cancerous and non-cancerous tumors in the breast. Salomon's mammographs provided substantial information about the spread of tumors and their borders.
In 1930, American physician and radiologist Stafford L. Warren published "A Roentgenologic Study of the Breast", a study where he produced stereoscopic X-rays images to track changes in breast tissue as a result of pregnancy and mastitis. In 119 women who subsequently underwent surgery, he correctly found breast cancer in 54 out of 58 cases.
In the early 1950s, Uruguayan radiologist Raul Leborgne developed the breast compression technique to produce better quality images, and described the differences between benign and malign microcalcifications.
In the late 1950s, Robert Egan at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center combined a technique of low kVp with high mA and single emulsion films to devise a method of screening mammography for the first time. He published these results in 1959 in a paper, and subsequently in a 1964 book called Mammography. The "Egan technique", as it became known, enabled physicians to detect calcification in breast tissue; of the 245 breast cancers that were confirmed by biopsy among 1,000 patients, Egan and his colleagues at M.D. Anderson were able to identify 238 cases by using his method, 19 of which were in patients whose physical examinations had revealed no breast pathology. Use of mammography as a screening technique spread clinically after a 1966 study demonstrating the impact of mammograms on mortality and treatment led by Philip Strax. This study, based in New York, was the first large-scale randomized controlled trial of mammography screening.
Procedure
During the procedure, the breast is compressed using a dedicated mammography unit. Parallel-plate compression evens out the thickness of breast tissue to increase image quality by reducing the thickness of tissue that X-rays must penetrate, decreasing the amount of scattered radiation (scatter degrades image quality), reducing the required radiation dose, and holding the breast still (preventing motion blur). In screening mammography, both head-to-foot (craniocaudal, CC) view and angled side-view (mediolateral oblique, MLO) images of the breast are taken. Diagnostic mammography may include these and other views, including geometrically magnified and spot-compressed views of the particular area of concern. Deodorant, talcum powder or lotion may show up on the X-ray as calcium spots, so women are discouraged from applying them on the day of their exam. There are two types of mammogram studies: screening mammograms and diagnostic mammograms. Screening mammograms, consisting of four standard X-ray images, are performed yearly on patients who present with no symptoms. Diagnostic mammograms are reserved for patients with breast symptoms, changes, or abnormal findings seen on their screening mammograms. Diagnostic mammograms are also performed on patients with breast implants, breast reductions, and patients with personal and/or family histories of breast cancer.
Until some years ago, mammography was typically performed with screen-film cassettes. Today, mammography is undergoing transition to digital detectors, known as digital mammography or Full Field Digital Mammography (FFDM). The first FFDM system was approved by the FDA in the U.S. in 2000. This progress is occurring some years later than in general radiology. This is due to several factors:
The higher spatial resolution demands of mammography
Significantly increased expense of the equipment
Concern by the FDA that digital mammography equipment demonstrate that it is at least as good as screen-film mammography at detecting breast cancers without increasing dose or the number of women recalled for further evaluation.
As of March 1, 2010, 62% of facilities in the United States and its territories have at least one FFDM unit. (The FDA includes computed radiography units in this figure.)
Mammograms are either looked at by one (single reading) or two (double reading) trained professionals: these film readers are generally radiologists, but may also be radiographers, radiotherapists, or breast clinicians (non-radiologist physicians specializing in breast disease). Double reading, which is standard practice in the UK, but less common in the US, significantly improves the sensitivity and specificity of the procedure. Clinical decision support systems may be used with digital mammography (or digitized images from analogue mammography), but studies suggest these approaches do not significantly improve performance or provide only a small improvement.
Digital
Digital mammography is a specialized form of mammography that uses digital receptors and computers instead of X-ray film to help examine breast tissue for breast cancer. The electrical signals can be read on computer screens, permitting more manipulation of images to allow radiologists to view the results more clearly . Digital mammography may be "spot view", for breast biopsy, or "full field" (FFDM) for screening.
Digital mammography is also utilized in stereotactic biopsy. Breast biopsy may also be performed using a different modality, such as ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
While radiologists had hoped for more marked improvement, the effectiveness of digital mammography was found comparable to traditional X-ray methods in 2004, though there may be reduced radiation with the technique and it may lead to fewer retests. Specifically, it performs no better than film for post-menopausal women, who represent more than three-quarters of women with breast cancer. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force concluded that there was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against digital mammography.
Digital mammography is a NASA spin-off, utilizing technology developed for the Hubble Space Telescope. As of 2007, about 8% of American screening centers used digital mammography. Around the globe, systems by Fujifilm Corporation are the most widely used. In the United States, GE's digital imaging units typically cost US$300,000 to $500,000, far more than film-based imaging systems. Costs may decline as GE begins to compete with the less expensive Fuji systems.
3D Mammography
Three-dimensional mammography, also known as digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), tomosynthesis, and 3D breast imaging, is a mammogram technology that creates a 3D image of the breast using X-rays. When used in addition to usual mammography, it results in more positive tests. Cost effectiveness is unclear as of 2016. Another concern is that it more than doubles the radiation exposure.
Photon counting
Photon-counting mammography was introduced commercially in 2003 and was shown to reduce the X-ray dose to the patient by approximately 40% compared to conventional methods while maintaining image quality at an equal or higher level. The technology was subsequently developed to enable spectral imaging with the possibility to further improve image quality, to distinguish between different tissue types, and to measure breast density.
Galactography
A galactography (or breast ductography) is a type of mammography used to visualize the milk ducts. Prior to the mammography itself, a radiopaque substance is injected into the duct system. This test is indicated when nipple discharge exists.
Scoring
Mammogram results are often expressed in terms of the BI-RADS Assessment Category, often called a "BI-RADS score". The categories range from 0 (Incomplete) to 6 (Known biopsy – proven malignancy). In the UK mammograms are scored on a scale from 1-5 (1 = normal, 2 = benign, 3 = indeterminate, 4 = suspicious of malignancy, 5 = malignant). Evidence suggests that accounting for genetic risk, factors improve breast cancer risk prediction.
"Work-up" process
In the past several years, the "work-up" process has become highly formalized. It generally consists of screening mammography, diagnostic mammography, and biopsy when necessary, often performed via stereotactic core biopsy or ultrasound-guided core biopsy. After a screening mammogram, some women may have areas of concern which cannot be resolved with only the information available from the screening mammogram. They would then be called back for a "diagnostic mammogram". This phrase essentially means a problem-solving mammogram. During this session, the radiologist will be monitoring each of the additional films as they are taken by a radiographer. Depending on the nature of the finding, ultrasound may often be used as well.
Generally, the cause of the unusual appearance is found to be benign. If the cause cannot be determined to be benign with sufficient certainty, a biopsy will be recommended. The biopsy procedure will be used to obtain actual tissue from the site for the pathologist to examine microscopically to determine the precise cause of the abnormality. In the past, biopsies were most frequently done in surgery, under local or general anesthesia. The majority are now done with needles in conjunction with either ultrasound or mammographic guidance to be sure that the area of concern is the area that is biopsied. These core biopsies require only local anesthesia, similar to what would be given during a minor dental procedure.
Risks
The use of mammography as a screening tool for the detection of early breast cancer in otherwise healthy women without symptoms is controversial.
Keen and Keen indicated that repeated mammography starting at age fifty saves about 1.8 lives over 15 years for every 1,000 women screened. This result has to be seen against the adverse effects of errors in diagnosis, over-treatment, and radiation exposure. The Cochrane analysis of screening indicates that it is "not clear whether screening does more good than harm". According to their analysis, 1 in 2,000 women will have her life prolonged by 10 years of screening, while 10 healthy women will undergo unnecessary breast cancer treatment. Additionally, 200 women will suffer from significant psychological stress due to false positive results. Newman points out that screening mammography does not reduce death overall, but causes significant harm by inflicting cancer scare and unnecessary surgical interventions. The Nordic Cochrane Collection notes that advances in diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer may make breast cancer screening no longer effective in decreasing death from breast cancer, and therefore no longer recommend routine screening for healthy women as the risks might outweigh the benefits.
Often women are quite distressed to be called back for a diagnostic mammogram. Most of these recalls will be false positive results. Of every 1,000 U.S. women who are screened, about 7% will be called back for a diagnostic session (although some studies estimate the number to be closer to 10% to 15%). About 10 of these individuals will be referred for a biopsy; the remaining 60 cases are found to be of benign cause. Of the 10 referred for biopsy, about 3.5 will have cancer and 6.5 will not. Of the 3.5 who have cancer, about 2 will have an early stage cancer that will be cured after treatment.
Mammography may also produce false negatives. Estimates of the numbers of cancers missed by mammography are usually around 20%. Reasons for not seeing the cancer include observer error, but more frequently it is because the cancer is hidden by other dense tissue in the breast, and even after retrospective review of the mammogram, the cancer cannot be seen. Furthermore, one form of breast cancer, lobular cancer, has a growth pattern that produces shadows on the mammogram that are indistinguishable from normal breast tissue.
Mortality
The Cochrane Collaboration states that the best quality evidence does not demonstrate a reduction in mortality or a reduction in mortality from all types of cancer from screening mammography.
The Canadian Task Force found that for women ages 50 to 69, screening 720 women once every 2 to 3 years for 11 years would prevent one death from breast cancer. For women ages 40 to 49, 2,100 women would need to be screened at the same frequency and period to prevent a single death from breast cancer.
Women whose breast cancer was detected by screening mammography before the appearance of a lump or other symptoms commonly assume that the mammogram "saved their lives". In practice, the vast majority of these women received no practical benefit from the mammogram. There are four categories of cancers found by mammography:
Cancers that are so easily treated that a later detection would have produced the same rate of cure (women would have lived even without mammography).
Cancers so aggressive that even early detection is too late to benefit the patient (women who die despite detection by mammography).
Cancers that would have receded on their own or are so slow-growing that the woman would die of other causes before the cancer produced symptoms (mammography results in over-diagnosis and over-treatment of this class).
A small number of breast cancers that are detected by screening mammography and whose treatment outcome improves as a result of earlier detection.
Only 3% to 13% of breast cancers detected by screening mammography will fall into this last category. Clinical trial data suggests that 1 woman per 1,000 healthy women screened over 10 years falls into this category. Screening mammography produces no benefit to any of the remaining 87% to 97% of women. The probability of a woman falling into any of the above four categories varies with age.
A 2016 review for the United States Preventive Services Task Force found that mammography was associated with an 8%-33% decrease in breast cancer mortality in different age groups, but that this decrease was not statistically significant at the age groups of 39-49 and 70-74. The same review found that mammography significantly decreased the risk of advanced cancer among women aged 50 and older by 38%, but among those aged 39 to 49 the risk reduction was a non significant 2%.
False positives
The goal of any screening procedure is to examine a large population of patients and find the small number most likely to have a serious condition. These patients are then referred for further, usually more invasive, testing. Thus a screening exam is not intended to be definitive; rather it is intended to have sufficient sensitivity to detect a useful proportion of cancers. The cost of higher sensitivity is a larger number of results that would be regarded as suspicious in patients without disease. This is true of mammography. The patients without disease who are called back for further testing from a screening session (about 7%) are sometimes referred to as "false positives". There is a trade-off between the number of patients with disease found and the much larger number of patients without disease that must be re-screened.
Research shows that false-positive mammograms may affect women's well-being and behavior. Some women who receive false-positive results may be more likely to return for routine screening or perform breast self-examinations more frequently. However, some women who receive false-positive results become anxious, worried, and distressed about the possibility of having breast cancer, feelings that can last for many years.
False positives also mean greater expense, both for the individual and for the screening program. Since follow-up screening is typically much more expensive than initial screening, more false positives (that must receive follow-up) means that fewer women may be screened for a given amount of money. Thus as sensitivity increases, a screening program will cost more or be confined to screening a smaller number of women.
Overdiagnosis
The central harm of mammographic breast cancer screening is overdiagnosis: the detection of abnormalities that meet the pathologic definition of cancer but will never progress to cause symptoms or death. Dr. H. Gilbert Welch, a researcher at Dartmouth College, states that "screen-detected breast and prostate cancer survivors are more likely to have been over-diagnosed than actually helped by the test." Estimates of overdiagnosis associated with mammography have ranged from 1% to 54%. In 2009, Peter C. Gotzsche and Karsten Juhl Jørgensen reviewed the literature and found that 1 in 3 cases of breast cancer detected in a population offered mammographic screening is over-diagnosed. In contrast, a 2012 panel convened by the national cancer director for England and Cancer Research UK concluded that 1 in 5 cases of breast cancer diagnosed among women who have undergone breast cancer screening are over-diagnosed. This means an over-diagnosis rate of 129 women per 10,000 invited to screening.
False negatives
Mammograms also have a rate of missed tumors, or "false negatives". Accurate data regarding the number of false negatives are very difficult to obtain because mastectomies cannot be performed on every woman who has had a mammogram to determine the false negative rate. Estimates of the false negative rate depend on close follow-up of a large number of patients for many years. This is difficult in practice because many women do not return for regular mammography making it impossible to know if they ever developed a cancer. In his book The Politics of Cancer, Dr. Samuel S. Epstein claims that in women ages 40 to 49, one in four cancers are missed at each mammography. Researchers have found that breast tissue is denser among younger women, making it difficult to detect tumors. For this reason, false negatives are twice as likely to occur in pre-menopausal mammograms (Prate). This is why the screening program in the UK does not start calling women for screening mammograms until age 50.
The importance of these missed cancers is not clear, particularly if the woman is getting yearly mammograms. Research on a closely related situation has shown that small cancers that are not acted upon immediately, but are observed over periods of several years, will have good outcomes. A group of 3,184 women had mammograms that were formally classified as "probably benign". This classification is for patients who are not clearly normal but have some area of minor concern. This results not in the patient being biopsied, but rather in having early follow up mammography every six months for three years to determine whether there has been any change in status. Of these 3,184 women, 17 (0.5%) did have cancers. Most importantly, when the diagnosis was finally made, they were all still stage 0 or 1, the earliest stages. Five years after treatment, none of these 17 women had evidence of re-occurrence. Thus, small early cancers, even though not acted on immediately, were still reliably curable.
Radiation
The radiation exposure associated with mammography is a potential risk of screening, which appears to be greater in younger women. A study of radiation risk from mammography concluded that for women 40 years of age and older, the risk of radiation-induced breast cancer was minuscule, particularly compared with the potential benefit of mammographic screening, with a benefit-to-risk ratio of 48.5 lives saved for each life lost due to radiation exposure. However, this estimate is based on modelling, not observations. In contrast epidemiologic studies show a high incidence of breast cancer following mammography screening.
Organizations such as the National Cancer Institute and United States Preventive Task Force do not take such risks into account when formulating screening guidelines.
Other risks
The majority of health experts agree that the risk of breast cancer for asymptomatic women under 35 is not high enough to warrant the risk of radiation exposure. For this reason, and because the radiation sensitivity of the breast in women under 35 is possibly greater than in older women, most radiologists will not perform screening mammography on women under 40. However, if there is a significant risk of cancer in a particular patient (BRCA positive, positive family history, palpable mass), mammography may still be important. Often, the radiologist will try to avoid mammography by using ultrasound or MRI imaging.
While screening between ages 40 and 50 is still controversial, the preponderance of the evidence indicates that there is some small benefit in terms of early detection. Currently, the American Cancer Society, the American College of Radiology, and the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists encourage annual mammograms beginning at age 40. The National Cancer Institute encourages mammograms one to two years for women ages 40 to 49. In contrast, the American College of Physicians, a large internal medicine group, has recently encouraged individualized screening plans as opposed to wholesale biannual screening of women aged 40 to 49. In 2009, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommended that screening of women ages 40 to 49 be based on individual risk factors, and that screening should not be routine in this age group. Their report says that the benefits of screenings before the age of 50 do not outweigh the risks.
Pain
The mammography procedure can be painful. Reported pain rates range from 6-76%, with 23-95% experiencing pain or discomfort. Experiencing pain is a significant predictor in women not re-attending screening. There are few proven interventions to reduce pain in mammography, but evidence suggests that giving women information about the mammography procedure prior to it taking place may reduce the pain and discomfort experienced. Furthermore, research has found that standardised compression levels can help to reduce patients' pain while still allowing for optimal diagnostic images to be produced.
Regulation
Mammography facilities in the United States and its territories (including military bases) are subject to the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA). The act requires annual inspections and accreditation every 3 years through an FDA-approved body. Facilities found deficient during the inspection or accreditation process can be barred from performing mammograms until corrective action has been verified or, in extreme cases, can be required to notify past patients that their exams were sub-standard and should not be relied upon.
At this time, MQSA applies only to traditional mammography and not to related scans, such as breast ultrasound, stereotactic breast biopsy, or breast MRI.
Many states in the US require a notification to be given to women with dense breasts to inform them that mammography is less accurate if breast tissue density is high. In 2019, the Food and Drug Administration proposed a rule that would require doctors inform these women that they may need other imaging tests in addition to mammograms.
Alternative examination methods
For patients who do not want to undergo mammography, MRI and also breast computed tomography (also called breast CT) offer a painless alternative. Whether the respective method is suitable depends on the clinical picture and it is decided by the physician.
See also
Computed tomography laser mammography
Molecular breast imaging
Xeromammography
References
Further reading
External links
Mammographic Image Analysis Homepage
Screening Mammograms: Questions and Answers, from the National Cancer Institute
American Cancer Society: Mammograms and Other Breast Imaging Procedures
U.S. Preventive Task Force recommendations on screening mammography
Projectional radiography
Breast imaging
Cancer screening | [
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262043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superplasticity | Superplasticity | In materials science, superplasticity is a state in which solid crystalline material is deformed well beyond its usual breaking point, usually over about 600% during tensile deformation. Such a state is usually achieved at high homologous temperature. Examples of superplastic materials are some fine-grained metals and ceramics. Other non-crystalline materials (amorphous) such as silica glass ("molten glass") and polymers also deform similarly, but are not called superplastic, because they are not crystalline; rather, their deformation is often described as Newtonian fluid. Superplastically deformed material gets thinner in a very uniform manner, rather than forming a "neck" (a local narrowing) that leads to fracture. Also, the formation of microvoids, which is another cause of early fracture, is inhibited.
In metals and ceramics, requirements for it being superplastic include a fine grain size (less than approximately 20 micrometres) and a fine dispersion of thermally stable particles, which act to pin the grain boundaries and maintain the fine grain structure at the high temperatures and existence of two phases required for superplastic deformation. Those materials that meet these parameters must still have a strain rate sensitivity (a measurement of the way the stress on a material reacts to changes in strain rate) of >0.3 to be considered superplastic.
The mechanisms of superplasticity in metals are still under debate—many believe it relies on atomic diffusion and the sliding of grains past each other. Also, when metals are cycled around their phase transformation, internal stresses are produced and superplastic-like behaviour develops. Recently, high-temperature superplastic behaviour has also been observed in iron aluminides with coarse grain structures. It is claimed that this is due to recovery and dynamic recrystallization.
Superplasticity must not be confused with superelasticity.
Advantages of superplastic forming
The process offers a range of important benefits, from both the design and production aspects. To begin with there is the ability to form components with double curvature and smooth contours from single sheet in one operation, with exceptional dimensional accuracy and surface finish, and none of the "spring back" associated with cold forming techniques. Because only single surface tools are employed, lead times are short and prototyping is both rapid and easy, because a range of sheet alloy thicknesses can be tested on the same tool.
Forming techniques
There are three forming techniques currently in use to exploit these advantages. The method chosen depends upon design and performance criteria such as size, shape, and alloy characteristics.
Cavity forming
A graphite-coated blank is put into a heated hydraulic press. Air pressure is then used to force the sheet into close contact with the mould. At the beginning, the blank is brought into contact with the die cavity, hindering the forming process by the blank/die interface friction. Thus, the contact areas divide the single bulge into a number of bulges, which are undergoing a free bulging process. The procedure allows the production of parts with relatively exact outer contours. This forming process is suitable for the manufacturing of parts with smooth, convex surfaces.
Bubble forming
A graphite coated blank is clamped over a 'tray' containing a heated male mould. Air pressure forces the metal into close contact with the mould. The difference between this and the female forming process is that the mould is, as stated, male and the metal is forced over the protruding form. For the female forming the mould is female and the metal is forced into the cavity.
The tooling consists of two pressure Chambers and a counter punch, which is linearly displaceable. Similar to the cavity forming technology, at the process beginning, the firmly clamped blank is bulged by gas pressure.
The second phase of the process involves the material being formed over the punch surface by applying a pressure against the previous forming direction. Due to a better material use, which is caused by process conditions, blanks with a smaller initial thickness compared to cavity forming can be used. Thus, the bubble forming technology is particularly suitable for parts with high forming depths.
Diaphragm forming
A graphite coated blank is placed into a heated press. Air pressure is used to force the metal into a bubble shape before the male mold is pushed into the underside of the bubble to make an initial impression. Air pressure is then used from the other direction to final form the metal around the male mould. This process has long cycle times because the superplastic strain rates are low. Product also suffers from poor creep performance due to the small grain sizes and there can be cavitation porosity in some alloys. Surface texture is generally good however. With dedicated tooling, dies and machines are costly. The main advantage of the process is that it can be used to produce large complex components in one operation. This can be useful for keeping the mass down and avoiding the need for assembly work, a particular advantage for aerospace products. For example, the diaphragm-forming method (DFM) can be used to reduce the tensile flow stress generated in a specific alloy matrix composite during deformation.
Aluminium and aluminium based alloys
Superplastically formed (SPF) aluminium alloys have the ability to be stretched to several times their original size without failure when heated to between 470 and 520 °C. These dilute alloys containing zirconium, later known by the trade name SUPRAL, were heavily cold worked to sheet and dynamically crystallized to a fine stable grain size, typically 4–5 μm, during the initial stages of hot deformation. Also superplastic forming is a net-shape processing technology that dramatically decreases fabrication and assembly costs by reducing the number of parts and the assembly requirements. Using SPF technology, it was anticipated that a 50% manufacturing cost reduction can be achieved for many aircraft assemblies, such as the nose cone and nose barrel assemblies. Other spin-offs include weight reduction, elimination of thousands of fasteners, elimination of complex featuring and a significant reduction in the number of parts. The breakthrough for superplastic Al-Cu alloys was made by Stowell, Watts and Grimes in 1969 when the first of several dilute aluminium alloys (Al-6% Cu-0.5%Zr) was rendered superplastic with the introduction of relatively high levels of zirconium in solution using specialized casting techniques and subsequent electrical treatment to create extremely fine precipitates.
Commercial alloys
Some commercial alloys have been thermo-mechanically processed to develop superplasticity. The main effort has been on the Al 7000 series alloys, Al-Li alloys, Al-based metal-matrix composites, and mechanically alloyed materials.
Aluminium alloy composites
Aluminium alloy and its composites have wide applications in automotive industries. At room temperature, composites usually have higher strength compared to its component alloy. At high temperature, aluminium alloy reinforced by particles or whiskers such as , , and SiC can have tensile elongation more than 700%. The composites are often fabricated by powder metallurgy to ensure fine grain sizes and the good dispersion of reinforcements. The grain size that allows the optimal superplastic deformation to happen is usually 0.5~1 μm, less than the requirement of conventional superplasticity. Just like other superplastic materials, the strain rate sensitivity m is larger than 0.3, indicating good resistance against local necking phenomenon. A few aluminium alloy composites such as 6061 series and 2024 series have shown high strain rate superplasticity, which happens in a much higher strain rate regime than other superplastic materials. This property makes aluminium alloy composites potentially suitable for superplastic forming because the whole process can be done in a short time, saving time and energy.
Deformation mechanism for aluminium alloy composites
The most common deformation mechanism in aluminium alloy composites is grain boundary sliding (GBS), which is often accompanied by atom/dislocation diffusion to accommodate deformation. The GBS mechanism model predicts a strain rate sensitivity of 0.3, which agrees with most of the superplastic aluminium alloy composites. Grain boundary sliding requires the rotation or migration of very fine grains at relatively high temperature. Therefore, the refinement of grain size and the prevention of grain growth at high temperature is of importance.
The very high temperature (close to melting point) is also said to be related to another mechanism, interfacial sliding, because at high temperatures, partial liquids appear in the matrix. The viscosity of the liquid plays the main role to accommodate the sliding of adjacent grain boundaries. The cavitation and stress concentration caused by the addition of second phase reinforcements are inhibited by the flow of liquid phase. However, too much liquid leads to voids thus deteriorating the stability of the materials. So temperature close to but not exceeding too much the initial melting point is often the optimal temperature. The partial melting could lead to the formation of filaments at the fracture surface, which can be observed under scanning electron microscope. The morphology and chemistry of reinforcements also have influence on the superplasticity of some composites. But no single criterion has yet been proposed to predict their influences.
Methods to improve superplasticity
A few ways have been suggested to optimize the superplastic deformation of aluminium alloy composites, which are also indicative for other materials:
Good dispersion of reinforcements. This is also important for room-temperature performance.
Refine the grain size of the matrix. The refinement creates more grains that can slide over each other at high temperature, facilitating the grain boundary sliding mechanism. This also implies a higher optimal strain rate. The trend of increase in strain rate has been observed in materials of finer grain sizes. Severe plastic deformation like equal-channel angular pressing has been reported to be able to achieve ultra-fine grained materials.
Appropriately choosing the temperature and the strain rate. Some composites have to be heated close to melting, which might have opposite effects on other composites.
Titanium and titanium based alloys
In the aerospace industry, Titanium alloys such as Ti–6Al–4V find extensive use in aerospace applications, not only because of their specific high temperature strength, but also because a large number of these alloys exhibit superplastic behavior. Superplastic sheet thermoforming has been identified as a standard processing route for the production of complex shapes, especially and are amenable to superplastic forming (SPF). However, in these alloys the additions of vanadium make them considerably expensive and so, there is a need for developing superplastic titanium alloys with cheaper alloying additions. The Ti-Al-Mn alloy could be such a candidate material. This alloy shows significant post-uniform deformation at ambient and near-ambient temperatures.
Ti-Al-Mn (OT4-1) alloy
Ti-Al-Mn (OT4-1) alloy is currently being used for aero engine components as well as other aerospace applications by forming through a conventional route that is typically cost, labour and equipment intensive. The Ti-Al-Mn alloy is a candidate material for aerospace applications. However, there is virtually little or no information available on its superplastic forming behaviour. In this study, the high temperature superplastic bulge forming of the alloy was studied and the superplastic forming capabilities are demonstrated.
The bulging process
The gas pressure bulging of metal sheets has become an important forming method. As the bulging process progresses, significant thinning in the sheet material becomes obvious. Many studies were made to obtain the dome height with respect to the forming time useful to the process designer for the selection of initial blank thickness as well as non-uniform thinning in the dome after forming.
Case study
The Ti-Al-Mn (OT4-1) alloy was available in the form of a 1 mm thick cold-rolled sheet. The chemical composition of the alloy. A 35-ton hydraulic press was used for the superplastic bulge forming of a hemisphere. A die set-up was fabricated and assembled with the piping system enabling not only the inert gas flushing of the die- assembly prior to forming, but also for the forming of components under reverse pressure, if needed. The schematic diagram of the superplastic forming set-up used for bulge forming with all necessary attachments and the photograph of the top (left) and bottom (right) die for SPF.
A circular sheet (blank) of 118 mm diameter was cut from the alloy sheet and the cut surfaces polished to remove burrs. The blank was placed on the die and the top chamber brought in contact. The furnace was switched on to the set temperature. Once the set temperature was reached the top chamber was brought down further to effect the required blank holder pressure. About 10 minutes were allowed for thermal equilibration. The argon gas cylinder was opened to the set pressure gradually. Simultaneously, the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), fitted at the bottom of the die, was set for recording the sheet bulge. Once the LVDT reached 45 mm (radius of bottom die), gas pressure was stopped and the furnace switched off. The formed components were taken out when the temperature of the die set had dropped to 600 °C. Easy removal of the component was possible at this stage. Superplastic bulge forming of hemispheres were carried out at temperatures of 1098, 1123, 1148, 1173, 1198 and 1223 K (825, 850, 875, 900, 925 and 950 °C) at forming pressures of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.87 MPa. As the bulge forming process progresses, significant thinning in the sheet material becomes obvious. An ultrasonic technique was used to measure the thickness distribution on the profile of the formed component. The components were analyzed in terms of the thickness distribution, thickness strain and thinning factor. Post deformation micro-structural studies were conducted on the formed components in order to analyze the microstructure in terms of grain growth, grain elongation, cavitations, etc.
Results and discussions
The microstructure of the as-received material with a two-dimensional grain size of 14 μm is shown in Fig. 8.{clarify|Where is this figure 8 and all the other figures?|date=August 2021}} The grain size was determined using the linear intercept method in both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the rolled sheet.
Successful superplastic forming of hemispheres were carried out at temperatures of 1098, 1123, 1148, 1173, 1198 and 1223 K and argon gas forming pressures of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 MPa. A maximum time limit of 250 minutes was given for the complete forming of the hemispheres. This cut-off time of 250 minutes was given for practical reasons. Fig. 9 shows a photo-graph of the blank (specimen) and a bulge formed component (temperature of 1123 K and a forming gas pressure of 0.6 MPa).
The forming times of successfully formed components at different forming temperatures and pressures. From the travel of the LVDT fitted at the bottom of the die (which measured the bulge height/depth) an estimate of the rate of forming was obtained. It was seen that the rate of forming was rapid initially and decreased gradually for all the temperature and pressure ranges as reported in Table 2. At a particular temperature, the forming time reduced as the forming pressure was increased. Similarly at a given forming pressure, forming time decreased with an increase in temperature.
The thickness of the bulge profile was measured at 7 points including the periphery (base) and pole. These points were selected by taking the line between centre of the hemisphere and base point as reference and offsetting by 15° until the pole point was reached. Hence the points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 subtend an angle of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 75° respectively with the base of the hemisphere as shown in Fig. 10. The thickness was measured at each of these points on the bulge profile by using an ultrasonic technique. The thickness values for each of the successfully formed hemispherical components.
Fig. 11 shows the pole thickness of fully formed hemispheres as a function of forming pressure at different temperatures. At a particular temperature the pole thickness reduced as the forming pressure was increased. For all the cases studied the pole thickness lay in the range of about 0.3 to 0.4 mm from the original blank thickness of 1 mm.
The thickness strain , where is the local thickness and is the initial thickness, was calculated at different locations for all the successfully formed components. For a particular pressure the thickness strain reduced as the forming temperature was increased. Fig. 12 shows the thickness strain, as a function of position along the dome cross section in case of a component formed at 1123 K at a forming pressure of 0.6 MPa.
The post-formed microstructure revealed that there was no significant change in grain size. Fig. 13 shows the microstructure of the bulge formed component at the base and the pole for a component formed at a temperature of 1148 K and forming pressure of 0.6 MPa. These microstructures show no significant change in grain size.
Conclusion
The high temperature deformation behaviour and superplastic forming capability of a Ti-Al-Mn alloy was studied. Successful forming of 90 mm diameter hemispheres using the superplastic route were carried out at the temperature range of 1098 to 1223 K and forming pressure range of 0.2 to 0.8 MPa. The following conclusions could be drawn:
The forming time decreased steeply when the gas pressure or temperature was increased. The rate of forming was initially high, but reduced progressively with time.
At a particular temperature the pole thickness reduced as the forming pressure was increased. For all the cases studied the pole thickness lay in the range of about 0.3 to 0.4 mm from the original blank thickness of 1.0 mm.
The thinning factor and thickness strain increased as one moved from the periphery to the pole. The post-formed microstructures show no significant change in grain size.
Iron and steel
Mostly on non-qualified materials, such as austenitic steel of the Fe-Mn-Al alloy, which has some of the specific material parameters closely related to microstructural mechanisms. These parameters are used as indicators of material superplastic potentiality. The material was submitted to hot tensile testing, within a temperature range from 600 °C to 1000 °C and strain-rates varying from 10−6 to 1 s−1. The strain rate sensitivity parameter (m) and observed maximum elongation until rupture (εr) could be determined and also obtained from the hot tensile test.
Fe with Mn and Al alloys
The experiments stated a possibility of superplastic behaviour in a Fe-Mn-Al alloy within a temperature range from 700 °C to 900 °C with grain size around 3 μm (ASTM grain size 12) and average strain rate sensitivity of m ∼ 0.54, as well as a maximum elongation at rupture around 600%.
Fe with Al and Ti alloys
The superplastic behaviour of Fe-28Al, Fe-28Al-2Ti and Fe-28Al-4Ti alloys has been investigated by tensile testing, optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Tensile tests were performed at 700–900 °C under a strain rate range of about 10−5 to 10−2/s. The maximum strain rate sensitivity index m was found to be 0.5 and the largest elongation reached 620%. In Fe3Al and Fe Al alloys with grain sizes of 100 to 600μm exhibit all deformation characteristics of conventional fine grain size superplastic alloys.
However, superplastic behaviour was found in large-grained iron aluminides without the usual requisites for superplasticity of a fine grain size and grain boundary sliding. Metallographic examinations have shown that the average grain size of large-grained iron aluminides decreased during superplastic deformation.
Ceramics
The properties of ceramics
The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the types of atoms present, the types of bonding between the atoms, and the way the atoms are packed together. This is known as the atomic scale structure. Most ceramics are made up of two or more elements. This is called a compound. For example, alumina (), is a compound made up of aluminium atoms and oxygen atoms.
The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond. The two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and ionic. For metals, the chemical bond is called the metallic bond. The bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic bonding than in metallic. That is why, generally speaking, metals are ductile and ceramics are brittle. Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for a multitude of applications. In general, most ceramics are:
hard
wear-resistant
brittle
refractory
thermal insulators
electrical insulator
nonmagnetic
oxidation resistant
prone to thermal shock
good chemical stability
High-strain-rate superplasticity has been observed in aluminium-based and magnesium-based alloys. But for ceramic materials, superplastic deformation has been restricted to low strain rates for most oxides, and nitrides with the presence of cavities leading to premature failure. Here we show that a composite ceramic material consisting of tetragonal zirconium oxide, magnesium aluminates spinal and alpha-alumina phase exhibit superplasticity at strain rates up to 1.0 s−1. The composite also exhibits a large tensile elongation, exceeding 1050% or a strain rate of 0.4 s−1.
Superplastic metals and ceramics have the ability to deform over 100% without fracturing, permitting net-shape forming at high temperatures. These intriguing materials deform primarily by grain boundary sliding, a process accelerated with a fine grain size. However, most ceramics that start with a fine grain size experience rapid grain growth during high temperature deformation, rendering them unsuitable for extended superplastic forming. One can limit grain growth using a minor second phase (Zener pinning) or by making a ceramic with three phases, where grain to grain contact of the same phase is minimized. A research on fine grain three phase alumina-mullite()-zirconia, with approximately equal volume fractions of the three phases, demonstrates that superplastic strain rates as high as 10−2/sec at 1500 °C can be reached. These high strain rates put ceramic superplastic forming into the realm of commercial feasibility.
Cavitations
Superplastic forming will only work if cavitations don't occur during grain boundary sliding, those cavitations leaving either diffusion accommodation or dislocation generation as mechanisms for accommodating grain boundary sliding. The applied stresses during ceramic superplastic forming are moderate, usually 20–50 MPa, usually not high enough to generate dislocations in single crystals, so that should rule out dislocation accommodation. Some unusual and unique features of these three phase superplastic ceramics will be revealed, however, indicating that superplastic ceramics may have a lot more in common with metals than previously thought.
Yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystalline
Yttrium oxide is used as the stabilizer. This material is predominantly tetragonal in structure. Y-TZP has the highest flexural strength of all the zirconia based materials. The fine grain size of Y-TZP lends itself to be used in cutting tools where a very sharp edge can be achieved and maintained due to its high wear resistance. It is considered to be the first true polycrystalline ceramic shown to be superplastic with a 3-mol %
Y-TZP (3Y-TZP), which is now considered to be the model ceramic system.
The fine grade size leads to a very dense, non-porous ceramic with excellent mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, impact toughness, thermal shock resistance and very low thermal conductivity. Due to its characteristics Y-TZP is used in wear parts, cutting tools and thermal barrier coatings.
Grain size
Superplastic properties of 3Y-TZP is greatly affected by grain size as displaced in Fig. 3, elongation to failure decreases and flow strength increases while grain size increases. A study was made on the dependence of flow stress on grain size, the result –in summary- shows that the flow stress approximately depends on the grain size squared:
Where:
is the flow stress.
d is the instantaneous grain size.
Alumina ()
Alumina is probably one of the most widely used structural ceramics, but superplasticity is difficult to obtain in alumina, as a result of rapid anisotropic grain growth during high-temperature deformation.
Regardless of which, several studies have been performed on superplasticity in doped, fine-grain .Demonstrated that the grain size of containing 500-ppm MgO can be further refined by adding various dopants, such as , , and . A grain size of about 0.66 μm was obtained in a 500-ppm -doped . As a result of this fine grain size, the exhibits a rupture elongation of 65% at 1450 °C under an applied stress of 20 MPa.
See also
Superplastic forming
High explosive anti-tank warhead
References
Bibliography
. Superplasticity:Dr R H Johnson Metallurgical Review No 146 Sept 1970. Institute of Metals London, UK
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262045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khaosai%20Galaxy | Khaosai Galaxy | Khaosai Galaxy (, born, May 15, 1959) is a former Thai professional super flyweight (also known as junior bantamweight) boxer and Muaythai kickboxer. Khaosai made 19 (16KO) title defenses of the WBA super flyweight title between 1984 and 1991. He is listed #19 on Ring Magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time and named him the 43rd greatest fighter of the past 80 years in 2002.
Muay Thai career
Khaosai was born as Sura Saenkham () in Phetchabun Province, Northern Thailand. He was a Muay Thai fighter in the early 1980s, and took the professional name Galaxy from a restaurant and nightclub owned by his manager's friend. Khaosai had tremendous punching power, particularly in his soon-to-be legendary left hand. On the advice of his manager and trainer, he switched to Marquis of Queensbury style and began training as a western style boxer.
In Muay Thai his ring names are Daoden Muangsithep () and Khaosai Wangchomphu. ()
He praised his mother as the first trainer, because she was fond of boxing and Muay Thai. Due to he and his twin brother Khaokor Galaxy were born during the time that Pone Kingpetch, the first Thai world champion, was becoming famous.
His mother would wake them up at 4.00 a.m. for a run before school, along with supporting everything for the twins to fight.
Boxing style
Lacking the amateur boxing experience common to most Western professional boxers, Khaosai's skills originally were limited, and he relied on toughness and his fearsome punching power to win. His southpaw style was based on closing his opponent and firing his left hand whenever he saw an opening. His right hand was used mainly to judge the distance for his left. All of his knockouts came by his left, which is arguably the hardest single punch in the history of the lower weight classes.
As he gained experience, Khaosai began to develop into a more refined boxer, learning combination punching to complement his deadly left. His favorite punch, a straight left to the midsection, translates roughly as "the left hand that drills intestines."
Incredibly strong, he was never out-muscled, while opponents who tried the traditional stick-and-move techniques found he had quick feet and was able to block their movements.
Boxing career
Khaosai began his international style boxing career in December 1980. He won all of his first six fights, which earned him a shot at the Thailand bantamweight (118-pound) title on July 29, 1981 against Sakda Saksuree. He lost on a points decision. It was to be the last fight he would ever lose in the ring.
Khaosai won his next three fights and claimed the Thai bantamweight title in 1982. He won 15 consecutive fights by knockout and climbed in the world rankings to become super flyweight (115-pound) WBA world champion Jiro Watanabe's mandatory challenger by the summer of 1984.
When Watanabe failed to defend his title against Khaosai, the WBA stripped him and matched Khaosai against undefeated Eusebio Espinal for the vacant championship on November 21, 1984. Khaosai knocked out Espinal in the sixth round, beginning the longest title reign in his division's history.
Khaosai defended his WBA title 19 times over the next seven years, winning 16 of his title fights by knockouts. In the mid-1980s, when world heavyweight champion Mike Tyson was in his prime and scoring knockouts over everyone, boxing fans nicknamed Khaosai The Thai Tyson for knockout wins.
Khaosai fought only once outside of Asia, when he defended his title in 1986 against unbeaten (and future WBA bantamweight titleholder) Israel Contreras in Curaçao. He had two title fights in Kōbe, Japan, one in South Korea and one at Bung Karno Stadium, Indonesia. The rest were in Thailand, where he often fought for purses in excess of $100,000 in front of huge crowds. That, plus the fact that few top fighters anywhere were willing to challenge Khaosai, made him relatively unknown in the West.
In 1988, his twin elder brother, fighting under the name Kaokhor Galaxy, captured the WBA bantamweight title, making the Galaxy brothers (Saenkham brothers) the first twins to ever be world boxing champions.
Retirement
He fought for the last time on December 22, 1991 in Bangkok, beating Armando Castro over 12 rounds. A few weeks later, he announced his retirement with a record of 47 wins against only one defeat, and never attempted a comeback.
Life after boxing
Not long after his retirement to the boxing profession, Khaosai chose to take part in the Thai entertainment industry. He first took a shot at the music industry, releasing a single, "Khob Khun Krub", meaning "Thank You", then began taking part in TV series and movies, particularly comedies. His first role as an actor occurred during the TV series Poot Mae Nam Khong (1992 version), which was then followed by Monrak luk thung (1995 version), The Legend of Suriyothai (2001), and The Bodyguard (2004) etc. In 2005, while he was taking part in a film, he was punched in the face by a drunken fan, who wished to obtain Khaosai's shirt for collection but was denied. The incident made frontline news, which displayed a photo of Khaosai, with a bandage on his face but smiling and standing next to the drunk man.
In 2006, he starred in a music video for a song by fellow boxers Somluck Kamsing and Samart Payakaroon. In the video, Khaosai portrayed a shy man being approached by a young woman.
After retirement, he married the Japanese Yumiko Ota, whom he had met during a trip for his second fight with Kenji Matsumura in Kōbe, Japan in 1989. The couple lived together for only one year, and later divorced.
He later married a Buriram woman, Sureerat "Fah" Saenkham (née Niwesram). They had no children together, but Khaosai chose to take his wife's nephew as a stepchild.
In March 2013, he made news again when he unexpectedly was married again, this time to Wannapa "Nung" Kamboonsri, before obtaining a legal divorce from his previous wife. The same year, he became a father for the first time at the age of 54, when his wife safely delivered a daughter. In 2016, his wife delivered a second daughter by the end of the year.
Currently, he owns two Muay Thai gyms in Bangkok and Phuket, and was a trainer for Denkaosan Kaovichit in the fight against Takefumi Sakata which took place by the end of 2008 in Yokohama, Japan. (Denkaosan knocked his opponent out by the second round, becoming the next WBA flyweight champion).
Besides boxing and entertainment, Khaosai has also flirted with politics. During the 2007 Thai general election, he was a candidate in the party-list of the Puea Pandin Party, but lost. Additionally, during the 2011 Thai general election, he became a candidate on behalf of the Chartthaipattana Party for his native Phetchabun 2nd district, but lost with only 8,485 votes.
Legacy
He was elected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1999 and remains a well known boxer throughout Thailand.
Every time he fought, there was a saying that traffic in Bangkok was good, because everyone rushed home to see him on TV.
Professional boxing record
References
External links
Khosai Galaxy Muay Thai Gym official
1959 births
Living people
Khaosai Galaxy
Super-flyweight boxers
World boxing champions
World super-flyweight boxing champions
World Boxing Association champions
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Khaosai Galaxy
Khaosai Galaxy
Khaosai Galaxy
Khaosai Galaxy
Muay Thai trainers
Boxing trainers
Southpaw boxers | [
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262047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stolin | Stolin | Stolin (; ; ; ; Yiddish/Hebrew: סטולין) is a town in the Stolin District in Brest Region of Belarus. It is the centre of the largest district in Brest Region. The population is 10,491 people (2012). The Belarusian-Ukrainian border is about away, so Stolin is now a border city that hosts many Ukrainians on market days. Russian speech is common here, but villagers prefer their own dialects that are akin partly to the Belarusian language, partly the Ukrainian language.
History
Stolin grew up at the heart of the Polesia region on the Haryn River, at the crossroads of two important routes, one leading northwards to Pinsk, two others eastwards to Davyd-Haradok and Turaŭ, that are now in Belarus, southwards to Sarny and Kyiv, that are now in Ukraine.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the area which Stolin now occupies, was settled as far back as the 12th century AD. The first mention of Stolin dates to 1555. There are three stories regarding the origins of the name "Stolin". The first refers to a group of local fisherman who cast their fishing nets into a lake a pulled out 100 fish or Sto [100 in Russian] "Leeni" [a type of local fish]. The second story refers to a ferry-boat which sunk in the river and required 100 men with 100 ropes to drag it out [100 lines in Russian]. The third refers to twelve brothers who ruled over seven nearby cities and chose what became Stolin as their meeting place and capital city, hence the name may be a derivation of stol (table)> Stolny Gorod (capital city).
Stolin was occupied by the Germans from July 1941 to 1944. In August 1941, many Jewish refugees – especially women and children – from the nearby town of David-Gorodok came to Stolin. A ghetto was created in May 1942, surrounded by a barbed-wire fence. About 7,000 Jews lived in this small and unhealthy area, along the Bank River. The liquidation of the ghetto was conducted on September 11, 1942, by a squadron of German cavalry, the local police and the SD. The shooting took place near the airfield, in a large ditch.
International relations
Stolin is twinned with:
Homberg, Germany
See also
Stolin (Hasidic dynasty)
Pale of Settlement
Holocaust/Shoah
References
External links
Stolin at Belarus SIG
More info and pictures of Stolin
Photos on Radzima.org
Stolin Yizkor Book (New York Public Library) - A Memorial to the Jewish Community of Stolin, 1952 (Hebrew)
Views of Stolin
Towns in Belarus
Belarus–Ukraine border crossings
Populated places in Brest Region
Stolin District
Brest Litovsk Voivodeship
Pinsky Uyezd
Polesie Voivodeship
Holocaust locations in Belarus | [
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262049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccolo%20%28Dragon%20Ball%29 | Piccolo (Dragon Ball) | is a fictional character in the Dragon Ball media franchise created by Akira Toriyama. He is first seen in chapter #161 , published in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine on February 9, 1988, as the reincarnation of the evil Piccolo Daimaō, who was positioned as a demonic antagonist of the series. However, it is later revealed that he is in fact a member of an extraterrestrial humanoid species called Namekians, those able to create the series' eponymous wish-granting Dragon Balls. After losing to Son Goku, Piccolo decides to team up with him and his friends in order to defeat newer, more dangerous threats, such as Vegeta, Frieza, Cell, Majin Buu, Beerus, Zamasu, Jiren, Broly, and Moro. He also trains Goku's eldest child Gohan in martial arts, with the two forming a strong bond.
Piccolo is one of the most popular and recognizable characters of the Dragon Ball franchise. The character has been consistently well received by fans and video game publications, with high placements in multiple "top" character lists and popularity polls. The character has also inspired Naruto manga author Masashi Kishimoto, as well as an internet meme which became popular in Japan in 2013.
Creation and development
Piccolo, more specifically his parent Piccolo Daimaō, was created by Toriyama as he wanted to have a villain who would be a true "bad guy." Prior to his creation, nearly all the previous villains in the series were considered too likable. His editor, Kazuhiko Torishima, stated he introduced Toriyama to evil historical figures for inspiration. Piccolo Daimaō was created after he told the author how Roman Emperor Nero enjoyed watching people suffer. However, the Shenlong Times issue #2, a bonus pamphlet given to some buyers of the Daizenshuu 2: Story Guide guidebook, says that the character was modeled after Torishima himself. After creating Piccolo Daimaō, Toriyama noted that it was one of the most interesting parts of the series and that he became one of his favorite characters. Although Piccolo's transformation from a villain to a hero was considered by Toriyama to be cliché, he still felt excited when drawing him, noting that despite having a scary face, he still looks appealing.
Piccolo is initially assumed to, like his parent, be a member of the , however, midway through the series it is learned that they are actually members of the alien race called . Toriyama stated that he never thought of making Piccolo an alien until Kami was introduced. But afterwards he did try to make it consistent, such as drawing the Namekian architecture similar to the throne Piccolo Daimaō had.
Voice actors
In the original Japanese version of the anime and all other media, Piccolo is voiced by Toshio Furukawa, with the only exception being his initial newborn child form which was voiced by Hiromi Tsuru. Furukawa, who up to that point had mostly played happy lighter-voiced characters, said he got the role because he stated in interviews at the time that he wanted to play a villain. He said it was difficult to constantly perform with a low voice because his normal lighter voice would break through if he broke concentration. When asked if Takeshi Aono's work as Piccolo Daimaō influenced his portrayal of Piccolo, Furukawa replied that because Piccolo Daimaō was impulsive, he initially played his own role as an energetic person around eighteen-years-old and later imagined him as close to thirty-years old in Dragon Ball Z. Furukawa, as well as Gohan's voice actress Masako Nozawa, said the episodes where Piccolo trains Gohan left an impression on them. He said the fans really enjoyed those episodes as well. Furukawa also cited Piccolo making a pun for Kaiō-sama as memorable because it was so out of character for him. By the time he reprised the voice in Dragon Ball Super, Piccolo had become Furukawa's favorite character of all his roles.
In English, several different voice actors have voiced Piccolo, including Scott McNeil in episodes 1-53 (1-67 unedited) in Funimation Entertainment's initial dub of Dragon Ball Z in association with Saban Entertainment and Ocean Productions as well as Geneon's dub of the first three Dragon Ball Z films, and episodes 108-291 of Westwood Media's dub of the franchise (in association with Ocean Productions); by Ethan Cole in Chinook Animation's dub of Dragon Ball GT (produced in association with Blue Water Studios); by Dan Woren in Bandai's English release of the video game Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout; by British-born French actor Paul Bandey in the infamous English dubs of the movies released exclusively in the UK and the Netherlands by AB Groupe (wherein the character was referred to as "Big Green"), by David Gasman (who also voiced Goku in this dub) in the European dub of Dead Zone (there called In Pursuit of Garlic), vocal grunts by Ed Marcus in The History of Trunks (or Gohan and Trunks) and consistently by Christopher Sabat in Funimation's in-house dub of all Dragon Ball media. Ray Chase voices Piccolo in the Toonami Asia broadcast of Dragon Ball Super produced by Bang Zoom! Entertainment.
Abilities
Piccolo has shown many unique abilities throughout the series. Due to his Namekian physiology, Piccolo can expand his arms, move fast enough to not be seen, regenerate lost limbs of his body so long as his head is still intact, and possesses superhuman hearing and strength. Piccolo's allows him to become gigantic to the point where he is capable of reaching mountain-like heights. He also has the ability to conjure objects such as garments and a blade, including his cape and turban outfit. Among Piccolo's known psionic skills, he is able to communicate telepathically with select individuals. Thus, this enables him to read minds and mentally contact others nearby. In one instance, he alerts Trunks and Goten of Buu's proximity to the dimension where the two were training.
Like many other characters in Dragon Ball, Piccolo has the ability of flight through the technique called . He also possesses an attack called the , which is fired with one hand being supported by the other. One of Piccolo's most powerful attacks is the an attack that is expelled from Piccolo's index and middle fingers. Unlike most energy-based attacks in Dragon Ball, the potent Makankōsappō pierces its targets like a drill rather than enveloping them or exploding on contact. Another attack of Piccolo's is the , which involves firing off many orbs of energy that float around the opponent. Piccolo then squeezes his hand to make all the orbs converge onto the opponent, exploding on contact. The is another of his signature attacks, being one that he teaches to his pupil Gohan. Another move Piccolo is seen to have is the which is conjured by putting his hands on his chest, gathering energy and then releasing it outwards. One of Piccolo's less frequently used techniques is the ability to fire energy rays from his eyes, which he first uses against Krillin's energy attack during their match in the 23rd Tenka'ichi Budōkai, then later against Goku in the finals, and again when he trains Gohan. It is also revealed that he is capable of performing the , invented by Master Mutaito to seal his evil parent in a rice cooker.
Piccolo can also perform a type of fusion which he does with Nail on planet Namek to confront Frieza and with Kami to confront the Androids, each time greatly increasing his power; the first time enough to clash toe-and-toe with Frieza's second form, and the latter he became much more powerful than an unmastered Super Saiyan.
Appearances
In Dragon Ball
Introduced as the offspring and reincarnate of the demon Piccolo Daimaō, Piccolo Jr. plans to continue his parent's mission of world domination, and avenge his death at the hands of Goku. Piccolo enters the 23rd Tenka'ichi Budōkai under the alias . Piccolo defeats both Krillin, who gives up, and Kami disguised as Hero, sealing Kami in the container of the Evil Containment Wave after Kami attacks him with the move and Piccolo sends it back in his direction. He then fights Goku in the final round, who tricks Piccolo into enlarging himself so he can retrieve Kami, from there causing many of Piccolo's techniques to backfire on him. Though crippling both Goku's arms and legs, Piccolo is defeated when Goku headbutts him out of the ring, though recovers thanks to receiving a Senzu Bean from Goku, who he promises to defeat as he departs.
Five years later, Piccolo is confronted by Raditz, Goku's older brother. Realizing the Saiyan would thwart his plans for world domination, Piccolo teams up with Goku in an attempt to stop Raditz from destroying the Earth. When the two arch rivals team up, Piccolo is able to defeat Raditz, but at the cost of Goku's life, as Piccolo's move Makankōsappō cuts through both Saiyans. Piccolo's subsequent conversation with the dying Raditz, in which he reveals that the Dragon Balls can resurrect, is broadcast. Piccolo remains amazed with the powers from Gohan and trains him in preparation to fight against the two Saiyans who will invade Earth. Early in their training, Piccolo destroys the moon to prevent Gohan from transforming into an Oozaru and removes his tail. As the year goes by, Piccolo starts to change as he spends time training Gohan, slowly beginning to bond with him. Kami himself comes to notice Piccolo's change of heart as well. When the Saiyans arrive a year later, Piccolo discovers his heritage from them. Piccolo tries to capitalize on Gohan's increased strength but cannot due to the child's fear, convincing him to withdraw Gohan from the battle and is knocked unconscious by Nappa after trying to weaken him. Piccolo saves Krillin from being finished off by one of Nappa's attacks. Vegeta senses that Goku is close by, stronger and could pose a challenge with the others involved and thereby orders their speedy execution. Nappa then unleashes another one of his attacks, this time aiming for Gohan. Piccolo, having come to care for the boy dearly, sacrifices himself to protect Gohan from the attack, resulting in the deaths of both himself and Kami, which results in the Dragon Balls ceasing to exist. Vegeta is initially unable to activate the Oozaru transformation during his fight with Goku thanks to Piccolo's earlier deed. After the Saiyans are defeated, Gohan and the survivors travel to Piccolo's homeworld, Namek, to revive those who died against the Saiyans with the Namekian Dragon Balls. In the meantime, Piccolo trains in the afterlife with Kaiō-sama. Piccolo is resurrected on planet Namek to help Goku and others defeat the evil Frieza. He takes this time to merge with the beaten Namekian called , giving Piccolo a power increase. Despite his massive power increase and going head to head with Frieza's second transformation, Frieza transforms and Piccolo is defeated. After Frieza reaches his final form and immediately kills Dende afterward to prevent him from healing the group, Piccolo, Gohan and Krillin attack him to no avail. In Frieza's following fight with Goku, who tries charging a Genki-dama to defeat him, Piccolo is given the remaining energy of both Gohan and Krillin, allowing him to stall for a short time. Once Frieza emerges from the impact of the Genki-dama unscathed, Piccolo is severely injured by Frieza with a shot to the chest, leaving Goku to defeat Frieza alone. Piccolo is taken from the battlefield by Gohan at the warning of Goku, as his death would render the Dragon Balls ineffective once more. Piccolo is later teleported off the planet to safety on Earth and after regaining consciousness, declines to return to a new version of Namek as he wishes to protect Gohan and become stronger while remaining on Earth.
After Frieza's death, Piccolo trains with Goku and Gohan for three years to prepare for a battle against two powerful Androids created by the Red Ribbon Army's Dr. Gero to kill Goku. Piccolo tries to intervene during Goku's battle with Android 19, but is shot down by Dr. Gero, revealed to have faked being injured to lower the guard of the Androids. Though he manages to best Dr. Gero in battle, he is unable to prevent him from activating the other Androids. After being defeated by Android 17 and Android 18, Piccolo seeks to unite with Kami, and gain another massive increase in power. After uniting with Kami, Piccolo becomes aware of a more dangerous threat named Cell, who volunteers information on himself when believing he has bested Piccolo (oblivious to Piccolo's regenerative abilities) when in reality the latter was pretending to be defeated in order to find out Cell's origin. Before his second encounter with Cell, Piccolo once again battles the Androids, except this time he battles #17 one on one. After a somewhat even match, Cell arrives on the battle scene; Cell needs to absorb the Androids to complete his power. While trying to prevent this, Piccolo is nearly killed by Cell, surviving the encounter thanks to his regenerative abilities and following some training in the Room of Spirit and Time, he is forced to participate in a tournament created by Cell called the Cell Games, where he fights one of the seven Cell Juniors that are created by Cell, who are later destroyed by Gohan. Piccolo laments that he cannot assist Gohan in his battle against Cell due to his lack of power, lauding Vegeta for helping Gohan after Cell's death and making the lookout his permanent residence.
Seven years later, Piccolo is poised to fight Kaiō-shin at the 25th Tenkaichi Budōkai, forfeiting the match after finding himself reluctant to fight and journeying with him to confront Babidi, being turned into stone by Dabura. After being freed upon Dabura's death, he attempts to kill Babidi. Piccolo discovers Babidi survived the attempt on his life when he goes to pay respects to the now deceased Vegeta, and Babidi later demands Piccolo be brought forward or humans will die in the meantime. Piccolo plans on giving himself up until Goku talks him out of it, citing his need of his teachings. Piccolo then acts as a trainer to Goten and Trunks and their fused form Gotenks. Piccolo trains the boys in fighting the evil creature Majin Buu, who finds them and the other heroes. Piccolo tries negotiating with Buu to give the group more time to conjure a fighter strong enough to combat him, Buu agreeing to an hour, which Piccolo uses to give Goten and Trunks half a month in the Room of Spirit and Time. During Gotenks' fight with Buu, Piccolo seals them within the Room of Spirit and Time when he destroys the entrance after Gotenks lies that he has no moves left. Gotenks uses his Super Saiyan 3 form's shouting to create an exit for Piccolo and himself, allowing them to return to Earth. After more unsuccessful attempts to kill Buu, he is later absorbed by Buu along with Gotenks and Gohan and incorporated into his being. He is later freed by Goku and Vegeta, and he later gives his energy to Goku's Genki-Dama attack, which Goku uses to defeat Buu once and for all.
In Dragon Ball Super
In Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods, Piccolo combats Beerus alongside Android 18 and Tenshinhan, only to be bested; and, in Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F', Piccolo narrowly escapes death once Frieza destroys the Earth. <ref>Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'</ref> After the events of the latter two films, Piccolo is resurrected after being killed by Frieza in the Dragon Ball Super retelling of Resurrection 'F' and agrees to train Gohan again. Piccolo then accepts a request to participate in a tournament against Universe 6 fighters, where his loss to Frost is retracted after cheating on Frost's part is discovered, though he still declines being allowed to fight more as Vegeta wants to takes his place. After this, Piccolo reunites with Trunks and suggests the Evil Containment Wave be used to seal Goku Black and unsuccessfully tries demonstrating it, Piccolo later performing the move while being recorded by Bulma, who later shows the footage to Trunks so he can learn it. Piccolo tries reviving a seemingly deceased Goku after finding his body. Piccolo agrees to participate in the Tournament of Power. Piccolo is forced into hiding by Universe 2's Prum after Prum destroys both of Piccolo's arms, and lends his energy to Goku's Genki-Dama against Universe 11's Jiren. Piccolo and Gohan blast Saonel and Pirina out of bounds, eliminating Universe 6 from the tournament, before Piccolo is knocked out of bounds by Universe 4's last fighter Damon.
After these events, Piccolo is seen standing on a remote unknown location, telepathically alerted by Son Goku's battle and defeat at the hands of the feral Saiyan Broly, and confides him on the situation, Goku telling him to stand-by just in case it goes awry. After Broly's uncontrollable transformation into a Super Saiyan proves too much, Goku and Vegeta transport themselves to Piccolo using Shūnkan Ido and there, he teaches the two Saiyans to combine using the Fusion Dance, creating the powerful Gogeta, after two failed, hilarious attempts. Gogeta then leaves Piccolo to stop Broly
in other media
Piccolo appears in nine non-canonical Dragon Ball Z films; in the first movie, Piccolo aids in stopping Garlic Jr.'s plot after having been attacked by his minions, wanting revenge; in the second, Piccolo is brainwashed by Dr. Wheelo and made to combat the others until Gohan frees him by destroying the machinery associated with his brainwashing; in the third, Piccolo comes to save Gohan from Turles and succeeds by taking a blast for him; in the fourth, Piccolo combats Lord Slug and discovers that Namekians are weak to whistling, allowing for his defeat; in the fifth, Piccolo is able to defeat most of Cooler's squadron, only to be defeated by Cooler himself; in the sixth, Piccolo fights Cooler's minions on Namek and saves the others after they are captured; in the seventh, Piccolo saves Gohan from being attacked by Android 13 and battles the android in both his forms; in the eighth, Piccolo travels to New Planet Vegeta and fights Broly, giving his energy to Goku which leads to the foe's defeat; in the ninth, Piccolo comes to help the others fight Bojack and his crew; and in Dragon Ball: Yo! Son Goku and His Friends Return!!, Piccolo prevents Aka's Wahaha no Ha from destroying Satan Hotel.
In the anime-only sequel Dragon Ball GT, Piccolo arrives to recover Goten after Baby ceases possessing him and moves to Gohan. Piccolo confronts the Baby-possessed Gohan and is injured. After Baby is defeated, Piccolo sacrifices himself to put the Black Star Dragon Balls to rest and bring peace to the world. He goes to Heaven but then requests to be sent to Hell in order to free Goku when he is imprisoned there. He can be seen putting Hell in order and protecting the rulers there. Goku later stops in Hell to see Piccolo. He tells Piccolo that he will be leaving and that they are glad they met and teamed up. Goku also tells Piccolo that he had become a good friend and promised to get him out of Hell someday. They shake hands and Goku leaves while Piccolo stays behind.
Piccolo has made multiple appearances in music. "I Lo~ve Mr. Piccolo" appears on the 1990 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection III: Space Dancing, Gohan singing about his admiration for Piccolo and wondering what his species is. In the 1991 album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 8: Character Special 2, the song "The Feeling of Whistling Piccolo Edit" features Piccolo complaining and begging for a whistler to stop exploiting his weakness before he departs. Piccolo is also mentioned in the song "Goku" by Soulja Boy, who brags about feeling like Piccolo and multiple other Dragon Ball characters, and in the song "Break Bread" by Bryson Tiller, with the verse "Got green like Piccolo".
In the 2006 Dragon Ball and One Piece crossover manga Cross Epoch, Piccolo appears as a swordsman alongside Roronoa Zoro. In the 2013 special , Piccolo cheers on Goku in his match against Monkey D. Luffy and Toriko. In an episode of Mad parodying the film Moneyball, Piccolo and other Dragon Ball characters are drafted by Billy Beane into the Oakland A baseball team.
Video games
Piccolo has been in many Dragon Ball-related video games such as Super Butōden, the Budokai and Budokai Tenkaichi series of games, as well as Dragon Ball Z: Infinite World and Dragon Ball Z: Burst Limit. In several games, Piccolo has exclusive forms such as Majin or fusions with Maima, Tsumuri, Dende, Dr. Mashirito, and Piccolo Daimaō, which drastically increase his power.
Piccolo appears in multiple story modes in the 2006 game Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors 2. In Gohan's story, Piccolo is turned evil by a blast from Babidi, and becomes the leader of Buu and Dabura. After fighting Gohan, he flees and absorbs Buu, increasing his power. Piccolo then announces via television his intent to take over the world, and partners with Cell and Frieza before being defeated by Gohan.
In the 2011 game Dragon Ball Z: Ultimate Tenkaichi, Piccolo is defeated by Baby, encountering and battling the player while training, causing the player's Super Saiyan transformation and their subsequent overpowering of him. After he is defeated, Piccolo resolves to train the player.
In the 2015 game Dragon Ball: Xenoverse, Piccolo appears as a mentor. Within the story mode, Piccolo fights the player while under the control of Demigra, and in the final battle against Demigra, Piccolo gives the player his energy.
In the 2016 game Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2, Piccolo and Android 16 are defeated by Villainous Mode Imperfect Cell, allowing him to absorb #17 and #18 at the same time. The player then comes to assist Piccolo in his fight against Cell.
In the 2018 game Dragon Ball FighterZ, Piccolo is found unconscious by Goku and Krillin, and agrees to help them fight off clones and discover their origins upon waking up. Piccolo joins the two in finding Gohan and Vegeta, and uses his Makankōsappō to participate in destroying Android 21.
He is a playable character in some crossover games such as Jump Super Stars, Jump Ultimate Stars, and Jump Force.
Cultural impact
The character has influenced Naruto manga author Masashi Kishimoto; in order to give Sasuke Uchiha a central role in the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie, Kishimoto made him the teacher of the protagonist Boruto Uzumaki as his father, Naruto Uzumaki, was busy. This was inspired by how Piccolo starts training Gohan when Goku dies in Dragon Ball.
Piccolo's attack Special Beam Cannon / Makankōsappō became a meme which started with Japanese schoolgirls photographing themselves apparently using, and being affected by, this attack in 2013. According to gaming blog Kotaku, the trend took off after photos were posted on Japan's largest bulletin board 2channel, with photographs typically showing one person striking the ground or making a mystical gesture while others around them are photographically captured in mid-air.
Reception
Piccolo is a popular character in the series. He placed fifth in both the 1993 and 1995 Dragon Ball character popularity polls voted on by Weekly Shōnen Jump readers. In 2004, fans of the series voted him the fifth most popular character for a poll in the book Dragon Ball Forever. Piccolo has appeared in various Anime Grand Prix polls, taking high places in the category "best male character" in 1990, 1991 and 1992 polls.
Piccolo's character has received praise and criticism by publications for various media. Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment praised Piccolo's growth in Dragon Ball Z as one of the most important parts of the series, noting how he decides to train Gohan to fight Vegeta. Although Katherine Luther from About.com noted Piccolo to be one of the strongest warriors from his planet, she mentioned he has several weaknesses that make him weaker than other characters from the series, with his most notable one being his affection for Gohan. During a review of the Dragon Ball anime, Beveridge noted Piccolo to be able to perform a large number of abilities in contrast to other characters such as Goku, making the fight between both of them unbalanced. However, he found the said battle to be very entertaining despite it lasting several episodes. Tim Jones from THEM Anime Reviews found Piccolo's differences from Dragon Ball to Dragon Ball Z as one of the reasons the former show is recommendable to viewers over the later anime. While reviewing the fourth Dragon Ball Z film, Anime News Network writer Allen Drivers found Piccolo's initial scenes peacefully enough to entertain viewers. In a later film, John Sinnott from DVD Talk criticized Piccolo's involvement saying he appears "from out of no where" in order to fight alongside his friends giving the film little reasoning. Chris Homer from The Fandom Post believed Piccolo's sacrifice in Dragon Ball GT "was a genuine touching moment" for fans of Dragon Ball Z, but also viewed the death as relying "too much on previous ideas" in order for it to get sorted. Sam Leach from Anime News Network noted that some fans of the series tend to joke Piccolo is a better paternal figure to Gohan than his actual father, Goku, and felt thatDragon Ball Super'' emphasized it more when Piccolo started training him again.
References
Animated series villains
Anime and manga characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Anime and manga characters who use magic
Anime and manga characters with accelerated healing
Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength
Martial artist characters in anime and manga
Anime and manga telepaths
Comics characters introduced in 1988
Dragon Ball characters
Fictional asexuals
Fictional characters who can change size
Fictional characters who can duplicate themselves
Fictional characters who can stretch themselves
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Fictional characters with superhuman senses
Fictional extraterrestrial characters
Fictional martial arts trainers
Fictional suicides
Fictional telekinetics
Fictional male martial artists
Merged fictional characters
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262054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Balls%20of%20Fire | Great Balls of Fire | "Great Balls of Fire" is a 1957 popular song recorded by Jerry Lee Lewis on Sun Records and featured in the 1957 movie Jamboree. It was written by Otis Blackwell and Jack Hammer. The Jerry Lee Lewis 1957 recording was ranked as the 96th greatest song ever by Rolling Stone. The song is in AABA form. The song sold one million copies in its first 10 days of release in the United States making it one of best-selling singles in the United States at that time.
Song information
The song is best known for Jerry Lee Lewis's original recording, which was recorded in the Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee, on October 8, 1957, using three personnel: Lewis (piano/vocals), Sidney Stokes (bass), and a session drummer, Larry Linn, instead of the usual Sun backups Jimmy Van Eaton (drums) and Roland Janes (guitar). Lewis was quoted in the book JLL: His Own Story by Rick Bragg, (pg 133), as saying "I knew Sidney Stokes but I didn't know him that well either, and I don't know what happened to them people. That's the last time I ever seen 'em. That's strange isn't it?" It was released as a 45rpm single on Sun 281 in November 1957. It reached No. 2 on the Billboard pop charts, No. 3 on the R&B charts, and No. 1 on the country charts. It also reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart, appeared on the New Zealand Singles Chart, and the Dutch Top 40.
The song was featured in a performance by Jerry Lee Lewis and his band in the 1957 Warner Brothers rock and roll film Jamboree, which also featured Carl Perkins, Fats Domino, Buddy Knox, and Dick Clark. The recording was also released in the UK on London Records.
The tune opens up side 2 of Lewis' 1962 album Live at the Star Club, Hamburg.
Chart performance
Legacy
Monty Python references the song's title in the "World Forum" sketch, a fake game show, as heard on the live album Monty Python Live at City Center. Terry Gilliam, portraying Mao Zedong, says the song title as the only correct answer the "distinguished panel" offers in the early rounds. The song was used for the New York City audience in place of "Sing, Little Birdie", which was the song title used in the original sketch.
The song was performed by Levi Kreis in the 2010 musical Million Dollar Quartet, portraying Jerry Lee Lewis.
In the 1986 film Top Gun, LTJG Nick "Goose" Bradshaw (portrayed by Anthony Edwards) plays the song in a bar with his family and Pete Mitchell (Tom Cruise). The song is available on the Top Gun soundtrack special edition released in 1999.
The title of the 1989 biopic, Great Balls of Fire! about Lewis, played by Dennis Quaid, is derived from the song title.
In 2017, WWE held a professional wrestling event titled Great Balls of Fire, referencing the song. Jerry Lawler's personal attorney, who also represents Jerry Lee Lewis, informed him that the singer had actually trademarked the phrase, prompting Lawler to inform them of this. He stated that he "put him in touch with the WWE people, gave him a name. Apparently he called them and got everything worked out. Not only are they using the name, they are using Jerry Lee's song, which is awesome."
Ric Flair revealed he started using his iconic "Wooo!" catchphrase in 1974 after he heard Jerry Lee Lewis sing the lyric, “Goodness gracious, great balls of fire, woo!”
References
1957 songs
1957 singles
Jerry Lee Lewis songs
Sun Records singles
Songs written by Otis Blackwell
The Newbeats songs
Gary Lewis & the Playboys songs
New Grass Revival songs
Electric Light Orchestra songs
Dolly Parton songs
Fleetwood Mac songs
The Flamingos songs
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Signature songs | [
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262067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean%20War%20order%20of%20battle | Korean War order of battle | This is the Korean War order of battle. Subsidiary commands are listed on sub-pages. Where no date is shown for a command, assume it present at the start of the war, on June 25, 1950.
Pro-Southern Forces: United Nations and Republic of Korea
Republic of Korea Armed Forces (prior to June 25, 1950)
Republic of Korea Armed Forces
Capital Guard Command, Seoul & Ongjin
3rd Infantry Regiment
8th Infantry Regiment
17th Infantry Regiment
18th Infantry Regiment
1st Cavalry Regiment
1st Infantry Division, Kaesong
11th Infantry Regiment
12th Infantry Regiment
13th Infantry Regiment
2nd Infantry Division, Daejeon
5th Infantry Regiment
16th Infantry Regiment
25th Infantry Regiment
3rd Infantry Division, Daegu
22nd Infantry Regiment
23rd Infantry Regiment
5th Infantry Division, Gwangju
15th Infantry Regiment
20th Infantry Regiment
6th Infantry Division, Chuncheon & Wonju
2nd Infantry Regiment
7th Infantry Regiment
19th Infantry Regiment
7th Infantry Division, Dongducheon
1st Infantry Regiment
3rd Infantry Regiment
9th Infantry Regiment
8th Infantry Division, Gangneung & Jumunjin
10th Infantry Regiment
21st Infantry Regiment
9th Infantry Division (from October 1950)
United Nations Ground Forces
General Headquarters United Nations Command (Korea) (UNC) — Formally activated 10 July 1950, before then Allied forces were formally under American operational control.
US Army Forces Far East
Eighth Army- Combination of ROK Infantry Divisions and UN forces
I Corps
IX Corps
X Corps: September 15, 1950 to December 24, 1950.
United States Ground Forces (with attached UN units)
2nd Infantry Division
French Battalion
Dutch Battalion (from early 1951)
3rd Infantry Division
Belgian Battalion (from February 1951)
Luxembourg Platoon (from February 1951)
Greek Battalion
7th Infantry Division
Colombian Battalion
Ethiopian "Kagnew" Battalion
24th Infantry Division
25th Infantry Division
Turkish Brigade
10th Philippine Battalion Combat Team
40th Infantry Division
45th Infantry Division
1st Cavalry Division
Thai Battalion
187th Airborne Infantry Regiment
5th Infantry Regiment
United Nations Divisions under overall US command:
27th British Commonwealth Brigade (from August 1950-July 1951)
British 28th Infantry Brigade (from April–June 1951)
British 29th Infantry Brigade (from November 1950-July 1951)
1st Commonwealth Division (from July 1951)
Canadian 25th Brigade
Australian Battalions
New Zealand Battery
US Marine Corps
1st Marine Division
Provisional Marine Brigade 1950
1st Marine Aircraft Wing
Republic of Korea Army
ROK I Corps
ROK II Corps
United Nations Naval Forces
Naval Forces Far East
United States Seventh Fleet (from June 27, 1950)
Task Force 90
Task Force 95 (from September 12, 1950)
Task Force 96
British Far East Fleet (from June 28, 1950)
United Nations Air Forces
US Far East Air Forces
31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron (Photographic) (from June 29-November 15, 1950)
91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron (Medium, Photographic): (from November 15, 1950)
Fifth Air Force
Far East Air Forces Bomber Command
Twentieth Air Force
Other
Italian Red Cross
Danish Hospital Ship
Indian 60th Parachute Field Ambulance
Swedish Hospital
Norwegian MASH Unit "NORMASH"
Pro-Northern Forces: People's Republic of Korea and China
North Korean Forces
North Korean People's Army
1st NKPA Division
2nd NKPA Division
3rd NKPA Division
4th NKPA Division
5th NKPA Division
6th NKPA Division
12th NKPA Division
10th NKPA Division
13th NKPA Division
15th NKPA Division
105th Armoured Brigade
206th Mechanized Infantry Brigade
Notes:
NKPA Infantry Divisions 1 through 7 were Regular Force Infantry Division used in the attack on South Korea, while the 10th, 13th and 15th were Reserve units used for security.
Chinese People's Volunteers
Chinese People's Volunteers November 23, 1950
XIII Army Group - General Deng Hua
38th Army - General Liang Xingchu
112th Division (334th, 335th, 336th Regts)
113th Division (337th, 338th, 339th Regts)
114th Division (340th, 341st, 342d Regts)
39th Army - General Wu Xinquan
115th Division (343d, 344th, 345th Regts)
116th Division (346th, 347th, 348th Regts)
117th Division (349th, 350th, 351st Regts)
40th Army - General Wen Yucheng
118th Division (352d, 353d, 354th Regts)
119th Division (355th, 356th, 357th Regts)
120th Division (358th, 359th, 360th Regts)
42nd Army - General Wu Ruilin
124th Division (370th, 371st, 372d Regts)
125th Division (373d, 374th, 375th Regts)
126th Division (376th, 377th, 378th Regts)
50th Army - General Zeng Zesheng
148th Division (442d, 443d, 444th Regts)
149th Division (445th, 446th, 447th Regts)
150th Division (448th, 449th, 450th Regts)
66th Army - General Xiao Xinhuai
196th Division (586th, 587th, 588th Regts)
197th Division (589th, 590th, 591st Regts)
198th Division (592d, 593d, 594th Regts)
1st Motorised Artillery Division (25th, 26th, 27th Regts)
2nd Motorised Artillery Division (28th, 29th, 30th Regts)
8th Motorised Artillery Division (31st, 44th, 45th Regts)
IX Army Group - General Song Shi-Lun
20th Army - General Zhang Yixiang
58th Division (172d, 173d, 174th Regts)
59th Division (175th, 176th, 177th Regts)
60th Division (178th, 179th, 180th Regts)
89th Division (265th, 266th, 267th Regts)
26th Army - General Zhang Renchu
76th Division (226th, 227th, 228th Regts)
77th Division (229th, 230th, 231st Regts)
78th Division (232d, 233d, 234th, Regts)
88th Division (262d, 263d, 264th Regts)
27th Army - General Peng Deqing
79th Division (235th, 236th, 237th Regts)
80th Division (238th, 239th, 240th Regts)
81st Division (241st, 242nd, 243d Regts)
90th Div (268th, 269th, 270th Regts)
III Army Group - General Chen Geng
12th Army - General Zeng Shaoshan
15th Army - General Qin Jiwei
60th Army - General Wei Jie
179th Division
180th Division
181st Division
XIX Army Group - General Yang Dezhi
63rd Army - General Fu Congbi
64th Army - General Zeng Siyu
65th Army - General Xiao Yingtang
Soviet Union
[Unofficial] 64th Fighter Aviation Corps
Other
Foreign Medical Continents
Bulgarian Red Cross
Czechoslovak Field Hospital (from 1952)
See also
US Eighth Army Korean War order of battle
US Seventh Fleet Korean War order of battle
US Fifth Air Force Korean War order of battle
US Far East Air Forces Bomber Command order of battle
References
Sources
Order of battle | [
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262083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Jamieson | John Jamieson | John Jamieson (5 March 1759 – 12 July 1838) was a Scottish minister of religion, lexicographer, philologist and antiquary. His most important work is the Dictionary of the Scottish Language.
Life
He was born in Glasgow in March 1759 the son of Rev John Jamieson, minister of the Associate Congregation on Duke Street. He was educated at Glasgow Grammar School.
He was educated at the University of Glasgow 1768 to 1771, and subsequently attended classes at the University of Edinburgh, 1775–6. After six years' theological study, Jamieson was licensed to preach in 1781 and became pastor of an Anti-burgher congregation in Forfar, Angus. He was 23 years old at the time and was ordained on 23 August 1780 and the following August being involved in a "romantic, moonlit marriage". In 1797 he was called to the Anti-burgher church in Nicolson Street, Edinburgh, being inducted on 30 May 1797. The union of the Burgher and Anti-burgher sections of the Secession Church in 1820 was largely due to his exertions.
He retired from the ministry in 1830, spending the rest of his life in Edinburgh. In the 1830s he is listed as living at 4 George Square on the south side of the city.
Jamieson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1803. His proposers were James Bonar, Alexander Fraser Tytler, and William Moodie. He was also a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816.
He died at home, 4 George Square in Edinburgh on 12 July 1838 and is buried in St Cuthbert's churchyard. He was buried with his son Robert (who pre-deceased him) in a large and elaborate grave in the southern section. His inscription is on the rear of the monument.
Works
Jamieson's major work, the Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language appeared in 2 vols. in 1808. A meeting the Danish scholar Grim Thorkelin had suggested this work, and, working with Thomas Ruddiman's glossary to Gavin Douglas's version of the Aeneid, Jamieson completed the work almost alone. He prepared an abridgment in 1818 (reissued in 1846 with a memoir by John Johnstone), and aided by numerous others, he added two supplementary volumes in 1825. The work drew on folklore and provincialisms. The introductory antiquarian dissertation supported a theory on the Pictish influence on the Scots language. A revised edition by John Longmuir and David Donaldson was issued in 1879–87. These volumes remained the standard reference work for the Scots language until the publication of the Scottish National Dictionary in 1931.
Jamieson's other works included:
Socinianism Unmasked, 1786.
The Sorrows of Slavery, 1789.
Sermons on the Heart, 2 vols., 1791. Around the same time he authored a pamphlet on the African slave trade entitled, The Sorrows of Slavery.
Congal and Fenella, a Metrical Tale, 1791.
Vindication of the Doctrine of Scripture, in reply to Joseph Priestley's History of Early Opinions, 2 vols., 1795.
A Poem on Eternity, 1798.
Remarks on Rowland Hill's Journal, 1799.
The Use of Sacred History, 1802.
Important Trial in the Court of Conscience, 1806.
Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, 2 vols 1808.
A Treatise on the Ancient Culdees of Iona also retitled A History of the Culdees, 1811, published, through Walter Scott's support, by Ballantyne.
Hermes Scythicus, 1814, expounding affinities between the Gothic and the classical tongues.
Supplement to the Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, 2 vols 1825.
Views of the Royal Palaces of Scotland (1828) published posthumously
Jamieson wrote on other themes: rhetoric, cremation, and the royal palaces of Scotland, besides publishing occasional sermons. In 1820 he issued edited versions of John Barbour's Bruce and Blind Harry's Wallace. Posthumous was Dissertations on the Reality of the Spirit's Influence (1844).
Family
In 1781, Jamieson married Charlotte Watson (died 1837), daughter of Robert Watson, Esq., of Easter Rhind, Perthshire, and had seventeen children, of whom only two daughters and one son survived. His son, Robert Jameson (died 1834) advocate, became a distinguished member of the Faculty of Advocates.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Jamieson's Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language Online
Jamieson's Dictionary of Scots
John Jamieson at Boswell's Scottish Dictionary
1759 births
1838 deaths
18th-century Presbyterian ministers
19th-century Presbyterian ministers
19th-century philologists
Writers from Glasgow
People educated at the High School of Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Princeton University alumni
Doctors of Divinity
Etymologists
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
British historians of religion
Scottish antiquarians
19th-century Scottish historians
Scots language
Scottish lexicographers
Scottish philologists
Scottish Presbyterian ministers
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
18th-century Scottish historians
Clergy from Glasgow | [
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262084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container%20ship | Container ship | A container ship (also called boxship or spelled containership) is a cargo ship that carries all of its load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. Container ships are a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo.
Container ship capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot (1-TEU) and 40-foot (2-TEU) ISO-standard containers, with the latter predominant.
Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container ships, and the largest modern container ships can carry up to 24,000 TEU (e.g., Ever Ace). Container ships now rival crude oil tankers and bulk carriers as the largest commercial seaborne vessels.
History
There are two main types of dry cargo: bulk cargo and break bulk cargo. Bulk cargoes, like grain or coal, are transported unpackaged in the hull of the ship, generally in large volume. Break-bulk cargoes, on the other hand, are transported in packages, and are generally manufactured goods. Before the advent of containerization in the 1950s, break-bulk items were loaded, lashed, unlashed and unloaded from the ship one piece at a time. However, by grouping cargo into containers, of cargo, or up to about , is moved at once and each container is secured to the ship once in a standardized way. Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84% and costs by 35%. In 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods was transported in ISO containers. In 2009, almost one quarter of the world's dry cargo was shipped by container, an estimated 125 million TEU or 1.19 billion tonnes worth of cargo.
The first ships designed to carry standardized load units were used in the late 18th century in England. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat "Starvationer" with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph to Manchester via the Bridgewater Canal. Before the Second World War, the first container ships were used to carry the baggage of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris (Southern Railway'sGolden Arrow / La Flèche d'Or). These containers were loaded in London or Paris, and carried to ports of Dover or Calais on flat cars. In February 1931, the first container ship in the world was launched; the Autocarrier, owned by Southern Railway UK. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.
The earliest container ships after the Second World War were converted oil tankers, built up from surplus T2 tankers after World War II. In 1951, the first purpose-built container vessels began operating in Denmark, and between Seattle and Alaska. The first commercially successful container ship was , a T2 tanker, owned by Malcom McLean, which carried 58 metal containers between Newark, New Jersey and Houston, Texas, on its first voyage. In 1955, McLean built his company, McLean Trucking into one of the United States' biggest freighter fleets. In 1955, he purchased the small Pan Atlantic Steamship Company from Waterman Steamship and adapted its ships to carry cargo in large uniform metal containers. On April 26, 1956, the first of these rebuilt container vessels, Ideal X, left the Port Newark in New Jersey and a new revolution in modern shipping resulted.
MV Kooringa was the world's first fully cellular purpose-built container ship and was built by Australian company, Associated Steamships Pty. Ltd. in partnership with McIlwraith, McEacharn & Co and commissioned in May 1964.
Container vessels eliminate the individual hatches, holds and dividers of the traditional general cargo vessels. The hull of a typical container ship is a huge warehouse divided into cells by vertical guide rails. These cells are designed to hold cargo in pre-packed units – containers. Shipping containers are usually made of steel, but other materials like aluminum, fiberglass or plywood are also used. They are designed to be entirely transferred to and from smaller coastal carriers, trains, trucks or semi-trailers (and so are carried by different modes of transport during one voyage, thus giving the name intermodal transport). There are several types of containers and they are categorized according to their size and functions.
Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container, and modern container ships can carry over 24,000 TEU. As a class, container ships now rival crude oil tankers and bulk carriers as the largest commercial vessels on the ocean.
Although containerization caused a revolution in the world of shipping, its introduction was not easy. Ports, railway (railroad in the US) companies, and shippers were concerned about the huge costs of developing the ports and railway infrastructure needed to handle container ships, and for the movement of containers on land by rail and road. Trade unions were concerned about massive job loss among port and dock workers at ports, as containers were sure to eliminate several manual jobs of cargo handling. It took ten years of legal battles before container ships would be pressed into international service. In 1966, a container liner service from the US to the Dutch city of Rotterdam commenced. Containerization changed not only the face of shipping, but it also revolutionized world trade. A container ship can be loaded and unloaded in a few hours compared to days in a traditional cargo vessel. This, besides cutting labor costs, has greatly reduced shipping times between ports; for example, it takes a few weeks instead of months for a consignment to be delivered from India to Europe and vice versa. It has resulted in less breakage due to less handling; also, there is less danger of cargo shifting during a voyage. As containers are sealed and only opened at the destination, theft has been greatly reduced.
Containerization has lowered shipping expense and decreased shipping time, and this has in turn helped the growth of international trade. Cargo that once arrived in cartons, crates, bales, barrels or bags now comes in factory sealed containers, with no indication to the human eye of their contents, except for a product code that machines can scan and computers trace. This system of tracking has been so exact that a two-week voyage can be timed for arrival with an accuracy of under fifteen minutes. It has resulted in such revolutions as on time guaranteed delivery and just in time manufacturing. Raw materials arrive from factories in sealed containers less than an hour before they are required in manufacture, resulting in reduced inventory expense.
Exporters load merchandise in boxes that are provided by the shipping companies. They are then delivered to the docks by road, rail or a combination of both for loading onto container ships. Prior to containerization, huge gangs of men would spend hours fitting various items of cargo into different holds. Today, cranes, installed either on the pier or on the ship, are used to place containers on board the ship. When the hull has been fully loaded, additional containers are stacked on the deck.
Today's largest container ships measure in length. They carry loads equal to the cargo-carrying capacity of sixteen to seventeen pre-World War II freighter ships.
Architecture
There are several key points in the design of modern container ships. The hull, similar to that of bulk carriers and general cargo ships, is built around a strong keel. Into this frame is set one or more below-deck cargo holds, numerous tanks, and the engine room. The holds are topped by hatch covers, onto which more containers can be stacked. Many container ships have cargo cranes installed on them, and some have specialized systems for securing containers on board.
The hull of a modern cargo ship is a complex arrangement of steel plates and strengthening beams. Resembling ribs, and fastened at right angles to the keel, are the ship's frames. The ship's main deck, the metal platework that covers the top of the hull framework, is supported by beams that are attached to the tops of the frames and run the full breadth of the ship. The beams not only support the deck, but along with the deck, frames, and transverse bulkheads, strengthen and reinforce the shell. Another feature of recent hulls is a set of double-bottom tanks, which provide a second watertight shell that runs most of the length of a ship. The double-bottoms generally hold liquids such as fuel oil, ballast water or fresh water.
A ship's engine room houses its main engines and auxiliary machinery such as the fresh water and sewage systems, electrical generators, fire pumps, and air conditioners. In most new ships, the engine room is located in the aft portion.
Size categories
Container ships are distinguished into 7 major size categories: small feeder, feeder, feedermax, Panamax, Post-Panamax, New Panamax and ultra-large. As of December 2012, there were 161 container ships in the VLCS class (Very Large Container Ships, more than 10,000 TEU), and 51 ports in the world can accommodate them.
The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the original Panama canal's lock chambers, which can accommodate ships with a beam of up to 32.31 m, a length overall of up to 294.13 m, and a draft of up to 12.04 m. The Post-Panamax category has historically been used to describe ships with a moulded breadth over 32.31 m, however the Panama Canal expansion project has caused some changes in terminology. The New Panamax category is based on the maximum vessel-size that is able to transit a new third set of locks, which opened in June 2016. The third set of locks were built to accommodate a container ship with a length overall of , a maximum width of , and tropical fresh-water draft of . Such a vessel, called New Panamax class, is wide enough to carry 19 columns of containers, can have a total capacity of approximately 12,000 TEU and is comparable in size to a capesize bulk carrier or a Suezmax tanker.
Container ships under 3,000 TEU are generally called feeder ships or feeders. They are small ships that typically operate between smaller container ports. Some feeders collect their cargo from small ports, drop it off at large ports for transshipment on larger ships, and distribute containers from the large port to smaller regional ports. This size of vessel is the most likely to carry cargo cranes on board.
Cargo cranes
A major characteristic of a container ship is whether it has cranes installed for handling its cargo. Those that have cargo cranes are called geared and those that don't are called ungeared or gearless. The earliest purpose-built container ships in the 1970s were all gearless. Since then, the percentage of geared newbuilds has fluctuated widely, but has been decreasing overall, with only 7.5% of the container ship capacity in 2009 being equipped with cranes.
While geared container ships are more flexible in that they can visit ports that are not equipped with pierside container cranes, they suffer from several drawbacks. To begin with, geared ships will cost more to purchase than a gearless ship. Geared ships also incur greater recurring expenses, such as maintenance and fuel costs. The United Nations Council on Trade and Development characterizes geared ships as a "niche market only appropriate for those ports where low cargo volumes do not justify investment in port cranes or where the public sector does not have the financial resources for such investment".
Instead of the rotary cranes, some geared ships have gantry cranes installed. These cranes, specialized for container work, are able to roll forward and aft on rails. In addition to the additional capital expense and maintenance costs, these cranes generally load and discharge containers much more slowly than their shoreside counterparts.
The introduction and improvement of shoreside container cranes have been a key to the success of the container ship. The first crane that was specifically designed for container work was built in California's Port of Alameda in 1959. By the 1980s, shoreside gantry cranes were capable of moving containers on a 3-minute-cycle, or up to 400 tons per hour. In March 2010, at Port Klang in Malaysia, a new world record was set when 734 container moves were made in a single hour. The record was achieved using 9 cranes to simultaneously load and unload , a ship with a capacity of 9,600 TEU.
Vessels in the 1,500–2,499 TEU range are the most likely size class to have cranes, with more than 60% of this category being geared ships. Slightly less than a third of the very smallest ships (from 100–499 TEU) are geared, and almost no ships with a capacity of over 4,000 TEU are geared.
Cargo holds
Efficiency has always been key in the design of container ships. While containers may be carried on conventional break-bulk ships, cargo holds for dedicated container ships are specially constructed to speed loading and unloading, and to efficiently keep containers secure while at sea. A key aspect of container ship specialization is the design of the hatches, the openings from the main deck to the cargo holds. The hatch openings stretch the entire breadth of the cargo holds, and are surrounded by a raised steel structure known as the hatch coaming. On top of the hatch coamings are the hatch covers. Until the 1950s, hatches were typically secured with wooden boards and tarpaulins held down with battens. Today, some hatch covers can be solid metal plates that are lifted on and off the ship by cranes, while others are articulated mechanisms that are opened and closed using powerful hydraulic rams.
Another key component of dedicated container-ship design is the use of cell guides. Cell guides are strong vertical structures constructed of metal installed into a ship's cargo holds. These structures guide containers into well-defined rows during loading and provide some support for containers against the ship's rolling at sea. So fundamental to container ship design are cell guides that organizations such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development use their presence to distinguish dedicated container ships from general break-bulk cargo ships.
A system of three dimensions is used in cargo plans to describe the position of a container aboard the ship. The first coordinate is the bay, which starts at the front of the ship and increases aft. The second coordinate is the row. Rows on the starboard side are given odd numbers and those on the port side are given even numbers. The rows nearest the centerline are given low numbers, and the numbers increase for slots further from the centerline. The third coordinate is the tier, with the first tier at the bottom of the cargo holds, the second tier on top of that, and so forth.
Container ships only take 20 foot, 40 foot, and 45 foot containers. 45 footers only fit above deck. 40 foot containers are the primary container size, making up about 90% of all container shipping and since container shipping moves 90% of the world's freight, over 80% of the world's freight moves via 40 foot containers.
Lashing systems
Numerous systems are used to secure containers aboard ships, depending on factors such as the type of ship, the type of container, and the location of the container. Stowage inside the holds of fully cellular (FC) ships is simplest, typically using simple metal forms called container guides, locating cones, and anti-rack spacers to lock the containers together. Above-decks, without the extra support of the cell guides, more complicated equipment is used. Three types of systems are currently in wide use: lashing systems, locking systems, and buttress systems. Lashing systems secure containers to the ship using devices made from wire rope, rigid rods, or chains and devices to tension the lashings, such as turnbuckles. The effectiveness of lashings is increased by securing containers to each other, either by simple metal forms (such as stacking cones) or more complicated devices such as twist-lock stackers. A typical twist-lock is inserted into the casting hole of one container and rotated to hold it in place, then another container is lowered on top of it. The two containers are locked together by twisting the device's handle. A typical twist-lock is constructed of forged steel and ductile iron and has a shear strength of 48 tonnes.
The buttress system, used on some large container ships, uses a system of large towers attached to the ship at both ends of each cargo hold. As the ship is loaded, a rigid, removable stacking frame is added, structurally securing each tier of containers together.
Bridge
Container ships have typically had a single bridge and accommodation unit towards the rear, but to reconcile demand for larger container capacity with SOLAS visibility requirements, several new designs have been developed. , some large container ships are being developed with the bridge further forward, separate from the exhaust stack. Some smaller container ships working in European ports and rivers have liftable wheelhouses, which can be lowered to pass under low bridges.
Fleet characteristics
, container ships made up 13.3% of the world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world's total of container ship deadweight tonnage has increased from in 1980 to in 2010. The combined deadweight tonnage of container ships and general cargo ships, which also often carry containers, represents 21.8% of the world's fleet.
, the average age of container ships worldwide was 10.6 years, making them the youngest general vessel type, followed by bulk carriers at 16.6 years, oil tankers at 17 years, general cargo ships at 24.6 years, and others at 25.3 years.
Most of the world's carrying capacity in fully cellular container ships is in the liner service, where ships trade on scheduled routes. As of January 2010, the top 20 liner companies controlled 67.5% of the world's fully cellular container capacity, with 2,673 vessels of an average capacity of 3,774 TEU. The remaining 6,862 fully cellular ships have an average capacity of 709 TEU each.
The vast majority of the capacity of fully cellular container ships used in the liner trade is owned by German shipowners, with approximately 75% owned by Hamburg brokers. It is a common practice for the large container lines to supplement their own ships with chartered-in ships, for example in 2009, 48.9% of the tonnage of the top 20 liner companies was chartered-in in this manner.
Flag states
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country, called its flag state. A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. , the United States Bureau of Transportation Statistics count 2,837 container ships of or greater worldwide. Panama was the world's largest flag state for container ships, with 541 of the vessels in its registry. Seven other flag states had more than 100 registered container ships: Liberia (415), Germany (248), Singapore (177), Cyprus (139), the Marshall Islands (118) and the United Kingdom (104). The Panamanian, Liberian, and Marshallese flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers' Federation to be flags of convenience. By way of comparison, traditional maritime nations such as the United States and Japan only had 75 and 11 registered container ships, respectively.
Vessel purchases
In recent years, oversupply of container ship capacity has caused prices for new and used ships to fall. From 2008 to 2009, new container ship prices dropped by 19–33%, while prices for 10-year-old container ships dropped by 47–69%. In March 2010, the average price for a geared 500-TEU container ship was $10 million, while gearless ships of 6,500 and 12,000 TEU averaged prices of $74 million and $105 million respectively. At the same time, secondhand prices for 10-year-old geared container ships of 500-, 2,500-, and 3,500-TEU capacity averaged prices of $4 million, $15 million, and $18 million respectively.
In 2009, 11,669,000 gross tons of newly built container ships were delivered. Over 85% of this new capacity was built in the Republic of Korea, China, and Japan, with Korea accounting for over 57% of the world's total alone. New container ships accounted for 15% of the total new tonnage that year, behind bulk carriers at 28.9% and oil tankers at 22.6%.
Scrapping
Most ships are removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping. Scrapping is rare for ships under 18 years old and common for those over 40 years in age. Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LTD) and prices in the scrap metal market. Scrapping rates are volatile, the price per light ton displacement has swung from a high of $650 per LTD in mid-2008 to $200 per LTD in early 2009, before building to $400 per LTD in March 2010. , over 96% of the world's scrapping activity takes place in China, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.
The global economic downturn of 2008–2009 resulted in more ships than usual being sold for scrap. In 2009, 364,300 TEU worth of container ship capacity was scrapped, up from 99,900 TEU in 2008. Container ships accounted for 22.6% of the total gross tonnage of ships scrapped that year. Despite the surge, the capacity removed from the fleet only accounted for 3% of the world's container ship capacity. The average age of container ships scrapped in 2009 was 27.0 years.
Largest ships
Economies of scale have dictated an upward trend in the size of container ships in order to reduce expenses. However, there are certain limitations to the size of container ships. Primarily, these are the availability of sufficiently large main engines and the availability of a sufficient number of ports and terminals prepared and equipped to handle ultra-large container ships. Furthermore, the permissible maximum ship dimensions in some of the world's main waterways could present an upper limit in terms of vessel growth. This primarily concerns the Suez Canal and the Singapore Strait.
In 2008 the South Korean shipbuilder STX announced plans to construct a container ship capable of carrying , and with a proposed length of and a beam of . If constructed, the container ship would become the largest seagoing vessel in the world.
Since even very large container ships are vessels with relatively low draft compared to large tankers and bulk carriers, there is still considerable room for vessel growth. Compared to today's largest container ships, Maersk Line's Emma Mærsk-type series, a container ship would only be moderately larger in terms of exterior dimensions. According to a 2011 estimate, an ultra-large container ship of would measure , compared to for the Emma Mærsk class. It would have an estimated deadweight of circa 220,000 tons. While such a vessel might be near the upper limit for a Suez Canal passage, the so-called Malaccamax concept (for Straits of Malacca) does not apply for container ships, since the Malacca and Singapore Straits' draft limit of about is still above that of any conceivable container ship design. In 2011, Maersk announced plans to build a new "Triple E" family of container ships with a capacity of 18,000 TEU, with an emphasis on lower fuel consumption.
In the present market situation, main engines will not be as much of a limiting factor for vessel growth either. The steadily rising expense of fuel oil in the early 2010s had prompted most container lines to adapt a slower, more economical voyage speed of about 21 knots, compared to earlier top speeds of 25 or more knots. Subsequently, newly built container ships can be fitted with a smaller main engine. Engine types fitted to today's ships of are thus sufficiently large to propel future vessels of or more. Maersk Line, the world's largest container shipping line, nevertheless opted for twin engines (two smaller engines working two separate propellers), when ordering a series of ten 18,000 TEU vessels from Daewoo Shipbuilding in February 2011. The ships were delivered between 2013 and 2014. In 2016, some experts believed that the current largest container ships are at the optimum size, and could not economically be larger, as port facilities would be too expensive, port handling too time consuming, the number of suitable ports too low, and insurance cost too high.
In March 2017 the first ship with an official capacity over 20,000 TEUs was christened at Samsung Heavy Industries. MOL Triumph has a capacity of 20,150 TEUs. Samsung Heavy Industries was expected to deliver several ships of over 20,000 TEUs in 2017, and has orders for at least ten vessels in that size range for OOCL and MOL.
Freight market
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. Outside special bulk cargo markets, ships are hired by three types of charter agreements: the voyage charter, the time charter, and the bareboat charter. In a voyage charter, the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port. In a time charter, the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs. In a bareboat charter, the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel. The completed chartering contract is known as a charter party.
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], tracks in its 2010 Review of Maritime Trade two aspects of container shipping prices: The first one is a chartering price, specifically the price to time-charter a 1 TEU slot for 14 tonnes of cargo on a container ship. The other is the freight rate; or comprehensive daily cost to deliver one-TEU worth of cargo on a given route. As a result of the late-2000s recession, both indicators showed sharp drops during 2008–2009, and have shown signs of stabilization since 2010.
UNCTAD uses the Hamburg Shipbrokers’ Association (formally the Vereinigung Hamburger Schiffsmakler und Schiffsagenten e. V. or VHSS for short) as its main industry source for container ship freight prices. The VHSS maintains a few indices of container ship charter prices. The oldest, which dates back to 1998, is called the Hamburg Index. This index considers time-charters on fully cellular container ships controlled by Hamburg brokers. It is limited to charters of 3 months or more, and presented as the average daily cost in U.S. dollars for a one-TEU slot with a weight of 14 tonnes. The Hamburg Index data is divided into ten categories based primarily on vessel carrying capacity. Two additional categories exist for small vessels of under 500 TEU that carry their own cargo cranes. In 2007, VHSS started another index, the New ConTex which tracks similar data obtained from an international group of shipbrokers.
The Hamburg Index shows some clear trends in recent chartering markets. First, rates were generally increasing from 2000 to 2005. From 2005 to 2008, rates slowly decreased, and in mid-2008 began a "dramatic decline" of approximately 75%, which lasted until rates stabilized in April 2009. Rates have ranged from $2.70 to $35.40 in this period, with prices generally lower on larger ships. The most resilient sized vessel in this time period were those from 200 to 300 TEU, a fact that the United Nations Council on Trade and Development attributes to lack of competition in this sector. Overall, in 2010, these rates rebounded somewhat, but remained at approximately half of their 2008 values. As of 2011, the index shows signs of recovery for container shipping, and combined with increases in global capacity, indicates a positive outlook for the sector in the near future.
UNCTAD also tracks container freight rates. Freight rates are expressed as the total price in U.S. dollars for a shipper to transport one TEU worth of cargo along a given route. Data is given for the three main container liner routes: U.S.-Asia, U.S.-Europe, and Europe-Asia. Prices are typically different between the two legs of a voyage, for example the Asia-U.S. rates have been significantly higher than the return U.S.-Asia rates in recent years. Generally, from the fourth quarter of 2008 through the third quarter of 2009, both the volume of container cargo and freight rates have dropped sharply. In 2009, the freight rates on the U.S.–Europe route were sturdiest, while the Asia-U.S. route fell the most.
Liner companies responded to their overcapacity in several ways. For example, in early 2009, some container lines dropped their freight rates to zero on the Asia-Europe route, charging shippers only a surcharge to cover operating costs. They decreased their overcapacity by lowering the ships' speed (a strategy called "slow steaming") and by laying up ships. Slow steaming increased the length of the Europe-Asia routes to a record high of over 40 days. Another strategy used by some companies was to manipulate the market by publishing notices of rate increases in the press, and when "a notice had been issued by one carrier, other carriers followed suit".
The Trans-Siberian Railroad (TSR) has recently become a more viable alternative to container ships on the Asia-Europe route. This railroad can typically deliver containers in 1/3 to 1/2 of the time of a sea voyage, and in late 2009 announced a 20% reduction in its container shipping rates. With its 2009 rate schedule, the TSR will transport a forty-foot container to Poland from Yokohama for $2,820, or from Pusan for $2,154.
Shipping industry alliances
In an effort to control costs and maximize capacity utilization on ever-larger ships, vessel sharing agreements, co-operative agreements, and slot-exchanges have become a growing feature of the maritime container shipping industry. As of March 2015, 16 of the world's largest container shipping lines had consolidated their routes and services accounting for 95 percent of container cargo volumes moving in the dominant east-west trade routes. Carriers remain operationally independent, as they are forbidden by antitrust regulators in multiple jurisdictions from colluding on freight rates or capacity. Similarities can be drawn with Airline alliances.
Container ports
Container traffic through a port is often tracked in terms of twenty foot equivalent units or TEU of throughput. , the Port of Shanghai was the world's busiest container port, with 43,303,000 TEU handled.
That year, seven of the busiest ten container ports were in the People's Republic of China, with Shanghai in 1st place, Ningbo 3rd, Shenzhen 4th, Guangzhou 5th, Qingdao 7th, Hong Kong 8th and Tianjin 9th.
Rounding out the top ten ports were Singapore at 2nd, Busan in South Korea at 6th and Rotterdam in the Netherlands in the 10th position.
In total, the busiest twenty container ports handled 220,905,805 TEU in 2009, almost half of the world's total estimated container traffic that year of 465,597,537 TEU.
Losses and safety problems
It has been estimated that container ships lose between 2,000 and 10,000 containers at sea each year, costing $370 million. A more recent survey for the six years 2008 through 2013 estimates average losses of individual containers overboard at 546 per year, and average total losses including catastrophic events such as vessel sinkings or groundings at 1,679 per year Most go overboard on the open sea during storms but there are some examples of whole ships being lost with their cargo. When containers are dropped, they immediately become an environmental threat – termed "marine debris". Once in the ocean, they fill with water and sink if the contents cannot hold air. Rough waters smash the container, sinking it quickly.
As container ships get larger and stacking becomes higher, the threat of containers toppling into the sea during a storm increases. This results from a phenomenon called "parametric rolling," by which a ship can roll 30-40 degrees during rough seas creating a powerful torque on a 10-high stack of containers which can easily snap lashings and locks of the stack, resulting in losses into the sea.
The threat of piracy can cost a container shipping company as much as $100 million per year due to longer routes and higher speed, particularly near East Africa.
On 23 March 2021, the Ever Given container ship was passing through the Suez Canal on its way to Rotterdam from China when it became stuck and blocked the canal.
See also
BBC Box
Container on barge
Environmental impact of shipping
List of largest container ships
List of world's longest ships
Ship resistance and propulsion
Notes
References
Shipboard operations
Vessel categories
Statistics
History
.
.
Safety and security
External links
Ancient and modern mariners: The romance of the high seas in an age of quantification – article in The Economist about a voyage on a 21st-century container ship
Maritime transport
Ship types
Intermodal containers
Port infrastructure | [
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262085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suva%20%28insurer%29 | Suva (insurer) | The Suva, headquartered in Lucerne, is the Swiss National Accident Insurance Fund. It is a public-sector insurer and leading provider of health care coverage for employees in case of accidents in Switzerland.
Name
The name is the abbreviation of Schweizerische Unfallversicherungsanstalt (German for Swiss National Accident Insurance Fund, in French Caisse nationale suisse d'assurance en cas d'accidents or CNA; in Italian Istituto nazionale svizzero di assicurazione contro gli infortuni).
History
It was founded 1912 and its active since 1918. For a long time, it held a monopoly for compulsory coverage for employees in high-risk professions. Its surplus income is distributed to insureds in the form of premium reductions.
Its three missions are prevention, insurance and rehabilitation. About half of people working in Switzerland are insurance by the Suva in case of accidents (128,000 companies and 2,000,000 people insured).
Unemployed people are insured against accidents by the Suva. Since 2005, the Swiss Armed Forces are also insured against accidents by the Suva.
Notes and references
See also
Trauma und Berufskrankheit
Trauma und Berufskrankheit (journal)
External links
Official website
Swiss Institute for Accident Insurance (SUVA) in History of Social Security in Switzerland
Financial services companies established in 1918
Insurance companies of Switzerland | [
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262088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Churchyard | Thomas Churchyard | Thomas Churchyard (c. 1523 – 1604) was an English author and soldier. He is chiefly remembered for a series of autobiographical or semi-autobiographical verse collections, including Churchyardes Chippes (1575); Churchyard's Choise (1579); Churchyardes Charge (1580); The Worthines of Wales (1587); Churchyard's Challenge (1593); and Churchyards Charitie (1595).
Early life
Thomas Churchyard was born at Shrewsbury in c. 1529, the son of a farmer. He received a good education, and, having speedily dissipated at court the money with which his father provided him, he entered the household of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. There he remained for twenty years, learning something of the art of poetry from his patron; some of the poems he contributed later (1555) to Nicholas Grimald's and Richard Tottel's collection, Songes and Sonettes (known more often as Tottel's Miscellany), may well date from this early period.
Career
In 1541 Churchyard began his career as a soldier of fortune, being, he said, "pressed into the service". He fought his way through nearly every campaign in Scotland and the Low Countries for thirty years. He served under the emperor Charles V in Flanders in 1542, returning to England after the Peace of Crépy (1544).
In the Scottish campaign of 1547 he was present at the barren victory of Pinkie, and in the next year was taken prisoner at Saint Monance, but aided by his persuasive tongue he escaped to the English garrison at Lauder, where he was once more besieged, only returning to England on the conclusion of peace in 1550.
In the same year he went to Ireland to serve the lord deputy of Ireland, Sir Anthony St Leger, who had been sent to pacify the country. Here Churchyard enriched himself, at the expense of the Irish; but in 1552 he was in England again, trying vainly to secure a fortune by marriage with a rich widow. After this failure he departed once more to the wars to the Siege of Metz (1552), and "trailed a pike" in the emperor's army, until he joined the forces under William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton, with whom he says he served eight years. Grey was in charge of the fortress of Guînes, which was besieged by the duke of Guise in 1558.
Churchyard arranged the terms of surrender, and was sent with his chief to Paris as a prisoner. He was not released at the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis for lack of money to pay his ransom, but he was finally set free on giving his bond for the amount, an engagement which he repudiated as soon as he was safely in England. He is not to be identified with the "T.C." who wrote for the Mirror for Magistrates (ed. 1559), "How the Lord Mowbray ... was banished ... and after died miserablie in exile", which is the work of Thomas Chaloner; but "Shore's Wife", his most popular poem, appeared in the 1563 edition of the same work, and to that of 1587 he contributed the "Tragedie of Thomas Wolsey". These are plain compositions in the seven-lined Chaucerian stanza.
Repeated petitions to the Queen for assistance produced at first fair words, and then no answer at all. He therefore returned to active service under Lord Grey, who was in command of an English army sent in 1560 to help the Scottish rebels at the Siege of Leith, and in 1564 he served in Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. The religious disturbances in the Netherlands attracted him to Antwerp, where, as the agent of William of Orange, he allowed the insurgents to place him at their head, and was able to save much property from destruction. This action made him so hated by the mob that he had to fly for his life in the disguise of a priest. In the next year he was sent by the earl of Oxford to serve definitely under the prince of Orange. After a year's service he obtained leave to return to England, and after many adventures and narrow escapes in a journey through hostile territory he embarked for Guernsey, and thence for England. His patron, Lord Oxford, disowned him, and the poet, whose health was failing, retired to Bath. He appears to have made a very unhappy marriage at this time, and returned to the Low Countries. Falling into the hands of the Spaniards he was recognized as having had a hand in the Antwerp disturbance, and was under sentence to be executed as a spy when he was saved by the intervention of a noble lady. This experience did not deter him from joining in the defence of Zutphen in 1572, but this was his last campaign, and the troubles of the remaining years of his life were chiefly domestic.
Later life
Churchyard was employed to devise a pageant for the Queen's reception at Bristol in 1574, and again at Norwich in 1578. He had published in 1575 The Firste parte of Churchyarde's Chippes, the modest title which he gives to his works. No second part appeared, but there was a much enlarged edition in 1578. A passage in Churchyarde's Choise (1579) gave offence to Elizabeth, and the author fled to Scotland, where he remained for three years. He was only restored to favour about 1584, and in 1593 he received a small pension from the Queen.
On Good Friday, 8 April 1580, Churchyard (then aged nearly 60) published a short account of the earthquake which had struck London and much of England only two days earlier. The pamphlet, A Warning to the Wyse, a Feare to the Fond, a Bridle to the Lewde, and a Glasse to the Good; written of the late Earthquake chanced in London and other places, 6 April 1580, for the Glory of God and benefit of men, that warely can walk, and wisely judge. Set forth in verse and prose, by Thomas Churchyard, gentleman provides the earliest accounts of the 1580 Dover Straits earthquake.
Dispute with Thomas Camel
In Churchyards Challenge (1593) the author refers to his broadside ballad, Davie Dicars dreame (c. 1551–1552), which he says was written against by one Thomas Camel whom Churchyard then "openly confuted". Their argument came to involve not only Churchyard and Camel but also William Waterman, Geoffrey Chappell, and Richard Beard. All their various contributions were collected and reprinted in in 1560. A short and seemingly alliterative poem in the manner of Piers Plowman, Davie Dicar brought Churchyard into trouble with the privy council, but he was supported by Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset and dismissed with a reprimand.
Carried out in broadside ballads, the Churchyard-Camel debate was concerned with the relative merit of the plain style in native English literary tradition and the proper literary use of the English language itself. In a verse dedication to John Stow's Pithy Pleasaunt and Profitable Workes (1568), Churchyard defended the native tradition, grounding it in "Peers plowman . . . full plaine" and Chaucer. Churchyard mocked Camel's classical, Latinate sophistication, and Camel attacked Churchyard's churlish words and "uncouth speeche". This public controversy resembled the old medieval practice of flyting—a staged, collaborative battle of the wits that was also, in this case, an occasion for the public discussion of moral issues, education, religion, and politics. It was also a means of commercial self-promotion on the part of writers and printers.
Perhaps inspired by Robert Crowley's 1550 publication of Piers Plowman, Davy Dycar (i.e., Davy the ditcher or digger) is a character drawn from a line at the end of Passus 6 in the B-text and the end of Passus 9 in the C-text where it is prophesied that "Dawe the dyker" will die of starvation because of the corruption of landlords and clergy. ("Dawe", written or printed as "Davve", could be read as "Davy" or "Davie".) This is the concluding event in a list of disasters caused by corrupt elites, a part of Piers Plowman that was appreciated by some English Protestants in the mid-sixteenth century. (Notably, the Davy Digger lines were copied into a manuscript of political prophecies compiled around 1553–1554.) Churchyard turns Davy into a Piers-like truth-teller and prophet of a millennial kingdom of justice:
William Waterman added to the debate with his Westerne Wyll, calling explicit attention to Davy's roots:
Reputation
The affectionate esteem with which Churchyard was regarded by the younger Elizabethan writers is expressed by Thomas Nashe, who says (Foure Letters Confuted) that Churchyard's aged muse might well be "grandmother to our grandiloquentest poets at this present". Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) mentions him in conjunction with many great names among "the most passionate, among us, to bewail and bemoan the perplexities of love". Spenser, in "Colin Clout's Come Home Again", calls him with a spice of raillery "old Palaemon" who "sung so long until quite hoarse he grew".
His writings, with the exception of his contributions to the Mirror for Magistrates, are chiefly autobiographical in character or deal with the wars in which he had a share. They are very rare and have never been completely reprinted. Churchyard lived right through Elizabeth's reign, and was buried in St. Margaret's, Westminster, on 4 April 1604. It was said he was taken ill in the presence of Anne of Denmark's ladies in waiting and carried away in a faint a fortnight before his death.
Works
The extant works of Churchyard, exclusive of commendatory and occasional verses, include:
A lamentable and pitifull Description of the wofull warres in Flanders (1578)
A Prayse, and Reporte of Maister MartyneFrobishers Voyage to Meta Incognita (A Name Given by a Mightie and most Great Personage) in Which Praise and Report is Written Divers Discourses Never Published by any Man as Yet (1578)
A general rehearsall of warres, called Churchyard's Choise (1579), really a completion of the Chippes, and containing, like it, a number of detached pieces
A light Bondel of livelie Discourses, called Churchyardes Charge (1580)
A Warning to the Wyse, an immediate account of England's 1580 earthquake (1580)
The Worthines of Wales (1587), a valuable antiquarian work in prose and verse, anticipating Michael Drayton
Churchyard's Challenge (1593)
A Musicall Consort of Heavenly harmonic, called Churchyards Charitie (1595)
A True Discourse Historicall, of the succeeding Governors in the Netherlands (1602)
See also
Piers Plowman Tradition
References
Sources
The chief contemporary authority for Churchyard's biography is his own "Tragicall Discourse of the unhappy man's life" (Churchyardes Chippes). George Chalmers published (1817) a selection from his works relating to Scotland, for which he wrote a useful life. See also an edition of the Chippes (ed. JP Collier, 1870), of the Worthines of Wales (Spenser Soc., 1876), and a notice of Churchyard by H. W. Adnitt (Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, reprinted separately 1884).
1520s births
1604 deaths
English army officers
17th-century English poets
17th-century male writers
16th-century English poets
English essayists
People from Shrewsbury
English Renaissance
17th-century Protestants
Male essayists
English male poets | [
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262090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Meres | Francis Meres | Francis Meres (1565/1566 – 29 January 1647) was an English churchman and author. His 1598 commonplace book includes the first critical account of poems and plays by Shakespeare.
Career
Francis Meres was born in 1565 at Kirton Meres in the parish of Kirton, Lincolnshire. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he received a BA in 1587 and an MA in 1591. Two years later he was incorporated an MA of Oxford. His relative, John Meres, was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1596, and apparently helped him in the early part of his career. In 1602 he became rector of Wing, Rutland, where he also ran a school. Both his son Francis and his grandson Edward received their BA and MA from Cambridge and became rectors.
Meres is especially known for his Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury (1598), a commonplace book that is important as a source on the Elizabethan poets, and more particularly as the first critical account of the poems and early plays of William Shakespeare. Its list of Shakespeare's plays contributed to establishing their chronology. A sermon entitled Gods Arithmeticke (1597) and two translations from the Spanish of Luís de Granada entitled Granada's Devotion and The Sinners' Guide (1598) complete Meres's list of works.
Marriage and issue
Meres had a wife, Mary (1576/1577–1631), whose maiden name is unknown. They had a son, Francis, born in 1607. In Shakespeare's Sonnets (1904), Charlotte Stopes stated that Meres was the brother-in-law of John Florio, but investigations by George Greenwood suggest Stopes erred in that.
Meres died in 1647 and was buried in the parish church of St Peter and St Paul at Wing, Rutland.
Notes
References
Don C. Allen, "The Classical Scholarship of Francis Meres" PMLA, XLVIII: 1 (March 1933), 418–425. Francis Meres and Tamia Palladis, Wits Treasury. Printed by P. Short for Cuthbert Burbie. 1598. Facsimile Reprint of the Church copy in the Henry E. Huntington Library. Introduction by Don C. Allen
Gerald Eades Bentley, "John Cotgrave's English Treasury of Wit and Language and the Elizabethan Drama" Studies in Philology, Vol. XL, 1943
Attribution
1565 births
1647 deaths
17th-century English Anglican priests
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
People from Kirton, Lincolnshire
16th-century English clergy
People from Wing, Rutland | [
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262091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorbo | Theorbo | The theorbo is a plucked string instrument of the lute family, with an extended neck and a second pegbox. Like a lute, a theorbo has a curved-back sound box (a hollow box) with a wooden top, typically with a sound hole, and a neck extending out from the soundbox. As with the lute, the player plucks or strums the strings with one hand while "fretting" (pressing down) the strings with the other hand; pressing the strings in different places on the neck produces different pitches (notes), thus enabling the performer to play chords, basslines and melodies.
It is related to the liuto attiorbato, the French , the archlute, the German baroque lute, and the angélique or angelica. A theorbo differs from a regular lute in that the theorbo has a much longer neck which extends beyond the regular fingerboard/neck and a second pegbox at the end of the extended neck. Low-register bass strings are added on the extended neck. This gives a theorbo a much wider range of pitches (notes) than a regular lute. The theorbo was used during the Baroque music era (1600–1750) to play basso continuo accompaniment parts (as part of the basso continuo group, which often included harpsichord, pipe organ and bass instruments), and also as a solo instrument.
Origin and development
Theorbos were developed during the late sixteenth century in Italy, inspired by the demand for extended bass range instruments for use in the then-newly developed musical style of opera developed by the Florentine Camerata and new musical works utilising basso continuo, such as Giulio Caccini's two collections, Le nuove musiche (1602 and 1614). For his 1607 opera L'Orfeo, Claudio Monteverdi lists duoi (two) chitaroni among the instruments required for performing the work. Musicians originally used large bass lutes (c. 80+ cm string length) and a higher re-entrant tuning; but soon created neck extensions with secondary pegboxes to accommodate extra open (i.e. unfretted) longer bass strings, called diapasons or bourdons, for improvements in tonal clarity and an increased range of available notes.
Although the words chitarrone and tiorba were both used to describe the instrument, they have different organological and etymological origins; chitarrone being in Italian an augmentation of (and literally meaning large) chitarra – Italian for guitar. The round-backed chitarra was still in use, often referred to as chitarra Italiana to distinguish it from chitarra alla spagnola in its new flat-backed Spanish incarnation. The etymology of tiorba is still obscure; it is hypothesized the origin may be in Slavic or Turkish torba, meaning 'bag' or 'turban'.
According to Athanasius Kircher, tiorba was a nickname in Neapolitan language for a grinding board used by perfumers for grinding essences and herbs. It is possible the appearance of this new large instrument (particularly in a crowded ensemble) resulted in jokes and a humour induced reference with popular local knowledge becoming lost over time and place. Robert Spencer has noted the confusion the two names were already leading to in 1600: Chitarone, ò Tiorba che si dica (chitarrone, or theorbo as it is called). By the mid-17th century, it would appear that tiorba had taken preference – reflected in modern practice, helping to distinguish the theorbo now from very different instruments like the chitarrone moderno or guitarrón. Similar adaptations to smaller lutes (c. 55+ cm string length) also produced the arciliuto (archlute), liuto attiorbato, and tiorbino, which were differently tuned instruments to accommodate a new repertoire of small ensemble or solo works. In the performance of basso continuo, theorboes were often paired with a small pipe organ.
The most prominent early composers and players in Italy were Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger and Alessandro Piccinini. Giuliano Paratico was another early Italian chitarrone player. Little solo music survives from England, but William Lawes and others used theorbos in chamber ensembles and opera orchestras. In France, theorbos were appreciated and used in orchestral or chamber music until the second half of the 18th century (Nicolas Hotman, Robert de Visée). Court orchestras at Vienna, Bayreuth and Berlin still employed theorbo players after 1750 (Ernst Gottlieb Baron, Francesco Conti). Solo music for the theorbo is notated in tablature, a form of music notation in which the frets and strings which a player must press down are printed on a series of parallel lines which represent the strings on the fretboard.
Tuning and strings
The tuning of large theorboes is characterized by the octave displacement, or "re-entrant tuning", of the two uppermost strings. Piccinini and Michael Praetorius mention the occasional use of metal strings (brass and steel, as opposed to gut strings). The Testudo Theorbata that appears in Syntagma Musicum by Praetorius, has doubled strings (courses) passing over the bridge and attached to the base of the instrument – different to his (opposite in the same illustration which seems to have single strings). The also appears to have single strings attached to the bridge. The string "courses", unlike those of a Renaissance lute or archlute, were often single, although double stringing was also used. Typically, theorboes have 14 courses, though some used 15 or even 19 courses (Kapsberger).
This is theorbo tuning in A. Modern theorbo players usually play 14-course (string) instruments (lowest course is G). Some players have used a theorbo tuned a whole step lower in G. Most of the solo repertoire is in the A tuning. The "re-entrant tuning" created new possibilities for voice leading and inspired a new right-hand technique with just thumb, index and middle fingers to arpeggiate chords, which Piccinini likened to the sound of a harp. The bass tessitura (range) and re-entrant stringing mean that in order to keep the figured bass "realisation" (the improvised playing of chords) above the bass instruments when accompanying basso continuo, the bassline must sometimes be played an octave lower (Kapsberger). In the French treatises, chords in which a lower note sounds after the bass were also used when the bass goes high. The English theorbo had just the first string at the lower octave (Thomas Mace).
Regional differences
Italy
The theorbo was developed in Italy, and so has a rich legacy in Italian music as both a solo and continuo instrument. Caccini comments in Le nouve musiche (1602) that the theorbo is perfectly suited for accompanying the voice as it can give a very full support without being obscured by the vocalist, indicating the beginning of an Italian tradition of monodic songs accompanied by theorbo. Italians called the theorbo's diapasons its “special excellence”. Italians viewed the theorbo as an easier alternative to the lute since the general attractiveness of its sound quality can cover over indifferent playing and lazy voice leading.
England
The Italian theorbo first came to England at the beginning of the seventeenth century, but an alternate design based on the English two-headed lute, designed by Jaques Gaultier, soon became more popular. English theorbos were generally tuned in G and double strung throughout, with only the first course in reentrant tuning. Theorbos tuned in G were much better suited to flat keys, and so many English songs or consort pieces that involved theorbo were written in flat keys that would be very difficult to play on a theorbo in A. By the eighteenth century, the theorbo had fallen out of fashion in England due to its large size and low pitch. It was replaced by the archlute.
France
The first mention of a theorbo in France was in 1637, and by the 1660s it had replaced the 10-course lute as the most popular accompanying instrument. The theorbo was a very important continuo instrument in the French court and multiple French theorbo continuo tutors (method books) were published by Delair (1690), Campion (1716 and 1730), Bartolotti (1669), Fleury (1660), and Grenerin (1670). French theorbos had up to eight stopped strings and were often somewhat smaller and quieter than Italian theorbos. They were a standard scale length of 76 cm, which made them smaller than Italian instruments, which ranged from 85–95 cm.
Germany
German theorbos would also today be called swan-necked Baroque lutes; seventeenth-century German theorbists played single-strung instruments in the Italian tuning transposed down a whole step, but eighteenth-century players switched to double-strung instruments in the “d-minor” tuning used in French and German Baroque lute music so as to not have to rethink their chord shapes when playing theorbo. These instruments came to be referred to as theorbo-lutes. Baron remarks that “the lute, because of its delicacy, serves well in trios or other chamber music with few participants. The theorbo, because of its power, serves best in groups of thirty to forty musicians, as in churches and operas.” Theorbo-lutes would likely have been used alongside Italian theorbos and archlutes in continuo settings due to the presence of Italian musicians in German courts and also for the purpose of using instruments that were appropriate for whatever key the music was in.
Ukraine, Poland and Russia
The theorbo came to Ukraine ca. 1700 and it was upgraded with treble strings (known as prystrunky). This instrument was called a torban. The Torban was manufactured and used mainly in Ukraine, but also occasionally encountered in neighbouring Poland and Russia.
Technique
The theorbo is played much like the lute, with the left hand pressing down on the fingerboard to vary the resonating length of the strings (thus playing different notes and making chords, basslines and melodies playable) while the right fingertips pluck the strings. The most significant differences between theorbo and lute technique are that theorbo is played with the right thumb outside the hand, as opposed to Renaissance lute which is played with the thumb under the hand. Additionally, the right hand thumb is entirely responsible for playing the bass diapasons and rarely comes up onto the top courses. Most theorbists play with the flesh of their fingers on the right hand, although there is some historical precedent from Piccinini, Mace, and Weiss to use nails. Fingernails can be more effective on a theorbo than on a lute due to its single-strung courses, and the use of nails is most often suggested in the context of ensemble playing where tone quality becomes subservient to volume.
Solo repertoire
The theorbo's solo Baroque repertoire came almost exclusively from Italy and France, with the exception of some English music written for the English theorbo, until the 21st century. The most effective and idiomatic music for the theorbo takes advantage of its two unique qualities: the diapasons and the reentrant tuning. Campanella passages that allow scale passages to ring across multiple strings in a harp-like fashion are particularly common and are a highly effective tool for the skilled theorbist/composer.
Italy: Kapsberger, Piccinini, Castaldi
Toccatas - free, rhapsodic, harmonically adventurous. Piccinini's are more harmonically tight while Kapsberger often breaks voice-leading rules in order to achieve the desired effect
Dances - Correntes, Gagliardas, continuing in the tradition of Italian lute dances dating back to Dalza
Variations - highly sophisticated and challenging variations on often very simple themes
France: de Visee, Bartolotti, Hurel, le Moyne
Dance suites - the vast majority of French theorbo music consists of dance suites in the order of unmeasured prelude, allemande, courante, saraband, gigue (with variations)
Transcriptions - French theorbists often transcribed pieces from opera composers such as Lully or keyboard composers such as Couperin to perform as solo pieces
A few modern composers have begun to write new music for the theorbo; significant works have been composed by Roman Turovsky, David Loeb, Bruno Helstroffer, Thomas Bocklenberg, and Stephen Goss, who has written the only concerto for theorbo.
Continuo
The theorbo's primary use was as a continuo instrument. However, due to its layout as a plucked instrument and its reentrant tuning, following strict voice leading parameters could sometimes be difficult or even impossible. Thus, a style of continuo unique to the theorbo was developed that incorporated these factors:
Breaking voice leading rules to capitalize on voicings that better express the instrument's natural sonority. The integrity of the true bass line is maintained through the use of creative arpeggiation that masks improper inversions.
Frequent transposition of the bass line down an octave in order to play on the diapasons.
Use of thinner textures; due to the theorbo's strong projection and rich resonance, a three or even two voice accompaniment will often be just as effective as a standard four-voice accompaniment on a harpsichord. Additionally, playing more than a two-voice realization can become impossible with quick-moving bass lines.
Frequent restriking of chords to make up for the instrument's quick decay.
Thus, the preservation of the bass line and the sound of the instrument are of the highest priority when used as a continuo instrument. Breaking voice leading rules becomes necessary in order to preserve the bass line and bring out the unique tones of the theorbo.
The theorbo is labelled by Praetorius as both a fundamental and an ornamental continuo instrument, meaning it is capable of supporting an ensemble as a primary bass instrument while also fleshing out the harmony and adding color to the ensemble by means of chord realizations.
Composers
Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger ( 1580–17 January 1651)
Alessandro Piccinini (30 December 1566– 1638)
Angelo Michele Bartolotti (died before 1682)
Bellerofonte Castaldi (1580–27 September 1649)
Robert de Visée ( 1655–1732/1733)
Charles Hurel (died 1692)
Scott Fields (born 1955)
Stephen Goss (born 2 February 1964)
Roman Turovsky (born 1961)
Contemporary players
Xavier Diaz-Latorre (born 1968)
Eduardo Egüez (born 1959)
Yasunori Imamura (born 19 October 1953)
Jakob Lindberg (born 16 October 1952)
Rolf Lislevand (born 30 December 1961)
Robert MacKillop (born 1959)
Massimo Marchese (born 31 August 1965)
Andreas Martin (born 1963)
Nigel North (born 5 June 1954)
Paul O'Dette (born 2 February 1954)
Christina Pluhar (born 1965)
Lynda Sayce
Richard Stone (born 1960)
Stephen Stubbs (born 1951)
Matthew Wadsworth (born 1974)
References
Sources
Bacilly, Bénigne de. Remarques Curieuses sur l’Arte de Bien Chanter. Paris, 1688. Translated by Austin B. Caswell as A Commentary upon The Art of Proper Singing. New York: Institute of Medæval Music, 1968.
Baron, Ernst Gottlieb. Historisch-Theorisch und Practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten. Nurnberg, 1727. Translated by Douglas Alton Smith as Study of the Lute. San Francisco: Instrumenta Antiqua, 1976.
Burris, Timothy. “Lute and Theorbo in Vocal Music in 18th Century Dresden - A Performance Practice Study.” PhD dissertation, Duke University, 1997.
Caccini, Giulio. Le nuove musiche. Florence, 1601. Translated by H. Wiley Hitchcock as The New Music. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions, 2009.
Cantalupi, Diego. "La tiorba ed il suo uso in Italia come strumento per il basso continuo", pre-press version of the dissertation discussed in 1996 at the Faculty of Musicology, University of Pavia.
Delair, Denis. Traité d’accompagnement pour le théorbe, et le clavecin. Paris, 1690. Translated by Charlotte Mattax as Accompaniment on Theorbo and Harpsichord. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.
Jones, E.H. “The Theorbo and Continuo Practice in the Early English Baroque.” The Galpin Society Journal 25 (July 1972): 67–72.
Keller, J. Gottfried. A compleat method for attaining to play a thorough bass upon either organ, harpsicord, or theorbo-lute . . . with variety of proper lessons and fuges, explaining the several rules throughout the whole work. London: J. Cullen and J. Young, 1707
Kitsos, Theodoros. “Continuo Practice for the Theorbo as indicated in Seventeenth-century Italian Printed and Manuscript Sources.” PhD dissertation, University of York, 2005.
Mason, Kevin Bruce. The Chitarrone and its Repertoire in Early Seventeenth-Century Italy. Aberystwyth, Wales: Boethius Press, 1989.
Mattax, Charlotte. Translator's Commentary to Accompaniment on Theorbo and Harpsichord, 1-36. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.
North, Nigel. Continuo Playing on the Lute, Archlute, and Theorbo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
Praetorius, Michael. Syntagma Musicum III. Wolfenbüttel, 1619. Translated by Hans Lampl. PhD dissertation, University of Southern California, 1957.
Rebuffa, Davide. Il liuto, L'Epos, Pelermo 2012
Schulze-Kurz, Ekkehard. , 1990,
Spencer, Robert. “Chitarrone, Theorbo, and Archlute.” Early Music vol. 4 no. 4 (October 1976): 408-422)
External links
The virtual home-page of the theorbo
Chitarrone, theorbo and archlute by Robert Spencer; from Early Music, vol. 4, October 1976
Theorbo timeline from 1589 to 1818
Grove Music Online article
Theorbo article from the Early Music Studio
Discussion of use of fingernails on the theorbo
Necked bowl lutes
Baroque instruments
Basso continuo instruments
Orchestral instruments
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262092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Arber | Edward Arber | Edward Arber (4 December 183623 November 1912) was an English scholar, writer, and editor.
Background and professional work
Arber was born in London. From 1854 he 1878 he worked as a clerk in the Admiralty, and began evening classes at King's College London in 1858. From 1878 to 1881 he studied English literature, under Henry Morley, at University College London; and from 1881 to 1894 he was professor of English at Mason College (which later became Birmingham University). From 1894 he lived in London as emeritus professor, being also a fellow of King's College London. In 1905 he received the honorary degree of D. Litt. from the University of Oxford. He married in 1869, and had two sons, one of whom, E. A. N. Arber, became demonstrator in palaeobotany at the University of Cambridge.
Scholarly edits
As a scholarly editor, Arber made notable contributions to English literature. His name is associated particularly with the series of "English Reprints" (1868–1871), by which an accurate text of the works of many English authors, formerly only accessible in more expensive editions, was placed within reach of the general public. Among the thirty volumes of the series were Stephen Gosson's School of Abuse, Roger Ascham's Toxophilus, Tottel's Miscellany, and Robert Naunton's Fragmenta Regalia. It was followed by the "English Scholar's Library" (16 volumes) which included the Works (1884) of Captain John Smith, governor of Virginia, and the Poems (1882) of Richard Barnfield.
Other publications
In his English Garner (8 vols, 1877–1890) he collected rare old tracts and poems; in 1899–1901 he issued British Anthologies; and in 1907 he began a series called A Christian Library. He was the sole editor of two vast English bibliographies: A Transcript of the Registers of the Stationers' Company, 1553–1640 (1875–1894), and The Term Catalogues, 1668–1709/11.
References
Attribution:
External links
The Term Catalogues, 1668–1709, With a Number for Easter Term, 1711 A.D. A Contemporary Bibliography of English Literature in the Reigns of Charles II, James II, William and Mary, and Anne. Ed. by Edward Arber, vols. 1–3. London: 1903/ 1905/ 1906. Scan of volume 1, 1668–1682.
1836 births
1912 deaths
People educated at King's College School, London
Alumni of King's College London
Academics of King's College London
Fellows of King's College London
Academics of University College London
Academics of the University of Birmingham
19th-century English writers | [
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262094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine%20folk%20music | Alpine folk music | Alpine folk music (; German's Volksmusik means "people's music" or as a Germanic connotative translation, "folk's music") is the common umbrella designation of a number of related styles of traditional folk music from the Alpine regions of Slovenia, Northern Croatia, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and South Tyrol (Italy).
It tends to be dialect-heavy and invokes local and regional lifestyles, cultures and traditions, particularly, those of the Alpine farmers and peasants.
Originally transmitted by oral tradition, the oldest historical records like the Appenzell Kuhreihen by Georg Rhau (1488–1548) date back to the 16th century. Alpine folk is characterized by improvisation and variation, uncomplicated major key melodies and simple harmonies. Typical instruments range from alpenhorns to hackbretts, zithers and acoustic guitars, and even violas and harmonicas. Harmonized singing is frequent, but other pieces may require yodeling, while instrumental arrangements are particularly frequent for fast dances or brass pieces.
Alpine folk continues to be performed by many local ensembles and bands throughout the European Alps and should not be confused with Volkstümliche Musik, which is largely to be found in broadcasting media and on ancillary merchandise. Since the 1970s, artists of a Neue Volksmusik genre, such as Werner Pirchner or Biermösl Blosn, attempt to combine traditional styles with jazz, folk, electronic music, rock et al. as a kind of world music. Popular proponents include Hubert von Goisern, Attwenger and Christine Lauterburg.
See also
Austrian folk dance
Michael Bredl (1916–1999), a collector of traditional Swabian and Bavarian Volksmusik
Bibliography
Marcello Sorce Keller, Tradizione orale e tradizione corale: ricerca musicologica in Trentino, Bologna, Forni Editore, 1991.
Marcello Sorce Keller, “Gebiete, Schichten und Klanglandschaften in den Alpen. Zum Gebrauch einiger historischer Begriffe aus der Musikethnologie”, in T. Nussbaumer (ed.), Volksmusik in den Alpen: Interkulturelle Horizonte und Crossovers, Zalzburg, Verlag Mueller-Speiser, 2006.
Marcello Sorce Keller, "Costantino Nigra und die Balladen-Forschung. Betrachtungen über die Beziehung zwischen Nord-Italien, Frankreich und der Suisse Romande". Bulletin. Gesellschaft für die Volksmusik in der Schweiz, X(2011), 33-40.
See also
Schunkeln (sway dance)
Music of Germany
Austrian folk dancing
References
External links
Volksmusiknet, all about Swiss Volksmusik with 24/7 Nonstop Music-Radio and CD Novelties
German folk music | [
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] |
262102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katzbalger | Katzbalger | A is a short Renaissance arming sword, notable for its sturdy build and a distinctive s-shaped or figure-8 shaped guard. Measuring 70–80 cm long and weighing 0.8-1.5 kg, it was the signature blade of the Landsknecht.
Overview
The is a side-arm, often used by pikemen, archers, and crossbowmen as a last resort if the enemy were to draw too close for bows or pikes to be effective.
Mostly a cutting sword, the rounded tips on many examples are ill-suited to thrusting, while the flat, broad blades are specialized for cutting. As with other similar cutting-centric arming swords, it can still be used for thrusting, though it is only likely to do damage to unarmored targets.
As with many sword varieties, variations exist within the type and katzbalger-style hilts can be found paired with slimmer and more thrust-oriented blades.
The large, characteristic guard helps to block and parry other cutting attacks. However, its openings leave the hands vulnerable to thrusting attacks.
Terminology
There are several different explanations about the origin of the name : one is that it comes from the custom of carrying a sword without a scabbard, held only by a cat's skin (German word means "cat", while means the skin (fur) of an animal.
Another theory is that the word derives from (brawling), and refers to intense, close-quarter combat like fights between feral cats. The most common translation is "cat-gutter", with an allusion to cat fight.
See also
List of daggers
Baselard
Swiss arms and armour
Cinquedea
Types of swords
References
Renaissance-era swords
German words and phrases | [
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262107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor%20%28linear%20algebra%29 | Minor (linear algebra) | In linear algebra, a minor of a matrix A is the determinant of some smaller square matrix, cut down from A by removing one or more of its rows and columns. Minors obtained by removing just one row and one column from square matrices (first minors) are required for calculating matrix cofactors, which in turn are useful for computing both the determinant and inverse of square matrices.
Definition and illustration
First minors
If A is a square matrix, then the minor of the entry in the ith row and jth column (also called the (i, j) minor, or a first minor) is the determinant of the submatrix formed by deleting the ith row and jth column. This number is often denoted Mi,j. The (i, j) cofactor is obtained by multiplying the minor by .
To illustrate these definitions, consider the following 3 by 3 matrix,
To compute the minor M2,3 and the cofactor C2,3, we find the determinant of the above matrix with row 2 and column 3 removed.
So the cofactor of the (2,3) entry is
General definition
Let A be an m × n matrix and k an integer with 0 < k ≤ m, and k ≤ n. A k × k minor of A, also called minor determinant of order k of A or, if m = n, (n−k)th minor determinant of A (the word "determinant" is often omitted, and the word "degree" is sometimes used instead of "order") is the determinant of a k × k matrix obtained from A by deleting m−k rows and n−k columns. Sometimes the term is used to refer to the k × k matrix obtained from A as above (by deleting m−k rows and n−k columns), but this matrix should be referred to as a (square) submatrix of A, leaving the term "minor" to refer to the determinant of this matrix. For a matrix A as above, there are a total of minors of size k × k. The minor of order zero is often defined to be 1. For a square matrix, the zeroth minor is just the determinant of the matrix.
Let and be ordered sequences (in natural order, as it is always assumed when talking about minors unless otherwise stated) of indexes, call them I and J, respectively. The minor corresponding to these choices of indexes is denoted or or or or or (where the denotes the sequence of indexes I, etc.), depending on the source. Also, there are two types of denotations in use in literature: by the minor associated to ordered sequences of indexes I and J, some authors mean the determinant of the matrix that is formed as above, by taking the elements of the original matrix from the rows whose indexes are in I and columns whose indexes are in J, whereas some other authors mean by a minor associated to I and J the determinant of the matrix formed from the original matrix by deleting the rows in I and columns in J. Which notation is used should always be checked from the source in question. In this article, we use the inclusive definition of choosing the elements from rows of I and columns of J. The exceptional case is the case of the first minor or the (i, j)-minor described above; in that case, the exclusive meaning is standard everywhere in the literature and is used in this article also.
Complement
The complement, Bijk...,pqr..., of a minor, Mijk...,pqr..., of a square matrix, A, is formed by the determinant of the matrix A from which all the rows (ijk...) and columns (pqr...) associated with Mijk...,pqr... have been removed. The complement of the first minor of an element aij is merely that element.
Applications of minors and cofactors
Cofactor expansion of the determinant
The cofactors feature prominently in Laplace's formula for the expansion of determinants, which is a method of computing larger determinants in terms of smaller ones. Given an matrix , the determinant of A, denoted det(A), can be written as the sum of the cofactors of any row or column of the matrix multiplied by the entries that generated them. In other words, defining then the cofactor expansion along the jth column gives:
The cofactor expansion along the ith row gives:
Inverse of a matrix
One can write down the inverse of an invertible matrix by computing its cofactors by using Cramer's rule, as follows. The matrix formed by all of the cofactors of a square matrix A is called the cofactor matrix (also called the matrix of cofactors or, sometimes, comatrix):
Then the inverse of A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix times the reciprocal of the determinant of A:
The transpose of the cofactor matrix is called the adjugate matrix (also called the classical adjoint) of A.
The above formula can be generalized as follows: Let and be ordered sequences (in natural order) of indexes (here A is an n × n matrix). Then
where I′, J′ denote the ordered sequences of indices (the indices are in natural order of magnitude, as above) complementary to I, J, so that every index 1, ..., n appears exactly once in either I or I′, but not in both (similarly for the J and J′) and denotes the determinant of the submatrix of A formed by choosing the rows of the index set I and columns of index set J. Also, . A simple proof can be given using wedge product. Indeed,
where are the basis vectors. Acting by A on both sides, one gets
The sign can be worked out to be , so the sign is determined by the sums of elements in I and J.
Other applications
Given an m × n matrix with real entries (or entries from any other field) and rank r, then there exists at least one non-zero r × r minor, while all larger minors are zero.
We will use the following notation for minors: if A is an m × n matrix, I is a subset of {1,...,m} with k elements, and J is a subset of {1,...,n} with k elements, then we write [A]I,J for the minor of A that corresponds to the rows with index in I and the columns with index in J.
If I = J, then [A]I,J is called a principal minor.
If the matrix that corresponds to a principal minor is a square upper-left submatrix of the larger matrix (i.e., it consists of matrix elements in rows and columns from 1 to k, also known as a leading principal submatrix), then the principal minor is called a leading principal minor (of order k) or corner (principal) minor (of order k). For an n × n square matrix, there are n leading principal minors.
A basic minor of a matrix is the determinant of a square submatrix that is of maximal size with nonzero determinant.
For Hermitian matrices, the leading principal minors can be used to test for positive definiteness and the principal minors can be used to test for positive semidefiniteness. See Sylvester's criterion for more details.
Both the formula for ordinary matrix multiplication and the Cauchy–Binet formula for the determinant of the product of two matrices are special cases of the following general statement about the minors of a product of two matrices.
Suppose that A is an m × n matrix, B is an n × p matrix, I is a subset of {1,...,m} with k elements and J is a subset of {1,...,p} with k elements. Then
where the sum extends over all subsets K of {1,...,n} with k elements. This formula is a straightforward extension of the Cauchy–Binet formula.
Multilinear algebra approach
A more systematic, algebraic treatment of minors is given in multilinear algebra, using the wedge product: the k-minors of a matrix are the entries in the kth exterior power map.
If the columns of a matrix are wedged together k at a time, the k × k minors appear as the components of the resulting k-vectors. For example, the 2 × 2 minors of the matrix
are −13 (from the first two rows), −7 (from the first and last row), and 5 (from the last two rows). Now consider the wedge product
where the two expressions correspond to the two columns of our matrix. Using the properties of the wedge product, namely that it is bilinear and alternating,
and antisymmetric,
we can simplify this expression to
where the coefficients agree with the minors computed earlier.
A remark about different notation
In some books, instead of cofactor the term adjunct is used. Moreover, it is denoted as Aij and defined in the same way as cofactor:
Using this notation the inverse matrix is written this way:
Keep in mind that adjunct is not adjugate or adjoint. In modern terminology, the "adjoint" of a matrix most often refers to the corresponding adjoint operator.
See also
Submatrix
References
External links
MIT Linear Algebra Lecture on Cofactors at Google Video, from MIT OpenCourseWare
PlanetMath entry of Cofactors
Springer Encyclopedia of Mathematics entry for Minor
Matrix theory
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262108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandalwood | Sandalwood | Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees in the genus Santalum. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods for use. Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world. Both the wood and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that has been highly valued for centuries. Consequently, some species of these slow-growing trees have suffered over-harvesting in the past.
Nomenclature
The nomenclature and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species' historical and widespread use. Etymologically it is ultimately derived from Sanskrit चन्दनं Chandanam (čandana-m), the sandalwood tree, meaning "wood for burning incense" and related to candrah, "shining, glowing" and the Latin candere, to shine or glow. It arrived in English via Late Greek, Medieval Latin and Old French in the 14th or 15th century.
True sandalwoods
Sandalwoods are medium-sized hemiparasitic trees, and part of the same botanical family as European mistletoe. Notable members of this group are Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) and Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum); others in the genus also have fragrant wood. These are found in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Australia, Indonesia, Hawaii, and other Pacific Islands.
S. album is a threatened species indigenous to South India, and grows in the Western Ghats and a few other mountain ranges such as the Kalrayan and Shevaroy Hills. Although sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal are government-owned and their harvest is controlled, many trees are illegally cut down. Sandalwood oil prices have risen to $3000 per liter recently. Red sanders is endemic to Seshachalam, Veliganda, Lankamala, and Palakonda hill ranges, distributed in districts of Kadapa, Chittoor, and Kurnool in Rayalaseema region and parts of Nellore and Prakasam in Andhra Pradesh, Mysore region of Karnataka (formerly Mysore State), and Marayoor forest in Kerala, Southern India, is high in quality. New plantations were created with international aid in Tamil Nadu for economic exploitation. In Kununurra in Western Australia, Indian sandalwood is grown on a large scale. This species is the primary source of sandalwood used in commercial oil production and should not be confused with West Indian Sandalwood, Amyris balsamifera.
S. ellipticum, S. freycinetianum, and S. paniculatum, the Hawaiian sandalwood (iliahi), were also used and considered high quality. These three species were exploited between 1790 and 1825 before the supply of trees ran out (a fourth species, S. haleakalae, occurs only in subalpine areas and was never exported). Although S. freycinetianum and S. paniculatum are relatively common today, they have not regained their former abundance or size, and S. ellipticum remains rare.
S. yasi, a sandalwood from Fiji and Tonga.
S. spicatum is used by aromatherapists and perfumers. The oil concentration differs considerably from other Santalum species. In the 1840s, sandalwood was Western Australia’s biggest export earner. Oil was distilled for the first time in 1875, and by the turn of the 20th century, production of Australian sandalwood oil was intermittent. However, in the late 1990s, Western Australian sandalwood oil enjoyed a revival and by 2009 had peaked at more than per year – much of which went to the fragrance industries in Europe. Although overall production has decreased, by 2011, a significant percentage of its production was heading to the chewing tobacco industry in India alongside Indian sandalwood – the chewing tobacco market being the largest market for both oils in 2012.
Other species: Commercially, various other species, not belonging to Santalum species, are also used as sandalwood.
Unrelated plants
Various unrelated plants with scented wood and also referred to as sandalwood, but not in the true sandalwood genus:
Adenanthera pavonina – sandalwood tree, red or false red sandalwood
Baphia nitida – camwood, also known as African sandalwood
Eremophila mitchellii – sandalwood; false sandalwood (also sandalbox)
Myoporum platycarpum – sandalwood; false sandalwood
Myoporum sandwicense – bastard sandalwood, false sandalwood
Osyris lanceolata – African sandalwood
Osyris tenuifolia – east African sandalwood
Production
Producing commercially valuable sandalwood with high levels of fragrance oils requires Indian sandalwood (S. album) trees to be a minimum of 15 years old – the yield, quality and volume are still to be clearly understood. Yield of oil tends to vary depending on the age and location of the tree; usually, the older trees yield the highest oil content and quality. Australia is the largest producer of S. album, with the majority grown around Kununurra, in the far north of the state by Quintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services), which in 2017 controlled around 80 per cent of the world's supply of Indian sandalwood, and Santanol. India used to be the world's biggest producer, but it has been overtaken by Australia in the 21st century. Over-exploitation is partly to blame for the decline.
Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum) is grown in commercial plantations throughout the wheatbelt of Western Australia, where it has been an important part of the economy since colonial times. WA has the largest plantation resource in the world.
Sandalwood is expensive compared to other types of woods, so to maximize profit, sandalwood is harvested by removing the entire tree instead of sawing it down at the trunk close to ground level. This way wood from the stump and root, which possesses high levels of sandalwood oil, can also be processed and sold.
Australian sandalwood is mostly harvested and sold in log form, graded for heartwood content. The species is unique in that the white sapwood does not require removal before distilling the oil. The logs are either processed to distill the essential oil, or made into powders for making incense. Indian Sandalwood, used mainly for oil extraction, does require removal of the sapwood prior to distillation. , Australian Sandalwood oil sells for around per , while Indian Sandalwood oil, due to its higher alpha santalol content, is priced at about per kg.
Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world, along with African blackwood, pink ivory, Agarwood and ebony.
Uses
Fragrance
Sandalwood oil has a distinctive soft, warm, smooth, creamy, and milky precious-wood scent. It imparts a long-lasting, woody base to perfumes from the oriental, woody, fougère, and chypre families, as well as a fixative to floral and citrus fragrances. When used in smaller proportions in a perfume, it acts as a fixative, enhancing the longevity of other, more volatile, materials in the composite. Sandalwood is also a key ingredient in the "floriental" (floral-ambery) fragrance family – when combined with white florals such as jasmine, ylang ylang, gardenia, plumeria, orange blossom, tuberose, etc.
Sandalwood oil in India is widely used in the cosmetic industry. The main source of true sandalwood, S. album, is a protected species, and demand for it cannot be met. Many species of plants are traded as "sandalwood". The genus Santalum has more than 19 species. Traders often accept oil from closely related species, as well as from unrelated plants such as West Indian sandalwood (Amyris balsamifera) in the family Rutaceae or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense, Myoporaceae). However, most woods from these alternative sources lose their aroma within a few months or years.
Isobornyl cyclohexanol is a synthetic fragrance chemical produced as an alternative to the natural product.
Sandalwood's main components are the two isomers of santalol (about 75%). It is used in aromatherapy and to prepare soaps.
Technology
Due to its low fluorescence and optimal refractive index, sandalwood oil is often employed as an immersion oil within ultraviolet and fluorescence microscopy.
Food
Aboriginal Australians eat the seed kernels, nuts, and fruit of local sandalwoods, such as the quandong (S. acuminatum).
Early Europeans in Australia used quandong in cooking damper by infusing it with its leaves, and in making jams, pies, and chutneys from the fruit. In Scandinavia, pulverised bark from red sandalwood (Pterocarpus soyauxii) is used - with other tropical spices - when marinating anchovies and some types of pickled herring such as matjes, sprat, and certain types of traditional spegesild, inducing a reddish colour and slightly perfumed flavour.
Present-day chefs have begun experimenting in using the nut as a substitute for macadamia nuts or a bush food substitute for almonds, hazelnuts, and others in Southeast Asian-styled cuisine. The oil is also used as a flavour component in different food items, including candy, ice cream, baked food, puddings, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and gelatin. The flavouring is used at levels below 10 ppm, the highest possible level for use in food products being 90 ppm.
Distillation
Oil is extracted from Sandalwood through distillation. Many different methods are used, including steam distillation, water distillation, CO2 extraction, and solvent extractions. Steam distillation is the most common method used by sandalwood companies. It occurs in a four-step process, incorporating boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation. Water is heated to high temperatures () and is then passed through the wood. The oil is very tightly bound within the cellular structure of the wood, so the high heat of the steam causes the oil to be released. The mixture of steam and oil is then cooled and separated so that the essential oil can be collected. This process is much longer than any other essential oil's distillation, taking 14 to 36 hours to complete, but generally produces much higher quality oil. Water, or hydro, distillation is the more traditional method of sandalwood extraction which involves soaking the wood in water and then boiling it until the oil is released. This method is not used as much anymore because of the high costs and time associated with heating large quantities of water.
Religion
Hinduism
Indian sandalwood is very sacred in the Hindu Ayurveda and is known in Sanskrit as chandana. The wood is used for worshipping the god Shiva, and it is believed that goddess Lakshmi lives in the sandalwood tree. The wood of the tree is made into a paste using sandalwood powder, and this paste is integral to rituals and ceremonies, to make religious utensils, to decorate the icons of the deities, and to calm the mind during meditation and prayer. It is also distributed to devotees, who apply it to their foreheads or necks and chests. Sandalwood paste is used for most pujas both in temples and home alters performed in private households.
The paste is prepared by grinding wood by hand with granite slabs shaped for this purpose. With the gradual addition of water, a thick paste forms (called kalabham "കളഭം" in Malayalam language and gandha ಗಂಧ in Kannada) and is mixed with saffron or other such pigments to make chandanam. Chandanam, further mixed with herbs, perfumes, pigments, and some other compounds, results in javadhu. Kalabham, chandanam, and javadhu are dried and used as kalabham powder, chandanam powder, and javadhu powder, respectively. Chandanam powder is very popular in India and is also used in Nepal. In Tirupati after religious tonsure, sandalwood paste is applied to protect the skin. In Hinduism and Ayurveda, sandalwood is thought to bring one closer to the divine. Thus, it is one of the most used holy elements in Hindu and Vedic societies.
Jainism
Sandalwood use is an integral part of daily practices of Jainism. Sandalwood paste mixed with saffron is used to worship tirthankar Jain deities. Sandalwood powder is showered as blessings by Jain monks and nuns (sadhus and sadhvis) to their disciples and followers. Sandalwood garlands are used to dress the body during Jain cremation ceremonies. During the festival of Mahamastakabhisheka that is held once in every 12 years, the statue of Gommateshwara is then bathed and anointed with libations such as milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and sprinkled with powders of sandalwood, turmeric, and vermilion.
Buddhism
Sandalwood is mentioned in various suttas of the Pāli Canon. In some Buddhist traditions, sandalwood is considered to be of the padma (lotus) group and attributed to Amitabha Buddha. Sandalwood scent is believed by some to transform one's desires and maintain a person's alertness while in meditation. It is also one of the most popular scents used when offering incense to the Buddha and the guru.
Sufism
In sufi tradition, sandalwood paste is applied on the sufi’s grave by the disciples as a mark of devotion. The tradition is borrowed from indian rituals and is practiced particularly among the Indian Subcontinent disciples. In the Tamil culture irrespective of religious identity, sandalwood paste or powder is applied to the graves of sufis as a mark of devotion and respect.
East Asian religions
In East Asia, sandalwood (檀木), along with agarwood (沉香木), is the most commonly used incense material by the Chinese, Korean and Japanese in worship and various ceremonies. However, some sects of Taoists, following the Ming Dynasty Taoist Manual, do not use sandalwood (as well as benzoin resin, frankincense, foreign produced) incense and instead either use agarwood, or better still Acronychia pedunculata, in worship. In Korean Shamanism, sandalwood is considered the Tree of Life.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrians offer sandalwood twigs to the afarganyu, the urn in which the fire is kept at the fire temple (called agiyari in Gujarati and dar-e mehr in Persian), to keep the fire burning during religious ceremonies. After the firekeeping priests complete the ceremony, attendees are allowed to come up to the afarganyu and place their own pieces of sandalwood into the fire. Fire has been a sacred symbol in the Zoroastrian religion since ancient times and it is considered very important to keep the fires in the temples constantly burning. Because of its high sensitivity to fire, sandalwood works very well for this. Also, the wood has been accepted by the Yasna and Yashts as an appropriate fuel for the fire. It is offered to all of the three grades of fire in the fire temple, including the Atash Dadgahs. Sandalwood is not offered to the divo, a smaller lamp that is kept in the homes of Zoroastrians. Often, money is offered to the mobad (for religious expenditures) along with the sandalwood. Sandalwood is called sukhad in the Zoroastrian community. The sandalwood in the fire temple is often more expensive to buy than at a Zoroastrian store. It is often a source of income for the fire temple.
See also
Sandalore
References
Further reading
Mandy Aftel, Essence and Alchemy: A Natural History of Perfume, Gibbs Smith, 2001,
Dorothy Shineberg (1967), They came for sandalwood; a study of the sandalwood trade in the South-West Pacific 1830-1865, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press.
External links
Plant Cultures: botany, history and use of sandalwood
IUCN Threatened Species: Santalum album
Wood
Incense material
Perfume ingredients
Endangered plants | [
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262116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jojoba | Jojoba | Jojoba (; botanical name: Simmondsia chinensis)also commonly called goat nut, deer nut, pignut, wild hazel, quinine nut, coffeeberry, and gray box bushis native to the Southwestern United States. Simmondsia chinensis is the sole species of the family Simmondsiaceae, placed in the order Caryophyllales.
Jojoba is grown commercially to produce jojoba oil, a liquid wax ester extracted from its seed.
Distribution
The plant is a native shrub of the Sonoran Desert, Colorado Desert, Baja California Desert, and California chaparral and woodlands habitats in the Peninsular Ranges and San Jacinto Mountains. It is found in southern California, Arizona, and Utah (U.S.), and Baja California state (Mexico).
Jojoba is endemic to North America, and occupies an area of approximately between latitudes 25° and 31° North and between longitudes 109° and 117° West.
Description
Simmondsia chinensis, or jojoba, typically grows to tall, with a broad, dense crown, but there have been reports of plants as tall as .
The leaves are opposite, ovalish in shape, long and broad, thick, waxy, and glaucous gray-green in color.
The flowers are small and greenish-yellow, with 5–6 sepals and no petals. The plant typically blooms from March to May.
Reproduction
Each plant is dioecious, with hermaphrodites being extremely rare. The fruit is an acorn-shaped ovoid, three-angled capsule long, partly enclosed at the base by the sepals. The mature seed is a hard oval that is dark brown and contains an oil (liquid wax) content of approximately 54%. An average-sized bush produces of pollen, to which few humans are allergic.
The female plants produce seed from flowers pollinated by the male plants. Jojoba leaves have an aerodynamic shape, creating a spiral effect, which brings wind-born pollen from the male flower to the female flower. In the Northern Hemisphere, pollination occurs during February and March. In the Southern Hemisphere, pollination occurs during August and September.
Somatic cells of jojoba are tetraploid; the number of chromosomes is 2n = 4x = 52.
Genetics
The jojoba genome was sequenced in 2020 and reported to be 887-Mb, consisting of 26 chromosomes (2n = 26), and is predicted to have 23,490 protein-coding genes.
Taxonomy
Despite its scientific name Simmondsia chinensis, the plant is not native to China. The botanist Johann Link originally named the species Buxus chinensis, after misreading a collection label "Calif", referring to California, as "China". Jojoba was collected again in 1836 by Thomas Nuttall who described it as a new genus and species in 1844, naming it Simmondsia californica, but priority rules require that the original specific epithet be used.
The common name "jojoba" originated from O'odham name Hohowi. The common name should not be confused with the similarly written jujube (Ziziphus zizyphus), an unrelated plant species, which is commonly grown in China.
Uses
Jojoba foliage provides year-round food for many animals, including deer, javelina, bighorn sheep, and livestock. Its nuts are eaten by squirrels, rabbits, other rodents, and larger birds.
Only Bailey's pocket mouse, however, is known to be able to digest the wax found inside the jojoba nut. In large quantities, jojoba seed meal is toxic to many mammals. Later this effect was found to be due to simmondsin, which inhibits hunger. The indigestible wax acts as a laxative in humans.
Native American uses
Native Americans first made use of jojoba. During the early 18th century Jesuit missionaries on the Baja California Peninsula observed indigenous peoples heating jojoba seeds to soften them. They then used a mortar and pestle to create a salve or buttery substance. The latter was applied to the skin and hair to heal and condition. The O'odham people of the Sonoran Desert treated burns with an antioxidant salve made from a paste of the jojoba nut.
Native Americans also used the salve to soften and preserve animal hides. Pregnant women ate jojoba seeds, believing they assisted during childbirth. Hunters and raiders ate jojoba on the trail to keep hunger at bay.
The Seri, who utilize nearly every edible plant in their domain, do not regard the beans as real food and in the past ate it only in emergencies.
Contemporary uses
Jojoba is grown for the liquid wax, commonly called jojoba oil, in its seeds. The oil is rare in that it is an extremely long (C36–C46) straight-chain wax ester and not a triglyceride, making jojoba and its derivative jojoba esters more similar to whale oil than to traditional vegetable oils. Jojoba oil has also been discussed as a possible biodiesel fuel, but it cannot be cultivated on a scale to compete with traditional fossil fuels, so its use is restricted to personal care products.
Cultivation
Plantations of jojoba have been established in a number of desert and semi-desert areas, predominantly in Argentina, Australia, Israel, Mexico, Peru and the United States. It is currently the Sonoran Desert's second most economically valuable native plant (overshadowed only by Washingtonia filifera—California fan palms, used as ornamental trees).
Jojoba prefers light, coarsely textured soils. Good drainage and water penetration is necessary. It tolerates salinity and nutrient-poor soils. Soil pH should be between 5 and 8. High temperatures are tolerated by jojoba, but frost can damage or kill plants. Requirements are minimal, so jojoba plants do not need intensive cultivation. Weed problems only occur during the first two years after planting and there is little damage by insects. Supplemental irrigation could maximize production where rainfall is less than 400 mm. There is no need for high fertilisation, but, especially in the first year, nitrogen increases growth. Jojoba is normally harvested by hand because seeds do not all mature in the same time. Yield is around 3.5 t/ha depending on the age of the plantation.
Selective breeding is developing plants that produce more beans with higher wax content, as well as other characteristics that will facilitate harvesting.
Its ability to withstand high salinity (up to 12 dS m−1 at pH 9) and the high value of jojoba products make jojoba an interesting plant for the use of desertification control. It has been used to combat and prevent desertification in the Thar Desert in India.
References
External links
USDA Plants Profile for Simmondsia chinensis (jojoba)
Calflora Database: Simmondsia chinensis (jojoba)
Jepson Manual (TJM93) treatment of Simmondsia chinensis
Selected Families of Angiosperms: Rosidae—an explanation of the scientific name
Newscientist.com: Jojoba oil as biodiesel
Hort.purdue.edu: Alternative Field Crops Manual
Uses and Benefits of Jojoba Oils
Caryophyllales
Crops originating from Mexico
Crops originating from the United States
Flora of Arizona
Flora of Baja California
Flora of California
Flora of the California desert regions
Flora of the Sonoran Deserts
Flora of Utah
Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands
Natural history of the Colorado Desert
Natural history of the Peninsular Ranges
North American desert flora
Waxes
Dioecious plants | [
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] |
262117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simmondsiaceae | Simmondsiaceae | Simmondsiaceae or the jojoba family is a family of flowering plants. The family is not recognized by all taxonomic systems, the single species, Simmondsia chinensis, often being treated as belonging to family Buxaceae.
The APG II system, of 2003 (unchanged from the APG system, of 1998), does recognize this family and assigns it to the order Caryophyllales in the clade core eudicots. It consist of a single species only, jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), of North American shrubs.
The Cronquist system, 1981, had also recognized this family and placed it in order Euphorbiales.
References
External links
Euphorbiales : an overview of the history
Caryophyllales
Caryophyllales families
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262120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Uranus | Operation Uranus | Operation Uranus () was the codename of the Soviet Red Army's 19–23 November 1942 strategic operation on the Eastern Front of World War II which led to the encirclement of Axis forces in the vicinity of Stalingrad: the German Sixth Army, the Third and Fourth Romanian armies, and portions of the German Fourth Panzer Army. The Red Army carried out the operation at roughly the midpoint of the five-month long Battle of Stalingrad, aiming to destroy German forces in and around Stalingrad. Planning for Operation Uranus had commenced in September 1942, and developed simultaneously with plans to envelop and destroy German Army Group Center (Operation Mars) and German forces in the Caucasus. The Red Army took advantage of the German army's poor preparations for winter, and the fact that its forces in the southern Soviet Union were overstretched near Stalingrad, using weaker Romanian troops to guard their flanks; the offensive's starting points were established along the section of the front directly opposite Romanian forces. These Axis armies lacked heavy equipment to deal with Soviet armor.
Due to the length of the front lines created by the German 1942 summer offensive, which had aimed at taking the Caucasus oil fields and the city of Stalingrad, German and other Axis forces were over-extended. The German decision to relocate several mechanized divisions from the Soviet Union to Western Europe exacerbated their situation. Furthermore, Axis units in the area were depleted after months of fighting, especially those which had taken part in the fighting in Stalingrad. The Germans could only count on the XXXXVIII Panzer Corps, which had the strength of a single panzer division, and the 29th Panzergrenadier Division as reserves to bolster their Romanian allies on the German Sixth Army's flanks. In comparison, the Red Army deployed over one million personnel for the purpose of beginning the offensive in and around Stalingrad. Soviet troop-movements were not without problems: concealing their build-up proved difficult, and Soviet units commonly arrived late due to logistical issues. Operation Uranus was first postponed by the Soviet high command (Stavka) from 8 to 17 November, then to 19 November.
At 07:20 Moscow time on 19 November, Soviet forces on the northern flank of the Axis forces at Stalingrad began their offensive; forces in the south began on 20 November. Although Romanian units succeeded in repelling the first Soviet attacks, by the end of 20 November the Third and Fourth Romanian armies were in headlong retreat, as the Red Army bypassed several German infantry divisions. German mobile reserves proved insufficiently strong to parry the Soviet mechanized spearheads, while the Sixth Army did not react quickly enough nor decisively enough to disengage German armored forces in Stalingrad and re-orient them to defeat the impending threat. By late 22 November Soviet forces linked up at the town of Kalach, encircling some 290,000 Axis personnel east of the Don River. Instead of attempting to break out of the encirclement, German leader Adolf Hitler decided to keep Axis forces in Stalingrad and to resupply them by air. In the meantime, Soviet and German commanders began to plan their next movements.
Background
On 28 June 1942, the Wehrmacht began its offensive against Soviet forces opposite of Army Group South, codenamed Case Blue. After breaking through Red Army forces by 13 July, German forces encircled and captured the city of Rostov. Following the fall of Rostov, Hitler split German forces operating in the southern extremity of the southern Russian SFSR in an effort to simultaneously capture the city of Stalingrad and the Caucasus oil fields. The responsibility to take Stalingrad was given to the Sixth Army, which immediately turned towards the Volga River and began its advance with heavy air support from the Luftwaffes Luftflotte 4. On 7 August, two German panzer corps were able to flank and encircle a Soviet force of 50,000 personnel and approximately 1,000 tanks, and on 22 August German forces began to cross the Don River to complete the advance towards the Volga. The following day, the Battle of Stalingrad began when vanguards of the Sixth Army penetrated the suburbs of the city.
By November the Sixth Army had occupied most of Stalingrad, pushing the defending Red Army to the banks of the Volga River. By this stage, there were indications of an impending Soviet offensive which would target Wehrmacht forces around the city, including increased Soviet activity opposite the Sixth Army's flanks, and information gained through the interrogation of Soviet prisoners. The German command remained focused upon finalizing its capture of Stalingrad and were unsure of where or when the counterattack would take place. Actions were taken to provide a reserve behind the Italian and Romanian armies, with 6th Panzer Division and two additional infantry divisions ordered to Russia from France. However, this move would only be completed by December. Head of Army General Staff General Franz Halder had been dismissed in September after his efforts to warn about the danger which was developing along the over-extended flanks of the Sixth Army and the Fourth Panzer Army. As early as September the Soviet Stavka (high command) began planning a series of counteroffensives to encompass the destruction of German forces in the south, fighting in Stalingrad and in the Caucasus, and against Army Group Center. Ultimately, command of Soviet efforts to relieve Stalingrad was put under the leadership of General Aleksandr Vasilevsky.
The Stavka developed two major operations to be conducted against Axis forces near Stalingrad, Uranus and Saturn, and also planned for Operation Mars, designed to engage German Army Group Center in an effort to distract reinforcements and to inflict as much damage as possible. Operation Uranus involved the use of large Soviet mechanized and infantry forces to encircle German and other Axis forces directly around Stalingrad. As preparations for the offensive commenced, the attack's starting points were positioned on stretches of front to the rear of the German Sixth Army, largely preventing the Germans from reinforcing those sectors quickly where Axis units were too overstretched to occupy effectively. The offensive was a double envelopment; Soviet mechanized forces would penetrate deep into the German rear, while another attack would be made closer to the German Sixth Army in an effort to attack German units there directly in the rear. While the Red Army prepared, the German high commanders—influenced by their belief that the Red Army, building up opposite German Army Group Center to the north, was incapable of mounting a simultaneous offensive in the south—continued to deny the possibility of an impending Soviet offensive.
Comparison of forces
Axis
Case Blue involved German and other Axis forces sprawled out across a front over wide and several hundred kilometers deep, while the decision to conquer Stalingrad had stretched Axis forces even more thinly by drawing away personnel eastwards. For example, in early July the Sixth Army was defending a line, while also committing to an offensive which involved a distance of around . Army Group B, which was split from Army Group South (the forces operating around the Caucasus were named Army Group A), seemed strong on paper: it included the Second and Sixth German, Fourth Panzer, Fourth and Third Romanian, Eighth Italian, and Second Hungarian Armies. Army Group B had the 48th Panzer Corps, which had the strength of a weakened panzer division, and a single infantry division as reserves. For the most part the German flanks were held by arriving non-German Axis armies, while German forces were used to spearhead continued operations in Stalingrad and in the Caucasus.
While Adolf Hitler expressed confidence in the ability of non-German Axis units to protect German flanks, in reality these units relied on largely obsolete equipment and horse-drawn artillery, while in many cases the harsh treatment of enlisted personnel by officers caused poor morale. In regard to mechanization, the First Romanian Armored Division was equipped with around 100 Czech-built R-2 tanks, armed with a gun ineffective against the armor of Soviet T-34 tanks. Similarly, their PaK anti-tank guns were also antiquated and they were largely short of ammunition. Only after repeated requests did the Germans send the Romanian units PaK guns; six per division. These units were extended over very large sections of front; for example, the Third Romanian Army occupied a line long, while the Fourth Romanian Army protected a line no less than long. The Italians and Hungarians were positioned at the Don west of the Third Romanian Army, but the German commanders did not hold in high regard the capability of those units to fight.
Generally, German forces were in no better shape; they were weakened by months of fighting the Red Army, and, while Stavka raised new armies, the German high command attempted to maintain its existing mechanized units. Furthermore, during the course of the German offensive between May and November 1942, two motorized divisions, the elite Leibstandarte and the Großdeutschland, were redeployed from Army Group A to the West, to provide a mechanized reserve in case of an Allied landing in France. The Sixth Army had also suffered many casualties during the fighting in the city of Stalingrad proper. In some cases, such as that of the 22nd Panzer Division, their equipment was no better than that of the First Romanian Armored Division. German formations were also overextended along large stretches of front; the XI Army Corps, for example, had to defend a front around long.
Soviet
The Red Army allocated an estimated 1,100,000 personnel, 804 tanks, 13,400 artillery pieces and over 1,000 aircraft for the upcoming offensive. Across the Third Romanian Army, the Soviets placed the redeployed 5th Tank Army, as well as the 21st and 65th Armies, in order to penetrate and overrun the German flanks. The German southern flank was targeted by the Stalingrad Front's 51st and 57th Armies, led by the 13th and 4th Mechanized Corps; these would punch through the Fourth Romanian Army, in order to link up with the 5th Tank Army near the town of Kalach. In total, the Soviets had amassed 11 armies and various independent tank brigades and corps.
Preparations for the offensive were, however, far from perfect; on 8 November, Stavka issued orders to postpone the launch date of the operation, because transportation delays had prevented many units from being able to move into place. In the meantime, units at the front went through a number of war games to practice repelling an enemy counterattack and exploiting a breakthrough with mechanized forces. These movements were masked through a deception campaign by the Soviets, including the decrease of radio traffic, camouflage, operational security, using couriers for communication instead of radio, and active deception, such as increasing troop movements around Moscow. Troops were ordered to build defensive fortifications, to offer false impressions to the Germans, while fake bridges were put up to divert attention from the real bridges being built across the Don River. The Red Army also stepped up attacks against Army Group Center and set up dummy formations to maintain the idea of a main offensive against German forces in the center.
The Soviet Stalingrad Front forces were subject to heavy bombardment, making mobilization more difficult. The 38 engineer battalions allocated to the front were responsible for ferrying ammunition, personnel and tanks across the Volga River while carrying out minor reconnaissance along sections of the front which were to be the breakthrough points of the impending offensive. In three weeks the Red Army transported around 111,000 soldiers, 420 tanks and 556 artillery pieces across the Volga.
On 17 November Vasilevsky was recalled to Moscow, where he was shown a letter written to Stalin by General Volsky, commander of the 4th Mechanized Corps, who urged calling off the offensive. Volsky believed the offensive as planned was doomed to failure due to the state of the forces earmarked for the operation; he suggested postponing the offensive and redesigning it entirely. Many Soviet soldiers had not been issued with winter garments, and many died of frostbite, "due to the irresponsible attitude of commanders". Although Soviet intelligence made honest efforts to collect as much information as possible on the disposition of the Axis forces arrayed in front of them, there was not much information on the state of the German Sixth Army. Vasilevsky wanted to call off the offensive. The Soviet commanders, overruling Vasilevsky, agreed the offensive would not be called off, and Stalin personally rang Volsky, who reiterated his intention to carry out the operation if ordered to do so.
Soviet offensive
Operation Uranus, postponed until 17 November, was again postponed for two days when Soviet General Georgy Zhukov was told the air units allotted to the operation were not ready; it was finally launched on 19 November. Shortly after 5 a.m. Lieutenant Gerhard Stöck, posted with the Romanian IV Army Corps on the Kletskaya sector called Sixth Army headquarters housed in Golubinsky, offering intelligence on a pending attack which would occur after 05:00 that morning; however, because his call had come in after five and false alarms were common during this time, the duty officer on the other end of the line was not keen on waking the Army Chief of Staff, General Arthur Schmidt. Although Soviet commanders suggested postponing the bombardment due to poor visibility from thick fog, front headquarters decided to proceed. At 07:20 Moscow time (05:20 German time) Soviet artillery commanders received the codeword "Siren", prompting an 80-minute artillery bombardment directed almost entirely against the non-German Axis units protecting the German flanks. At 07:30, the Katyusha rocket-launchers fired the first salvos and were soon joined by the 3,500 guns and mortars stretching along the few breakthrough sectors in front of the Third Romanian Army and the northern shoulder of the German Sixth Army's flank. Although thick fog prevented the Soviet artillery from correcting their aim, their weeks of preparation and ranging allowed them to lay down accurate fire on enemy positions along the front. The effect was devastating, as communication lines were breached, ammunition dumps destroyed and forward observation points shattered. Many Romanian personnel who survived the bombardment began to flee to the rear. Soviet heavy artillery aimed at Romanian artillery positions and second-echelon formations also caught the retreating Romanian soldiers.
Against the Third Romanian Army: 19 November
The offensive against the Third Romanian Army began at 08:50, led by the 21st and 65th Soviet Armies and the 5th Tank Army. The first two assaults were repulsed by the Romanian defenders, and the effects of the heavy artillery bombardment had actually made it more difficult for Soviet armor to navigate through the minefields and terrain. However, the lack of heavy anti-tank artillery caused the Romanian defense to collapse; a breakthrough by the 4th Tank Corps and 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps was established by noon. Soon after, the 5th Tank Army was able to gain a breakthrough against the Second Romanian Corps, followed by the Eighth Cavalry Corps. As Soviet armor navigated through the thick fog by compass, overrunning Romanian and German artillery positions, three Romanian infantry divisions began to fall back in disarray; the Third Romanian Army had been outflanked to the West and East. After receiving the news of the Soviet attack, Sixth Army headquarters failed to order the 16th and 24th Panzer Divisions, hitherto engaged in Stalingrad, to reorient themselves to bolster the Romanian defenses; instead the task was given to the seriously understrength and poorly equipped 48th Panzer Corps.
The 48th Panzer Corps had fewer than 100 serviceable modern tanks to combat Soviet armor. Furthermore, they lacked fuel, and the shortage of tanks forced commanders to organize tank crews into infantry companies; the 22nd Panzer Division, which formed part of the corps, was almost completely destroyed in the fighting that ensued. The 22nd had entered the fighting with fewer than thirty working tanks, and left with a company of tanks. The Romanian 1st Armored Division, attached to the 48th Panzer Corps, engaged the Soviet 26th Tank Corps after having lost communications with their German corps commanders, and were defeated by 20 November. As the Soviets continued to advance southwards, many Soviet tank crews began to suffer from the worsening blizzard, which affected men and equipment, and blocked gunsights. It was not uncommon for tanks to lose traction on the ground, and for a crew member to have an arm broken as he was thrown around inside the hull. However, the blizzard also neutralized the German corps' coordination.
The rout of the Third Romanian Army began by the end of 19 November. The Soviet 21st Army and 5th Tank Army were able to capture some 27,000 Romanian prisoners—the bulk of three divisions—and then continue their advance southwards. Soviet cavalry was used to exploit the breakthrough, sever communications between the Romanians and the Italian 8th Army, and to block any possible counterattack against the Soviet flank. While the Red Air Force strafed retreating Romanian soldiers, the Luftwaffe provided only negligible opposition. The withdrawal of the 1st Romanian Cavalry Division, originally positioned on the German 376th Infantry Division's flank, allowed the 65th Army to bypass German defenses. As German forces began to react late on 19 November, another attack developed on the Sixth Army's flank to the south.
Against the German southern flank: 20 November
In the early morning of 20 November Stavka telephoned Stalingrad Front commander Andrei Yeremenko asking if he would begin his portion of the offensive on schedule, at 08:00. He responded he would do so only if the fog lifted; although the 51st Army opened its artillery barrage on time because front headquarters could not contact the division, the rest of the forces prepared for the operation received orders to postpone the attack until 10:00. The 51st Army engaged the Romanian 6th Corps, taking many prisoners. As the 57th Army joined the attack at 10:00, the situation developed in such a way that the Stalingrad Front could throw its armored corps into battle. The German 297th Infantry Division watched as its Romanian support failed to put up resistance against the Red Army. However, confusion and lack of control caused the Soviet 4th and 13th Mechanized Corps to stumble as they began to exploit the breakthroughs achieved by the opening offensive.
The Germans responded quickly by redeploying their only reserve in the area, the 29th Panzergrenadier Division. Despite initial victories against Soviet armored forces, the Romanian collapse forced the division to again redeploy in an attempt to shore up defenses to the south. The 29th Panzergrenadier Division's counterattack had cost the Red Army around fifty tanks, and caused Soviet commanders to worry about the safety of their left flank. However, the German division's redeployment meant that by the end of the day only the 6th Romanian Cavalry Regiment was positioned between advancing Soviet forces and the Don River.
Continued operations: 20–23 November
While the Stalingrad Front launched its offensive on 20 November, the 65th Soviet Army continued to apply pressure to the German 11th Corps along the northern shoulder of the Sixth Army's flank. The Red Army's 4th Tank Corps advanced beyond the German 11th Corps, while the 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps crashed into the German unit's rear. The German 376th Infantry Division and the Austrian 44th Infantry Division began to redeploy to face the enemy on their flanks, but were hindered by shortage of fuel. The 14th Panzer Division's panzer regiment destroyed a flanking regiment of the Soviet 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps, but its anti-tank artillery suffered heavy casualties when it was overrun by Soviet forces. By the end of the day the Soviet 1st Tank Corps was chasing the retreating 48th Panzer Corps, while the Soviet 26th Tank Corps had captured the town of Perelazovsky, almost to the northwest of Stalingrad.
The Red Army's offensive continued on 21 November, with forces of the Stalingrad Front achieving penetrations of up to . By this time remaining Romanian units in the north were being destroyed in isolated battles, while the Red Army began to engage flanking portions of the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies. The German 22nd Panzer Division, despite attempting a short counterattack, was reduced to little more than a tank company and forced to withdraw to the southwest. The Soviet 26th Tank Corps, having destroyed a large portion of the Romanian 1st Armored Division, continued its advance to the southeast, avoiding engaging enemy left behind, although remnants of the Romanian 5th Corps were able to reorganize and put up a hastily constructed defense in the hope that it would be aided by the German 48th Panzer Corps. Surrounded by 5th Tank Army on one side and 21st Army on the other, the bulk of 3rd Romanian Army was isolated in the region of Raspopinskaya where General Lascăr took control of the remnants of 4th and 5th Corps, whereas the neighboring 1st Armored Division was still trying to break free and link with 22nd Panzer Division. That day German General Friedrich Paulus, commander of the Sixth Army, received reports that the Soviets were less than from his headquarters; furthermore, there were no remaining units which could contest the Soviet advance. In the south, after a brief halt, the Soviet 4th Mechanized Corps continued its advance north, removing German defenders from several towns in the area, towards Stalingrad. As German forces in and around Stalingrad were at risk, Hitler ordered German forces in the area to establish an "all-around defensive position" and designated forces between the Don and Volga rivers as "Fortress Stalingrad", rather than allow the Sixth Army to attempt to break out. The Sixth Army, other Axis units, and most of the Fourth Panzer Army's German units were caught inside the growing Soviet encirclement. Only the 16th Panzergrenadier Division began to fight its way out. Lack of coordination between Soviet tanks and infantry as the Red Army's tank corps attempted to exploit the breakthrough along the Germans' southern flank allowed much of the Fourth Romanian Army to escape destruction.
On 22 November Soviet forces began to cross the Don River and continued their advance towards the town of Kalach. German forces defending Kalach, mostly composed of maintenance and supply personnel, were not aware of the Soviet offensive until 21 November, and even then did not know in what strength the Red Army was approaching. The task of taking the bridge at Kalach was given to the Soviet 26th Tank Corps, which used two captured German tanks and a reconnaissance vehicle to approach it and fire on the guards. Soviet forces broke into the town by mid-morning and drove the defenders out, allowing themselves and the 4th Tank Corps to link up with the Red Army's 4th Mechanized Corps approaching from the south. The encirclement of German forces in Stalingrad was completed on 22 November 1942. That day Soviet formations also continued to fight pockets of Romanian resistance, such as that put up by the Romanian 5th Corps.
The encirclement of 6th Army was effective on 23 November. Around 16:00, near the village of Sovetsky, the forward detachments of 36th Mechanized Brigade from the Stalingrad Front's 4th Mechanized Corps sighted the approaching tanks of 45th Brigade from the Southwestern Front's 4th Tank Corps. At first they mistook them for Germans because they did not fire green flares as was agreed for a reconnaissance signal and several tanks were damaged in a short exchange of fire. After clarification the linkup was achieved. It was reenacted later for the newsreels.
The junction between the armored troops of 21st and 51st Armies from Vatutin's and Yeremenko's fronts completed the surrounding of Paulus's group of forces: two German armies among the most powerful in the Heer, 22 divisions and 150 separate regiments or battalions, and an enormous amount of materiel. Never before in the war were so many troops of the German army caught together. Such a feat was so unusual that the Stavkas own initial estimation of the encircled enemy force was only a quarter of its actual strength, because besides the fighting troops there was a huge number of extra personnel from various professions, engineer sections, Luftwaffe ground staff and others. Fighting continued on 23 November as the Germans attempted in vain to mount local counterattacks to break the encirclement. By this time Axis personnel inside the encirclement moved east towards Stalingrad to avoid Soviet tanks, while those that managed to escape the encirclement moved west toward German and other Axis forces.
Aftermath
Operation Uranus trapped between 250,000 and 300,000 Axis soldiers within an area stretching from east to west and north to south. The pocket contained four infantry corps, a panzer corps belonging to the Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies, and surviving elements of two Romanian divisions, a Croatian infantry regiment and other specialist units. Trapped equipment included around 100 tanks, 2,000 artillery pieces and mortars and 10,000 trucks. The withdrawal to Stalingrad left lines of retreat littered with helmets, weapons and other equipment, and heavy equipment which had been destroyed was left on the side of the road. Bridges spanning the Don River were jammed with traffic, as surviving Axis soldiers hastily made their way eastwards in the cold weather, attempting to escape Soviet armor and infantry threatening to cut them off from Stalingrad. Many wounded Axis personnel were trampled, and many of those who attempted to cross the river on foot on the ice fell through and drowned. Hungry soldiers filled Russian villages scouring for supplies, while supply dumps were often looted in search of cans of food. The last stragglers crossed the Don River by 24 November, and demolished the bridges to seal off the Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies from the Soviets in Stalingrad.
The Sixth Army, in the midst of chaos, began to build defensive lines, hampered by the lack of fuel, ammunition and rations, and further burdened by the advancing Russian winter. It was also tasked with plugging gaps in the line caused by the disintegrating Romanian forces. On 23 November, some German units destroyed or burned everything not necessary for a breakout operation and began to pull back towards the northern end of Stalingrad. However, after the Germans had abandoned their winter bunkers, the Soviet 62nd Army was able to destroy the German 94th Infantry Division on the open ground; survivors of the German division were attached to the 16th and 24th Panzer Divisions. Although German military commanders were of the opinion that Heer forces caught in the encirclement should break out, between 23 and 24 November Hitler decided instead to hold the position and attempt to resupply the Sixth Army by air. The personnel trapped in Stalingrad would require at least of supplies per day, a task which the depleted Luftwaffe was in no condition to carry out. Furthermore, the revived Red Air Force was a threat to German aircraft attempting to fly over the encirclement. Although by December the Luftwaffe had assembled a fleet of around 500 aircraft, this was still insufficient to supply the Sixth Army and elements of the Fourth Panzer Army with the required supplies. During the first half of December the Sixth Army received less than 20% of their daily requirements.
In the meantime, the Red Army strengthened its outer encirclement with the intention of destroying the encircled German units. Soviet armies would attack German units to the east and the south, aiming to split German units into smaller groups. These orders became effective on 24 November, and were to be executed without a major regrouping or movement of reserves. The outer encirclement ran for an estimated , although only three-quarters of that distance was actually covered by Soviet troops; the distance between the outer and inner encirclements was around . The Soviet high command also began planning for Operation Saturn, which was aimed at destroying the Italian Eighth Army and cutting off German forces in the Caucasus. The Soviet Stavka planned Saturn to start on about 10 December.
German forces in the area had been further split up, as German general Erich von Manstein was given command of the newly created Army Group Don, comprising the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies, and the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies. Although the situation looked bleak for the Germans, a moment of relative calm had settled after the end of Operation Uranus; German and Soviet forces were planning their next movements.
See also
Romanian Armies in the Battle of Stalingrad
Operation Little Saturn
Notes
References
External links
Order of Battle for operation Uranus
Conflicts in 1942
1942 in the Soviet Union
Battle of Stalingrad
Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Encirclements in World War II
November 1942 events | [
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262122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Kremlin | Operation Kremlin | Operation Kremlin (Fall Kreml in German) was a successful German deception operation against Soviet forces in May to June 1942.
After German troops captured the city of Kharkov in October 1941, the German High Command planned an offensive to destroy the Soviet forces toward the southern sector of the Eastern Front. To divert the attention of the Soviets from the thrust that would lead to the Battle of Stalingrad, on 29 May 1942, the High Command ordered "the earliest possible resumption of the attack on Moscow" by Army Group Centre.
The factor that made Operation Kremlin plausible to the Soviet High Command, the Stavka, was that it coincided with Soviet thinking, which the Germans had not known. The Soviets had already believed that the Germans would make a second attempt to take Moscow in a larger summer offensive in 1942. The directive given to Army Group Centre, which assigned two panzer divisions the identical missions that they had received in the previous autumn, could have been taken for the real thing, even by the German officers who were in the know. Most of them were kept in the dark about the deception, which made it all the more believable.
As part of Operation Kremlin, the Luftwaffe increased reconnaissance flights over and around Moscow, officers in charge of prisoner-of-war interrogations were given lists of questions to ask regarding Moscow's defenses and sealed packets of Moscow maps were distributed down to regimental level. A readiness date of August 1 was planned.
Although postwar Soviet accounts insisted that Operation Kremlin had failed, the Soviet High Command and the General Staff appear to have been misled by the deception. "Stalin, the Stavka, and the General Staff, apparently, at no time believed the German main attack would be aimed anywhere other than at Moscow. Vasilevskiy says they did not 'exclude' an attack from the vicinity of Kursk to Voronezh but believed the final objective would, nevertheless, be Moscow." This is reinforced by Stalin's statement as late as November 1942, "The main aim of the Germans' summer offensive was to encircle Moscow and end the war in this year."
References
Mawdsley, Evan. Thunder in the East: The Nazi - Soviet War, 1941-1945 London: Hodder Education, 2005
Ziemke, Earl F. and Magna E. Bauer. Moscow to Stalingrad: Decision in the East. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1987.
Kremlin
Conflicts in 1942
Kremlin
Kremlin | [
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] |
262123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews | Andrews | Andrews may refer to:
Places
Australia
Andrews, Queensland
Andrews, South Australia
United States
Andrews, Florida (disambiguation), various places
Andrews, Indiana
Andrews, Nebraska
Andrews, North Carolina
Andrews, Oregon
Andrews, South Carolina
Andrews, Texas
Andrews County, Texas
Andrews Air Force Base near Washington, D.C., home of Air Force One
Andrews University (Michigan)
Philippines
Andrews Avenue, a major thoroughfare in Metro Manila, Philippines
Other
Andrews (surname)
Andrews v Law Society of British Columbia, a 1989 Supreme Court of Canada case on constitutional equality guarantees
Joseph Andrews, a novel by Henry Fielding
An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews, a parody novel
Andrews, a bus company in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England, that merged with Yorkshire Traction
Andrews Osborne Academy, a private school in Willoughby, Ohio
Standard author abbreviation of Henry Cranke Andrews (fl. 1794 – 1830), English botanist
See also
Andrewsville, Ontario, Canada
Justice Andrews (disambiguation)
St Andrews (disambiguation) | [
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262135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket%20engine | Rocket engine | A rocket engine uses stored rocket propellants as the reaction mass for forming a high-speed propulsive jet of fluid, usually high-temperature gas. Rocket engines are reaction engines, producing thrust by ejecting mass rearward, in accordance with Newton's third law. Most rocket engines use the combustion of reactive chemicals to supply the necessary energy, but non-combusting forms such as cold gas thrusters and nuclear thermal rockets also exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines are commonly called rockets. Rocket vehicles carry their own oxidizer, unlike most combustion engines, so rocket engines can be used in a vacuum to propel spacecraft and ballistic missiles.
Compared to other types of jet engine, rocket engines are the lightest and have the highest thrust, but are the least propellant-efficient (they have the lowest specific impulse). The ideal exhaust is hydrogen, the lightest of all elements, but chemical rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the exhaust velocity.
Rocket engines become more efficient at high speeds, due to the Oberth effect.
Terminology
Here, "rocket" is used as an abbreviation for "rocket engine".
Thermal rockets use an inert propellant, heated by electricity (electrothermal propulsion) or a nuclear reactor (nuclear thermal rocket).
Chemical rockets are powered by exothermic reduction-oxidation chemical reactions of the propellant:
Solid-fuel rockets (or solid-propellant rockets or motors) are chemical rockets which use propellant in a solid phase.
Liquid-propellant rockets use one or more propellants in a liquid state fed from tanks.
Hybrid rockets use a solid propellant in the combustion chamber, to which a second liquid or gas oxidizer or propellant is added to permit combustion.
Monopropellant rockets use a single propellant decomposed by a catalyst. The most common monopropellants are hydrazine and hydrogen peroxide.
Principle of operation
Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust fluid that has been accelerated to high speed through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure () combustion of solid or liquid propellants, consisting of fuel and oxidiser components, within a combustion chamber. As the gases expand through the nozzle, they are accelerated to very high (supersonic) speed, and the reaction to this pushes the engine in the opposite direction. Combustion is most frequently used for practical rockets, as high temperatures and pressures are desirable for the best performance.
A model rocketry alternative to combustion is the water rocket, which uses water pressurized by compressed air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or any other readily available, inert gas.
Propellant
Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank, or within the combustion chamber itself, prior to being ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust.
Chemical rocket propellants are the most commonly used. These undergo exothermic chemical reactions producing hot gas which is used by the rocket for propulsive purposes. Alternatively, a chemically inert reaction mass can be heated using a high-energy power source via a heat exchanger, and then no combustion chamber is used.
Solid rocket propellants are prepared as a mixture of fuel and oxidising components called 'grain' and the propellant storage casing effectively becomes the combustion chamber.
Injection
Liquid-fuelled rockets force separate fuel and oxidiser components into the combustion chamber, where they mix and burn. Hybrid rocket engines use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants. Both liquid and hybrid rockets use injectors to introduce the propellant into the chamber. These are often an array of simple jets – holes through which the propellant escapes under pressure; but sometimes may be more complex spray nozzles. When two or more propellants are injected, the jets usually deliberately cause the propellants to collide as this breaks up the flow into smaller droplets that burn more easily.
Combustion chamber
For chemical rockets the combustion chamber is typically cylindrical, and flame holders, used to hold a part of the combustion in a slower-flowing portion of the combustion chamber, are not needed. The dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to combust thoroughly; different rocket propellants require different combustion chamber sizes for this to occur.
This leads to a number called :
where:
is the volume of the chamber
is the area of the throat of the nozzle.
L* is typically in the range of .
The combination of temperatures and pressures typically reached in a combustion chamber is usually extreme by any standard. Unlike in airbreathing jet engines, no atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, and the propellant mixture can reach true stoichiometric ratios. This, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very high.
In order for fuel and oxidizer to flow into the chamber, the pressure of the propellant fluids entering the combustion chamber must exceed the pressure inside the combustion chamber itself. This may be accomplished by a variety of design approaches including turbopumps or, in simpler engines, via sufficient tank pressure to advance fluid flow. Tank pressure may be maintained by several means, including a high-pressure helium pressurization system common to many large rocket engines or, in some newer rocket systems, by a bleed-off of high-pressure gas from the engine cycle to autogenously pressurize the propellant tanks For example, the self-pressurization gas system of the SpaceX Starship is a critical part of SpaceX strategy to reduce launch vehicle fluids from five in their legacy Falcon 9 vehicle family to just two in Starship, eliminating not only the helium tank pressurant but all hypergolic propellants as well as nitrogen for cold-gas reaction-control thrusters.
Nozzle
The hot gas produced in the combustion chamber is permitted to escape through an opening (the "throat"), and then through a diverging expansion section. When sufficient pressure is provided to the nozzle (about 2.5–3 times ambient pressure), the nozzle chokes and a supersonic jet is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas, converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy. Exhaust speeds vary, depending on the expansion ratio the nozzle is designed for, but exhaust speeds as high as ten times the speed of sound in air at sea level are not uncommon. About half of the rocket engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures inside the combustion chamber, and the rest comes from the pressures acting against the inside of the nozzle (see diagram). As the gas expands (adiabatically) the pressure against the nozzle's walls forces the rocket engine in one direction while accelerating the gas in the other.
The most commonly used nozzle is the de Laval nozzle, a fixed geometry nozzle with a high expansion-ratio. The large bell- or cone-shaped nozzle extension beyond the throat gives the rocket engine its characteristic shape.
The exit static pressure of the exhaust jet depends on the chamber pressure and the ratio of exit to throat area of the nozzle. As exit pressure varies from the ambient (atmospheric) pressure, a choked nozzle is said to be
under-expanded (exit pressure greater than ambient),
perfectly expanded (exit pressure equals ambient),
over-expanded (exit pressure less than ambient; shock diamonds form outside the nozzle), or
grossly over-expanded (a shock wave forms inside the nozzle extension).
In practice, perfect expansion is only achievable with a variable-exit area nozzle (since ambient pressure decreases as altitude increases), and is not possible above a certain altitude as ambient pressure approaches zero. If the nozzle is not perfectly expanded, then loss of efficiency occurs. Grossly over-expanded nozzles lose less efficiency, but can cause mechanical problems with the nozzle. Fixed-area nozzles become progressively more under-expanded as they gain altitude. Almost all de Laval nozzles will be momentarily grossly over-expanded during startup in an atmosphere.
Nozzle efficiency is affected by operation in the atmosphere because atmospheric pressure changes with altitude; but due to the supersonic speeds of the gas exiting from a rocket engine, the pressure of the jet may be either below or above ambient, and equilibrium between the two is not reached at all altitudes (see diagram).
Back pressure and optimal expansion
For optimal performance, the pressure of the gas at the end of the nozzle should just equal the ambient pressure: if the exhaust's pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, then the vehicle will be slowed by the difference in pressure between the top of the engine and the exit; on the other hand, if the exhaust's pressure is higher, then exhaust pressure that could have been converted into thrust is not converted, and energy is wasted.
To maintain this ideal of equality between the exhaust's exit pressure and the ambient pressure, the diameter of the nozzle would need to increase with altitude, giving the pressure a longer nozzle to act on (and reducing the exit pressure and temperature). This increase is difficult to arrange in a lightweight fashion, although is routinely done with other forms of jet engines. In rocketry a lightweight compromise nozzle is generally used and some reduction in atmospheric performance occurs when used at other than the 'design altitude' or when throttled. To improve on this, various exotic nozzle designs such as the plug nozzle, stepped nozzles, the expanding nozzle and the aerospike have been proposed, each providing some way to adapt to changing ambient air pressure and each allowing the gas to expand further against the nozzle, giving extra thrust at higher altitudes.
When exhausting into a sufficiently low ambient pressure (vacuum) several issues arise. One is the sheer weight of the nozzle—beyond a certain point, for a particular vehicle, the extra weight of the nozzle outweighs any performance gained. Secondly, as the exhaust gases adiabatically expand within the nozzle they cool, and eventually some of the chemicals can freeze, producing 'snow' within the jet. This causes instabilities in the jet and must be avoided.
On a de Laval nozzle, exhaust gas flow detachment will occur in a grossly over-expanded nozzle. As the detachment point will not be uniform around the axis of the engine, a side force may be imparted to the engine. This side force may change over time and result in control problems with the launch vehicle.
Advanced altitude-compensating designs, such as the aerospike or plug nozzle, attempt to minimize performance losses by adjusting to varying expansion ratio caused by changing altitude.
Propellant efficiency
For a rocket engine to be propellant efficient, it is important that the maximum pressures possible be created on the walls of the chamber and nozzle by a specific amount of propellant; as this is the source of the thrust. This can be achieved by all of:
heating the propellant to as high a temperature as possible (using a high energy fuel, containing hydrogen and carbon and sometimes metals such as aluminium, or even using nuclear energy)
using a low specific density gas (as hydrogen rich as possible)
using propellants which are, or decompose to, simple molecules with few degrees of freedom to maximise translational velocity
Since all of these things minimise the mass of the propellant used, and since pressure is proportional to the mass of propellant present to be accelerated as it pushes on the engine, and since from Newton's third law the pressure that acts on the engine also reciprocally acts on the propellant, it turns out that for any given engine, the speed that the propellant leaves the chamber is unaffected by the chamber pressure (although the thrust is proportional). However, speed is significantly affected by all three of the above factors and the exhaust speed is an excellent measure of the engine propellant efficiency. This is termed exhaust velocity, and after allowance is made for factors that can reduce it, the effective exhaust velocity is one of the most important parameters of a rocket engine (although weight, cost, ease of manufacture etc. are usually also very important).
For aerodynamic reasons the flow goes sonic ("chokes") at the narrowest part of the nozzle, the 'throat'. Since the speed of sound in gases increases with the square root of temperature, the use of hot exhaust gas greatly improves performance. By comparison, at room temperature the speed of sound in air is about 340 m/s while the speed of sound in the hot gas of a rocket engine can be over 1700 m/s; much of this performance is due to the higher temperature, but additionally rocket propellants are chosen to be of low molecular mass, and this also gives a higher velocity compared to air.
Expansion in the rocket nozzle then further multiplies the speed, typically between 1.5 and 2 times, giving a highly collimated hypersonic exhaust jet. The speed increase of a rocket nozzle is mostly determined by its area expansion ratio—the ratio of the area of the exit to the area of the throat, but detailed properties of the gas are also important. Larger ratio nozzles are more massive but are able to extract more heat from the combustion gases, increasing the exhaust velocity.
Thrust vectoring
Vehicles typically require the overall thrust to change direction over the length of the burn. A number of different ways to achieve this have been flown:
The entire engine is mounted on a hinge or gimbal and any propellant feeds reach the engine via low pressure flexible pipes or rotary couplings.
Just the combustion chamber and nozzle is gimballed, the pumps are fixed, and high pressure feeds attach to the engine.
Multiple engines (often canted at slight angles) are deployed but throttled to give the overall vector that is required, giving only a very small penalty.
High-temperature vanes protrude into the exhaust and can be tilted to deflect the jet.
Overall performance
Rocket technology can combine very high thrust (meganewtons), very high exhaust speeds (around 10 times the speed of sound in air at sea level) and very high thrust/weight ratios (>100) simultaneously as well as being able to operate outside the atmosphere, and while permitting the use of low pressure and hence lightweight tanks and structure.
Rockets can be further optimised to even more extreme performance along one or more of these axes at the expense of the others.
Specific impulse
The most important metric for the efficiency of a rocket engine is impulse per unit of propellant, this is called specific impulse (usually written ). This is either measured as a speed (the effective exhaust velocity in metres/second or ft/s) or as a time (seconds). For example, if an engine producing 100 pounds of thrust runs for 320 seconds and burns 100 pounds of propellant, then the specific impulse is 320 seconds. The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is required to provide the desired impulse.
The specific impulse that can be achieved is primarily a function of the propellant mix (and ultimately would limit the specific impulse), but practical limits on chamber pressures and the nozzle expansion ratios reduce the performance that can be achieved.
Net thrust
Below is an approximate equation for calculating the net thrust of a rocket engine:
Since, unlike a jet engine, a conventional rocket motor lacks an air intake, there is no 'ram drag' to deduct from the gross thrust. Consequently, the net thrust of a rocket motor is equal to the gross thrust (apart from static back pressure).
The term represents the momentum thrust, which remains constant at a given throttle setting, whereas the term represents the pressure thrust term. At full throttle, the net thrust of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude, because as atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the pressure thrust term increases. At the surface of the Earth the pressure thrust may be reduced by up to 30%, depending on the engine design. This reduction drops roughly exponentially to zero with increasing altitude.
Maximum efficiency for a rocket engine is achieved by maximising the momentum contribution of the equation without incurring penalties from over expanding the exhaust. This occurs when . Since ambient pressure changes with altitude, most rocket engines spend very little time operating at peak efficiency.
Since specific impulse is force divided by the rate of mass flow, this equation means that the specific impulse varies with altitude.
Vacuum specific impulse, Isp
Due to the specific impulse varying with pressure, a quantity that is easy to compare and calculate with is useful. Because rockets choke at the throat, and because the supersonic exhaust prevents external pressure influences travelling upstream, it turns out that the pressure at the exit is ideally exactly proportional to the propellant flow , provided the mixture ratios and combustion efficiencies are maintained. It is thus quite usual to rearrange the above equation slightly:
and so define the vacuum Isp to be:
where:
And hence:
Throttling
Rockets can be throttled by controlling the propellant combustion rate (usually measured in kg/s or lb/s). In liquid and hybrid rockets, the propellant flow entering the chamber is controlled using valves, in solid rockets it is controlled by changing the area of propellant that is burning and this can be designed into the propellant grain (and hence cannot be controlled in real-time).
Rockets can usually be throttled down to an exit pressure of about one-third of ambient pressure (often limited by flow separation in nozzles) and up to a maximum limit determined only by the mechanical strength of the engine.
In practice, the degree to which rockets can be throttled varies greatly, but most rockets can be throttled by a factor of 2 without great difficulty; the typical limitation is combustion stability, as for example, injectors need a minimum pressure to avoid triggering damaging oscillations (chugging or combustion instabilities); but injectors can be optimised and tested for wider ranges.
For example, some more recent liquid-propellant engine designs that have been optimised for greater throttling capability (BE-3, Raptor) can be throttled to as low as 18–20 percent of rated thrust.
Solid rockets can be throttled by using shaped grains that will vary their surface area over the course of the burn.
Energy efficiency
Rocket engine nozzles are surprisingly efficient heat engines for generating a high speed jet, as a consequence of the high combustion temperature and high compression ratio. Rocket nozzles give an excellent approximation to adiabatic expansion which is a reversible process, and hence they give efficiencies which are very close to that of the Carnot cycle. Given the temperatures reached, over 60% efficiency can be achieved with chemical rockets.
For a vehicle employing a rocket engine the energetic efficiency is very good if the vehicle speed approaches or somewhat exceeds the exhaust velocity (relative to launch); but at low speeds the energy efficiency goes to 0% at zero speed (as with all jet propulsion). See Rocket energy efficiency for more details.
Thrust-to-weight ratio
Rockets, of all the jet engines, indeed of essentially all engines, have the highest thrust to weight ratio. This is especially true for liquid rocket engines.
This high performance is due to the small volume of pressure vessels that make up the engine—the pumps, pipes and combustion chambers involved. The lack of inlet duct and the use of dense liquid propellant allows the pressurisation system to be small and lightweight, whereas duct engines have to deal with air which has around three orders of magnitude lower density.
Of the liquid propellants used, density is lowest for liquid hydrogen. Although this propellant has the highest specific impulse, its very low density (about one fourteenth that of water) requires larger and heavier turbopumps and pipework, which decreases the engine's thrust-to-weight ratio (for example the RS-25) compared to those that do not (NK-33).
Cooling
For efficiency reasons, higher temperatures are desirable, but materials lose their strength if the temperature becomes too high. Rockets run with combustion temperatures that can reach .
Most other jet engines have gas turbines in the hot exhaust. Due to their larger surface area, they are harder to cool and hence there is a need to run the combustion processes at much lower temperatures, losing efficiency. In addition, duct engines use air as an oxidant, which contains 78% largely unreactive nitrogen, which dilutes the reaction and lowers the temperatures. Rockets have none of these inherent combustion temperature limiters.
The temperatures reached by combustion in rocket engines often substantially exceed the melting points of the nozzle and combustion chamber materials (about 1,200 K for copper). Most construction materials will also combust if exposed to high temperature oxidizer, which leads to a number of design challenges. The nozzle and combustion chamber walls must not be allowed to combust, melt, or vaporize (sometimes facetiously termed an "engine-rich exhaust").
Rockets that use the common construction materials such as aluminium, steel, nickel or copper alloys must employ cooling systems to limit the temperatures that engine structures experience. Regenerative cooling, where the propellant is passed through tubes around the combustion chamber or nozzle, and other techniques, such as curtain cooling or film cooling, are employed to give longer nozzle and chamber life. These techniques ensure that a gaseous thermal boundary layer touching the material is kept below the temperature which would cause the material to catastrophically fail.
Two material exceptions that can directly sustain rocket combustion temperatures are graphite and tungsten, although both are subject to oxidation if not protected. Materials technology, combined with the engine design, is a limiting factor in chemical rockets.
In rockets, the heat fluxes that can pass through the wall are among the highest in engineering; fluxes are generally in the range of 100–200 MW/m. The strongest heat fluxes are found at the throat, which often sees twice that found in the associated chamber and nozzle. This is due to the combination of high speeds (which gives a very thin boundary layer), and although lower than the chamber, the high temperatures seen there. (See above for temperatures in nozzle).
In rockets the coolant methods include
Ablative: the inside walls are lined with a material that traps heat and vaporizes.
Radiative cooling: the nozzle glows and radiates the heat away.
Dump cooling: a cryogenic propellant, usually hydrogen, is passed around the nozzle and dumped.
Regenerative cooling: liquid rockets route the fuel, or occasionally oxidizer around the nozzle before being injected into the combustion chamber or preburner.
Curtain cooling: Propellant injection is arranged so that there is extra fuel around the inside walls, which cools it.
Film cooling: surfaces are wetted with liquid propellant, which cools as it evaporates.
In all cases the cooling effect that prevents the wall from being destroyed is caused by a thin layer of insulating fluid (a boundary layer) that is in contact with the walls that is far cooler than the combustion temperature. Provided this boundary layer is intact the wall will not be damaged.
Disruption of the boundary layer may occur during cooling failures or combustion instabilities, and wall failure typically occurs soon after.
With regenerative cooling a second boundary layer is found in the coolant channels around the chamber. This boundary layer thickness needs to be as small as possible, since the boundary layer acts as an insulator between the wall and the coolant. This may be achieved by making the coolant velocity in the channels as high as possible.
In practice, regenerative cooling is nearly always used in conjunction with curtain cooling and/or film cooling.
Liquid-fuelled engines are often run fuel-rich, which lowers combustion temperatures. This reduces heat loads on the engine and allows lower cost materials and a simplified cooling system. This can also increase performance by lowering the average molecular weight of the exhaust and increasing the efficiency with which combustion heat is converted to kinetic exhaust energy.
Mechanical issues
Rocket combustion chambers are normally operated at fairly high pressure, typically 10–200bar (1–20MPa, 150–3,000psi). When operated within significant atmospheric pressure, higher combustion chamber pressures give better performance by permitting a larger and more efficient nozzle to be fitted without it being grossly overexpanded.
However, these high pressures cause the outermost part of the chamber to be under very large hoop stresses – rocket engines are pressure vessels.
Worse, due to the high temperatures created in rocket engines the materials used tend to have a significantly lowered working tensile strength.
In addition, significant temperature gradients are set up in the walls of the chamber and nozzle, these cause differential expansion of the inner liner that create internal stresses.
Acoustic issues
The extreme vibration and acoustic environment inside a rocket motor commonly result in peak stresses well above mean values, especially in the presence of organ pipe-like resonances and gas turbulence.
Combustion instabilities
The combustion may display undesired instabilities, of sudden or periodic nature. The pressure in the injection chamber may increase until the propellant flow through the injector plate decreases; a moment later the pressure drops and the flow increases, injecting more propellant in the combustion chamber which burns a moment later, and again increases the chamber pressure, repeating the cycle. This may lead to high-amplitude pressure oscillations, often in ultrasonic range, which may damage the motor. Oscillations of ±200 psi at 25 kHz were the cause of failures of early versions of the Titan II missile second stage engines. The other failure mode is a deflagration to detonation transition; the supersonic pressure wave formed in the combustion chamber may destroy the engine.
Combustion instability was also a problem during Atlas development. The Rocketdyne engines used in the Atlas family were found to suffer from this effect in several static firing tests, and three missile launches exploded on the pad due to rough combustion in the booster engines. In most cases, it occurred while attempting to start the engines with a "dry start" method whereby the igniter mechanism would be activated prior to propellant injection. During the process of man-rating Atlas for Project Mercury, solving combustion instability was a high priority, and the final two Mercury flights sported an upgraded propulsion system with baffled injectors and a hypergolic igniter.
The problem affecting Atlas vehicles was mainly the so-called "racetrack" phenomenon, where burning propellant would swirl around in a circle at faster and faster speeds, eventually producing vibration strong enough to rupture the engine, leading to complete destruction of the rocket. It was eventually solved by adding several baffles around the injector face to break up swirling propellant.
More significantly, combustion instability was a problem with the Saturn F-1 engines. Some of the early units tested exploded during static firing, which led to the addition of injector baffles.
In the Soviet space program, combustion instability also proved a problem on some rocket engines, including the RD-107 engine used in the R-7 family and the RD-216 used in the R-14 family, and several failures of these vehicles occurred before the problem was solved. Soviet engineering and manufacturing processes never satisfactorily resolved combustion instability in larger RP-1/LOX engines, so the RD-171 engine used to power the Zenit family still used four smaller thrust chambers fed by a common engine mechanism.
The combustion instabilities can be provoked by remains of cleaning solvents in the engine (e.g. the first attempted launch of a Titan II in 1962), reflected shock wave, initial instability after ignition, explosion near the nozzle that reflects into the combustion chamber, and many more factors. In stable engine designs the oscillations are quickly suppressed; in unstable designs they persist for prolonged periods. Oscillation suppressors are commonly used.
Periodic variations of thrust, caused by combustion instability or longitudinal vibrations of structures between the tanks and the engines which modulate the propellant flow, are known as "pogo oscillations" or "pogo", named after the pogo stick.
Three different types of combustion instabilities occur:
Chugging
This is a low frequency oscillation at a few Hertz in chamber pressure usually caused by pressure variations in feed lines due to variations in acceleration of the vehicle.
This can cause cyclic variation in thrust, and the effects can vary from merely annoying to actually damaging the payload or vehicle. Chugging can be minimised by using gas-filled damping tubes on feed lines of high density propellants.
Buzzing
This can be caused due to insufficient pressure drop across the injectors.
It generally is mostly annoying, rather than being damaging. However, in extreme cases combustion can end up being forced backwards through the injectors – this can cause explosions with monopropellants.
Screeching
This is the most immediately damaging, and the hardest to control. It is due to acoustics within the combustion chamber that often couples to the chemical combustion processes that are the primary drivers of the energy release, and can lead to unstable resonant "screeching" that commonly leads to catastrophic failure due to thinning of the insulating thermal boundary layer. Acoustic oscillations can be excited by thermal processes, such as the flow of hot air through a pipe or combustion in a chamber. Specifically, standing acoustic waves inside a chamber can be intensified if combustion occurs more intensely in regions where the pressure of the acoustic wave is maximal.
Such effects are very difficult to predict analytically during the design process, and have usually been addressed by expensive, time-consuming and extensive testing, combined with trial and error remedial correction measures.
Screeching is often dealt with by detailed changes to injectors, or changes in the propellant chemistry, or vaporising the propellant before injection, or use of Helmholtz dampers within the combustion chambers to change the resonant modes of the chamber.
Testing for the possibility of screeching is sometimes done by exploding small explosive charges outside the combustion chamber with a tube set tangentially to the combustion chamber near the injectors to determine the engine's impulse response and then evaluating the time response of the chamber pressure- a fast recovery indicates a stable system.
Exhaust noise
For all but the very smallest sizes, rocket exhaust compared to other engines is generally very noisy. As the hypersonic exhaust mixes with the ambient air, shock waves are formed. The Space Shuttle generated over 200 dB(A) of noise around its base. To reduce this, and the risk of payload damage or injury to the crew atop the stack, the mobile launcher platform was fitted with a Sound Suppression System that sprayed of water around the base of the rocket in 41 seconds at launch time. Using this system kept sound levels within the payload bay to 142 dB.
The sound intensity from the shock waves generated depends on the size of the rocket and on the exhaust velocity. Such shock waves seem to account for the characteristic crackling and popping sounds produced by large rocket engines when heard live. These noise peaks typically overload microphones and audio electronics, and so are generally weakened or entirely absent in recorded or broadcast audio reproductions. For large rockets at close range, the acoustic effects could actually kill.
More worryingly for space agencies, such sound levels can also damage the launch structure, or worse, be reflected back at the comparatively delicate rocket above. This is why so much water is typically used at launches. The water spray changes the acoustic qualities of the air and reduces or deflects the sound energy away from the rocket.
Generally speaking, noise is most intense when a rocket is close to the ground, since the noise from the engines radiates up away from the jet, as well as reflecting off the ground. Also, when the vehicle is moving slowly, little of the chemical energy input to the engine can go into increasing the kinetic energy of the rocket (since useful power P transmitted to the vehicle is for thrust F and speed V). Then the largest portion of the energy is dissipated in the exhaust's interaction with the ambient air, producing noise. This noise can be reduced somewhat by flame trenches with roofs, by water injection around the jet and by deflecting the jet at an angle.
Testing
Rocket engines are usually statically tested at a test facility before being put into production. For high altitude engines, either a shorter nozzle must be used, or the rocket must be tested in a large vacuum chamber.
Safety
Rocket vehicles have a reputation for unreliability and danger; especially catastrophic failures. Contrary to this reputation, carefully designed rockets can be made arbitrarily reliable. In military use, rockets are not unreliable. However, one of the main non-military uses of rockets is for orbital launch. In this application, the premium has typically been placed on minimum weight, and it is difficult to achieve high reliability and low weight simultaneously. In addition, if the number of flights launched is low, there is a very high chance of a design, operations or manufacturing error causing destruction of the vehicle.
Saturn family (1961–1975)
The Rocketdyne H-1 engine, used in a cluster of eight in the first stage of the Saturn I and Saturn IB launch vehicles, had no catastrophic failures in 152 engine-flights. The Pratt and Whitney RL10 engine, used in a cluster of six in the Saturn I second stage, had no catastrophic failures in 36 engine-flights. The Rocketdyne F-1 engine, used in a cluster of five in the first stage of the Saturn V, had no failures in 65 engine-flights. The Rocketdyne J-2 engine, used in a cluster of five in the Saturn V second stage, and singly in the Saturn IB second stage and Saturn V third stage, had no catastrophic failures in 86 engine-flights.
Space Shuttle (1981–2011)
The Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster, used in pairs, caused one notable catastrophic failure in 270 engine-flights.
The RS-25, used in a cluster of three, flew in 46 refurbished engine units. These made a total of 405 engine-flights with no catastrophic in-flight failures. A single in-flight RS-25 engine failure occurred during 's STS-51-F mission. This failure had no effect on mission objectives or duration.
Chemistry
Rocket propellants require a high energy per unit mass (specific energy), which must be balanced against the tendency of highly energetic propellants to spontaneously explode. Assuming that the chemical potential energy of the propellants can be safely stored, the combustion process results in a great deal of heat being released. A significant fraction of this heat is transferred to kinetic energy in the engine nozzle, propelling the rocket forward in combination with the mass of combustion products released.
Ideally all the reaction energy appears as kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, as exhaust velocity is the single most important performance parameter of an engine. However, real exhaust species are molecules, which typically have translation, vibrational, and rotational modes with which to dissipate energy. Of these, only translation can do useful work to the vehicle, and while energy does transfer between modes this process occurs on a timescale far in excess of the time required for the exhaust to leave the nozzle.
The more chemical bonds an exhaust molecule has, the more rotational and vibrational modes it will have. Consequently, it is generally desirable for the exhaust species to be as simple as possible, with a diatomic molecule composed of light, abundant atoms such as H2 being ideal in practical terms. However, in the case of a chemical rocket, hydrogen is a reactant and reducing agent, not a product. An oxidizing agent, most typically oxygen or an oxygen-rich species, must be introduced into the combustion process, adding mass and chemical bonds to the exhaust species.
An additional advantage of light molecules is that they may be accelerated to high velocity at temperatures that can be contained by currently available materials - the high gas temperatures in rocket engines pose serious problems for the engineering of survivable motors.
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) and oxygen (LOX, or LO2), are the most effective propellants in terms of exhaust velocity that have been widely used to date, though a few exotic combinations involving boron or liquid ozone are potentially somewhat better in theory if various practical problems could be solved.
It is important to note that, when computing the specific reaction energy of a given propellant combination, the entire mass of the propellants (both fuel and oxidizer) must be included. The exception is in the case of air-breathing engines, which use atmospheric oxygen and consequently have to carry less mass for a given energy output. Fuels for car or turbojet engines have a much better effective energy output per unit mass of propellant that must be carried, but are similar per unit mass of fuel.
Computer programs that predict the performance of propellants in rocket engines are available.
Ignition
With liquid and hybrid rockets, immediate ignition of the propellants as they first enter the combustion chamber is essential.
With liquid propellants (but not gaseous), failure to ignite within milliseconds usually causes too much liquid propellant to be inside the chamber, and if/when ignition occurs the amount of hot gas created can exceed the maximum design pressure of the chamber, causing a catastrophic failure of the pressure vessel.
This is sometimes called a hard start or a rapid unscheduled disassembly (RUD).
Ignition can be achieved by a number of different methods; a pyrotechnic charge can be used, a plasma torch can be used, or electric spark ignition may be employed. Some fuel/oxidiser combinations ignite on contact (hypergolic), and non-hypergolic fuels can be "chemically ignited" by priming the fuel lines with hypergolic propellants (popular in Russian engines).
Gaseous propellants generally will not cause hard starts, with rockets the total injector area is less than the throat thus the chamber pressure tends to ambient prior to ignition and high pressures cannot form even if the entire chamber is full of flammable gas at ignition.
Solid propellants are usually ignited with one-shot pyrotechnic devices and combustion usually proceeds through total consumption of the propellants.
Once ignited, rocket chambers are self-sustaining and igniters are not needed and combustion usually proceeds through total consumption of the propellants. Indeed, chambers often spontaneously reignite if they are restarted after being shut down for a few seconds. Unless designed for re-ignition, when cooled, many rockets cannot be restarted without at least minor maintenance, such as replacement of the pyrotechnic igniter or even refueling of the propellants.
Jet physics
Rocket jets vary depending on the rocket engine, design altitude, altitude, thrust and other factors.
Carbon rich exhausts from kerosene fuels are often orange in colour due to the black-body radiation of the unburnt particles, in addition to the blue Swan bands. Peroxide oxidizer-based rockets and hydrogen rocket jets contain largely steam and are nearly invisible to the naked eye but shine brightly in the ultraviolet and infrared. Jets from solid rockets can be highly visible as the propellant frequently contains metals such as elemental aluminium which burns with an orange-white flame and adds energy to the combustion process.
Some exhausts, notably alcohol fuelled rockets, can show visible shock diamonds. These are due to cyclic variations in the jet pressure relative to ambient creating shock waves that form 'Mach disks'.
Rocket engines which burn liquid hydrogen and oxygen will exhibit a nearly transparent exhaust, due to it being mostly superheated steam (water vapour), plus some unburned hydrogen.
The shape of the jet varies by the design altitude: at high altitude all rockets are grossly under-expanded, and a quite small percentage of exhaust gases actually end up expanding forwards.
Types of rocket engines
Physically powered
Chemically powered
Electrically powered
Thermal
Preheated
Solar thermal
The solar thermal rocket would make use of solar power to directly heat reaction mass, and therefore does not require an electrical generator as most other forms of solar-powered propulsion do. A solar thermal rocket only has to carry the means of capturing solar energy, such as concentrators and mirrors. The heated propellant is fed through a conventional rocket nozzle to produce thrust. The engine thrust is directly related to the surface area of the solar collector and to the local intensity of the solar radiation and inversely proportional to the Isp.
Beamed thermal
Nuclear thermal
Nuclear
Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that use some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. Various types of nuclear propulsion have been proposed, and some of them tested, for spacecraft applications:
History of rocket engines
According to the writings of the Roman Aulus Gellius, the earliest known example of jet propulsion was in c. 400 BC, when a Greek Pythagorean named Archytas, propelled a wooden bird along wires using steam. However, it would not appear to have been powerful enough to take off under its own thrust.
The aeolipile described in the first century BC (often known as Hero's engine) essentially consists of a steam rocket on a bearing. It was created almost two millennia before the Industrial Revolution but the principles behind it were not well understood, and its full potential was not realised for a millennium.
The availability of black powder to propel projectiles was a precursor to the development of the first solid rocket. Ninth Century Chinese Taoist alchemists discovered black powder in a search for the elixir of life; this accidental discovery led to fire arrows which were the first rocket engines to leave the ground.
It is stated that "the reactive forces of incendiaries were probably not applied to the propulsion of projectiles prior to the 13th century". A turning point in rocket technology emerged with a short manuscript entitled Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes (abbreviated as The Book of Fires). The manuscript is composed of recipes for creating incendiary weapons from the mid-eighth to the end of the thirteenth centuries—two of which are rockets. The first recipe calls for one part of colophonium and sulfur added to six parts of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) dissolved in laurel oil, then inserted into hollow wood and lit to "fly away suddenly to whatever place you wish and burn up everything". The second recipe combines one pound of sulfur, two pounds of charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter—all finely powdered on a marble slab. This powder mixture is packed firmly into a long and narrow case. The introduction of saltpeter into pyrotechnic mixtures connected the shift from hurled Greek fire into self-propelled rocketry. .
Articles and books on the subject of rocketry appeared increasingly from the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. In the sixteenth century, German military engineer Conrad Haas (1509–1576) wrote a manuscript which introduced the construction to multi-staged rockets.
Rocket engines were also brought in use by Tippu Sultan, the king of Mysore. These rockets could be of various sizes, but usually consisted of a tube of soft hammered iron about long and diameter, closed at one end and strapped to a shaft of bamboo about long. The iron tube acted as a combustion chamber and contained well packed black powder propellant. A rocket carrying about one pound of powder could travel almost . These 'rockets', fitted with swords, would travel long distances, several meters in the air, before coming down with swords edges facing the enemy. These rockets were used very effectively against the British empire.
Modern rocketry
Slow development of this technology continued up to the later 19th century, when Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first wrote about liquid-fueled rocket engines. He was the first to develop the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, though it was not published widely for some years.
The modern solid- and liquid-fueled engines became realities early in the 20th century, thanks to the American physicist Robert Goddard. Goddard was the first to use a De Laval nozzle on a solid-propellant (gunpowder) rocket engine, doubling the thrust and increasing the efficiency by a factor of about twenty-five. This was the birth of the modern rocket engine. He calculated from his independently derived rocket equation that a reasonably sized rocket, using solid fuel, could place a one-pound payload on the Moon.
Fritz von Opel was instrumental in popularizing rockets as means of propulsion. In the 1920s, he initiated together with Max Valier, co-founder of the "Verein für Raumschiffahrt", the world's first rocket program, Opel-RAK, leading to speed records for automobiles, rail vehicles and the first manned rocket-powered flight in September of 1929. Months earlier in 1928, one of his rocket-powered prototypes, the Opel RAK2, reached piloted by von Opel himself at the AVUS speedway in Berlin a record speed of 238 km/h, watched by 3000 spectators and world media. A world record for rail vehicles was reached with RAK3 and a top speed of 256 km/h. After these successes, von Opel piloted the world's first public rocket-powered flight using Opel RAK.1, a rocket plane designed by Julius Hatry. World media reported on these efforts, including UNIVERSAL Newsreel of the US, causing as "Raketen-Rummel" or "Rocket Rumble" immense global public excitement, and in particular in Germany, where inter alia Wernher von Braun was highly influenced. The Great Depression led to an end of the Opel-RAK program, but Max Valier continued the efforts. After switching from solid-fuel to liquid-fuel rockets, he died while testing and is considered the first fatality of the dawning space age.
The era of liquid fuel rocket engines
Goddard began to use liquid propellants in 1921, and in 1926 became the first to launch a liquid-propellant rocket. Goddard pioneered the use of the De Laval nozzle, lightweight propellant tanks, small light turbopumps, thrust vectoring, the smoothly-throttled liquid fuel engine, regenerative cooling, and curtain cooling.
During the late 1930s, German scientists, such as Wernher von Braun and Hellmuth Walter, investigated installing liquid-fueled rockets in military aircraft (Heinkel He 112, He 111, He 176 and Messerschmitt Me 163).
The turbopump was employed by German scientists in World War II. Until then cooling the nozzle had been problematic, and the A4 ballistic missile used dilute alcohol for the fuel, which reduced the combustion temperature sufficiently.
Staged combustion (Замкнутая схема) was first proposed by Alexey Isaev in 1949. The first staged combustion engine was the S1.5400 used in the Soviet planetary rocket, designed by Melnikov, a former assistant to Isaev. About the same time (1959), Nikolai Kuznetsov began work on the closed cycle engine NK-9 for Korolev's orbital ICBM, GR-1. Kuznetsov later evolved that design into the NK-15 and NK-33 engines for the unsuccessful Lunar N1 rocket.
In the West, the first laboratory staged-combustion test engine was built in Germany in 1963, by Ludwig Boelkow.
Hydrogen peroxide / kerosene fueled engines such as the British Gamma of the 1950s used a closed-cycle process (arguably not staged combustion, but that's mostly a question of semantics) by catalytically decomposing the peroxide to drive turbines before combustion with the kerosene in the combustion chamber proper. This gave the efficiency advantages of staged combustion, whilst avoiding the major engineering problems.
Liquid hydrogen engines were first successfully developed in America, the RL-10 engine first flew in 1962. Hydrogen engines were used as part of the Apollo program; the liquid hydrogen fuel giving a rather lower stage mass and thus reducing the overall size and cost of the vehicle.
Most engines on one rocket flight was 44 set by NASA in 2016 on a Black Brant.
See also
Comparison of orbital rocket engines
Jet damping, an effect of the exhaust jet of a rocket that tends to slow a vehicle's rotation speed
Model rocket motor classification lettered engines
NERVA (Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications), a US nuclear thermal rocket programme
Photon rocket
Project Prometheus, NASA development of nuclear propulsion for long-duration spaceflight, begun in 2003
Notes
References
External links
Designing for rocket engine life expectancy
Rocket Engine performance analysis with Plume Spectrometry
Rocket Engine Thrust Chamber technical article
Net Thrust of a Rocket Engine calculator
Design Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Thermodynamic Analysis
Rocket & Space Technology - Rocket Propulsion
The official website of test pilot Erich Warsitz (world's first jet pilot) which includes videos of the Heinkel He 112 fitted with von Braun's and Hellmuth Walter's rocket engines (as well as the He 111 with ATO Units)
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262141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Ascham | Roger Ascham | Roger Ascham (; c. 151530 December 1568) was an English scholar and didactic writer, famous for his prose style, his promotion of the vernacular, and his theories of education. He served in the administrations of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I, having earlier acted as Elizabeth's tutor in Greek and Latin between 1548 and 1550.
Early life
Ascham was born at Kirby Wiske, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire, near Northallerton, the third son of John Ascham, steward to Baron Scrope of Bolton. The name Ascham is derived from Askham near York His mother, Margaret, is said to have come from the Conyers family, but this is speculation. Thomas and John were Roger's two elder brothers, while Anthony Ascham was the youngest son of the Ascham family. The authority for this statement, as for most here concerning Ascham's early life, is his close friend Edward Grant (1540s–1601), headmaster of the venerable and still extant Royal College of St. Peter at Westminster—better known as Westminster School—who collected and edited his letters and delivered a panegyrical oration on his life in 1576.
Education
Ascham was educated at the house of Sir Humphrey Wingfield, a barrister, Ascham tells us, in the Toxophilus under a tutor named R. Bond. His preferred sport was archery, and Sir Humphrey "would at term times bring down from London both bows and shafts and go with them himself to see them shoot". Hence Ascham's earliest English work, the Toxophilus, the importance which he attributed to archery in educational establishments, and probably the reason for archery in the statutes of St Albans, Harrow and other Elizabethan schools.
Through Toxophilus, Ascham sought to teach the art of shooting and present a literary piece with proper English vocabulary. He criticised other English authors for sprinkling foreign terms into their works. Prior to Toxophilus publication, the bow had been forgotten by the English people with firearms evolving as the prevailing weapons of choice. The book sparked renewed interest in the practice of archery and Ascham was able to present it as an "innocent, salutary, useful, and liberal division". Many recognise the use of the bow as a disciplined skill, requiring more practice than any other instrument of offence.
From this private tuition Ascham was sent "about 1530", at the age, it is said, of fifteen, to St John's College, Cambridge, then the largest and most learned college in either university, where he devoted himself specially to the study of Greek, then newly revived. Equipped with a small knowledge of the Greek language, Ascham went on to read lectures and teach fellow St. John students the language. He believed that the best way to learn a language was by teaching it. Ascham was applauded for his encouragement of Greek learning in the University. In particular, Robert Pember, a fellow student, praised Ascham's lectures and his method of teaching a language in order to learn it. In a letter to Ascham, Pember stated that "he would gain more knowledge by explaining one of Aesop's Fables to a boy, than by hearing one of Homer's poems explained by another". Ascham was then appointed by the University to read Greek at open schools and received payment through honorary stipends. This was monumental for Ascham because at the time, there was no established lecturer of Greek at the University. Here he fell under the influence of Sir John Cheke, who was admitted a fellow in Ascham's first year, and Sir Thomas Smith. Cheke in turn was friendly with Anthony Denny, who was brother-in-law to Kat Ashley, governess to the Lady Elizabeth. His guide and friend was Robert Pember, "a man of the greatest learning and with an admirable ability in the Greek tongue".
He became B.A. in 1533–34, and was nominated to a fellowship at St John's. Dr Nicholas Metcalfe was then master of the college, "a papist, indeed, and if any young man given to the new learning as they termed or went beyond his fellows", he "lacked neither open praise, nor private exhibition". He procured Ascham's election to a fellowship, "though being a new bachelor of arts, I chanced among my companions to speak against the Pope ... after serious rebuke and some punishment, open warning was given to all the fellows, none to be so hardy, as to give me his voice at election." The day of election Ascham regarded as his birthday", and "the whole foundation of the poor learning I have and of all the furtherance that hitherto elsewhere I have been tamed". He took his M.A. degree on 3 July 1537. He stayed for some time at Cambridge taking pupils, among whom was William Grindal, who in 1544 became tutor to Princess Elizabeth.
Tutor to Elizabeth I
In January 1548, Grindal, the tutor of princess Elizabeth, died. Ascham, one of the ablest Greek scholars in England, as well as public orator of the university, had already been in correspondence with the princess. In one of Ascham's letters to Katherine Ashley, he enclosed a new pen, as well a pen which he himself mended specifically for princess Elizabeth. Through Cecil, and at the fourteen-year-old princess's own wish, he was selected as her tutor against another candidate, also named Grindal, who was pressed by Admiral Seymour and Queen Catherine. In 1548, Ascham began teaching Elizabeth, future queen of England, in Greek and Latin chiefly at Cheshunt, a job he held until 1550.
On the subject of his experience with Elizabeth's education, Ascham later wrote: "Yea, I beleve, that beside her perfit readines, in Latin, Italian, French, & Spanish, she readeth here now at Windsore more Greeke every day, than some Prebendarie of this Chirch doth read Latin in a whole weeke." Ascham's influence on Elizabeth is suggested by the fact that, for the remainder of her life, she remained an occasional writer of poems, such as "On Monsieur's Departure".
In a letter to Johannes Sturm, the Strassburg schoolmaster, Ascham praised Elizabeth's growth as a student: "She talks French and Italian as well as English: she has often talked to me readily and well in Latin and moderately so in Greek. When she writes Greek and Latin nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting . . . she read with me almost all Cicero and great part of Titus Livius: for she drew all her knowledge of Latin from those two authors. She used to give the morning to the Greek Testament and afterwards read select orations of Isocrates and the tragedies of Sophocles. To these I added St. Cyprian and Melanchthon's Commonplaces."
Secretary to Richard Morrison
In 1550, Ascham had an unspecified quarrel with the court, which he described only as "a storm of recent violence and injury". As a result, Ascham returned to Cambridge. Whilst there, Cheke informed Ascham that he had been appointed secretary to Sir Richard Morrison (Moryson), appointed ambassador to Charles V. It was on his way to join Morrison that he paid visit to Lady Jane Grey at Bradgate, where he found her reading Plato's Phaedo while every one else was out hunting. This final meeting between the two has been a cause of inspiration among many painters and writers as a grandiose romantic moment.
Ascham served in this position for several years, travelling widely on the European continent. The embassy went to Louvain, where he found the university very inferior to Cambridge, then to Innsbruck and Venice. Ascham read Greek with the ambassador Morrison four or five days a week. His letters during the embassy in 1553, which was recalled on Mary's accession, were later published as the Report and Discourse on Germany. The work, which was possibly a history of political turmoil in Germany in the 1550s, is incomplete. Common theories are that the work was either lost, damaged, or left unfinished.
Latin Secretary to Mary I
Ascham's next job was an appointment as Latin Secretary to Mary I. Throughout the first few months he held the position, Ascham was bombarded with a torrent of work, which included countless letters. Through the efforts of Bishop Gardiner on his return to England, this office he likewise discharged to Queen Mary with a pension of £20 a year, and then to Elizabeth—a testimony to his tact and caution in those changeful times.
On 1 June 1554, he married Margaret Harleston, of South Ockendon, Essex, the daughter of Sir Clement Harleston. By her he had at least four sons and three daughters.
Ascham was not a rich man, and when marrying Margaret, Ascham had to resign both his College Greek Readership and his University Public Oratorship. Margaret herself brought very little dowry, leaving Ascham to seek help from the connections he had made throughout the years. His relationship with Reginald Cardinal Pole led to Ascham's securing from the queen the reversion of a lease of the manor of Salisbury Hall in Walthamstow, Essex, a manor once owned by Pole's family.
Death
Ascham became fatally ill on 23 December 1568, having just finished a poem of thanks for the blessings Queen Elizabeth I had bestowed on England through her reign. Ascham made his last confession to the parish priest of St Sepulchre-without-Newgate, William Gravet, simply saying "I want to die and be with Christ", according to Edward Grant. He died on 30 December 1568, most likely from malaria. Ascham was then buried on 4 January 1569 in St. Sepulchre-without-Newgate, in London.
Publications
Ascham obtained from Edward Lee, then Archbishop of York, a pension of £2 a year, in return for which he translated Oecumenius' Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles but the archbishop, scenting heresy in some passage relating to the marriage of the clergy, sent it back to him.
Toxophilus
Ascham's first published work, Toxophilus ("Lover of the Bow") in 1545, was dedicated to Henry VIII. The objects of the book were twofold, to commend the practice of shooting with the long bow, and to set the example of a higher style of composition than had yet been attempted in English. Ascham presented the book to Henry VIII at Greenwich soon after his return from the capture of Boulogne, and received a grant of a pension of £10 a year. Toxophilus was the first book on archery in English. The work is a Platonic dialogue between Toxophilus and Philologus. Editions were published in 1571, 1589 and 1788, and by Edward Arber in 1868 and 1902.
The Scholemaster
In 1563 Ascham began the work The Scholemaster, published posthumously in 1570, which ensured his later reputation. Richard Sackville, he states in the book's preface, told him that "a fond schoolmaster" had, by his brutality, made him hate learning, much to his loss, and as he had now a young son, whom he wished to be learned, he offered, if Ascham would name a tutor, to pay for the education of their respective sons under Ascham's orders, and invited Ascham to write a treatise on "the right order of teaching". The Scholemaster was the result.
Not a general treatise on educational method, the book concentrates on the teaching of Latin; and it was not intended for schools, but "specially prepared for the private brynging up of youth in gentlemen and noblemens houses". It advocated "the double translation of a model book", the book recommended being Sturmius's Select Letters of Cicero; the method itself was not new. The book's plea for gentleness and persuasion instead of coercion in schools, was contemporary: it was being practised and preached at that time by Christopher Jonson (c. 1536–1597) at Winchester College; and had been repeatedly urged by Erasmus and others. Along with its suggestions for educational practice, Ascham's book includes a famous warning against the dangers of Italy, which he calls "inchantementes of Circes".
The Scholemaster was reprinted in 1571 and 1589. It was edited by James Upton in 1711 and in 1743, by John Eyton Bickersteth Mayor 1863, and by Edward Arber in 1870.
Correspondence
Ascham's letters were collected and published in 1576, and went through several editions, the last at Nuremberg in 1611. They were re-titled by William Elstob in 1703.
Other works
Report and Discourse of the Affairs and State of Germany 1553 was published by John Daye (1570). Ascham's English works were edited by James Bennett, with a life by Samuel Johnson in 1771, reprinted in 1815. John Allen Giles in 1864–1865 published in 4 vols. select letters from the Toxophilus and Scholemaster and the life by Edward Grant.
Legacy
Ascham School, in Sydney, Australia, was named after Roger Ascham.
Roger Ascham Primary School in Walthamstow, London was named after Roger Ascham.
References
Sources
"Roger Ascham". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Oct. 2013
Further reading
(3 vols in 4)
External links
English Renaissance humanists
People of the Elizabethan era
1510s births
1568 deaths
English male archers
English male non-fiction writers
English non-fiction writers
People from Hambleton District
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
16th-century English writers
16th-century male writers
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262142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyce%20Thompson%20Arboretum | Boyce Thompson Arboretum | Boyce Thompson Arboretum is the oldest and largest botanical garden in the state of Arizona. It is one of the oldest botanical institutions west of the Mississippi River. Founded in 1924 as a desert plant research facility and “living museum”, the arboretum is located in the Sonoran Desert on along Queen Creek and beneath the towering volcanic remnant, Picketpost Mountain. Boyce Thompson Arboretum is on U.S. Highway 60, an hour's drive east from Phoenix and west of Superior, Arizona.
The arboretum has a visitor center, gift shop, research offices, greenhouses, a demonstration garden, picnic area, and a looping 1.5-mile (2.4 km) primary trail that leads visitors through various exhibits and natural areas. The exhibits include a cactus garden, palm and eucalyptus groves, an Australian exhibit, South American exhibit, aloe garden and an herb garden. There are also side trails such as the Chihuahuan Trail, Curandero Trail, and High Trail.
Over 2600 species of arid land plants from around the world grow at the arboretum. Agaves, aloes, boojum trees, cork oaks, jujube trees, legume trees, and, in the eucalyptus grove, one of the largest red gum eucalyptus trees ("Mr. Big") in the United States. Cacti and succulents grow extensively throughout the arboretum.
Because the arboretum is a riparian zone, the park attracts Sonoran Desert wildlife and migrating birds. Visitors have seen bobcats, javelinas, coatimundis, rattlesnakes, gila monsters, hawks, hummingbirds, and vultures. 270 bird species have been spotted in the park and the Audubon Society has designated the arboretum as an Important Bird Area.
the arboretum had 5,000 members and attracted over 75,000 people annually.
History
The arboretum was founded by William Boyce Thompson (1869-1930), a mining engineer who made his fortune in the copper mining industry. He was the founder and first president of Inspiration Consolidated Copper Company at Globe-Miami, Arizona and Magma Copper Company in Superior, Arizona. In the early 1920s, Thompson, enamored with the landscape around Superior, built a winter home overlooking Queen Creek. Also in the 1920s, as his fortunes grew, he created and financed the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research in Yonkers, New York (now at Cornell University), and the Boyce Thompson Arboretum on the property of the Picket Post House, west of Superior.
Boyce Thompson wrote: “I have in mind far more than mere botanical propagation. I hope to benefit the State and the Southwest by the addition of new products. A plant collection will be assembled which will be of interest not only to the nature lover and the plant student, but which will stress the practical side, as well to see if we cannot make these mesas, hillsides, and canyons far more productive and of more benefit to mankind. We will bring together and study the plants of the desert countries, find out their uses, and make them available to the people. It is a big job, but we will build here the most beautiful, and at the same time the most useful garden of its kind in the world.”
The Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum was established on April 1, 1924, by hiring its first two employees, Dr. Franklin Crider and Frederick Gibson, both from the University of Arizona. Their first project was the construction of two homes that still exist on site, the Crider House and the Gibson House. Propagation buildings were put up in 1925 and by 1926, the Smith Building (administration building) and two connecting greenhouses were built. Ayer Lake was created the same year to help irrigate the lower portion of the park. In 1927, the Boyce Thompson Southwest Arboretum was incorporated, becoming the first non-profit research organization in Arizona. The Arboretum opened to the public on April 6, 1929.
Arboretum Administration – Board of Directors
In 1927, the Board of Directors consisted of Colonel Thompson, Charles F. Ayer (a business associate of the Colonel) and Edward Rice, an attorney from Globe. In 1929, the Directors of Boyce Thompson Institute and the Arboretum were added. Since that time, the Colonel's family has served continuously on the Board and is currently represented by his great-great grandson Dr. Paul Hohenlohe. His business associates have been represented by the son of another associate, William T. Smith, his son, Richard A. Smith and his son-in-law Ian Thompson. Between the three of them, they held Chairmanship of the Board from 1963 to 2000 and 2010 to present. The President of the Boyce Thompson Institute has remained on the Board as well and is currently represented by Dr. David Stern. Since 1976 with the signing of the Tri-Partite Agreement, two members from the University of Arizona and two members from Arizona State Parks also sit on the Board bringing the maximum number of Board members to 20.
The Early Years – 1924–1965
With the hiring of Dr. Franklin Crider and Frederick Gibson on April 1, 1924, from the University of Arizona, the Arboretum was on its way. With the passage of Arizona House Bill 121 on March 7, 1925, it became possible for the Arboretum to incorporate as Arizona's first non-profit research institution on October 5, 1927. Opening to the public in 1929, the future was indeed bright for the Arboretum. With the crash of 1929, subsequent depression, a drought, and the passing of the Colonel in 1930, the Arboretum began to struggle. Dr. Crider left as Managing Director in 1934 and was succeeded by Frederick Gibson. The Picket Post House was sold in 1946 to help cut costs and raise revenues for the Arboretum. Frederick Gibson stayed as Director until his death in 1953. The Colonel's nephew, Joe E. Thompson Jr., became the Managing Director until the agreement with the University of Arizona in 1965.
The Desert Biology Station and University of Arizona Years – 1965–1976
A cooperative agreement was made with the University of Arizona in 1965, and Dr. E. Lendell Cockrum became the 4th Managing Director of the Arboretum. The intent was to reinvigorate the research program at the Arboretum and it was renamed the Desert Biology Station. In addition, Drs. Frank and Carol Crosswhite were added to the staff as Curators of Botany and Zoology. Dr. Cockrum left the Arboretum in 1968 and was replaced by Dr. Vernon Grant. Dr. Grant was succeeded in 1970 by Dr. Robert T. McKittrick who served as the 6th Director until 1984. Dr. McKittrick and Drs. Frank and Carol Crosswhite who retired in 2002 became the bridge between this and the next phase of the Arboretum's development.
The Tri-Partite Years and Arizona State Parks - 1976 to 2019
With the signing of the Tri-Partite Agreement on March 30, 1976, the Arboretum became not only a State Park, but remained a scientific research facility and a non-profit institution. In addition, the Arboretum was listed on the National Register of Historic Places the same year. The Arboretum began publishing the journal Desert Plants in 1979. Dr. McKittrick, who had brought stability to the Arboretum though two transitions, retired in 1984. His replacement, Dr. William Feldman, was to serve for 21 years, the 3rd longest serving Director after Frederick Gibson and Robert McKittrick. Under Dr. Feldman, the face of the Arboretum became what it is today. The Visitor Center, Demonstration Garden, and Legume Garden were completed under his tenure as was the planning for the Children's Garden. Exhibits became more geographically focused and the word “conservation” was added to the mission statement. The Demonstration Garden was developed by Dr. Warren Jones from the University of Arizona and Steve Carter from the Arboretum. The Children's Garden was left for Dr. Mark Bierner to realize during his tenure from 2005 to 2008. In addition, the Picket Post House was purchased by Arizona State Parks in 2008 making the Arboretum whole again.
An example of this Tri-Partite partnership is the University of Arizona/BTA's Desert Legume Program or DELEP. DELEP is one of three U.S. organizations to have its seed bank backed up at the Global Seed Vault in Svalbard, Norway and one of three private organizations backed up at the National Center for Plant Genetic Resources in Fort Collins, Colorado. Another example is the Arizona State Parks’ Volunteer program which has allowed the Arboretum to expand its educational and recreational programming.
Gallery
See also
List of botanical gardens and arboretums in Arizona
Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research
References
External links
Boyce Thompson Arboretum
Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park
Desert Plants at the Boyce Thompson Arboretum
Desert Plants archives at the University of Arizona Campus Repository
Arboreta in Arizona
Botanical gardens in Arizona
Parks in Pinal County, Arizona
Sonoran Desert
University of Arizona
Historic American Landscapes Survey in Arizona
Cactus gardens
National Register of Historic Places in Pinal County, Arizona | [
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262144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GAP%20%28computer%20algebra%20system%29 | GAP (computer algebra system) | GAP (Groups, Algorithms and Programming) is a computer algebra system for computational discrete algebra with particular emphasis on computational group theory.
History
GAP was developed at Lehrstuhl D für Mathematik (LDFM), Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Germany from 1986 to 1997. After the retirement of Joachim Neubüser from the chair of LDFM, the development and maintenance of GAP was coordinated by the School of Mathematical and Computational Sciences at the University of St Andrews, Scotland. In the summer of 2005 coordination was transferred to an equal partnership of four 'GAP Centres', located at the University of St Andrews, RWTH Aachen, Technische Universität Braunschweig, and Colorado State University at Fort Collins; in April 2020, a fifth GAP Centre located at the TU Kaiserslautern was added
Distribution
GAP and its sources, including packages (sets of user contributed programs), data library (including a list of small groups) and the manual, are distributed freely, subject to "copyleft" conditions. GAP runs on any Unix system, under Windows, and on Macintosh systems. The standard distribution requires about 300 MB (about 400 MB if all the packages are loaded).
The user contributed packages are an important feature of the system, adding a great deal of functionality. GAP offers package authors the opportunity to submit these packages for a process of peer review, hopefully improving the quality of the final packages, and providing recognition akin to an academic publication for their authors. , there are 151 packages distributed with GAP, of which approximately 71 have been through this process.
An interface is available for using the SINGULAR computer algebra system from within GAP. GAP is also included in the mathematical software system SageMath.
Sample session
gap> G:=SmallGroup(8,1); # Set G to be a group of order 8.
<pc group of size 8 with 3 generators>
gap> i:=IsomorphismPermGroup(G); # Find an isomorphism from G to a group of permutations.
<action isomorphism>
gap> Image(i,G); # The image of G under I - these are the generators of im G.
Group([ (1,5,3,7,2,6,4,8), (1,3,2,4)(5,7,6,8), (1,2)(3,4)(5,6)(7,8) ])
gap> Elements(Image(i,G)); # All the elements of im G.
[ (), (1,2)(3,4)(5,6)(7,8), (1,3,2,4)(5,7,6,8), (1,4,2,3)(5,8,6,7),
(1,5,3,7,2,6,4,8), (1,6,3,8,2,5,4,7), (1,7,4,5,2,8,3,6), (1,8,4,6,2,7,3,5) ]
See also
Comparison of computer algebra systems
References
External links
Computer algebra system software for Linux
Computer algebra system software for MacOS
Computer algebra system software for Windows
Free computer algebra systems | [
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262146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20England | Middle England | The phrase "Middle England" is a socio-political term which generally refers to middle class or lower-middle class people in England who hold traditional conservative or right-wing views.
Origins
The origins of the term "Middle England" are not known. Writer Ian Hislop found evidence of the British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury's using the term in 1882, but it did not gain popularity at the time. Modern popular usage of the phrase has been attributed to Margaret Thatcher who, according to the historian David Cannadine, introduced the expression into political phraseology by adopting Richard Nixon's concept of "Middle America".
Modern usage
The primary meaning of the term is now a political or sociological one (as is also the case for the term "Middle America" or "Middle Australia"). It principally indicates the middle classes or lower-middle classes of non-urban Britain, but also carries connotations of "Deep England". John Major’s 1993 speech to the Conservative Group for Europe is often cited, evoking romantic imagery of rural cricket matches, warm beer, suburban gardens, and "old maids bicycling to Holy Communion through the morning mist" (itself based on a quote from George Orwell).
Although Middle England does not refer to a geographical region, it may be understood to refer to the inhabitants of suburbs in the South of England and the Midlands, typified by the small towns that make up "Metro-Land", the suburban areas north-west of London that are served by London Underground's Metropolitan line. The BBC described the Kent town of Tunbridge Wells as the "spiritual home" of Middle England, with particular reference to the popular characterisation of "Disgusted of Tunbridge Wells", the pseudonym of an imaginary, incensed letter-writer. Emphasising its lack of geographical location, the writer Nick Inman likened Middle England to J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth: "We know everything about it except where it is".
The term is used by journalists to refer to the presumed views of mainstream English and to a lesser extent British people, as opposed to minorities of all types (the rich or the poor, ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, the politically active, the intelligentsia, etc.). In particular, it is increasingly used to denote the more right-wing views of those who are not in such minorities. The phrase "Middle England" may be regarded by some as interchangeable with "Middle Britain", particularly with reference to political campaigns that seek to include middle-class voters in Scotland and Wales, but commentators such as Cannadine have assessed it as a designation specific to a segment of England, not Britain as a whole. John Major's 1993 speech has been noted for its culturally selective evocation of Britain, omitting inner cities, football, people who are unemployed, coal mines, Muslims, and the other Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom.
People who belong to the Middle England grouping are typically said to be white, middle class or lower-middle class, heterosexual, with a strong work ethic and a highly developed sense of conscientiousness. They may typically read the Daily Mail, a popular British newspaper known for its conservative editorial bias, and are also sometimes referred to as the "silent majority" or "moral majority" in the British media.
In politics
In British politics, Middle England is considered as a grouping to be especially important because of its potential to swing the results of United Kingdom general elections; according to the polling company MORI, Middle England is said to make up 25% of the UK population, its members are not devoted to any particular party and may be swayed by successful political campaigning, and many live in marginal constituencies. Middle England was also considered to be a major force in the vote to leave the European Union during the 2016 European Union membership referendum.
Other institutions
Members of the Countryside Alliance may be considered to be typical of Middle England, while members of the Women's Institute have been described as "the backbone of Middle England".
Related terms
Other demographic personas associated with Middle England include "Mondeo Man" (a term attributed to Tony Blair which describes a middle-class floating voter who owns a Ford Mondeo); "Worcester woman" (a provincial voter with little actual political awareness); "Essex Man" (an aspirational lower-middle-class voter from Essex); and "Pebbledash people" (a term coined by ICM Research to describe married white collar couples who live in semi-detached houses covered in pebbledash).
See also
Merry England
Little Englander
Demography of England
Social structure of the United Kingdom
References
English culture
English society
Pejorative terms for people
Political terms in the United Kingdom
Social class in the United Kingdom
Stereotypes of the middle class | [
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262147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Paget%2C%201st%20Baron%20Paget | William Paget, 1st Baron Paget | William Paget, 1st Baron Paget of Beaudesert (15069 June 1563), was an English statesman and accountant who held prominent positions in the service of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I.
Early life
He was the son of John Pachett or Paget, one of the serjeants-at-mace of the city of London. He was born in Staffordshire in 1506, and was educated at St Paul's School when William Lily was its headmaster, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, proceeding afterwards to the University of Paris. At St Paul's, he befriended the future antiquary John Leland and later acted as one of his benefactors.
Political career
He served as Member of Parliament for Lichfield in 1529 and for Middlesex in 1545.
Probably through the influence of Stephen Gardiner, who had early befriended Paget, he was employed by King Henry VIII in several important diplomatic missions; in 1532 he was appointed Clerk of the Signet and soon afterwards of the privy council. He became secretary to Anne of Cleves in 1539 and was appointed Clerk of the Parliaments on 15 July 1541, although it seems likely that he never discharged the duties of this office in person, but rather through others. In April 1543 he was sworn of the privy council and appointed secretary of state, in which position Henry VIII relied on his advice, at last appointing him one of the council to act during the minority of King Edward VI.
Paget at first vigorously supported the protector Somerset, while counselling a moderation which Somerset did not always observe. Paget would go on to become increasingly alienated from the Duke, reaching out to him in a series of letters from February 1548 in which he tried to persuade Somerset to take others' opinions into consideration. He blamed Somerset's dictatorial style and foolish attempts to help the poor for the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549. In 1547 he was made controller of the king's household, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, elected knight of the shire (MP) for Staffordshire and made a knight of the Garter; and in 1549 he was summoned by writ to the House of Lords as Baron Paget de Beaudesert (at which point he ceased to be the Clerk of the Parliaments). About the same time he obtained extensive grants of lands, including Cannock Chase and Burton Abbey in Staffordshire, in London the residence of the bishops of Exeter, afterwards known successively as Lincoln House and Essex House, on the site now occupied by the Outer Temple in the London, and also in 1547 he was granted the lordship and manor of Harmondsworth. He obtained Beaudesert in Staffordshire, which remained the chief seat of the Paget family.
Paget shared Somerset's disgrace, being committed to the Tower in 1551 and degraded from the Order of the Garter in the following year, besides suffering a heavy fine by the Star Chamber for having profited at the expense of the Crown in his administration of the duchy of Lancaster. He was, however, restored to the king's favour in 1553, and was one of the twenty-six peers who signed Edward's settlement of the crown on Lady Jane Grey in June of that year. He made his peace with Queen Mary I, who reinstated him as a knight of the Garter and in the privy council in 1553, and appointed him Lord Privy Seal in 1556. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth I in 1558 Paget retired from public life.
Descendants
By his wife Anne Preston, Paget had four sons and five daughters.
Sons:
Henry (c.1539 – 28 December 1568)
Thomas (c.1540–1589)
Charles
Edward (died young)
Daughters:
Etheldreda, who married Sir Christopher Allen
Eleanor, who married firstly, Jerome Palmer, esquire, and secondly, Sir Rowland Clarke
Grisold, who married firstly, Sir Thomas Rivett, and secondly, Sir William Waldegrave
Joan (or Jane), who married Sir Thomas Kitson
Dorothy, who married Sir Thomas Willoughby (died 1559)
Anne (died 1590), who married Sir Henry Lee.
Paget's two eldest sons, Henry and Thomas, succeeded in turn to the peerage. Henry was raised to the peerage as Baron Burton during his father's lifetime. Charles was a well-known Catholic conspirator during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I; Thomas was suspected of complicity in Charles's plots and was attainted in 1587.
References
Bibliography:
Attribution:
|-
|-
1506 births
1563 deaths
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
Lords Privy Seal
Peers of England created by Edward VI
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Middlesex
People educated at St Paul's School, London
William
Clerks of the Privy Council
Prisoners in the Tower of London
English MPs 1529–1536
English MPs 1545–1547
16th-century English nobility
16th-century English politicians
Clerks of the Parliaments
Court of Henry VIII
Barons Paget | [
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262149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Rankine | William Rankine | William John Macquorn Rankine (; 5 July 1820 – 24 December 1872) was a Scottish mechanical engineer who also contributed to civil engineering, physics and mathematics. He was a founding contributor, with Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), to the science of thermodynamics, particularly focusing on the first of the three thermodynamic laws. He developed the Rankine scale, an equivalent to the Kelvin scale of temperature, but in degrees Fahrenheit rather than Celsius.
Rankine developed a complete theory of the steam engine and indeed of all heat engines. His manuals of engineering science and practice were used for many decades after their publication in the 1850s and 1860s. He published several hundred papers and notes on science and engineering topics, from 1840 onwards, and his interests were extremely varied, including, in his youth, botany, music theory and number theory, and, in his mature years, most major branches of science, mathematics and engineering.
He was an enthusiastic amateur singer, pianist and cellist who composed his own humorous songs.
Life
Rankine was born in Edinburgh to Lt David Rankin (sic), a civil engineer from a military background, who later worked on the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway (locally known as the Innocent Railway). His mother was Barbara Grahame, of a prominent legal and banking family.
His father moved around Scotland on various projects and the family moved with him. William was initially educated at home but he later attended Ayr Academy (1828–29) and then the High School of Glasgow (1830). Around 1830 the family moved to Edinburgh when the father got a post as Manager of the Edinburgh to Dalkeith Railway. The family then lived at 2 Arniston Place.
In 1834 he was sent to the Scottish Naval and Military Academy on Lothian Road in Edinburgh with the mathematician George Lee. By that year William was already highly proficient in mathematics and received, as a gift from his uncle, Isaac Newton's Principia (1687) in the original Latin.
In 1836, Rankine began to study a spectrum of scientific topics at the University of Edinburgh, including natural history under Robert Jameson and natural philosophy under James David Forbes. Under Forbes he was awarded prizes for essays on methods of physical inquiry and on the undulatory (or wave) theory of light. During vacations, he assisted his father who, from 1830, was manager and, later, effective treasurer and engineer of the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway which brought coal into the growing city. He left the University of Edinburgh in 1838 without a degree (which was not then unusual) and, perhaps because of straitened family finances, became an apprentice to Sir John Benjamin Macneill, who was at the time surveyor to the Irish Railway Commission. During his pupilage he developed a technique, later known as Rankine's method, for laying out railway curves, fully exploiting the theodolite and making a substantial improvement in accuracy and productivity over existing methods. In fact, the technique was simultaneously in use by other engineers – and in the 1860s there was a minor dispute about Rankine's priority.
The year 1842 also marked Rankine's first attempt to reduce the phenomena of heat to a mathematical form but he was frustrated by his lack of experimental data. At the time of Queen Victoria's visit to Scotland, later that year, he organised a large bonfire situated on Arthur's Seat, constructed with radiating air passages under the fuel. The bonfire served as a beacon to initiate a chain of other bonfires across Scotland.
In 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh his proposer being Prof James David Forbes. He won the Society's Keith Prize for the period 1851–53. He served as the Society's Vice President from 1871 to 1872.
From 1855 he was Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow University.
He died at 8 Albion Crescent (now called Dowanside Road), Dowanhill, Glasgow at 11:45pm on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1872, aged only 52. He was unmarried and had no children. His death was registered by his uncle, Alex Grahame (his late mother's brother in law).
Thermodynamics
Undaunted, Rankine returned to his youthful fascination with the mechanics of the heat engine. Though his theory of circulating streams of elastic vortices whose volumes spontaneously adapted to their environment sounds fanciful to scientists formed on a modern account, by 1849, he had succeeded in finding the relationship between saturated vapour pressure and temperature. The following year, he used his theory to establish relationships between the temperature, pressure and density of gases, and expressions for the latent heat of evaporation of a liquid. He accurately predicted the surprising fact that the apparent specific heat of saturated steam would be negative.
Emboldened by his success, in 1851 he set out to calculate the efficiency of heat engines and used his theory as a basis to deduce the principle, that the maximum efficiency possible for any heat engine is a function only of the two temperatures between which it operates. Though a similar result had already been derived by Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, Rankine claimed that his result rested upon his hypothesis of molecular vortices alone, rather than upon Carnot's theory or some other additional assumption. The work marked the first step on Rankine's journey to develop a more complete theory of heat. In 1853, he coined the term potential energy.
Rankine later recast the results of his molecular theories in terms of a macroscopic account of energy and its transformations. He defined and distinguished between actual energy which was lost in dynamic processes and potential energy by which it was replaced. He assumed the sum of the two energies to be constant, an idea already, although surely not for very long, familiar in the law of conservation of energy. From 1854, he made wide use of his thermodynamic function which he later realised was identical to the entropy of Clausius. By 1855, Rankine had formulated a science of energetics which gave an account of dynamics in terms of energy and its transformations rather than force and motion. The theory was very influential in the 1890s. In 1859 he proposed the Rankine scale of temperature, an absolute or thermodynamic scale whose degree is equal to a Fahrenheit degree. In 1862, Rankine expanded Lord Kelvin’s theory of universal heat death and, along with Kelvin himself, formulated the heat death paradox, which disproves the possibly of an infinitely old universe.
Energetics offered Rankine an alternative, and rather more mainstream, approach, to his science and, from the mid-1850s, he made rather less use of his molecular vortices. Yet he still claimed that Maxwell's work on electromagnetics was effectively an extension of his model. And, in 1864, he contended that the microscopic theories of heat proposed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell, based on linear atomic motion, were inadequate. It was only in 1869 that Rankine admitted the success of these rival theories. By that time, his own model of the atom had become almost identical with that of Thomson.
As was his constant aim, especially as a teacher of engineering, he used his own theories to develop a number of practical results and to elucidate their physical principles including:
The Rankine–Hugoniot equation for propagation of shock waves, governs the behaviour of shock waves normal to the oncoming flow. It is named after physicists Rankine and the French engineer Pierre Henri Hugoniot;
The Rankine cycle, an analysis of an ideal heat-engine with a condensor. Like other thermodynamic cycles, the maximum efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by calculating the maximum efficiency of the Carnot cycle;
Properties of steam, gases and vapours.
The history of rotordynamics is replete with the interplay of theory and practice. Rankine first performed an analysis of a spinning shaft in 1869, but his model was not adequate and he predicted that supercritical speeds could not be attained.
Fatigue studies
Rankine was one of the first engineers to recognise that fatigue failures of railway axles was caused by the initiation and growth of brittle cracks. In the early 1840s he examined many broken axles, especially after the Versailles train crash of 1842 when a locomotive axle suddenly fractured and led to the death of over 50 passengers. He showed that the axles had failed by progressive growth of a brittle crack from a shoulder or other stress concentration source on the shaft, such as a keyway. He was supported by similar direct analysis of failed axles by Joseph Glynn, where the axles failed by slow growth of a brittle crack in a process now known as metal fatigue. It was likely that the front axle of one of the locomotives involved in the Versailles train crash failed in a similar way. Rankine presented his conclusions in a paper delivered to the Institution of Civil Engineers. His work was ignored however, by many engineers who persisted in believing that stress could cause "re-crystallisation" of the metal, a myth which has persisted even to recent times. The theory of recrystallisation was quite wrong, and inhibited worthwhile research until the work of William Fairbairn a few years later, which showed the weakening effect of repeated flexure on large beams. Nevertheless, fatigue remained a serious and poorly understood phenomenon, and was the root cause of many accidents on the railways and elsewhere. It is still a serious problem, but at least is much better understood today, and so can be prevented by careful design.
Other work
Rankine served as Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at the University of Glasgow from November 1855 until his death in December 1872, pursuing engineering research along a number of lines in civil and mechanical engineering.
Rankine was instrumental in the formation of the forerunner of Glasgow University Officer Training Corps, the 2nd Lanarkshire Rifle Volunteer Corps at Glasgow University in July 1859, becoming Major in 1860 after it was formed into the first company of the 2nd Battalion, 1st Lanarkshire Rifle Volunteer Corps; he served until 1864, when he resigned due to pressure of work – much of it associated with Naval Architecture.
Civil engineering
The Rankine Lectures, organised by the British Geotechnical Association, are named in recognition of the significant contributions Rankine made to:
Forces in frame structures;
Soil mechanics; most notably in lateral earth pressure theory and the stabilization of retaining walls. The Rankine method of earth pressure analysis is named after him.
Naval architecture
Rankine worked closely with Clyde shipbuilders, especially his friend and lifelong collaborator James Robert Napier, to make naval architecture into an engineering science. He was a founding member, and first President of the Institution of Engineers & Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1857. He was an early member of the Royal Institution of Naval Architects (founded 1860) and attended many of its annual meetings. With William Thomson and others, Rankine was a member of the board of enquiry into the controversial sinking of HMS Captain.
Awards and honours
Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts
Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1843 (he was never a full Member)
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1850
Fellow of the Royal Society of London, 1853
Keith Medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1854
Founding President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 1857
LL.D. from Trinity College, Dublin, 1857
Foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1868
The Rankine absolute Fahrenheit scale is named in his honour.
Rankine, a small impact crater near the eastern limb of the Moon, is also named in his honour.
In 2013 he was one of four inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame.
Publications
Books
Manual of Applied Mechanics (1858)
Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers (1859)
Manual of Civil Engineering (1861)
Shipbuilding, theoretical and practical (1866)
Manual of Machinery and Millwork (1869)
Papers
On the Mechanical Action of Heat, especially in Gases and Vapours (1850), read at the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 4 February 1850
On the General Law of Transformation of Energy (1853), read at the Glasgow Philosophical Society
On the Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of Finite Longitudinal Disturbance (1869)
Outlines of the Science of Energetics (1855), read at the Glasgow Philosophical Society
This work influenced French physicist Pierre Duhem's Traité de l'énergétique (1911) in which he considered thermodynamics, not classical mechanics, to be the more fundamental theory.
About Rankine
See also
Momentum theory
State function
Track transition curve
References
External links
J. Macquorn Rankine
1820 births
1872 deaths
Academics of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fluid dynamicists
Creators of temperature scales
Geotechnical engineers
British naval architects
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
People educated at Ayr Academy
Engineers from Edinburgh
Presidents of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland
Scottish civil engineers
Scottish engineers
19th-century Scottish writers
Thermodynamicists
Scottish mechanical engineers
Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees
19th-century Scottish businesspeople
Scientists from Edinburgh | [
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262150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews%20Air%20Force%20Base | Andrews Air Force Base | Andrews Air Force Base (Andrews AFB, AAFB) is the airfield portion of Joint Base Andrews, which is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force. In 2009, Andrews Air Force Base merged with Naval Air Facility Washington to form Joint Base Andrews. Andrews, located near Morningside, Maryland in suburban Washington, D.C., is the home base of two Boeing VC-25A aircraft with the call sign Air Force One when the president is on board, that serve the President of the United States, and the President is typically flown in and out of Andrews when travelling from Washington, D.C. by plane.
The host unit at Andrews is the 316th Wing, assigned to the Air Force District of Washington. It is responsible for maintaining emergency reaction rotary-wing airlift and other National Capital Region contingency response capabilities critical to national security and for organizing, training, equipping and deploying combat-ready forces for Air and Space Expeditionary Forces (AEFs). The 316th Wing also provides installation security, services and airfield management to support the President, Vice President, other U.S. senior leaders and more than 50 tenant organizations and federal agencies.
The 316th Wing provides security, personnel, contracting, finance and infrastructure support for five wings, three headquarters, more than 80 tenant organizations, 148 geographically separated units, and 6,500 airmen in the Pentagon, as well as 60,000 airmen and families in the national capital region and around the world. The 316th Wing supports contingency operations in the capital of the United States with immediate response rotary-assets. It also provides security for the world's highest visibility flight line and is responsible for ceremonial support with the United States Air Force Band, Honor Guard and Air Force Arlington Chaplaincy.
The wing commander is Colonel Tyler R. Schaff, and the command chief master sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Thomas C. Daniels.
For statistical purposes the base is delineated as a census-designated place by the U.S. Census Bureau. As of the 2010 census, the resident population was 2,973.
History
Union American Civil War troops used a country church near Camp Springs, Maryland for sleeping quarters (now named Chapel Two) and on 25 August 1941, President Roosevelt directed use of the land for an airfield.
Camp Springs Air Base
Camp Springs Air Base was designated on 5 September 1942, and construction began on 16 September 1942. The Maryland World War II Army Airfield of the 1st Air Force was "designated a sub-base of Headquarters, Baltimore AAFld, late Nov 1942"—the 901st Quartermaster Company (Construction) became the base operating unit on 14 December 1942. Camp Springs Army Air Base opened on 2 May 1943, and the airfield became operational 2 May 1943 when the first Republic P-47 Thunderbolts arrived. after the 367th Fighter Squadron was stationed at Camp Springs on 21 April 1943. On 6 June 1943 the Camp Springs headquarters gained command of 4 sub-bases: Baltimore AAFld, Dover Army Airfield, Millville Army Airfield, and Philadelphia Municipal Airport became sub-bases of Camp Springs AAB.
The airfield had runways by 1944 when the 90th Fighter Control Squadron was formed (28 March 1944), and the last Camp Springs combat units (e.g., 535th Fighter Escort Squadron) departed for World War II combat on 10 April 1944. Camp Springs was expanded to become the initial headquarters of Continental Air Forces (CONAF) (activated 12 December 1944)—the 161st AAF Base Unit (CONAF) became the "Andrews Field" operating unit on 16 April 1945.
Andrews Field
Andrews Field was named on 7 February 1945 in honor of Lt Gen. Frank Andrews and in 1946, Andrews was a sub-base of Bolling Field (3 January 1946 – 20 November 1946). Strategic Air Command headquarters transferred from Bolling Field to Andrews. The command of CONAF's Radar Bomb Scoring detachments (e.g., at Dallas Love Field) transferred to Andrews on 17 March 1946 when the "263 AAF BU" was assigned (transferred 23 February 1948) to Carswell AFB).
Andrews was transferred from the Army to the Air Force in 1947, and it was a Headquarters Command installation from 1947 through 1952 and again after 1957. Headquarters Military Air Transport Service controlled the base during the interim period. The year 1947 marked the arrival of the first permanently assigned jet-powered aircraft, the F-80 Shooting Star, at Andrews. The long-lived and versatile training version of the F-80, the T-33, still played an important role in proficiency flying programs at Andrews more than 30 years later.
Andrews Air Force Base
Andrews Air Force Base was designated on 24 June 1948, and in June 1950, Andrews rapidly became involved in combat readiness training for B-25 Mitchell medium bomber crews. Combat readiness training and proficiency flying for military pilots assigned non-flying duties in the Washington area have remained two key elements in the local mission since the establishment of the base. HQ Air Research and Development Command (later, Air Force Systems Command) moved to Andrews from Baltimore, 24 June 1958. With the construction of new facilities beginning in 1959, Andrews had become by early 1962 the primary USAF flight installation serving the Washington, DC, area with the closing of the runway at Bolling AFB.
Andrews' air defense role was strengthened in the 1950s with the latest in fighter-interceptor hardware appearing on the flight line. F-94 Starfires, F-102 Delta Daggers and finally, F-106 Delta Darts formed the backbone of the three fighter interceptor squadrons which operated from the base until 1963.
In the late 1950s Andrews began an annual open house and air show on base. This event later evolved into the Department of Defense Joint Services Open House, an annual event that now brings more than 700,000 visitors to the base every year. The open house is held every year over Armed Forces Day weekend.
In the years since 1959, Andrews' flight operations and importance have increased greatly. In 1961, the last of the Military Air Transport Service's flying units at Washington National Airport transferred to Andrews. This was followed a year later by the transfer to Andrews of all fixed-wing flying activities from Bolling Air Force Base. Andrews has become firmly established as the main port of entry for foreign military and government officials en route to Washington and the United States. In July 1961, the official presidential aircraft was stationed here, known as "Air Force One" when the president is on board. Before 1961, the presidential airplane had been kept at Washington National Airport and Bolling AFB.
In 1963, the Naval Air Facility (NAF), originally established at the former NAS Anacostia in 1919, moved to Andrews. The NAF handles Naval VIP flight operations. The Marine Corps detachment that flies the FA-18 Hornet is located here.
In a major reorganization, Headquarters Command, U.S. Air Force, was disbanded 1 July 1976, restructured under the Military Airlift Command as the 76th Airlift Division and transferred its headquarters from Bolling AFB to Andrews. The 76th remained the parent unit of the Andrews host command, redesignated as the 1st Air Base Wing.
In October 1977, the 76th Airlift Division became the 76th Military Airlift Wing. The 1st Air Base Wing was redesignated the 76th Air Base Group, and the 89th Military Airlift Wing became the 89th Military Airlift Group. The 76th MAW remained the parent unit at Andrews. On 15 December 1980, the 76th Airlift Division was reestablished, the 76th Air Base Group became the 1776th Air Base Wing and the 89th Military Airlift Group became the 89th Military Airlift Wing. On 1 October 1985, the 76th Airlift Division was inactivated as the result of activation of the Headquarters Air Force District of Washington at Bolling AFB. The 1776th Air Base Wing was designated the "host wing" for Andrews AFB and assumed base support responsibilities.
During Operation Desert Storm, Andrews handled 16,540 patients in makeshift hospital facilities located in the base tennis center.
On 12 July 1991, the 89th Military Airlift Wing was redesignated as the 89th Airlift Wing and assumed duties as the host wing at Andrews AFB. Support functions previously performed by the 1776th Air Base Wing now fall under the 89th and the 1776th was inactivated. With the consolidation of the two wings, the newly formed 89th Airlift Wing is one of the largest wings in Air Mobility Command with a work force approaching 9,000 people.
Known as "The President's Wing," the 89th Airlift Wing continues to contribute to Andrews' rich history as the elite Air Mobility Command wing for transporting VIPs around the world. Not only does Andrews provide service for America's senior officials, but also kings, queens, presidents, prime ministers, popes, and local and foreign military leaders make Andrews AFB their first stop in the United States.
On 5 January 2005 the Air Force reactivated the Air Force District of Washington (AFDW) as the single Air Force voice for planning and implementing Air Force and joint solutions within the National Capital Region (NCR). This event brought with it significant changes at Andrews. On 12 May 2006, the 89th Medical Group at Andrews and the 11th Medical Group, Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, D.C. combined into the 79th Medical Wing where it established its headquarters at Andrews. In June 2006, the 316th Wing stood up under the command of AFDW as the new host unit for Andrews Air Force Base and its nearly 50 tenant units to include organizations from the U.S. Army, the Air Force Reserve Command, Air National Guard, Navy Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve and the Civil Air Patrol. The activation of the 316th prompted the transfer of the 1st Helicopter Squadron from the 89th Airlift Wing to the 316th Operations Group. In May 2007 the AFDW, as well as the 844th Communications Group, transferred from Bolling AFB to Andrews AFB.
Merger
In May 2005, several recommendations relating to Andrews AFB were made by the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission. The most significant was to realign Naval Air Facility (NAF) Washington, by relocating it's installation management functions to Andrews AFB, thereby establishing Joint Base Andrews-Naval Air Facility Washington.
BRAC also recommended relocating several offices of the Secretary of the Air Force to Andrews from leased office space in Arlington, Virginia, thereby reducing reliance on leased floor space and increasing the security for those activities by locating them within a military installation.
Other changes included the relocation of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) headquarters from Andrews to Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, and the relocation of the Air Force Flight Standards Agency (AFFSA) and its two C-21A to Will Rogers Air National Guard Base, Oklahoma.
The merger with NAF Washington was effective from 1 October 2009, when the joint base was established, with the US Air Force being the lead organization providing management and support services for both installations.
Although sharing parallel runways, NAF Washington was originally considered a separate air installation and maintained a separate Navy/Marine Corps–unique FAA airfield identifier of NSF and an ICAO airfield identifier of KNSF. Prior to merging, these separate airfield identifiers were discontinued on 29 March 2009 and all flight operations in and out of NAF Washington now use the Andrews AFB airfield identifiers of ADW and KADW as appropriate.
On 1 October 2010; the Air Force completed the merge of the 11th Wing and the 316th. The 11th Wing became the host base organization for Joint Base Andrews.
Major commands to which assigned
First Air Force, 5 September 1942
Continental Air Forces, 17 April 1945
Redesignated: Strategic Air Command, 21 March 1946
Military Air Transport Service, 16 November 1948
Bolling Field Command, 8 April 1949
Air Defense Command (Attached)
Eastern Air Defense Force, 13 August 1950 – 1 July 1963
Military Air Transport Service, 1 August 1952
Bolling Field Command, 1 October 1957
Redesignated: Headquarters Command, USAF, 17 March 1958
Military Airlift Command, 1 July 1976
Air Force District of Washington, 12 July 1991
Air Mobility Command, 15 July 1994
Air Force District of Washington, 22 June 2006–present
Major units assigned
394th Base HQ & Air Base Squadron, 14 July 1943 – 10 April 1944
122d AAF Base Unit, 10 April 1944 – 16 April 1945
161st AAF Base Unit, 10 April 1944 – 15 November 1945
64th AAF Base Unit, 16 April 1945 – 15 August 1947
263d AAF (later AF) Base Unit, 17 March 1946 – 23 February 1948
443d AAF (later AF) Base Unit, 25 June 1946 – 27 June 1949
HQ Strategic Air Command, 20 October 1946 – 8 November 1948
60th AAF (later AF) Base Unit, 21 October 1946 – 1 August 1948
AAF (later AF) Separation Point, 12 March 1947 – 27 October 1949
3d Combat Fighter Wing VLR, 1 April 1947 – 15 August 1957
311th Reconnaissance Wing (311th Air Division), 1 June 1947 – 19 June 1948
2d Bombardment Group, 1 July – 24 September 1947
44th Bombardment Group, 1 July 1947 – 6 September 1948
90th Bombardment Group, 1 July 1947 – 19 July 1948
98th Bombardment Group, 1 July 1947 – 24 September 1947
303d Bombardment Group, 1 July 1947 – 6 September 1948
305th Bombardment Group, 1 July 1947 – 6 September 1948
306th Bombardment Group, 1 July 1947 – 1 August 1948
4th Fighter Wing, 15 August 1947 – 25 April 1949
33d Fighter Group, 25 August – 16 September 1947
HQ, Air Weather Service (AWS), 22 November 1948 – 22 June 1958
HQ Airborne Air Control Service (AACS), 22 November 1948 – 14 January 1958
HQ Military Air Transport Service (MATS), 1 December 1948 – 15 January 1958
1050th (later 1401st, later 1001st) Air Base Wing, 1 April 1949 – 1 July 1969
8500th Air Weather Wing, 1 September 1949 – 23 June 1951
335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 13 August – 10 November 1950
113th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, 1–16 February 1951
HQ Air Supply & Communication Service, 23 February 1951 – 1 January 1954
95th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 1 November 1952 – 1 July 1963
1401st (later 1001st, later 1st) Transport (later Airlift) Squadron, 24 August 1952–present
85th Air Division, 5 September 1955 – 1 September 1958
459th Troop Carrier (Later Military Airlift, later Air Refueling) Wing, 26 January 1955–present
Aerial Port of Embarkation, 6 January 1958 – 15 February 1978
HQ Air Force Research & Development (later Systems Command), 24 January 1958 – 1 July 1992
Malcolm Grow USAF Medical Center, 1 August 1958–present
1254th Air Transport (later 89th Military Airlift, later Airlift) Wing, 10 July 1961–present
909th Troop Carrier (later Military Airlift) Group, 28 December 1962 – 1 July 1976
6th Weather Wing, 8 October 1965 – 1 August 1975
1st Air Base Wing, 1 July 1969 – 30 September 1977
76th Airlift Division, 1 March 1976 – 30 September 1977
Redesignated: 76th Military Airlift Wing, 30 September 1977 – 16 December 1980
Redesignated: 76th Airlift Division, 15 December 1980 – 1 October 1985
1776th Air Base Wing, 15 December 1980 – 12 July 1991
79th Medical Wing, 12 May 2006–present
316th Wing, 1 June 2006 – 30 September 2010
11th Wing, 1 October 2010 – present
Air Force District of Washington, 1 May 2007 – present
U.S. Air Force Office of Special Investigations Headquarters
Joint Base Andrews
The base is widely known for serving as the home base of two Boeing VC-25 aircraft which have the call sign Air Force One while the President of the United States is on board.
The host at Andrews is the 11th Wing (11 WG), assigned to the Air Force District of Washington. The 11 WG is responsible for maintaining emergency reaction rotary-wing airlift and other National Capital Region contingency response capabilities critical to national security, and for organizing, training, equipping and deploying combat-ready forces for Air and Space Expeditionary Forces (AEFs).
See Joint Base Andrews for a list of units and aircraft now based at the installation.
Geography
Andrews Air Force Base is located at (38.803490, −76.871508), a few miles southeast of Washington, D.C. near the town of Morningside in Prince George's County, Maryland. It is delineated as a census-designated place by the United States Census Bureau. The CDP has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.51%, is water.
There are two runways on the base; the western runway is in length, and the eastern runway is in length. Two additional runways have been removed, including a minor third runway between the two main runways, and a small T-shaped runway which was closed and demolished by 2008.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,925 people, 1,932 households, and 1,864 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,158.9 people per square mile (447.3/km). There were 2,133 housing units at an average density of 311.9 sq mi (120.4/km). The racial makeup of the base was 65.3% White, 22.8% African American, 0.6% Native American, 3.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.7% from other races, and 4.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 8.7% of the population.
There were 1,932 households, out of which 75.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 86.1% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 3.5% were non-families. 3.2% of all households were made up of individuals, none of whom was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.39 and the average family size was 3.44.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 35.0% under the age of 18, 16.3% from 18 to 24, 44.9% from 25 to 44, 3.6% from 45 to 64, and 0.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 119.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 126.0 males.
The median income for a household in the base was $44,310, and the median income for a family was $42,866. Males had a median income of $27,070 versus $27,308 for females. The per capita income for the base was $16,520. About 2.6% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including of the total population, 2.8% of those under the age of 18 and none of those 65 and older.
Motor sports
On 2 May 1954, sports car races were held at the base, using a 4.3-mile (6.9 km) circuit made up of runways and other access roads.
See also
List of United States Air Force installations
Maryland World War II Army Airfields
References
Attribution
External links
Airports in Maryland
Buildings and structures in Prince George's County, Maryland
Census-designated places in Maryland
Installations of the United States Air National Guard
Installations of the United States Air Force
Military installations in Maryland
Military Superfund sites
Populated places in Prince George's County, Maryland
Strategic Air Command military installations
Superfund sites in Maryland
1945 establishments in Maryland | [
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262155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Gardiner | Stephen Gardiner | Stephen Gardiner (27 July 1483 – 12 November 1555) was an English bishop and politician during the English Reformation period who served as Lord Chancellor during the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip.
Early life
Gardiner was born in Bury St Edmunds, but the date of his birth is uncertain. His father could have been a John Gardiner, but also could have been Wyllyam Gardiner, a substantial cloth merchant of the town where he was born, who took care to give him a good education. His mother was said to be Helen Tudor, an illegitimate daughter of Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford, but American research from 2011 suggests that this lady was the mother of a different cleric, Thomas Gardiner.
In 1511, Gardiner, aged 28, met Erasmus in Paris. He had probably already begun his studies at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself in the classics, especially in Greek. He then devoted himself to canon and civil law, in which subjects he attained so great a proficiency that no one could dispute his pre-eminence. He received the degree of doctor of civil law in 1520, and of canon law in the following year.
Diplomatic career
Before long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, who made him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have been with him at The More in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion of the celebrated Treaty of the More brought King Henry VIII and the French ambassadors there. This was probably the occasion on which he first came to the king's notice, but he does not appear to have been actively engaged in Henry's service till three years later. He undoubtedly acquired a knowledge of foreign politics in the service of Wolsey.
In 1527 he and Sir Thomas More were named commissioners on the part of England, in arranging a treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army in Italy against Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. As a canon lawyer, he was sent to Orvieto in 1527 to secure a decretal commission from Pope Clement VII to allow the king's divorce case to be tried in England. In 1535 he was also appointed ambassador to France, where he remained for three years.
Role in the royal divorce
That year he accompanied Wolsey on his important diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and magnificence of which have been graphically described by George Cavendish in his biography of Wolsey. Among the cardinal's retinue – including several noblemen and privy councillors – Gardiner alone seems to have understood the importance of this embassy. Henry was particularly anxious to cement his alliance with King Francis I of France, and gain support for his plans to divorce Catherine of Aragon. In the course of his progress through France, Wolsey received orders from Henry to send back his secretary, Gardiner, for fresh instructions. Wolsey was obliged to reply that he positively could not spare Gardiner as he was the only instrument he had in advancing the king's "Great Matter". The next year, Wolsey sent Gardiner and Edward Foxe, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to Italy to promote the same business with the pope. His dispatched messages have survived, and illustrate the competence with which Gardiner performed his duties.
Gardiner's familiarity with canon law gave him a great advantage. He was instructed to procure a decretal commission from the pope, which was intended to construct principles of law by which Wolsey might render a decision on the validity of the king's marriage without appeal. Though supported by plausible pretexts, the demand was received as unusual and inadmissible. Pope Clement VII, who had been recently imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo by mutinous soldiers of the Holy Roman Empire, had managed to escape to Orvieto. Now fearful of offending Charles V, nephew of Queen Catherine, Clement refused to issue a definitive ruling concerning Henry's annulment. The matter was instead referred to his cardinals, with whom Gardiner held long debates.
Gardiner's pleading was unsuccessful. Though the issue had not been specifically resolved, a general commission was granted, enabling Wolsey, along with Papal Legate, Cardinal Campeggio, to try the case in England. While grateful to the pope for the small concession, Wolsey viewed this as inadequate for the purpose in view. He urged Gardiner to press Clement VII further to deliver the desired decretal, even if it were only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise Wolsey feared he would lose his credit with Henry, who might be tempted to discard his allegiance to Rome. However, Clement VII made no further concessions at the time and Gardiner returned home. The two legates held their court under the guidelines of the general commission.
King's secretary, conservative and absolutist
Gardiner was a conservative and an opponent of Anne Boleyn, Cranmer, Cromwell and of any innovation in the Church, although he acquiesced grudgingly in the steadily increasing influence of the Reformation on the royal counsels. A description of his character from George Cavendish declared him "a swarthy complexion, hooked nose, deep-set eyes, a permanent frown, huge hands and a vengeful wit. He was ambitious, sure of himself, irascible, astute, and worldly."
In early August 1529 he was appointed the king's secretary. He had already been archdeacon of Taunton for several years. The archdeaconries of Worcester and of Norfolk were also added to a list of pluralities before November 1529 and in March 1530 respectively; in April 1531 he resigned all three for that of Leicester. In 1530 the King demanded a precedent from Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage with a deceased brother's wife: in accordance with the new plan devised for settling the question without the pope's intervention. In this Gardiner succeeded. In November 1531 the king rewarded him with the bishopric of Winchester, vacant since Wolsey's death. The unexpected promotion was accompanied by expressions from the king which made it still more honourable, showing that if he had been subservient, it was not for the sake of his own advancement. Gardiner had, in fact, argued boldly with the king on some points, and Henry now reminded him of the fact. "I have often squared with you, Gardiner," he said familiarly, "but I love you never the worse, as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1532, nevertheless, he displeased the king by taking part in the preparation of the "Answer of the Ordinaries" to the complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. On this subject he wrote to the king in his own defence.
Gardiner was not exactly, as is often said, one of Thomas Cranmer's assessors, but, according to Cranmer's own expression, "assistant" to him as counsel for the king, when the archbishop, in the absence of Queen Catherine, pronounced her marriage with Henry null and void on 23 May 1533. Immediately afterwards he was sent to Marseilles, where an interview between the pope and Francis I took place in September. Henry was deeply suspicious, as Francis, ostensibly his ally, had previously maintained the justice of his cause in the matter of the divorce. It was at this interview that Edmund Bonner intimated the appeal of Henry VIII to a general council in case the pope should venture to proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and another on behalf of Cranmer presented with it, were drawn up by Gardiner.
In 1535 he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the king's new title of "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The result was his celebrated treatise De vera obedientia, the ablest of all the vindications of royal supremacy. "Princes ought to be obeyed", wrote Gardiner, "by the commandment of God; yea, and to be obeyed without question". He certainly believed in the semi-divinity of kings, and the divine majesty's right to rule as if the King's law was God's law. In the same year he had a dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his diocese. He was also employed to answer the pope's brief threatening to deprive Henry of his kingdom.
During the next few years he took part in various embassies to France and Germany. He was often so abroad, having little influence on the king's councils; but in 1539 he took part in the enactment of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of Bishops Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1540, on the execution of Thomas Cromwell he was elected chancellor of the University of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted, in concert with others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in connection with the Six Articles and but for the personal intervention of the king he would probably have succeeded.
Despite having supported royal supremacy, he was a thorough opponent of the Reformation from a doctrinal point of view, and is thought to have been a leader of the Prebendaries' Plot against Cranmer. He had not approved of Henry's general treatment of the church, especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell. In 1544 a relation of his, named German Gardiner, whom he employed as his secretary, was executed for treason in reference to the king's supremacy, and his enemies insinuated to the king that he himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. The king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; for it was Gardiner who, even under royal supremacy, was anxious to prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer's authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy.
Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king's church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the archbishop for heresy, the archbishop could always rely on the king's protection in the end. Protestantism was gaining ground in high places, especially after the king's marriage to Catherine Parr; the Queen herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner, with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions in conversation. Just after her marriage, four men of the Court were condemned at Windsor and three of them were burned. The fourth, who was the theologian and composer John Merbecke, was pardoned by Gardiner's procurement, who said he was "but a musician".
Edward VI's reign
Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII, his name was omitted from the king's will, though Henry was believed to have intended making him one of his executors. Henry had made provision in his will for a 16-man Council to rule England during his son Edward's minority (Edward VI). Gardiner was excluded from this council. Edward Seymour, a brother of Jane Seymour, seized power as Protector Somerset and he and his Council introduced radical Protestant reforms. Gardiner completely opposed these reforms. Between the time of Henry VIII's death in January 1547 and the end of that year, Gardiner wrote at least 25 indignant letters arguing that the reforms were both theologically wrong and unconstitutional. Most of these letters were addressed to Somerset. He resisted the visitation of his Winchester diocese by the ecclesiastical authorities. His remonstrances resulted in imprisonment in the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his incarceration. Although soon released, he was summoned before the council, which demanded an explanation. Refusing to answer satisfactorily on some points, Gardiner was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Eventually he was given a lengthy appearance before the Privy Council, beginning in December 1550 and, in February 1551 he was deprived of his bishopric and returned to the Tower where he remained for the rest of the reign (a further two years). During this time he unsuccessfully requested his acknowledged right as one of the Lords Spiritual to appear before the House of Lords. His bishopric was given to John Ponet, a chaplain of Cranmer's, translated from the bishopric of Rochester.
Mary I's reign
At the accession of Queen Mary I, the Duke of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the Tower along with Gardiner; but the Queen, on her first entry into London, set them all free. Gardiner was restored to his Bishopric and appointed Lord Chancellor, and he placed the crown on the Queen's head at her coronation. He also opened her first parliament and for some time was her leading councillor. He was now also called upon, in old age, to undo not a little of the work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years – to demonstrate the legitimacy of the Queen's birth and the legality of her mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant his own words touching the royal supremacy.
It is said that he wrote a formal Palinodia or retractation of his book De vera obedientia; but the reference is probably to his sermon at the start of Advent, 1554, after Cardinal (later Archbishop of Canterbury) Reginald Pole had absolved the kingdom from schism. As chancellor he had the onerous task of negotiating the Queen's marriage treaty with Philip II of Spain, for which he shared a general repugnance. In executing it, he took care to make the terms as advantageous for England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the country. After the appointment of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high favour. How far he was responsible for the persecutions which afterwards arose is open to debate. He no doubt approved of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided there as chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws.
There is no doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop John Hooper, and on several other preachers whom he condemned to be degraded from the priesthood. The natural consequence of this was that when they declined, even as laymen, to be reconciled to the Roman Church, they were handed over to the secular power to be burned. In his diocese no victim of the persecution is known to have suffered until after his death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, there is much to show that his personality was generous and humane. In May 1555 he went to Calais as one of the English commissioners to promote peace with France; but their efforts were ineffectual. In October 1555 he again opened parliament as Lord Chancellor, but towards the end of the month he fell ill and grew rapidly worse until he died.
Death
Bishop Gardiner died at Westminster on 12 November 1555. He was temporarily buried in a vault at the church of St Mary Overie, and in February 1556 his body was conveyed to Winchester Cathedral, where, after a number of ceremonies, a final funeral service was conducted on 28 February 1556, at which time it was recorded that he had not been buried and that no ground was broken, in the expectation that in due course his executors would build a chapel within the cathedral for his incarceration. Some claim that his last words were Erravi cum Petro, sed non flevi cum Petro (Like Peter, I have erred, unlike Peter, I have not wept).
Fictional portrayals
Bishop Gardiner is a character in the Fifth Queen trilogy by Ford Madox Ford. Gardiner is a major character in The Path to Somerset by Janet Wertman, which centers on his rivalry with the rising Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset.
Gardiner is a prominent character in Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall, Bring Up the Bodies and The Mirror and the Light, where he appears as an implacable opponent of Thomas Cromwell. In the Wolf Hall television series, Gardiner is portrayed by Mark Gatiss.
Gardiner is the villain in Alison MacLeod's 1965 historical novel The Heretic, a biography of the Protestant martyr Anne Askew, of whose execution Gardiner was the main instigator.
Gardiner is played by Terence Rigby in the 1998 film Elizabeth, where he is portrayed as a villainous bishop who took part in the Ridolfi plot and who vehemently opposed Elizabeth I's Act of Uniformity; in reality, Gardiner had died before Elizabeth ascended the throne. A more accurate portrayal of Gardiner can be seen in the BBC dramas The Six Wives of Henry VIII and Elizabeth R (in both of which he is played by Basil Dignam). In The Tudors television series Gardiner is played by Simon Ward.
See also
Secretary of State (England)
Privy Councillor
References
External links
1483 births
1555 deaths
Lord Chancellors of England
Secretaries of State of the Kingdom of England
Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
Counter-Reformation
Bishops of Winchester
Archdeacons of Leicester
Archdeacons of Norfolk
Archdeacons of Taunton
English constitutionalists
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Masters of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
People from Bury St Edmunds
16th-century English Roman Catholic bishops
Burials at Winchester Cathedral
16th-century English lawyers
English Renaissance humanists
Court of Mary I of England | [
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262156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxana | Roxana | Roxana (c. 340 BCE – 310 BCE, ; Old Iranian: *Raṷxšnā- "shining, radiant, brilliant"; sometimes Roxanne, Roxanna, Rukhsana, Roxandra and Roxane) was a Sogdian or a Bactrian princess whom Alexander the Great married after defeating Darius, ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, and invading Persia. The exact date of her birth is unknown, but she was probably in her late teens or early twenties at the time of her wedding to Alexander the Great.
Biography
Roxana was born in c. 340 BC as the daughter of a Bactrian nobleman named Oxyartes who served Bessus, the satrap of Bactria and Sogdia. He was thus probably also involved in the murder of the last Achaemenid king Darius III. After Bessus was captured by the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great, Oxyartes and his family continued to resist the Macedonians, and along with other notables such as the Sogdian warlord Spitamenes, took up a defensive position in a fortress known as the Sogdian Rock.
However, they were eventually defeated by Alexander, who attending a celebration, reportedly fell in love with Roxana on sight. Where the celebration took place, if in the Sogdian Rock or another fortress of Chorienes (also called Sisimithres by Quintus Rufus Curtius) during which Alexander met Roxana but according to the Metz Epitome it was in the house of Chorienes in which Roxana was introduced to Alexander as the daughter of Oxyartes. In 327 BC, Alexander married Roxana despite opposition from his companions and generals. The marriage was also of political advantage as it made the Sogdian army more loyal towards Alexander and less rebellious after their defeat. Alexander thereafter made an expedition into India and while there he appointed Oxyartes as the governor of the Hindu Kush region which was adjoining India. It is assumed that during this period, Roxana was in a safe place in Susa. When Alexander returned to Susa, he promoted a brother of Roxana to the elite cavalry. With the aim of a better acceptance of his government among the Persians, Alexander also married Stateira II, the daughter of the deposed Persian King Darius III.
After Alexander's sudden death at Babylon in 323 BC, Roxana is believed to have murdered Alexander's other widow, Stateira II, and possibly Stateira's sister, Drypetis, and her cousin, Parysatis II (Alexander's third wife). Roxana's unborn child caused some discussions between Alexander's loyalists around Perdiccas and Ptolemy who suggested to await Alexander's child to be the next King and name either a caretaker regent or a council in his stead, and the Macedonian soldiers who opposed a so-called persianization of the Macedonian court. For the Macedonian succession a temporary compromise was found as Arrhidaeus was declared Macedonian King; if the unborn child was a son, he was to become a King as well. By 317 though, Roxana's son, called Alexander IV lost his right to assume as King due to intrigues started by the Philip Arrhidaeus' wife, Eurydice II. Afterwards Roxana and her son were protected by Alexander's mother, Olympias, in Macedonia. Following Olympias' assassination in 316 BC Cassander imprisoned of Roxana and Alexander in the citadel of Amphipolis. Their detention was condemned by the Macedonian general Antigonus in 315 BC. In 311 BC a peace treaty between Antigonus and Cassander confirmed the Kingship of Alexander IV but also Cassander as his guardian, following which the Macedonians demanded his release. However, Cassander ordered Glaucias to kill Alexander and Roxana. It is assumed that they were murdered in spring 310 BC, but their death was concealed until the summer. The two were killed after Heracles, a son of Alexander the Great's mistress Barsine, was murdered, bringing the Argead dynasty to an end.
Honors
Asteroid 317 Roxane is named in her honor.
See also
Alexandre et Roxane, an opera that Mozart planned to write
Balkh
Roshanak
References
Sources
External links
Roxane by Jona Lendering
Wiki Classical Dictionary: Roxane, daughter of Oxyartes
Roxana from Charles Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1867)
340s BC births
310s BC deaths
4th-century BC Iranian people
4th-century BC women
Ancient Macedonian queens consort
Ancient murder victims
Bactria
Iranic women
Murdered royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
People who died under the regency of Cassander
Sogdian people
Wives of Alexander the Great
Women in Hellenistic warfare
Women of the Achaemenid Empire | [
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262158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Alcock%20%28bishop%29 | John Alcock (bishop) | John Alcock ( – 1 October 1500) was an English churchman, bishop and Lord Chancellor.
Biography
Alcock was born at Beverley in Yorkshire, son of Sir William Alcock, Burgess of Kingston upon Hull and educated at Cambridge. In 1461 he was made dean of St Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, and his subsequent promotion was rapid in both church and state. In the following year he was made Master of the Rolls, and in 1470 was sent as ambassador to the court of Castile. He was nominated to the see of Rochester on 8 January 1472 and consecrated Bishop of Rochester on 15 March and was successively translated to the see of Worcester on 15 July 1476 and the see of Ely on 6 October 1486. He was the first president of the Council of the Marches in Wales from 1473 to 1500. He twice held the office of Lord Chancellor, once from June 1475 to September 1475 and then again from October 1485 to March 1487.
Alcock was one of the leading pre-Reformation divines; he was a man of deep learning and also of great proficiency as an architect. Besides founding a charity at Beverley and a grammar school at Kingston upon Hull, he restored many churches and colleges; but his greatest achievement was the building of Jesus College, Cambridge, which he established on the site of the former Convent of St Radegund.
Alcock was appointed to the Council in 1470 and became Master of the Rolls in 1471, soon after being appointed tutor to King Edward IV's eldest son, Prince Edward. After the King's death he was with Prince Edward when he was intercepted by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, at Stony Stratford. Alcock was arrested and removed from office but soon rejoined the council. He was with King Richard III when he entered York in August 1483 and was a member of the English delegation that met the Scots at Nottingham.
Later Alcock was one of several clerics who openly canvassed the proposition that Henry Tudor marry Elizabeth of York. Appointed temporary Lord Chancellor he opened King Henry VII's first Parliament on 7 November 1485 and became one of the new king's most trusted servants.
Alcock died on 1 October 1500 and lies buried in the Alcock Chantry in Ely Cathedral.
Princes in the Tower
The novelist Valerie Anand, a believer in the innocence of Richard III in the matter of The Princes in the Tower, points out that Alcock, the tutor of Edward V, never quarrelled with Richard III, either publicly or privately, but chose to "continue to work serenely beside Richard". This would have been unthinkable if Alcock had any reason at all to suspect that King Richard had done any harm to his nephew Edward.
Writings
Alcock's published writings, most of which are extremely rare, are: Mons Perfectionis, or the Hill of Perfection (London, 1497); Gallicontus Johannis Alcock episcopi Eliensis ad frates suos curatas in sinodo apud Barnwell (1498), a good specimen of early English printing and quaint illustrations; The Castle of Labour, translated from the French (1536), and various other tracts and homilies.
Citations
References
1430s births
1500 deaths
People from Beverley
Lord Chancellors of England
Bishops of Ely
Bishops of Worcester
Bishops of Rochester
15th-century English Roman Catholic bishops
Founders of English schools and colleges
Masters of the Rolls
People educated at Beverley Grammar School
Deans of St Stephen's Chapel, Westminster | [
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] |
262160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy%20of%20thermal%20and%20statistical%20physics | Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics | The philosophy of thermal and statistical physics is that part of the philosophy of physics whose subject matter is an amalgam of classical thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and related theories. Its central questions include: What is entropy, and what does the second law of thermodynamics say about it? Does either thermodynamics or statistical mechanics contain an element of time-irreversibility? If so, what does statistical mechanics tell us about the arrow of time? What is the nature of the probabilities that appear in statistical mechanics?
See also
Laws of thermodynamics
Maxwell's demon
H-theorem
Maximum entropy thermodynamics
Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory
References
Uffink, J., 2001, "Bluff your way in the second law of thermodynamics," Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 32(3): 305–94.
--------, 2007, "Compendium of the Foundations of Classical Statistical Physics" in Butterfield, J., and John Earman, eds., Philosophy of Physics, Part B. North Holland: 923–1074.
Valev, P., 2002, "The Law of Self-Acting Machines and Irreversible Processes with reversible Replicas," in Sheehan, D., (ed.) Proceedings of the First International conference on Quantum Limits to the Second Law, American Institute of Physics: 430–35.
Martinas et al., Thermodynamics: History And Philosophy - Facts, Trends, Debates
Hoyer, Thermodynamics and Philosophy: Ludwig Boltzmann
Sklar, Physics and Chance: Philosophical Issues in the Foundations of Statistical Mechanics
Ernst & Hüttemann, Time, Chance, and Reduction: Philosophical Aspects of Statistical Mechanics
External links
Philosophy of physics | [
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262163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Naunton | Robert Naunton | Sir Robert Naunton (1563 – 27 March 1635) was an English writer and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1606 and 1626.
Family
Robert Naunton was the son of Henry Naunton of Alderton, Suffolk, and Elizabeth Asheby of Hornsby, Leicestershire. According to Schreiber, the Nauntons were "established members of the county gentry and had been so for well over two centuries". Robert Naunton's grandfather, William Naunton, was trained as a lawyer and married Elizabeth Wingfield, the daughter Sir Anthony Wingfield, a trusted servant of Henry VIII. William Naunton was a Member of Parliament, and one of the principal officers of the King's brother-in-law, Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and later of his widow, Katherine Willoughby, Duchess of Suffolk. Robert Naunton's father, Henry, served as Master of Horse to the Dowager Duchess, while his maternal uncle, William Ashby, was a member of the diplomatic service under Queen Elizabeth.
Career
He was educated at Norwich School and Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow of his college in 1585 and public orator of the university in 1594. Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, commissioned him to spend some time abroad, sending information about European affairs. On his return, Naunton was elected Member of Parliament for Helston at a by-election in 1606.
Naunton visited the court in London in October 1605. He thought that Anne of Denmark's farthingale might conceal a pregnancy, writing, "The Queen is generally held to be pregnant, but no appearance eminent by reason of the short vardugals in use".
In 1614 Naunton was knighted and in 1616 became Master of Requests and later surveyor of the court of wards. In December 1617 his friend George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham procured for him the position of Secretary of State on the condition of his making Christopher Villiers, Buckingham's brother, his heir, and during his lifetime Villiers gained from Naunton estates worth £500 a year. In 1621 Naunton was elected MP for Cambridge University. His strong Protestant opinions led him to favour more active intervention by England in the interests of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and more vigorous application of the laws against Roman Catholics. Naunton was censured after the Spanish ambassador, Gondomar, complained to King James I. Consequently, in January 1623, Naunton resigned as Secretary of State and was made master of the Court of Wards and Liveries.
Sir Robert was re-elected MP for Cambridge University in 1624 and 1625. He was elected MP for Suffolk in 1626.
Naunton died at Letheringham, Suffolk at the age of 71.
Marriages and issue
Naunton married secondly Penelope Perrot, widow of the astronomer Sir William Lower, and daughter of Sir Thomas Perrot and Dorothy Devereux, daughter of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex.
Naunton's daughter Penelope married firstly Paul Bayning, 2nd Viscount Bayning (son of Paul Bayning, 1st Viscount Bayning), and secondly Philip Herbert, 5th Earl of Pembroke in his first marriage, by whom he became the grandfather of William Herbert, 6th Earl of Pembroke.
Works
Naunton's account of Queen Elizabeth's reign was still in manuscript when he died. As Fragmenta regalia, written by Sir Robert Naunton, it was printed in 1641 and again in 1642, a revised edition Fragmenta Regalia, or Observations on the late Queen Elizabeth, her Times and Favourites, being issued in 1653. It was again published in 1824, and an edition edited by Edward Arber was brought out in 1870. It has also been printed in several collections and has been translated into French and Italian. There are several manuscript copies extant, and some of Naunton's letters are in the British Museum and in other collections. A modern critical edition was prepared by J. S. Cerovski and published in 1985.
He is the source for Elizabeth's rebuke to Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester: "by God there shall be one mistress here and no master". He is also noted for his judgement of Henry VIII "He never spared a man in his anger or a woman in his lust". He was largely responsible for the claim that Sir John Perrot, his wife's grandfather, was Henry VIII's natural son.
Notes
References
Attribution
External links
1563 births
1635 deaths
People educated at Norwich School
British Secretaries of State
Lords Privy Seal
Members of the pre-1707 Parliament of England for the University of Cambridge
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
People from Suffolk Coastal (district)
16th-century English people
English MPs 1604–1611
English MPs 1614
English MPs 1621–1622
English MPs 1624–1625
English MPs 1625
English MPs 1626 | [
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262164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molineux%20Stadium | Molineux Stadium | Molineux Stadium ( ) in Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England, has been the home ground of Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers since 1889. The first stadium built for use by a Football League club, it was one of the first British grounds to have floodlights installed and hosted some of the earliest European club games in the 1950s.
At the time of its multi-million pound renovation in the early 1990s, Molineux was one of the biggest and most modern stadia in England, though it has since been eclipsed by other ground developments. The stadium has hosted England internationals and, more recently, England under-21 internationals, as well as the first UEFA Cup Final in 1972.
Molineux is a 32,050 all-seater stadium, but it consistently attracted much greater attendances when it was mostly terracing. The record attendance is 61,315. Plans were announced in 2010 for a £40 million redevelopment programme to rebuild and link three sides of the stadium to increase capacity to 38,000 seats. The first stage of this project, the Stan Cullis Stand, was completed in 2012. The next two stages were postponed because the club prioritised funds for development of the youth academy. There are provisional plans for a longer term redevelopment of every stand that could create a 50,000 capacity.
Stadium
The stadium is a few hundred yards north of Wolverhampton city centre, at the far side of the city's ring road, and is a prominent building due to its size in an area with predominantly low-rise buildings.
It consists of four stands:
The Steve Bull Stand (formerly the John Ireland Stand). The Sir Jack Hayward Stand (formerly the Jack Harris Stand and also known as 'The South Bank'), is a single tier, safe standing terrace. The Stan Cullis Stand (also known as The North Bank) is the most recently renovated stand. The Billy Wright Stand holds the team dressing rooms, media booths and the family section.
The total seated capacity of the stands is approximately 31,500, with a temporary seating area lifting the present official capacity to 32,050. The current stadium design stems from the early 1990s when it was extensively redeveloped to become a modern all-seater venue in accordance with the Taylor Report, which required British football stadia to provide seating for all those attending.
In the days before seating regulations, the ground could hold more than 60,000 spectators; the record attendance for a match at the ground is 61,315 for a Football League First Division game against Liverpool on 11 February 1939. The 1940s and 1950s saw average attendances for seasons regularly exceed 40,000, coinciding with the club's peak on the field.
Molineux has hosted England internationals. The first was a 6–1 win over Ireland on 7 March 1891. England again beat Ireland, this time 4–0, on 14 February 1903 and lost to Wales 2–1 on 5 February 1936. The last was a 5–2 defeat of Denmark in a 1958 World Cup qualifier on 5 December 1956. It has also hosted four England under-21 internationals (in 1996, 2008, 2014 and 2018) and, in 2005, hosted some European Youth Championship qualifying matches.
On 24 June 2003, Molineux also became Wolverhampton's biggest live concert venue, with Bon Jovi performing in front of 34,000 people.
Up until May 2011, the ground had a capacity of 29,400. However the 5,500 Stan Cullis Stand was knocked down for redevelopment and 230 seats in the lower tier of the Steve Bull Stand were taken out as part of the process taking temporary capacity down to 23,670. The lower tier of the new North Bank (holding 4,000) was opened for use in September 2011 for the team's second home game of the season, which took the stadium capacity up to 27,670. The upper tier on the new stand (3,700 seats) was completed by the start of the 2012–13 season, taking the overall capacity of the stadium up to 31,700. However the club have delayed the second phase of the redevelopment in rebuilding the Steve Bull Stand. Following relegation from the top flight in 2012, the South-West Corner was dismantled until regaining promotion six years later.
History
Origins
The Molineux name originates from Benjamin Molineux, a successful local merchant (and a distant relative of the now extinct Earls of Sefton) who, in 1744, purchased land on which he built Molineux House (later converted to the Molineux Hotel) and on which the stadium would eventually be built. The estate was purchased in 1860 by O.E. McGregor, who converted the land into a pleasure park open to the public. Molineux Grounds, as it was titled, included a wide range of facilities including an ice rink, a cycling track, a boating lake, and, most crucially, an area for football.
The grounds were sold to the Northampton Brewery in 1889, who rented its use to Wolverhampton Wanderers, who had previously played at Dudley Road. After renovating the site, the first-ever league game was staged on 7 September 1889 in a 2–0 victory over Notts County before a crowd of 4,000.
Wolves bought the freehold in 1923 for £5,607 (£303,338.70 in 2018 prices) and soon set about constructing a major grandstand on the Waterloo Road side (designed by Archibald Leitch). In 1932, the club also built a new stand on the Molineux Street side and followed this by adding a roof to the South Bank two years later. The stadium finally now had four stands, which formed Molineux for the next half-century. The South Bank Stand terraces were one of the largest goal stands in Britain.
In 1953, the club became one of the first in Britain to install floodlights, at a cost of around £10,000 (£274,000 in 2018 prices). The first-ever floodlit game was held on 30 September 1953, as Wolves won 3–1 against South Africa. The referee for this match was Mr. F Read of Willenhall. The addition of the floodlights opened the door for Molineux to host a series of midweek friendlies against teams from across the globe. In the days prior to the formation of the European Cup and international club competitions, these games were highly prestigious and gained huge crowds and interest, the BBC often televising such events. A new taller set of floodlights were later installed in 1957, at a cost of £25,000 (£595,000 in 2018 prices), as the stadium prepared to host its first European Cup games.
Further redevelopment and decline
In 1958, plans were unveiled to rebuild Molineux into a 70,000 capacity stadium during the early 1960s, but these were rejected by the local council and there were no major changes at the stadium for another 20 years.
The Molineux Street Stand (by now all-seater) failed to meet the standards of the 1975 Safety of Sports Grounds Act. The club set about building a new stand behind the existing one, on land where housing had been demolished. The new stand, designed by architects Atherden and Rutter, had a 9,348 capacity, equipped with 42 executive boxes, although sporting red seats in contrast to the club's traditional colours. When the construction was complete, the old stand lying in front was demolished, leaving the stand some 100 ft from the touchline. This new stand, named the John Ireland Stand (after the then-club president), was opened on 25 August 1979 at the start of a First Division game against Ipswich Town. This was intended as the first phase of a complete reconstruction of the ground, which would have given it a 40,000 capacity by 1984 and made it the first completely rebuilt stadium in postwar league football. However, the John Ireland Stand was the only phase of this project which would become reality. Further redevelopment was still a decade away.
In 1981, plans were unveiled for further redevelopment at the stadium which would have cost more than £4million and involved five-a-side football pitches, indoor and outdoor tennis courts, and an eight-lane running track. However, these were soon scrapped due to rising debts.
The John Ireland Stand (renamed as The Steve Bull Stand in 2003), completed in 1979, had cost £2.5 million (£13,675,000 in 2018 prices) and had been one of the most expensive developments at any football ground in the U.K. The cost of the stand's construction plunged Wolves deep into debt and the club narrowly avoided liquidation in 1982, when it was taken over by a group fronted by former player Derek Dougan.
By the time Wolves slid into the Football League Fourth Division in 1986, the John Ireland Stand and the South Bank terrace were the only sections of the ground in use, after new safety laws implemented following the Bradford City stadium fire forced the closure of the North Bank and Waterloo Road Stand, which had become very dilapidated. Additionally, attendances had fallen due to the club's on-the-field decline.
The club's perilous financial situation meant the stadium fell into ruin, with no funding either for repairs or to move the pitch. The club was saved from folding in August 1986 when Wolverhampton Council bought the ground for £1,120,000 (£3,236,800 in 2018 prices), along with the surrounding land, while Gallagher Estates, in conjunction with the Asda Superstore chain, agreed to pay off the outstanding debt – subject to building and planning permission for a superstore being granted. Although the stadium continued in use, the disused sections were never reopened.
Present-day stadium
The takeover of the club and stadium by Sir Jack Hayward in 1990 paved the way for redevelopment, which was further prompted by legislation following the Taylor Report that outlawed terraces which affected Premier League and Division One stadiums from the 1993–94 season. The North Bank terrace was demolished in October 1991 and the new Stan Cullis Stand was completed in August 1992, in time for the 1992–93 season. Next came the demolition of the Waterloo Road Stand, with the new Billy Wright Stand opening in August 1993. The final phase of the redevelopment came in December 1993, when the new Jack Harris Stand was opened on the site of the South Bank terrace.
The newly renovated stadium was officially opened on 7 December 1993, in a friendly with Honvéd, the Hungarian team who had been beaten in one of Molineux's most famous original floodlit friendlies.
In 2003, the John Ireland Stand was renamed the Steve Bull Stand (in honour of the club's record goalscorer) and, at the same time, the south-west corner of the ground was filled with 900 temporary seats, known as the Graham Hughes Stand, which, until their removal in the summer of 2006, raised the Molineux capacity to 29,400. This seating area – now officially named the Wolves Community Trust Stand – was again added on the club's return to the top flight in 2009, which lifted the capacity to 29,195 before the club began its redevelopment of the stadium in summer 2011. In August 2015, the Jack Harris Stand was renamed the Sir Jack Hayward Stand in honour of Steve Morgan's predecessor as the club's owner, who had died earlier that year.
The record attendance for the stadium in its current configuration is 31,746, which was achieved against Liverpool on 23 January 2020 in the Premier League.
Current redevelopment
Plans were announced in May 2010 to begin an extensive multi-million pound programme of redevelopment to enlarge the stadium's capacity and develop its facilities. A full application for planning permission was submitted in September 2010, and granted three months later.
Phase 1 of this process was confirmed in February 2011, and commenced on 23 May 2011 as demolition of the Stan Cullis Stand began. In its place a new two-tier stand (seating 7,798), complete with mega-store, museum, café and hospitality facilities, was planned for the 2012–13 season which extended around into the north-east corner.
This phase, costing an estimated £18 million, was carried out by contractors the Buckingham Group. By September 2011 the lower tier was opened to fans, permitting a temporary stadium capacity of 27,828. The stand was fully opened on 11 August 2012 for the club's first fixture of the 2012–13 season, creating a new official stadium capacity of 31,700.
Phase 2 will be the rebuilding of the Steve Bull Stand over a two-season period. Work was initially set to begin in summer 2012, but has since been postponed with no revised start date yet set. In January 2013 club owner Steve Morgan stated the club would prioritise the redevelopment of its academy facilities over the stadium. At the conclusion of this stage stadium capacity would reach around 36,000 and see this stand connected to the new Stan Cullis Stand. Proceeding with this second stage would raise the redevelopment spend to in excess of £40 million.
Phase 3 is subject to demand and finance, but is planned to be the construction of a new top-tier on the Sir Jack Hayward Stand, that will connect it to the new Steve Bull Stand. This would bring capacity up to around 38,000.
Phase 4 is a tentative plan to completely redevelop the Billy Wright Stand in a move that would bring capacity to 50,000. However, no planning permission has yet been sought for this phase and it remains only a potential, rather than planned, development with no timeframe in place.
See also
Development of stadiums in English football
Bibliography
References
External links
Read a detailed historical record about Molineux Stadium
Pictures of Molineux through the years
Wolverhampton Wanderers official website
Stadium Guide Article
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.
Sport in Wolverhampton
Football venues in England
Sports venues in the West Midlands (county)
Sports venues completed in 1889
English Football League venues
Premier League venues | [
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262167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego%20Sarmiento%20de%20Acu%C3%B1a%2C%201st%20Count%20of%20Gondomar | Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, 1st Count of Gondomar | Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Count of Gondomar (Spanish: Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, conde de Gondomar; Astorga, November 1, 1567 – Casalarreina, La Rioja, October 2, 1626), was a Spanish (Galician) diplomat. He served as the Spanish ambassador to England from 1613 to 1622 and afterwards, as a kind of ambassador emeritus, Spain's leading expert on English affairs until his death.
The popular notion in England of his day painted him as the head of a Spanish faction at the English court, as privy to the inner thoughts of King James I, and as a fiendish schemer for Popery (for whom the term "Machiavellian" was brought into common English usage).
Early life
He was the eldest son of the Galician knight Garcia Sarmiento de Soutomaior —Lord of Salvaterra de Miño, who served as corregidor of Toro and governor of the Canary Islands— and of Juana de Acuña, heiress of the noble house of Acuña. He was born in Astorga, near Galicia, inheriting large estates both in Galicia and in Old Castile. He took an active part during the Anglo-Spanish War in repelling an English raid led by Sir Francis Drake on Baiona and Vigo in 1585. They met forces again four years later in Vigo, after the "English Armada" was turned away in A Coruña and Lisbon; in the assault on A Corunha Drake was defeated but not before the bombing and sack of the town. As a result of these military successes, he was appointed by King Philip II of Spain as governor of Baiona, and keeper of the fortress of Monte Real, so warding the southern frontier and sea coast of Galicia. Later, in 1596, he was appointed first corregidor of Toro, and later of Valladolid, then the residence and capital of King Philip III. From that moment he was forced to reconcile both roles, as courtier and corregidor in the capital, and as soldier and Capitan in Galicia: in 1603 he was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the distribution of the treasure brought from America by two galleons which were driven to take refuge there; on his return he was appointed a member of the board of finance. In 1609 he repelled a Dutch naval attack on the coast of Galicia.
Although he held both military and administrative employs, his residence was at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol estate and was already collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and apparently as a friend of the favourite, the Duke of Lerma. In 1612 he was appointed ambassador in England, but he did not leave to take up his appointment until May 1613.
The embassy to London
Gondomar's reputation as a diplomat, which brought him to international historical prominence, is based on his two periods of service in England – from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622. The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of King James I, whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He flattered the king's love of books and of peace, and he made skillful use of the king's desire for a matrimonial alliance between the Prince of Wales and the infanta Maria Anna of Spain (the proposed "Spanish Match"). The British historian J. P. Kenyon calls him "a cleverer man than any in England", who was gifted enough to tie England to Spain's interests for the next decade.
The ambassador's task in the prelude to the Thirty Years' War was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states against Spain and Habsburg Austria, and to avert English attacks on Spanish possessions in the Americas. His success made him odious to the anti-Spanish and Puritan parties. The active part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh aroused particular animosity. He was attacked by popular pamphleteers — Thomas Scott's extravagant propaganda, Vox populi, was widely believed — and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a principal character in the strange political play A Game at Chess, which was suppressed by order of the council.
The Howards were Gondomar's principal friends at court – Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton (died 1614), Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk, Lord High Treasurer, whose daughter was married to James's favourite, Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, Lord High Admiral, Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, and their protégés. The "Howard faction" preferred a marriage alliance with Spain over one with France, the traditional ally of Scotland, and they preferred to keep out of open warfare with Spain promoted by the more zealous Puritans. Most of the Howards were Catholics, encouraging them towards a spirit of toleration at home. Like many at the English court, they were receiving pensions from Spain, without much effect on their opinions and actions, and Gondomar seldom had the money to follow through. Among the pensioners, in an embarrassing list that surfaced in 1613, at Gondomar's first arrival was the King of England himself.
Gondomar conceived of his embassy as a sortie in enemy country, and he took for his maxim aventurar la vida y osar morir ("risk your life and dare to die"). His opening challenge was his refusal to strike the colours of Spain at his warships' entry to Portsmouth harbour, in which an appeal to the king averted an exchange of cannon fire. His handling of the unconditional release of the Catholic agitator Luisa Carvajal y Mendoza further established him in James's eyes as a man of unexpected strengths. In 1617 Sarmiento was created Count of Gondomar. The key to Gondomar's success was his relationship with James, whom he brought to admire and like his witty and learned companionship, his candour, within the obvious limits, and his personal integrity. They called themselves the "two Diegos" and drank from the same bottle (Carter 1964:205). It was to Gondomar, after the failure of the Addled Parliament of 1614, that James made his celebrated remark "I am amazed that my ancestors should have allowed such an institution to come into existence".
A key program for Gondomar at the outset was to block the marriage negotiations between Prince Charles and a sister of Louis XIII of France, a French counterweight to marital alliances being concluded with the Spanish Habsburgs (see the Spanish Match).
In the matter of Sir Walter Raleigh, it was Gondomar's pressure that cost Sir Walter his head on 29 October 1618. In a moment of weakness, James had shown Gondomar the contract under which Raleigh had sailed, and the restriction upon attacking Spanish settlements, in order to mollify Gondomar's objections to an enterprise on which James had set his heart. Raleigh's attack on San Thomé (near modern Ciudad Guayana) was a public violation; his execution kept the peace with Spain. The English could not forgive Gondomar, who in 1618 obtained leave to come home for his health, but he was then ordered to return by way of Flanders and France with a diplomatic mission.
In 1619 he returned to London and remained until 1622. The Guyana expedition of Roger North in 1620 seemed to be a repeat of Raleigh's violation of Spanish settlements in the Caribbean, and at Gondomar's insistence, North was imprisoned.
The tensest late confrontation was over Count Mansfeld's projected movement of troops raised in England to rescue James's son-in-law Frederick V, Elector Palatine, the "Winter King" of Bohemia. Habsburg Madrid and Brussels were concerned that the French aimed to join Mansfeld's forces and retrieve Artois for France, and the project was let slide.
When Gondomar was allowed to retire and return to Spain, he was named a member of the royal council and governor of one of the king's palaces, and he was appointed to a complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid when the Prince of Wales— afterwards Charles I— made his journey there in search of a wife. He died at the house of the Constable of Castile, near Haro in La Rioja.
Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix Sarmiento, by whom he had no children, and then to his cousin Constanza de Acuña, by whom he had four sons and three daughters. The hatred he aroused in England, which was shown by widespread mockery of an intestinal complaint from which he suffered for years, was a tribute to the zeal with which he served his own master.
Gondomar collected, both before he came to London and during his residence there, a fine library of printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the arrangement, binding and storing of his books in his house at Valladolid appear frequently in his voluminous correspondence. In 1785 the library was ceded by his descendant and representative the marquis of Malpica to Charles III of Spain, and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid.
A portrait of Gondomar, attributed to Diego Velázquez, was formerly at Stowe, Buckinghamshire. It was mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.
Gondomar and the Galician language
Part of the private correspondence of Gondomar with his relatives and with other Galician noblemen have been preserved in the archives of the house of Alba. These private letters are frequently written totally or partially in Galician, and represent an invaluable source for the knowledge of this language in the transition from Old Galician to Middle Galician, a period for which there are but a few literary or public documents preserved. Gondomar is also well known for his Galician patriotic writings in defence of the antiquity and noblesse of the Kingdom of Galicia and of the Galicians, because 'Galicia was a Kingdom and her kings got this title well before any other in Spain'.
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Authorities
Gondomar's missions to England were largely dealt with in Samuel Rawson Gardiner's History of England (London, 1883-1884) and more recently in Glyn Redworth, The Prince and the Infanta: The Cultural Politics of the Spanish Match (New Haven, 2003).
In Spanish, Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical introduction to a publication of a few of his letters – Cinco Cartas politico-literarias de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, conde de Gondomar, issued at Madrid in 1869 by the Sociedad de Bibliófilos of the Spanish Academy; and there is a life in English by F.H. Lyon (1910).
Notes
References
Charles H. Carter, "Gondomar: Ambassador to James I" The Historical Journal 7.2 (1964), pp. 189–208.
1567 births
1626 deaths
Diego 01
Ambassadors of Spain to England
Ambassadors of Spain to Austria
17th-century diplomats
16th-century Spanish writers
17th-century Spanish writers
People from Astorga, Spain | [
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262170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-shouldered%20kite | Black-shouldered kite | The black-shouldered kite (Elanus axillaris), also known as the Australian black-shouldered kite, is a small raptor found in open habitat throughout Australia. It resembles similar species found in Africa, Eurasia and North America, including the black-winged kite, a species that has in the past also been called "black-shouldered kite". Measuring around in length with a wingspan of , the adult black-shouldered kite has predominantly grey-white plumage and prominent black markings above its red eyes. It gains its name from the black patches on its wings. The primary call is a clear whistle, uttered in flight and while hovering. It can be confused with the related letter-winged kite in Australia, which is distinguished by the striking black markings under its wings.
The species forms monogamous pairs, breeding between August and January. The birds engage in aerial courtship displays which involve high circling flight and ritualised feeding mid-air. Three or four eggs are laid and incubated for around thirty days. Chicks are fully fledged within five weeks of hatching and can hunt for mice within a week of leaving the nest. Juveniles disperse widely from the home territory. The black-shouldered kite hunts in open grasslands, searching for its prey by hovering and systematically scanning the ground. It mainly eats small rodents, particularly the introduced house mouse, and has benefitted from the modification of the Australian landscape by agriculture. It is rated as least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)'s Red List of "Endangered species."
Taxonomy
The black-shouldered kite was first described by English ornithologist John Latham in 1801, as Falco axillaris. Its specific name is derived from the Latin axilla, meaning "armpit", relating to the dark patches under the wings. He reported the description came from a bird that had been kept for two months in the early colony.
The species description was based on one of four paintings by Australian painter Thomas Watling of a bird in the Sydney district in the 1790s.
English naturalist John Gould described the same species as Elanus notatus in 1838 from a specimen from New South Wales, apparently unaware of Latham's description. English zoologist George Robert Gray followed Latham using the binomial Elanus axillaris in 1849. Gould conceded Latham's name was valid and hence had precedence, and E. notatus was reduced to synonymy. Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews argued that Latham's description mentioned black axillaries and hence must have referred to the letter-winged kite, and that Watling's drawings were inconclusive. He promoted the use of E. notatus over E. axillaris in 1916. This was followed for many years. But in 1980 Australian taxonomists Richard Schodde and Ian J. Mason refuted Mathews' claim that the original description of E. axillaris was ambiguous and reinstated the name. This has been followed by subsequent authorities. The black-shouldered kite is monotypic; no subspecies are recognised.
"Black-shouldered kite" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). It has also been called the Australian black-shouldered kite to distinguish it from the Eurasian black-winged kite (E. caeruleus) and American white-tailed kite (E. leucurus)—both formerly known as "black-shouldered kite". Watling had recorded the Dharug term Geo-ga-rack.
In 1959, American ornithologist Kenneth C. Parkes noted that the plumage of the black-shouldered kite is similar to that of the black-winged and white-tailed kites, and proposed that all three were subspecies of a single cosmopolitan species E. caeruleus—much like the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). Researchers William S. Clark and Richard C. Banks disputed this, pointing out the differences in anatomical proportions such as wing shape and tail length, and hunting behavior (E. caeruleus rarely hunts by hovering, unlike the other two species) and proposed the species be separated again in 1992. They are regarded as distinct in the IOC World Bird List.
Molecular evidence shows that the black-shouldered kite and its relatives belong to a subfamily Elaninae that is an early offshoot within the raptor family Accipitridae. There is some evidence they are more divergent from other raptors and better placed in their own family.
Description
The adult black-shouldered kite is around in length, with a wingspan of between . The female is slightly heavier, weighing on average around compared to the male's average weight of . The sexes have similar plumage. The crown, neck and upperparts are pale grey, while the head and underparts are white. A black comma-shaped marking lies in front of and stretches over and behind the eye, which is deep red and surrounded by a black orbital ring. The leading edge of the outer wing is black. When perched, this gives the species its prominent black "shoulders". The central rectrices of the tail are pale grey, while the rest of the tail feathers are white. The bill is short with a sharp, hooked tip to the upper mandible. Its nostrils and the cere are bright or dull yellow and the bill is black. The legs and feet are also yellow or golden-yellow, and the feet have three toes facing forwards and one toe facing backwards.
The juvenile has a white forehead and chin and rusty brown neck, nape and breast with darker streaks. The back and wings are mottled buff or brown. There is a less distinctive dark shoulder patch, but a larger comma-shaped patch over the eyes. The eyes themselves are dark brown. The bill is black with a horn-coloured cere.
Black-shouldered kites spiral into the wind like a kestrel. They soar with v-shaped up-curved wings, the primaries slightly spread and the tail widely fanned, giving the tail a squarer appearance and visible 'fingers' on the wings. In level flight progress is rather indirect. Their flight pattern has been described as 'winnowing' with soft steady beats interspersed with long glides on angled wings. They can most often be seen hovering with wings curved and tail pointing down.
The black-shouldered kite is very similar to the related letter-winged kite (E. scriptus), but has the black mark above and behind the eye, a white rather than grey crown, and shows all-white underparts in flight except for the black markings on the shoulder, dark wingtips, and a small black patch on the underwing. It is slightly larger than the nankeen kestrel (Falco cenchroides). The latter species lacks wing markings and has pale brown plumage. It keeps its wings level when soaring, and has a faster wingbeat when hovering. The grey falcon (Falco hypoleucos) has somewhat similar coloration to the black-shouldered kite but is bulkier and heavier overall and lacks the black markings. Its wings are barred and it preys on birds. The grey goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae) has wider more rounded wings, underwing markings and glides with lowered wings.
Vocalisations
The black-shouldered kite is generally silent, except in the breeding season when its calls, though weak, can be persistent. It primarily utters a clear whistled chee, chee, chee call in flight and while hovering, or a hoarse wheezing skree-ah when perched. A short high whistle is the primary contact call between a pair, while a harsh scraping call is the most common call used by the female and large young, and brooding females call to their young with a deep, soft, frog-like croak.
A variety of different calls have been recorded from captive birds, including harsh, harmonic, chatter and whistle vocalisations. Harsh calls were made when a bird was alarmed or agitated, whistle-type calls were emitted in general contexts, sometimes monotonously, and shorter duration "chatter" calls were given when a bird sighted a human near the enclosure.
Distribution and habitat
Black-shouldered kites may be sedentary or nomadic, and are generally found in open grasslands or valleys where there are scattered clumps of trees, where the grass or groundcover is accessible from the air and ranges from 30 cm to 1.5 m (1–3 ft) high. As well as native grasslands they forage over pastures, cereal or vegetable crops and vineyards, often focusing on areas that have been recently harvested or ploughed and hence rendering prey more exposed. In urban areas they are encountered on the edge of towns on wasteland, irregularly mown areas, sports fields, golf courses or grassy roadside verges. They also hunt over coastal dunes and drier marshland, but avoid areas with dense cover such as forest as well as bare or rocky ground.
Their numbers fluctuate during drought and floods, and can be irruptive in response to sudden increases in mouse populations. The most distant banding recovery was from the Red Banks area in South Australia to Lithgow in eastern New South Wales three and a half years later, a distance of .
Although reported throughout Australia, they are most common in the relatively fertile south-east and south-west corners of the mainland, and in south-east Queensland. They are rare in the deep desert and dryer areas such as western Cape York or the Northern Territory, and are occasional visitors to northern Tasmania, King Island, and the Torres Strait islands.
Behaviour
Black-shouldered kites usually hunt singly or in pairs, though where food is plentiful they occur in small family groups and can be loosely gregarious at times of irruptions, with up to 70 birds reported feeding together during a mouse plague. They roost communally, like other Elanus species. They are territorial when food is not abundant. The practice of "tail flicking" where, on landing, the tail is flicked up and lowered and the movement repeated persistently is thought to be a possible territorial display.
Breeding
Aerial courtship displays involve single and mutual high circling flight, and the male may fly around with wings held high rapidly fluttering, known as flutter-flight. Courting males dive at the female, feeding her in mid-flight. The female grabs food from the male's talons with hers while flipping upside-down. They may lock talons and tumble downwards in a ritualised version of grappling, but release just before landing. All courtship displays are accompanied by constant calling.
Black-shouldered kites form monogamous pairs. The breeding season is usually August to January, but is responsive to mice populations, and some pairs breed twice in a good season. Both sexes collect material for the nest but the female alone builds it. A large untidy shallow cup of sticks usually in the foliage near the top of trees, the nest takes anywhere from two to six weeks to be built. It is constructed of thin twigs and is around across when newly built, but growing to around across and deep after repeated use. The nest is lined with green leaves and felted fur, though linings of grass and cow dung have also been reported. It is generally located in the canopy of an isolated or exposed tree in open country, elevated or more above the ground. Black-shouldered kites have been known to use old Australian magpie, crow or raven nests.
Females perform most of the care of eggs and nestlings, though males take a minor share of incubation and brooding. The clutch consists of three to four dull white eggs of a tapered oval shape measuring and with red-brown blotches that are often heavier around the larger end of the egg. The eggs are laid at intervals of two to five days. The female incubates the eggs for 30 days and when the eggs hatch the chicks are helpless but have soft down covering their body. For the first two weeks or so the female broods the chicks constantly, both day and night. She does no hunting at all for the first three weeks after hatching, but calls to the male from the nest, and he generally responds by bringing food. The female feeds the chicks with the mice brought back to the nest by the male, feeding them in tiny pieces for the first week or two, at which time the chicks are capable of swallowing a mouse whole. The nestling period lasts around 36 days, and the post-fledging period at least 36 days with parental feeding for at least 22 days. When the chicks are older both parents take it in turns to feed them. Black feathers start to appear along the chicks' wings when they are about a fortnight old, and they are fully fledged and are ready to fly in five weeks. Within a week of leaving the nest the young birds are capable of hunting for mice on their own.
Juveniles disperse widely, taking up territory that can be as far as from the nest site.
Food and hunting
The black-shouldered kite has become a specialist predator of the introduced house mouse, often following outbreaks of mouse plagues in rural areas. It takes other suitably-sized creatures when available, including grasshoppers, rats, small reptiles, birds, and even (very rarely) rabbits, but mice and other mouse-sized mammals account for over 90% of its diet. Its influence on mouse populations is probably significant; adults take two or three mice a day each if they can, around a thousand mice a year. On one occasion, a male was observed bringing no less than 14 mice to a nest of well-advanced fledglings within an hour. In another study, a female kite was seen to struggle back to fledglings in the nest with a three-quarters grown rabbit, a heavy load for such a small bird.
Like other elanid kites, the black-shouldered kite hunts by quartering grasslands for small creatures. This can be from a perch, but more often by hovering in mid-air. It is diurnal, preferring to hunt during the day, particularly in the early morning and mid to late afternoon, and occasionally hunts in pairs. Its hunting pattern, outside breeding periods and periods of abundant prey, has distinct crepuscular peaks, perhaps corresponding to mouse activity. When hunting, the kite hovers with its body hanging almost vertically, and its head into the wind. Unlike the nankeen kestrel, the black-winged kite shows no obvious sideways movement, even in a strong breeze. One study of a nesting pair noted that the male searched aerially for 82% of the search time. Typically, a kite hovers above a particular spot, peering down intently, sometimes for only a few seconds, often for a minute or more, then glides swiftly to a new vantage point and hovers again. When hunting from a perch, a dead tree is the preferred platform. Like other Elanus kites, The black-shouldered kite grips a vertical branch with a foot on either side, each one above the other and turned inwards, which enables them to maintain a secure footing on relatively small branches. Though hovering is the most common hunting method, the kites have been observed searching the ground beneath a vantage point for periods of up to an hour.
When a mouse or other prey is spotted, the kite drops silently onto it, feet-first with wings raised high; sometimes in one long drop to ground level, more often in two or more stages, with hovering pauses at intermediate heights. Prey is seized in the talons and about 75% of attacks are successful. Prey can either be eaten in flight or carried back to a perch. Birds will have a favoured feeding perch, beneath which accumulate piles of pellets or castings.
Conservation status
European occupation of Australia has, on the whole, benefited the black-shouldered kite through land clearing and irrigation for agriculture and grain harvesting and storage practices which provide suitable conditions for much larger numbers of mice. As the species has a large range and an increasing population, it is listed as "Least Concern" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened species. In southwestern Australia, it has become one of the most commonly recorded raptors in the wheatbelt. According to raptor researcher Stephen Debus, this species did not suffer from eggshell thinning during the period of DDT use in Australia, though he believes secondary poisoning is possible from rodenticides used during mouse plagues or from pesticides used during locust plagues. Populations in areas with high sheep and rabbit numbers may decline, as these animals compact the soil and reduce the available habitat for mice.
References
Citations
Sources
Works cited
External links
Xeno-canto: sound recordings of the black-shouldered kite
black-shouldered kite
Diurnal raptors of Australia
Endemic birds of Australia
Birds of prey of Oceania
black-shouldered kite
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262172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascual%20de%20Gayangos%20y%20Arce | Pascual de Gayangos y Arce | Pascual de Gayangos y Arce (June 21, 1809 – October 4, 1897) was a Spanish scholar and orientalist.
Life
Born in Seville, he was the son of Brigadier José de Gayangos, intendente of Zacatecas, in New Spain (Mexico). After completing his primary education in Madrid, at the age of thirteen he was sent to school at Pont-le-Voy near Blois. Then, he began the study of Arabic in the École spéciale des Langues orientales of Paris under Silvestre de Sacy.
Gayangos visited Britain, where he married in 1828 Frances, daughter of Henry Revell. He then obtained a post in the Spanish treasury, and was transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833.
In 1837 he returned to Britain, wrote extensively in British periodicals, like The Athenaeum, and in publications of the SDUK, like The Penny Cyclopaedia for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge and The Biographical Dictionary. In these years he completed his magnum opus as an arabist: the translation, for the Royal Asiatic Society, of the first part of Al Makkari's biography of Ibn al-Khatib. The edition was entitled the History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain and appeared in two volumes in 1840 and 1843 . While in England, he entered in the Holland House circle, where he made the acquaintance of George Ticknor, to whom he was very helpful. In 1843 he returned to Spain as professor of Arabic at the University of Madrid, a post he held until 1871. In 1861, the American Philosophical Society elected him an international Member. He entered in politics in 1881, when he was made director of public instruction. He resigned on being elected senator for the district of Huelva.
His latter years were spent in cataloguing the Spanish manuscripts in the British Museum; he had previously continued Gustav Adolf Bergenroth's catalogue of the manuscripts relating to the negotiations between England and Spain in the Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his lengthy introduction on Spanish romances of chivalry in volume 40 (Libros de caballerías, vol. 1, 1857) of Adolfo Rivadeneyra's Biblioteca de autores españoles. This was the first survey of Spanish chivalric romances.
He died in London.
References
Attribution
1809 births
1897 deaths
Spanish scholars
Spanish orientalists
Linguists from Spain
Spanish Arabists
People from Seville
Spanish expatriates in the United Kingdom | [
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262176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed%20Mohammed%20al-Maqqari | Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari | Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Maqqarī al-Tilmisānī (or al-Maḳḳarī) (), (1577-1632) was an Algerian scholar, biographer and historian who is best known for his , a compendium of the history of Al-Andalus which provided a basis for the scholarly research on the subject until the twentieth century.
Life
A native of Tlemcen and from a prominent intellectual family originally from the village of Maqqara, near M'sila in Algeria. After his early education in Tlemcen, al-Maqqari travelled to Fes in Morocco and then to Marrakesh, following the court of Ahmad al-Mansur. On al-Mansur's death in 1603, al-Maqqari established himself in Fes, where he was appointed both as mufti and as the imam of the Qarawiyyin Mosque by al-Mansour's successor, Zidan Abu Maali.
In 1617, he left for the East, possibly following a quarrel with the local ruler, and took up residence in Cairo, where he composed his best known work, Nafḥ al-ṭīb.
In 1620 he visited Jerusalem and Damascus, and made five pilgrimages over six years. At Mecca and Medina he gave popular lectures on ḥadīth. In 1628 he was again in Damascus, where he continued his lectures on Muhammad al-Bukhari's collection of Ḥadīth ('Traditions'), and spoke much of the glories of Muslim Iberia, and received the impulse to write his work on this subject later. That year he returned to Cairo and spent a year in writing his history of Spain from material he had mainly collected at the Sa'dian library in Marrakesh. Surviving manuscripts are now held in part at El Escorial, near Madrid. He died in 1632 during preparations to settle in Damascus.
Works
Rawdat al-As al-'Aatirat al-Anfaas fi Dhikar men Laqaituhu min Aa'alaam Marrakesh wa Fes () - 'The Garden of Myrtle of Aromatic Scents and the Memories of The Scholars (ulema) Whom I Met in the Two Metropolises: Marrakesh and Fes' : Al-Maqqarī dedicated this to his patron Ahmad al-Mansur.
() - 'The Breath of Perfume from the Branch of Flourishing Al-Andalus and Memories of its Vizier Lisan ud-Din ibn ul-Khattib': His greatest work in two-parts; i) a history of Muslim Iberia compiled from descriptions by many authors; published by William Wright, Christoph Krehl, Reinhart Dozy and Gustave Dugat as Analectes sur l'histoire et la littérature des Arabes d'Espagne (1855–1861), and in an abridged English translation by Pascual de Gayangos (1840–1843) titled The history of the Muhammadan dynasties in Spain.; ii) a biography of Ibn al-Khatib. A complete Arabic edition was published at Bulaq (1863), Cairo (1885) and Beirut (1968). A complete English translation is yet to be published.
Editions
Al-Makkari, القسم الأول من كتاب نفح الطيب, من غصن الأندلس الرطيب, و ذكر وزيرها لسان الدين بن الخطيب لأبي العباس أحمد بن محمد المقري [al-Qism al-awwal min kitāb nafḥ al-ṭīb, min ghuṣn al-Andalus al-raṭīb, wa-dhikr wazīrihā Lisān al-Dīn ibn al-Khaṭīb li-Abī al-ʻAbbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Maqarrī]/Analectes sur l'histoire et la littĕrature des Arabes d'Espagne, ed. by R. Dozy and G. Dugat, L. Krehl and W. Wright, 2 vols in four parts (Leiden: Brill, 1855–61), 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2 (edition of the nafḥ al-ṭīb)
al-Maqqarı̄, Nafḥ al-Ṭı̄b min Ghuṣn al-Andalus al-Raṭı̄b, ed. by I. ‘Abbās (Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1968)
See also
List of Ash'aris and Maturidis
List of Arab scientists and scholars
Notes
1.Nafḥ al-ṭīb min ghuṣn al-Andalus al-raṭīb wa-dhikr waziriha Lisān al-Dīn ibn al-Khaṭīb ()
References
Al-Maqqari's "Breath Of Perfumes", in: Charles F. Horne, Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East: Medieval Arabic, Moorish, and Turkish, .
Online:
1577 births
1632 deaths
17th-century historians
Asharis
Muslim historians of Al-Andalus
People from Tlemcen
Algerian historians
University of al-Qarawiyyin alumni
Algerian emigrants to Egypt
Historians of Spain
Supporters of Ibn Arabi | [
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262179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20Lowther%20Award | Pat Lowther Award | The Pat Lowther Memorial Award is an annual award presented by the League of Canadian Poets to the year's best book of poetry by a Canadian woman. The award was established in 1980 to honour poet Pat Lowther, who was murdered by her husband in 1975. Each winner receives an honorarium of $1000.
Winners and nominees
See also
Canadian poetry
List of literary awards honoring women
List of poetry awards
List of years in poetry
List of years in literature
Gerald Lampert Award
References
External links
League of Canadian Poets
Canadian poetry awards
Literary awards honoring women
Awards established in 1980
1980 establishments in Canada | [
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262185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%20al-Bukhari | Muhammad al-Bukhari | Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Bukhārī (, ) (19 July 810 – 1 September 870), commonly referred to as Imam al-Bukhari or Imam Bukhari, was a Persian Islamic scholar who was born in Bukhara (early Khorasan and present day Uzbekistan). He compiled the hadith collection known as Sahih al-Bukhari, regarded by Sunni Muslims as the most authentic (sahih) hadith collections. He also wrote other books such as Al-Adab al-Mufrad.
Biography
Birth
Muhammad ibn Ismaʿil al-Bukhari al-Juʿfi was born after the Jumu'ah prayer on Friday, 21 July 810 (13 Shawwal 194 AH) in the city of Bukhara in Greater Khorasan (in present-day Uzbekistan).
His father, Ismail ibn Ibrahim, a scholar of hadith, was a student and associate of Malik ibn Anas. Some Iraqi scholars related hadith narrations from him.
Lineage
Imam Bukhari's great-grandfather, al-Mughirah, settled in Bukhara after accepting Islam at the hands of Bukhara's governor, Yaman al-Juʿfi. As was the custom, he became a mawla of Yaman, and his family continued to carry the nisbah of "al-Juʿfi".
Al-Mughirah's father, Bardizbah, is the earliest known ancestor of Bukhari according to most scholars and historians. Bardizbah was a Zoroastrian Magi, and died as such. As-Subki is the only scholar to name Bardizbah's father, who he says was named Bazzabah (). Little is known of either Bardizbah or Bazzabah, except that they were Persian and followed the religion of their people. Historians have also not come across any information on Bukhari's grandfather, Ibrahim ibn al-Mughirah.
Hadith studies and travels
The historian al-Dhahabi described his early academic life:
At the age of sixteen, he, together with his brother and widowed mother, made the pilgrimage to Mecca. From there he made a series of travels in order to increase his knowledge of hadith. He went through all the important centres of Islamic learning of his time, talked to scholars and exchanged information on hadith. It is said that he heard from over 1,000 men, and learned over 600,000 traditions.
After sixteen years absence, he returned to Bukhara, and there he drew up his al-Jami' al-Sahih, a collection of 7,275 tested traditions, arranged in chapters so as to afford a basis for a complete system of jurisprudence without the use of speculative law.
His book is highly regarded among Sunni Muslims, and considered the most authentic collection of hadith, even ahead of the Muwatta Imam Malik and Sahih Muslim of Bukhari's student Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Most Sunni scholars consider it second only to the Quran in terms of authenticity. He also composed other books, including al-Adab al-Mufrad, which is a collection of hadiths on ethics and manners, as well as two books containing biographies of hadith narrators (see isnad).
Last years
In the year 864/250, he settled in Nishapur. It was in Nishapur that he met Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. He would be considered his student, and eventually collector and organiser of hadith collection Sahih Muslim which is considered second only to that of al-Bukhari. Political problems led him to move to Khartank, a village near Samarkand where he died in the year 870/256.
Mausoleum
Today his tomb lies within the Imam al-Bukhari Complex, in Hartang Village, 25 kilometers from Samarkand. It was restored in 1998 after centuries of neglect and dilapidation. The mausoleum complex consists of Imam al-Bukhari's tomb, a mosque, a madrassah, library, and a small collection of Qurans. The modern ground level mausoleum tombstone of Imam Bukhari is only a cenotaph, the actual grave lies within a small burial crypt below the modern structure.
Writings
Below is a summary of the discussion of Bukhari's available works in Fihrist Muṣannafāt al-Bukhāri by Umm 'Abdullāh bint Maḥrūs, Muḥammad ibn Ḥamza and Maḥmūd ibn Muḥammad.
Works describing narrators of hadith
Bukhari wrote three works discussing narrators of hadith with respect to their ability in conveying their material: the "brief compendium of hadith narrators," "the medium compendium" and the "large compendium"
Al-Tarikh al-Kabīr (Eng: The great history) known as al-Tarīkh al-Ṣaghīr, and al-Tarīkh al-Awsaţ). The large compendium is published and well-identified. The medium compendium was thought to be the brief collection and was published as such. The brief compendium has yet to be found. Another work, al-Kunā, is on patronymics: identifying people who are commonly known as "Father of so-and-so". Then there is a brief work on weak narrators: al-Ḍu'afā al-Ṣaghīr.
Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukharī & extant hadith
Two of Bukhari's works on hadith survive:
Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukharīfull title, al-Jāmi’ al-Musnad al-Sahīh al-Mukhtaṣar min umūr Rasûl Allāh wa sunnanihi wa ayyāmihi "Collection of Selected True Reports of the Prophet, his Practices and Times"); al-Bukharī's famous magnum opus. [Note: these al-Musnad are reports with chains of narration that go back to the Prophet.]
Al-Adab al-Mufrad; hadith on respect and propriety.
Theological Views
According to some scholars and Ash'arite theologians like Ibn Hajar, Bukhari was a follower of early Sunni theologian (mutakallim) Ibn Kullab in creed. However, other scholars like Jonathan Brown assert that Al-Bukhari was a "diehard traditionalist" who firmly adhered to Ibn Hanbal’s original traditionalist school, but fell victim to its most radical wing due to misunderstandings. Following his master Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Bukhari had reportedly declared that 'reciting the Qur’an is an element of createdness’. Through this assertion, Bukhari sought an alternative response to the doctrines of Mu'tazilites and declared that element of creation is only applied to humans, but not to God's Words. His statements were met negative response with certain hadith scholars. Reacting to such teaching, the hadith scholars of Baghdad warned the people of Nishapur against him, had him imprisoned and then drove him out of the city. Open followers of Ibn Kullab, such as the rationalist Harith al-Muhasibi, were also criticised and made to relocate. However, in reality Bukhari had only referred to the human action of reading the Qur’an, when he reportedly stated ‘lafzi bi al-Qur’an makhluq’ (my recitation of the Qur’an is created) in the dispute over the ambiguos term ‘lafz al-Qur’an’ (word of the Qur’an). Al-Dhahabi and Al-Subki asserted that Bukhari was expelled due to the jealousy of certain scholars of Nishapur. As a reluctant person who viewed debates as unwanted speculation (khawd), Bukhari had stated in his early years:“The Qur'an is God’s speech, uncreated, and the acts of men are created, and inquisition (imtihan) is heresy (bida)."In response to the accusations levelled against him by various scholars, Bukhari compiled the treatise Khalq af'al al-ibad, the earliest traditionalist representation of the position taken by Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Navigating the contradictions apparent in blunt doctrines of his uber-traditionalist accusers like Al-Dhuhli, Bukhari explains that the Qur'an is God’s uncreated speech, but he also argues that God creates human actions, as the Sunnis had insisted in their attacks on the free-will position of Qadarites. The first section of the book reports narrations from earlier scholars such as Sufyan al-Thawri that affirmed the Sunni doctrine of uncreated nature of the Qur'an and condemned anyone who held the contrary position as a Jahmi or disbeliever. The second section asserts that the acts of men are created, relying on Qur'anic verses and reports from earlier traditionalist scholars like Yahya b. Sa'id al Qatlan. In the last part of his treatise, Bukhari began harshly rebutting the rationalists; arguing that human acts are created. Reporting narrations from the Prophet, Bukhari defended the traditionalist belief that sound of the Qur'an being recited is created. In addition, Bukhari cited Ahmad Ibn Hanbal as evidence for his position on the lafz, re-affirming the legacy of Ibn Hanbal and his allegiance to the Ahl al-Hadith camp. Fiercely condemning the Mutakallimun (speculative theologians) Bukhari writes in Khalq af-'al Al-'Ibad:<blockquote>"It is known that Ahmad and all the people of knowledge hold that God’s speech is uncreated and that all other speech is created. Indeed they hated discussing and investigating obscure issues, and they avoided the people of dialectical theology (kalam), speculation (al-khawd ) and disputation (tanazu''') except on issues in which they had [textual] knowledge."</blockquote>
Away from discussions relating to God's speech, Bukhari also repudiated rejection of Qadar (the divine decree) in his Sahih by quoting a verse of the Quran implying that God had already determined all human acts with a precise determining. According to Ibn Hajar, Bukhari signified that if someone was to accept autonomy in creating his acts, he would be assumed to be playing God's role and so would subsequently be declared a polytheist. In another chapter, Bukhari refutes the creeds of the Kharijites, and according to al-Ayni, the heading of that chapter was designed not only to refute the Kharijites but also any who held similar beliefs.
Interpretation of God's attributes
In Sahih al-Bukhari, in the book entitled "Tafsir al-Qur'an wa 'ibaratih" [i.e., Exegesis of the Qur'an and its expressions], surat al-Qasas, verse 88: "kullu shay'in halikun illa Wajhah" [the literal meaning of which is "everything will perish except His Face"], he said the term [illa Wajhah] means: "except His Sovereignty/Dominance". And there is [in this same chapter] other than that in terms of ta'wil (metaphorical interpretation), like the term 'dahk' () which is narrated in a hadith, [which is interpreted by] His Mercy.
School of thought
Many are of the opinion that Bukhari was a mujtahid with his own school of jurisprudence.Sattar, Abdul. "Konstruksi Fiqh Bukhari dalam Kitab al-Jami’al-Shahih." De Jure: Jurnal Hukum dan Syar'iah 3.1 (2011).Hasyim, Muh Fathoni. "FIKIH IMAM AL-BUKHAR1." (2009).
Bukhari has however been claimed as a follower of the Hanbali school, although members of the Shafi'i and Ẓāhirī schools levy this claim as well. JRD Mughal and Munir Ahmad assert that historically most jurists considered him to be a muhaddith and not a jurist, and that as a muhaddith they thought that he followed the Shafi'i school. However, both go on to evidence the opinion that he was an absolute scholar of independent reasoning (Mujatahid Mutlaq).
Scott Lucas argues that Bukhari's legal positions were similar to those of the Ẓāhirīs and Hanbalis of his time, suggesting Bukhari rejected qiyas and other forms of ra'y completely. He makes comparisons between Bukhari's positions and those of Ibn Hazm.
Early Islamic scholars
References
Citations
Sources
Bukhari, Imam (194-256H) اللإمام البُخاري; An educational Encyclopedia of Islam; Syed Iqbal Zaheer
Abdul Qadir Muhammad Jalal et al., "Elevating Imam Al Bukhari: Affirming the Status of Imam Al Bukhari and His Sahih by Dispelling the Misconceptions Surrounding them", Lagos 2021
Further reading
Primary
Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble )
al-Bukhārī, al-Jāmiʿ al-ṣaḥīḥ, 9 vols. In 3, Būlāq 1311–3, repr. Liechtenstein 2001
al-Bukhārī, al-Taʾrīkh al-kabīr, 4 vols. In 8, Hyderabad 1358–62/1941–5, 1377/19582
al-Dhahabī, Taʾrīkh al-Islām, ed. ʿUmar ʿAbd al-Salām Tadmurī (Beirut 1407–21/1987–2000), 19 (251–60 A.H.):238–74
Ibn Abī Ḥātim, K. al-Jarḥ wa-l-taʿdīl, 4 vols. In 8, Hyderabad 1360/1941
Ibn ʿAdī al-Qaṭṭān, al-Kāmil fī ḍuʿafāʾ al-rijāl, ed. ʿĀdil Aḥmad ʿAbd al-Mawjūd et al., Beirut, 1418/1997
Ibn ʿAdī al-Qaṭṭān, Asāmī man rawā ʿanhum Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl al-Bukhārī, ed. ʿĀmir Ḥasan Ṣabrī, Beirut, 1414/1994
Ibn ʿAsākir, Taʾrīkh madīnat Dimashq, ed. Muḥibb al-Dīn Abī Saʿīd al-ʿAmrawī, 70 vols., Beirut 1415/1995
Ibn Ḥajar, Fatḥ al-bārī, ed. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. ʿAbdallāh Ibn Bāz, 15 vols. Beirut, 1428–9/2008
al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Taʾrīkh Baghdād aw Madīnat al-Salām (Cairo 1349/1931), 2:4–34
al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Taʾrīkh Madīnat al-Salām, ed. Bashshar ʿAwwād Maʿrūf (Beirut 1422/2001), 2:322–59
al-Nawawī, Tahdhīb al-asmāʾ wa-l-lughāt, Cairo 1927
al-Qasṭallānī, Irshād al-sārī Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, ed. Muḥammad ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Khālidī, 15 vols., Beirut 1416/1996.
Studies
Ghassan Abdul-Jabbar, Bukhari, London, 2007
Muḥammad ʿIṣām ʿArār al-Ḥasanī, Itḥāf al-qāriʾ bi-maʿrifat juhūd wa-aʿmāl al-ʿulamāʾ ʿalā Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Damascus 1407/1987
Jonathan Brown, The canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim, Leiden 2007
Eerik Dickinson, The development of early Sunnite ḥadīth criticism, Leiden 2001
Mohammad Fadel, "Ibn Ḥajar’s Hady al-sārī," JNES 54 (1995), 161–97
Johann W. Fück, "Beiträge zur Überlieferungsgeschichte von Bukhārī’s Traditionssammlung," ZDMG 92 (n.s. 17, 1938), 60–87
Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim studies, ed. S. M. Stern, trans. C. R. Barber and S. M. Stern (Chicago 1968–71), 2:216–29
Nizār b. ʿAbd al-Karīm b. Sulṭān al-Ḥamadānī, al-Imām al-Bukhārī, Mecca 1412/1992
al-Ḥusaynī ʿAbd al-Majīd Hāshim, al-Imām al-Bukhārī, Cairo n.d.
Abū Bakr al-Kāfī, Manhaj al-Imām al-Bukhārī, Beirut 1421/2000
Najm ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Khalaf, Istidrākāt ʿalā Taʾrīkh al-turāth al-ʿArabī li-Fuʾād Sizkīn fī ʿilm al-ḥadīth (Beirut 1421/2000), 135–264
Scott C. Lucas, "The legal principles of Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl al-Bukhārī and their relationship to classical Salafi Islam," ILS 13 (2006), 289–324
Christopher Melchert, "Bukhārī and early hadith criticism," JAOS 121 (2001), 7–19
Christopher Melchert, "Bukhārī and his Ṣaḥīḥ," Le Muséon 123 (2010), 425–54
Alphonse Mingana, An important manuscript of the traditions of Bukhārī, Cambridge 1936
Rosemarie Quiring-Zoche, "How al-Bukhārī’s Ṣaḥīḥ was edited in the Middle Ages. ʿAlī al-Yūnīnī and his rumūz," BEO 50 (1998), 191–222
Fuat Sezgin, Buhârî’nin kaynakları, Istanbul 1956
Umm ʿAbdallāh bt. Maḥrūs al-ʿAsalī et al., Fihris Muṣannafāt al-Imām Abī ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl al-Bukhārī…fīmā ʿadā al-Ṣaḥīḥ'', Riyadh 1408/1987–8
External links
Biodata at MuslimScholars.info
Biography at Sunnah.com
Biography of Imam Bukhari
Biography of Muhammad al-Bukhari
Hadith compilers
Hadith scholars
Transoxanian Islamic scholars
Shafi'is
People from Bukhara
Persian Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam
Biographical evaluation scholars
810 births
870 deaths | [
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Subsets and Splits