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17634 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural%20area | Rural area | Rural areas are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called "the country" or "countryside". People who live "in the country" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.
Rural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.
Many people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.
In the U.S. and Angola the term "rural area" technically describes a place that has less than 500 inhabitants per square mile.
Human geography
oc:Campagne |
17636 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Crane | Stephen Crane | Stephen Townley Crane (November 1, 1871 - June 5, 1900) was an American writer. He was born on November 1, 1871 in Newark, New Jersey to Jonathan Townley Crane, a clergyman, and Mary Helen Peck Crane. He attended Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, but did not graduate. He moved to New York City in 1892 to write about the slum life of Manhattan. His major works include the novella Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), the war novel The Red Badge of Courage (1895), and the short story "The Open Boat" (1897). After the success of Badge, his literary reputation declined. His health was poor. In May 1899, he entered a sanitarium in Badenweiler, Germany. On June 5, 1900, he died of tuberculosis. He is buried in the Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey.
References
Stephen Crane biography
Biography of Stephen Crane
1871 births
1900 deaths
Writers from Newark, New Jersey |
17637 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%27s%20goldfinch | Lawrence's goldfinch | The Lawrence's goldfinch (Carduelis lawrencei) is a small songbird of North America. Bigger than the Lesser Goldfinch, and smaller than the American Goldfinch, with less yellow markings than either.
It lives from central California and its southern coast in the United States, to Baja California in Mexico. Females have less yellow and do not have the black cap and chin of the males.
This bird is named after the American ornithologist (bird expert), George Newbold Lawrence.
References
Finches |
17639 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Newbold%20Lawrence | George Newbold Lawrence | George Newbold Lawrence (October 20, 1806 - January 17, 1895) was an American businessperson and amateur ornithologist (bird expert).
Lawrence counted birds for Spencer Fullerton Baird and John Cassin, and the three men wrote Birds of North America in 1858.
Lawrence left his 8,000 bird skins to the American Museum of Natural History. The Lawrence's Goldfinch Carduelis lawrencei was named for him by Cassin.
1806 births
1895 deaths
Businesspeople from New York City
American ornithologists |
17641 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Claus | Santa Claus | Santa Claus, or Father Christmas, is a legendary character associated with Christmas. He is depicted as a big and cheerful white-bearded man wearing a red suit with white trim. In some countries, he is said to live at the North Pole with his wife Mrs. Claus, elves who are said to build his toys, and reindeer who are said to pull his sleigh through the sky.
Santa Claus is actually based on a Greek bishop who was named Saint Nicholas.
Father Christmas, the Nordic version, is said to reside in Lapland, Finland, but some think he is from the North Pole.
Santa bring gifts to good children (and children-at-heart) worldwide on Christmas usually by sliding down fireplace chimneys (or opening doors with a special key) and reindeer pulling his sleigh. However, after the children have fallen asleep, parents typically play the role of Santa Claus and leave their gifts under the Christmas tree. Children's parents sometimes signed tags on gifts for children with "From Santa Claus" before the gifts are laid under the tree.
Santa Claus was not a real, historical person, but the modern character of Santa was most likely created from different traditions from European and Christian culture, such as the real-life Roman Catholic saint Saint Nicholas, the Dutch Sinterklaas, and others. There are many popular culture items about Santa. He is also known as Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, Kristingle, Christingle, Father Christmas, Santy, and many other names.
Santa Claus' home
In the Nordic version, Santa is said to live in a small hill called Korvatunturi in Lapland, Finland. There is a theme park in Rovaniemi, which is near Korvatunturi, called Santa Claus Village.
The saint who inspired the legend of Sinterklaas (and thus, Santa Claus) is Saint Nicholas, who lived in the 4th Century AD and had a reputation for secret gift-giving, especially to the poor and needy, such as putting coins in the shoes of those who left them out for him.
He is said to reside at the top of the world at the North Pole with his wife Mrs. Claus, elves, and reindeer.
As his home and workshop are fictional, there is no definite geographical location as to where the home or workshop is located.
Santa tracking, Santa websites, and email to and from Santa
Over the years, there have been a number of websites created by various organizations that have purported to track Santa. Some, such as NORAD Tracks Santa, the Airservices Australia Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Update Project, and the MSNBC and Bing Maps Platform Tracks Santa Project have endured. Others, such as the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport's Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Retro Radar – Lehigh Valley Project, and the NASA Tracks Santa Project, have fallen out of use.
The origins of the NORAD Tracks Santa program began in the United States in 1955, when a Sears Roebuck store in Colorado Springs, Colorado gave children a number to call a "Santa hotline." The number was mistyped, resulting in children calling the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) on Christmas Eve instead. Colonel Harry Shoup, the Director of Operations, received the first call for Santa and responded by telling children there were signs on the radar that Santa was indeed heading south from the North Pole. A tradition began which continued under the name NORAD Tracks Santa when in 1958, the United States and Canada jointly created the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). This tracking can now be done through the Internet and NORAD's website.
In the past, many local television stations in the United States and Canada likewise claimed they tracked Santa in their own metropolitan areas through the stations' meteorologists. In December 2000, the Weather Channel built upon these local efforts to provide a national Christmas Eve Santa tracking effort called SantaWatch in cooperation with NASA, the International Space Station, and Silicon Valley-based new multimedia firm Dreamtime Holdings. In the 21st century, most local television stations in the United States and Canada rely upon outside established "Santa tracking" efforts, such as NORAD Tracks Santa.
Many other websites became available year-round, devoted to Santa and purport to keep tabs on his activities in his workshop. Many of these websites also include email addresses which allow children to send email to Santa. Most of these websites use volunteer living people as "elves" to answer email sent to Santa. However, some websites, such as Santa's page on Microsoft's Windows Live Spaces, have used or still use "bots" to compose and send email replies, with occasional unfortunate results. One particular website called emailSanta.com was created when a 1997 Canada Post strike prevented a man named Alan Kerr (credited as the "Head Elf")'s young niece and nephews from sending their letters to Santa; in a few weeks, over 1,000 emails to Santa were received and had received 1,000 emails a day one year later. Now celebrating close to two decades on-line, emailSanta.com receives roughly 1 million emails a year.
In addition to providing holiday-themed entertainment, "Santa tracking" websites raise interest in space technology and exploration, serve to educate children in geography. and encourage them to take an interest in science.
In popular culture
By the end of the 20th century, the reality of mass mechanized production became more fully accepted by the Western public. Elves had been portrayed as using assembly lines to produce toys early in the 20th century. That shift was reflected in the modern depiction of Santa's residence—now often humorously portrayed as a fully mechanized production and distribution facility, equipped with the latest manufacturing technology, and overseen by the elves with Santa and Mrs. Claus as executives and / or managers. An excerpt from a 2004 article, from a supply chain managers' trade magazine, aptly illustrates this depiction:
In the cartoon base, Santa has been voiced by several people, including Ed Asner, Stan Francis, Mickey Rooney, John Goodman, and Keith Wickham.
Santa has been described as a positive male cultural icon:
Many television commercials, comic strips and other media depict this as a sort of humorous business, with Santa's elves acting as a sometimes mischievously disgruntled workforce, cracking jokes, making riddles, and pulling pranks on their boss. For instance, a Bloom County story from December 15, 1981 through December 24, 1981 has Santa rejecting the demands of PETCO (Professional Elves Toy-Making and Craft Organization) for higher wages, a hot tub in the locker room, and "short broads," with the elves then going on strike. Ronald Reagan steps in, fires all of Santa's helpers, and replaces them with out-of-work air traffic controllers (an obvious reference to the 1981 air traffic controllers' strike), resulting in a riot before Santa vindictively rehires them in humiliating new positions such as his reindeer. In an episode of The Sopranos titled "...To Save Us All from Satan's Power," Paulie Gualtieri says he "used to think Santa and Mrs. Claus were running a sweatshop over there... The original elves were ugly, traveled with Santa to throw bad kids a beatin', and gave the good ones toys."
In Kyrgyzstan, a mountain peak was named after Santa, after a Swedish company had suggested the location be a more efficient starting place for present-delivering journeys all over the world, than Lapland. In the Kyrgyz capital Bishkek, a Santa Claus Festival was held on December 30, 2007, with government officials attending. 2008 was officially declared the Year of Santa Claus in the country. The events are seen as moves to boost tourism in Kyrgyzstan.
The Guinness World Record for the largest gathering of Santa Clauses is held by Thrissur, Kerala, India, where on December 27, 2014, 18,112 Santas came overtaking the current record of Derry City, Northern Ireland. On September 9, 2007, where a total of 12,965 people dressed up as Santa or Santa's helpers which previously brought down the record of 3,921, which was set during the Santa Dash event in Liverpool City Center in 2005. A gathering of Santas in 2009 in Bucharest, Romania attempted to top the world record, but failed with only 3,939 Santas.
References
Philanthropists
Christmas |
17642 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon | Cinnamon | Cinnamon is a spice from the inner bark of Cinnamomum verum.
The spice is used in both sweet and savoury foods. It is aromatic. People usually put cinnamon in sweet baked goods (such as cinnamon rolls), hot wine or liquors.
Cinnamon was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. In India, cinnamon is commonly used in making flavoured tea. It is either directly added as small pieces or put in powdered form during the preparation of tea. It is known as "Daal-Cheeni" in Hindi.
The Sinhalese name is kurundu. Cinnamon is grown as an export crop in Sri Lanka.
Cinnamon as a herbal remedy
There is a literature which suggests that cinnamon spice may have positive effects on diabetes type II. This is not the view of the U.S, National Institutes of Health.
References
Lauraceae
Spices |
17643 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1186 | 1186 | Year 1186 (MCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
John the Chanter becomes Bishop of Exeter.
January 27 – Constance of Sicily marries Henry (the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor).
The Byzantine Empire recognises the indepence of Bulgaria.
Guy of Lusignan becomes King of Jerusalem.
Births
May 18 — Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (d. 1218)
Queen Urraca of Portugal spouse of King Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1220)
Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (d. 1225)
Iziaslav IV Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev
Ögedei Khan, third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1241)
Song Ci, Chinese physician and judge (d. 1249)
Deaths
May 29 or June 23 or June 24 — Robert of Torigni
August 19 — Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)
Baldwin V of Jerusalem (b. 1177)
William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre (b. c. 1130)
Minamoto no Yukiie, Japanese warlord |
17644 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1187 | 1187 |
Events
May 1 – Battle of Cresson – Saladin defeats the crusaders
July 4 – Saladin defeats Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, at the Battle of Hattin.
September 20 – October 2 – Siege of Jerusalem – Saladin captures Jerusalem.
October 29 – Pope Gregory VIII issues the bull Audita tremendi, proposing the Third Crusade.
Alexis Branas attempts to seize Constantinople in defiance of his master Isaac II Angelus.
Cathedral of St. Jacob consecrated in Szczecin, Pomerania
Destruction of Sigtuna – archbishop is killed
Knut Eriksson builds a castle in the island of Stockholm
Compass in Europe
The Toltecs are deposed at Chichen Itza
Zen Buddhism comes to Japan
King of Ankor Vat, Jayavarman VII defeats Cham conquerors
Ghorin Muhammed conquers Punjab
Genoa takes Bonifacio (in Corsica) from Pisa
Births
September 5 — King Louis VIII of France (d. 1226)
Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (d. 1203)
Vladimir III Rurikovich, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1239)
Deaths
July 4 — Raynald of Chatillon, Prince of Antioch (executed, b. c. 1125)
October 19 — Pope Urban III
November 9 — Emperor Gaozong of China (b. 1107)
December 17 — Pope Gregory VIII (b. c. 1100)
Gerard of Cremona, Italian translator of scientific works (b. c. 1114)
Roger de Moulins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller
Count Raymond III of Tripoli (b. 1140)
1187 |
17645 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1188 | 1188 |
Events
Saladin unsuccessfully besieges the Hospitaller fortress of Krak des Chevaliers in modern Syria.
Newgate Prison is built.
Richard Lionheart allies with Philip II of France against his father, Henry II of England.
Giraldus Cambrensis and Baldwin of Exeter travel through Wales attempting to recruit men for the Third Crusade.
The "Saladin tithe" is levied in England.
Alfonso IX of Castile becomes king of Leon.
Queen Tamar of Georgia marries David Soslan. |
17649 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg | Egg | Egg can mean different things:
Egg (biology)
Ovum, the female reproductive cell
Zygote, a fertilised ovum
Cleidoic egg: the type of egg produced by amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals)
Egg (food): a type of egg that can be eaten.
Basic English 850 words |
17651 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science%20fiction | Science fiction | Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or SF) is the type genre of speculative fiction which deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, interstellar travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. It has been called the "literature of ideas", and it often explores the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations. Science fiction stories can be novels, movies, TV shows, video games, comic books and other literature.
SF is often about the future. It can be about imaginary new science and inventions such as spaceships, aliens, and robots. Science fiction stories are often in a world that is very different from the real world. They can have science and tools that do not exist in reality. Science fiction stories often take place on other worlds. There are often alien creatures.
Science fiction is drastically different from fantasy. Fantasy stories often have magic and other things that do not exist and are not science. Isaac Asimov was a famous science fiction writer. He once said that science fiction is possible, but fantasy is not.
Writers often use SF to explain everyday questions or problems by putting them in the future. Usually they invent a very different world to help people notice important ideas.
Early examples of science fiction
Science fiction changes over time. Some authors wrote SF books before this type of writing had a name. These writers and books were not called science fiction when they were published. But, they are often called science fiction today.
Mary Shelley – Frankenstein (1818)
Jules Verne – Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870)
H. G. Wells – The Time Machine (1895).
20th century science fiction
Isaac Asimov, Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke are seen as the big three science fiction authors of the 20th century.
Philip K. Dick, Poul Anderson and William Gibson are other well-known science fiction authors from the 20th century.
Star Trek – a 1960s American TV show that led to a media franchise.
Doctor Who – a long-running British TV show.
Star Wars -a trilogy of movies preceded by a novel that turned into a media franchise
Different types of science fiction
Two broad genres of science fiction are Hard SF and Soft SF. Although not everyone agrees on the exact definitions of these two types, the way they use science or the type of science used in the stories is different.
Hard SF
Hard science fiction, or "hard SF", is special because it uses true facts and theories from sciences. These sciences are very important in Hard SF: physics, astrophysics, and chemistry. Also, Hard SF can show worlds that more advanced technology may make possible. Many correct predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre. However, there have been many incorrect ideas about the future, too. Some hard SF writers have also worked as professional scientists. A few of these scientist/writers are Gregory Benford and Geoffrey A. Landis, while mathematician authors include Rudy Rucker and Vernor Vinge. Other noteworthy hard SF authors include Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement, Isaac Asimov, Greg Bear, Stanislav Lem, Larry Niven, Robert J. Sawyer, Stephen Baxter, Alastair Reynolds, Charles Sheffield, and Greg Egan.
Soft SF
Soft science fiction stories take ideas from social sciences such as psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. Some important writers in this category include Ursula K. Le Guin and Philip K. Dick. Soft SF can be mostly about character and emotion. Ray Bradbury won a prize called the SFWA Grand Master and writes in this style. The Soviet Union produced social science fiction too. Some examples are Strugatsky brothers, Kir Bulychov and Ivan Yefremov.
Some Social SF and Soft SF can be types of speculative fiction, for example utopian or dystopian stories. George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale, are examples. Some people think that satirical novels in fantastic settings (places) such as Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift are speculative fiction.
Different styles of science fiction
Within Hard or Soft SF, there are different types, or subgenres, of science fiction. Each subgenre is a group of stories that uses similar ideas or styles of story-telling. Publishing companies and critics put works of SF into different subgenres to help describe the work to help readers choose which books to read or movies to watch. Assigning genres is not simple. Some stories can be in two or more genres at the same time. Other stories may not fit any genre.
Alternate history
In Alternate (or alternative) history stories, writers imagine how the past might have been different. These stories may use time travel to change the past. Some set a story in a universe with a different history from our own. These are some important alternate history books:
Bring the Jubilee by Ward Moore - the South won the American Civil War
The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick - Germany and Japan won World War II.
The Sidewise Award is for the best works in this subgenre. The name Sidewise is taken from Murray Leinster's 1934 story "Sidewise in Time." Harry Turtledove is one of the most famous writers in the subgenre. He is often called the "master of alternate history".
Apocalyptic
Apocalyptic fiction is about the end of civilization. There are several types: through war (On The Beach), pandemic (The Last Man), astronomic impact (When Worlds Collide), ecological disaster (The Wind From Nowhere), or mankind's self-destruction (Oryx and Crake), or some other general disaster. Apocalyptic SF may also be about world or civilization after a disaster.
Cyberpunk
Cyberpunk began in the early 1980s. Bruce Bethke used this word as the title for a short story in 1980 by putting together two words: "cybernetics" and "punk". Soon, people used this word to describe William Gibson's book, Neuromancer. Cyberpunk authors can put their stories in different settings. Stories usually take place in the near-future and the settings are often dystopian (characterized by misery). These are often societies with very advanced technology. A few huge corporations usually control the society. Another early cyberpunk novel that has become a classic is Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson.
Military science fiction
Military science fiction stories happen during wars. These wars can be between different countries, different planets, or between different species. The stories are told by characters who are soldiers. They include detail about military technology, rules, and history. Some Military SF may be similar to real historical conflicts. Heinlein's Starship Troopers is an early example. Another is the Dorsai novels of Gordon Dickson. Joe Haldeman's The Forever War is a response to the World War II–style stories of earlier military SF authors. Haldeman was a soldier in the Vietnam War. Important military SF authors include John Ringo, David Drake, David Weber, and S. M. Stirling. Baen Books is known for cultivating military science fiction authors.
Maritime science fiction
Maritime science fiction is science fiction that features a maritime or marine environment and technology and/or marine lifeforms mixed with science fiction. The probably earliest form of maritime science fiction literature is 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea.
Superhuman
Superhuman stories are about humans who get special abilities that are not normal. Maybe the new powers come from nature. Two examples of this type are Olaf Stapledon's novel Odd John and Theodore Sturgeon's More Than Human. Sometimes scientists give people special powers on purpose. one example is A.E. van Vogt's novel Slan. Frederik Pohl's novel Man Plus is another good example from this category. In that book, government scientists make a man into a powerful cyborg (part human, part machine).
These stories usually have two main points. One is the feeling of loneliness and separation that these superhuman people feel. The other is society's reaction to them.
Space opera
Space opera is adventure science fiction in outer space or on distant planets. Action is more important than the science or characters. There is usually a strong hero and a very big conflict. The action often moves to many different places. Edward E. (Doc) Smith was an early Space opera writer. Flash Gordon and Star Wars are also popular examples.
Space western
Space western takes ideas from books and movies about exploring the American Old West and moves them to space in the future. These stories are often on "frontier" colony worlds (colonies that have only recently been terraformed and/or settled) serving as stand-ins for the backdrop of lawlessness and economic expansion that were predominant in the American west. Some examples are Firefly and the movie Serenity by Joss Whedon. Anime programs like Cowboy Bebop and Outlaw Star are also Space Westerns. Han Solo from "Star Wars" is an important Space Western character.
Time travel
The first important time travel novel was Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. The most famous is H. G. Wells's 1895 novel The Time Machine. Well's book uses a machine that allows an operator to travel to an exact time. Twain's time traveler is struck in the head and wakes up in the past. The term "time machine" was invented by Wells. Now it is the name for any vehicle that can take a rider to another time. Ray Bradbury's 1952 short story called A Sound of Thunder is a more recent and very famous example of this genre. Time travel stories can be complicated. They have logical problems such as the grandfather paradox. Time travel is a popular subject in modern science fiction, in print, movies, and television.
Other sub-genres
Comic science fiction is a sub-genre of science fiction that is more humorous or funny.
Feminist science fiction asks questions about society. How does society make gender roles? How does having children define gender? Does having children change the political and personal power of men and women? Some well-known feminist science fiction stories use utopias to answer those questions. The stories explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist. Also dystopias can explore worlds in which gender inequalities are stronger. Those dystopias explain that feminist work should continue. See Ursula K. Le Guin, Margaret Atwood
Libertarian science fiction is written from a political point of view. This subgenre uses fiction to explore ideas from libertarian political philosophy about government and social organization. A classic example of libertarian science fiction is The Moon is a Harsh Mistress by Robert Heinlein.
New Wave is science fiction writing with a lot of experimentation. Writers try new ways of writing and new story ideas. It may feel more intellectual. New Wave seems more like important "literature" or art.
Steampunk is the idea of future technology in the past. These stories are usually in the 19th century and often in Victorian era England. Steampunk stories have strong images from either science fiction or fantasy. Steampunk can have imaginary inventions like those found in books by H. G. Wells and Jules Verne. Imagining a world where computers were invented a long time ago is also popular. Examples include The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, and the Girl Genius series by Phil and Kaja Foglio. The start of this style may be seen in some writing by Michael Moorcock, Philip Jose Farmer and Steve Stiles. Games like Space 1889 and Marcus Rowland's Forgotten Futures can also be Steampunk. The name comes from the fact that machines are most often powered by steam in this genre.
Biopunk is like cyberpunk, but instead of focusing on cybernetic technology, it focuses on biotechnology.
Mundane science fiction is science fiction set on a fiction Earth and not involving any space travel or extra-terrestrial elements. Jurassic Park is considered and example of mundane science fiction.
See also
Fantasy
Science fantasy
Notable science fiction writers
Frank Herbert author of the Dune series.
Isaac Asimov author of the Foundation series.
Marion Zimmer Bradley author of the Darkover series.
Arthur C. Clarke author of a number of classic science fiction novels
Fandom and community
Science fiction fandom is the "community of the literature of ideas... the culture in which new ideas emerge and grow before being released into society at large". Members of this community, "fans", are in contact with each other at conventions or clubs, through print or online fanzines, or on the Internet using web sites, mailing lists, and other resources.
SF fandom emerged from the letters column in Amazing Stories magazine. Soon fans began writing letters to each other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines. Once they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area. Conventions, clubs, and fanzines were the main fan activities, or "fanac", for decades, until the Internet improved communication among a much larger population of interested people.
Awards
There are two very important science fiction awards: the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award. The Hugo is presented by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon each year. The Nebula is presented by SFWA and voted on by the community of authors. One important award for science fiction movies is the Saturn Award. The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror movies gives this award each year..
There are national awards, like Canada's Aurora Award and the UK Arthur C. Clarke Award, regional awards, like the Endeavour Award presented at Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest, special interest or subgenre awards like the Chesley Award for art or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.
Conventions, clubs, and organizations
Conventions (in fandom, shortened as "cons"), are held in cities around the world, catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership. General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom, filking, etc. Most are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters. The convention's activities are called the "program", which may include panel discussions, readings, autograph sessions, costume masquerades, and other events. Activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program; these commonly include a dealer's room, art show, and hospitality lounge (or "con suites").
Conventions may host award ceremonies. Worldcons present the Hugo Awards each year. SF societies are a year-round base of activities for science fiction fans. They may be associated with an ongoing science fiction convention, or have regular club meetings, or both. Most groups meet in libraries, schools and universities, community centers, pubs or restaurants, or the homes of individual members. Long-established groups like the New England Science Fiction Association and the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials.
The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) was founded by Damon Knight in 1965 as a non-profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors, 24 years after his essay "Unite or Fie!" had led to the organization of the National Fantasy Fan Federation. Fandom has helped support related groups as they started to form, including media fandom, the Society for Creative Anachronism, gaming, filking, and furry fandom.
Fanzines and online fandom
The first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930. Fanzine printing methods have changed over the decades, from the mimeograph and the ditto machine, to modern photocopying. The number of copies was usually not enough to use commercial printing. Modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local copy shops, or they may only be sent as email. The best known fanzine (or "'zine") today is Ansible''. David Langford is the editor and it has won several Hugo awards. Artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists. The earliest organized fandom online was the SF Lovers community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was updated regularly. In the 1980s, Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s, the development of the World-Wide Web made the online fan community much, much larger. Fans created thousands and then millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media. Most of these websites are small, ephemeral, or about very specific topics. Though sites like SF Site and Read and Find Out give readers a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction.
Fan fiction
Fan fiction is non-commercial fiction created by people who love an SF story or world. Fans write stories that take place in the setting of an established book, movie, or television series. Some people call it "fanfic". In some cases, the copyright owners of the books, movies, or television series have instructed their lawyers to issue "cease and desist" letters to fans.
Related pages
Science fiction movie
References
Other websites
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
EDGE Science Fiction and Fantasy Publishing |
17654 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise%20Pascal | Blaise Pascal | Blaise Pascal (19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, philosopher, writer and Catholic theologian. He was born in Clermont-Ferrand, France. His mother died when he was three years old. His father's name was Étienne. He had two sisters, Jaqueline and Gilberte. Pascal was completely educated by his father.His father was a tax collector. Pascal was considered a child prodigy. Though best known for his works in mathematics, including the creation of Pascal's Triangle, which is named after him, and developments in the field of probability, Pascal was also a scientist. He wrote in support of the scientific method and also contributed to physics. Later he wrote two books about Christianity. Also, the Pascal unit was named after him.
Pascal died in Paris, France at 39. He had several illnesses; it is not known which of them caused his death.
Pascal invented a form of counting machine which helped inventors create the calculator in the 20th century.
1623 births
1662 deaths
Disease-related deaths in Paris
French mathematicians
French physicists
Scientists from Paris
People from Clermont-Ferrand |
17656 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s%20triangle | Pascal's triangle | 1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
The first six rows of Pascal's triangle
Pascal's Triangle is a mathematical triangular array. It is named after French mathematician Blaise Pascal, but it was used in China 3 centuries before his time.
Pascal's triangle can be made as follows. On the first row, write only the number 1. Then, to get the numbers of following rows, add the number that can be seen above and to the left (if any) and the number above and to the right (if any) to find the new value. For example, the numbers 1 and 3 in the fourth row are added to make 4 in the fifth row.
The triangle displays the coefficients that occur when the binomial is raised to the power:
The same triangle can also be expressed using combinations:
,
where
Uses of Pascal's triangle
The triangle has many uses in probability. It can also be used in binomial expansions. For example,
(x + 1)2 = 1x2 + 2x + 12.
Notice the coefficients are the third row of Pascal's triangle: 1, 2, 1.
In general, when a binomial is raised to a positive integer power we have:
(x + y)n = a0xn + a1xn−1y + a2xn−2y2 + … + an−1xyn−1 + anyn,
where the coefficients ai in this expansion are precisely the numbers on row n + 1 of Pascal's triangle; in other words,
Pascal's rule
Formally speaking, the way of making the Pascal's Triangle uses Pascal's rule, which states that
for non-negative integers n and k where n ≥ k and with the initial condition
Complicated structures based on Pascal's triangle
Pascal's triangle generalizes readily into higher dimensions. The three-dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or Pascal's tetrahedron. A higher-dimensional analogue is generically called a "Pascal's simplex"*. See also pyramid, tetrahedron, and simplex.
Properties of Pascal's Triangle
The first and last number in each row is always 1.
The second number in each row is the row number. In a binomial expansion, this second number is equal to the power. (This makes the 'first' row, 1, actually the zero row).
The rows always read the same forward and backward.
The sum of the numbers in each row is double the sum of the numbers in the row before. The sum of each row is 2n.
The zero row, 1, has a sum of 1.
The first row, 1,1 has a sum of 2.
The second row, 1,2,1 has a sum of 4.
The third row, (1,3,3,1) has a sum of 8.
The sum of the nth row is
Other websites
Higher Dimensional Pascal's Triange - Like Structures
Mathematics |
17661 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidisestablishmentarianism | Antidisestablishmentarianism | Antidisestablishmentarianism is a political position. It means "to keep an established church". An official state church is called the "established" church, so a disestablishmentarian is a person who wants to stop the state church. These people say a state church hurts the freedom of religion. These people say the state should be secular, meaning religion and the country are separate. This idea is called disestablishmentarianism. So antidisestablishmentarianism wants to keep the state church.
It is famous because it is one of the longest words in the English language.
History in England
The word comes from England in the 1800s. In England, Ireland and Wales, there was an official state church called the Anglican Church. Ireland disestablished in 1871, and Wales disestablished in 1920. England still has the Anglican Church as the state church.
In 2014 Nick Clegg, who was the Leader of the Liberal Democrats at the time, said that he thought the Church of England should no longer be the established church. David Cameron, who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said the establishment helps the church and state.
As a word
Antidisestablishmentarianism is one of the longest words in the English language. It has 28 letters and 12 syllables. It is considered to be the longest word, if you do not count technical terms. For example, "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis" is a technical term for a lung disease made by people who wanted it to be the longest word.
In pop culture
The word became famous because of a popular television show in the 1950s called The $64,000 Question, where someone spelled it and won. Duke Ellington, a jazz artist, had a song called "You're Just an Old Antidisestablishmentarianismist". Eminem, a rapper, used the word in his song "Almost Famous".
Construction of the word
establish
to set up, put in place, or institute
dis-establish
to end the established status of something, in this case a state church
disestablish-ment
the separation of church and state
anti-disestablishment
do not want disestablishment
antidisestablishment-ary
about anti-disestablishment
antidisestablishmentari-an
someone who does not want disestablishment
antidisestablishmentarian-ism
the movement or ideology that does not want disestablishment
Related pages
State religion
Freedom of religion
Secularism
Multiculturalism
References
Linguistics
Long words |
17662 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1193 | 1193 | 1193 (MCXCIII) was .
Events
Saladin dies, and the lands of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria are split among his descendants.
Qutb-ud-Din, a Ghurid slave commander, captures Delhi.
Muhammad Khilji, a general under the command of Qutb-ud-Din sacks and burns Nalanda, India's greatest Buddhist university.
Philip II of France marries Ingeborg, daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark.
Births
William de Ferrers, 5th Earl of Derby (d. 1254)
Albertus Magnus, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1280)
John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1254)
Deaths
March 4 — Saladin, Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria (b. c. 1138)
Balian of Ibelin, noble of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (b. early 1140s)
Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Gyalwa Karmapa (b. 1110)
Minamoto no Noriyori, Japanese general (b. 1156)
Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, 5th emperor of the Western Xia dynasty (b. 1124)
Fan Chengda, Chinese poet
Heads of states
England — Richard I King of England (reigned 1189–1199)
France — Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned 1180–1223)
Byzantine Empire — Isaac II Angelus (reigned 1185 to 1195, and 1203–1204)
Pope — Celestine III (Pope 1191–1198)
China — Emperor Guangzong of Song (reigned 1189-1194) |
17663 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah%20McLachlan | Sarah McLachlan | Sarah Ann McLachlan (born January 28, 1968) is a Canadian singer-songwriter who is known for her emotional music. She was adopted and raised in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She went to the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia.
Her recording company, Nettwerk, released her first album in 1988. After recording several albums, she organized the all-female music festival Lilith Fair in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Some of the money made from these concerts went to women's charities. McLachlan received the Elizabeth Cady Stanton Visionary Award in 1998 for helping women's music.
She married her drummer, Ashwin Sood, in 1997. They have a daughter, India, born in 2002.
McLachlan has been written about in magazines such as Rolling Stone, Time, and Entertainment Weekly. She has won Grammy and Juno awards for her music.
She funds a Vancouver program that helps poor children learn music. She has played at charity concerts, such as for victims of the December 26, 2004 tsunami and at the 2005 Live 8 concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Some of McLachlan's best-known songs include "The Path of Thorns", "Into the Fire", "Possession", "Building a Mystery", "Sweet Surrender", "Adia", "Angel", and "World on Fire".
Albums
Albums with only new songs:
Touch (1988)
Solace (1991)
Fumbling Towards Ecstacy (1993)
Surfacing (1997)
Afterglow (2003)
Live albums
Mirrorball (1999)
Afterglow Live (2004)
Live EPs (shorter albums) were released in 1992 and 2004.
Other albums
The Freedom Sessions (1994)
Rarities, B-Sides and Other Stuff (1996)
Albums called Murmers were released only for her fan club every year from 1995 to 2001.
Two remix albums were released, in 2001 and 2005.
1968 births
Canadian adoptees
Canadian pop singers
Canadian singer-songwriters
Grammy Award winners
Halifax, Nova Scotia
Living people
Entertainers from Nova Scotia |
17665 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Twain | Mark Twain | Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), more widely known as Mark Twain, was a well known American writer born in Florida, Missouri. He worked mainly for newspapers and as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River before he became a writer. He married in 1870, and raised his family in Hartford, Connecticut. In later life he invested and lost the money that his writing had made, and toured the world giving lectures that brought him enough money to pay his debt and recover his fortune.
Clemens was best known for his works in fiction, and especially for his use of humour. His first published story, in 1865, was The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is considered by many to be Clemens' best work. This story of a white boy who helps a black man escape slavery in the southern United States is known for its humanity.
Clemens's style was usually informal and humorous. This made him different from many important 19th century writers whose books he disliked. For example, he greatly disliked Jane Austen's works, such as Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice, and famously remarked, "She makes me detest (hate) all her people, without reserve."
Actor Hal Holbrook plays Mark Twain on stage in a one-man show called Mark Twain Tonight.
Halley's Comet appeared in the sky during the year Twain was born and the year he died. This periodic comet comes back every 74 years, which is how long he lived.
Bibliography
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876)
The Prince and the Pauper (1882)
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)
A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889)
References
Other websites
The Mark Twain Papers and Project of the Bancroft Library (Archive of Mark Twain's papers and writings)
Samuel Langhorne Clemens collection of papers at New York Public Library
1835 births
1910 deaths
19th-century American novelists
American autobiographers
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Pen names
Comedians from Connecticut
Comedians from Missouri
Writers from Missouri
Comedians from Nevada
Writers from Nevada |
17668 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Potter%20and%20the%20Prisoner%20of%20Azkaban | Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban | Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third book in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. The book was released on 8 July 1999. It covers Harry Potter's third year at Hogwarts. A movie based on the book was released on 31 May 2004. This is the only book where Lord Voldemort does not make an appearance.
Plot
After accidentally inflating his aunt Marge, Harry leaves the Dursleys, and catches a ride on the street on a magical bus called The Knight Bus. Before he begins his way back to Hogwarts, he learns of Sirius Black, a mass murderer, believed to have killed thirteen people with a single curse. Black has escaped from the wizard prison, Azkaban. Meanwhile, upon meeting the Weasleys, Harry learns that, despite accidentally using magic (which is illegal), he has not been expelled. Mr. Weasley tells Mrs. Weasley of Sirius Black's motive to kill Harry when Harry overhears this he is told not to go looking for Black. Later in the book, Harry soon realizes why.
Other websites
1999 books
Harry Potter books
British novels
Children's books |
17669 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Potter%20and%20the%20Goblet%20of%20Fire | Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire | Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth book in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. It was published on 8 July 2000. The original United Kingdom edition had 636 pages, although the US version has 734. It was made into a movie that was released in 2005.
Plot
Plot introduction
Throughout the three previous novels in the Harry Potter series, the main character, Harry Potter, has struggled with the difficulties of growing up and the added challenge of being a famed wizard. When Harry was a baby, Lord Voldemort, the most powerful dark wizard in history, killed Harry's parents but was mysteriously defeated after unsuccessfully trying to kill Harry, though his attempt left a lightning-shaped scar on Harry's forehead. This results in Harry's immediate fame and his being placed in the care of his abusive Muggle (non-magical) aunt and uncle, Petunia and Vernon Dursley, who have a son named Dudley.
On Harry's eleventh birthday, he learns he is a wizard from Rubeus Hagrid, Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, and enrols in Hogwarts. He befriends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger and confronts Lord Voldemort, who is trying to regain power. In Harry's first year, he has to protect the Philosopher's Stone from Voldemort and one of his faithful followers at Hogwarts. After returning to school after summer break, students at Hogwarts are attacked by the legendary monster of the Chamber of Secrets after the Chamber is opened. Harry ends the attacks by killing a Basilisk and thwarting another attempt by Lord Voldemort to return to full strength. The following year, Harry hears he has been targeted by escaped mass murderer Sirius Black. Despite stringent security measures at Hogwarts, Harry encounters Black at the end of his third year and learns Black was framed and is actually Harry's godfather. He also learns that it was his father's old school friend Peter Pettigrew who betrayed his parents.
Plot summary
In a prologue, which Harry sees through a dream, the three Riddles (who are the parents of Tom Riddle) are murdered, despite not being poisoned or hurt in anyway. They are in perfect health but upon the time of their death, they appear to have petrified faces. Everyone suspects the elderly caretaker Frank Bryce, to be the murder. But he is released. Later on (in Harry's dream) Frank Bryce, Muggle caretaker of an abandoned mansion known as the Riddle House, is murdered by Lord Voldemort after stumbling upon him and Wormtail. Harry is awoken by his scar hurting.
The Weasleys invite Harry and Hermione Granger to the Quidditch World Cup, to which they travel using a Portkey, meeting Cedric Diggory, a Hufflepuff sixth-year, on the way. In the match, Ireland triumph over Bulgaria, despite the skill of Bulgaria's star seeker, Viktor Krum. Various Ministry of Magic employees at the World Cup discuss Bertha Jorkins, a Ministry worker who has gone missing. Her head-of-department, the charismatic Ludovic ¨Ludo¨ Bagman, is unconcerned.
After the match, men wearing the masks of Death Eaters, followers of Voldemort, attack the camp site, causing terror and abusing the Muggle campsite owners. The Dark Mark is fired into the sky, causing mass panic. Harry discovers that his wand is missing. It is later found in the possession of Winky, Barty Crouch's house elf, and the wand is found to have been used to cast the Mark. Although very few believe Winky could have conjured the Mark, Barty Crouch dismisses Winky from his service. Hermione, angry at this injustice, forms a society to promote house elf rights, known as S.P.E.W. (Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare).
At Hogwarts, Professor Dumbledore announces that Alastor "Mad-Eye" Moody will be the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher for the year. Dumbledore also announces that Hogwarts will host a revival of the Triwizard Tournament, in which a champion of Hogwarts will compete against champions from two other European wizarding schools: Beauxbatons Academy, and Durmstrang Institute. The champions are chosen by the Goblet of Fire from names dropped into it. Because Harry is under 17 (the age of majority in the wizarding world), he is disallowed from entering.
At Halloween, the Goblet of Fire picks Fleur Delacour from Beauxbatons Academy, Viktor Krum, the Bulgaria seeker that played at the Quiditch World Cup, from Durmstrang Institute, and Cedric Diggory from Hogwarts to compete in the tournament. Unexpectedly, however, it also chooses Harry as a fourth champion. Despite anger from the Beauxbatons and Durmstrang contingents, Harry's being chosen magically binds him to compete, forcing him to be an unwilling participant in the Tournament. Very few people believe Harry's protests that he did not put his own name in; Ron, envious of Harry again being the centre of attention, accuses Harry of lying and breaks up their friendship.
In their first Defence Against the Dark Arts lesson, Professor Moody introduces the class to the Unforgivable Curses: the Imperius Curse, through which a wizard can be controlled as another wills; the Cruciatus Curse, which causes immense pain; and Avada Kedavra, the killing curse.
A tabloid-style reporter, Rita Skeeter, starts writing scandalous articles of half-truths and outright fabrications in The Daily Prophet about those at Hogwarts, starting with Harry. Because of the Prophet's high readership, her words hold a lot of sway among the wizarding population.
Despite champions not being allowed to know, Hagrid covertly reveals to Harry that the first task is to get past a dragon. Madame Maxime, the headmistress of Beauxbatons, and Professor Karkaroff, headmaster of Durmstrang, also discover this. Sure that they will tell their respective champions, Harry informs Cedric about the dragons in the interest of fairness. Harry struggles to think of a way past a dragon, until Moody suggests flying. Hermione helps him to perfect a Summoning Charm, which he uses to summon his Firebolt broomstick and fly past the dragon to retrieve a golden egg, receiving high marks from the judges. Ron and Harry subsequently reconcile, Ron now understanding the full danger of the tournament. Harry's egg is supposed to contain a clue to the next task, but when opened it merely shrieks loudly.
Hermione infiltrates the school kitchen as part of her house elf welfare campaign (in which she is finding few allies and much resistance). She takes Harry and Ron there to meet Dobby, who now works there after his freeing in Harry's second year. They also find a distraught Winky, who is seriously depressed after being sacked. Dobby is the only known house elf to appreciate his freedom, despite his hardworking nature; the others reject Hermione's idea of payment and holidays, which they find distressing.
The students are informed of the Yule Ball, a Triwizard Tournament tradition, which requires Harry to find a partner with whom to open the dance. He eventually asks Cho Chang, a Ravenclaw fifth-year with whom he is smitten, but she has already agreed to go with Cedric. Ultimately, Harry asks Parvati and Padma Patil to go with him and Ron. Hermione, offended that Ron did not consider her except as a last resort, attends with Viktor Krum, causing intense jealousy in Ron. At the ball, Cedric tells Harry to take the egg into the bath in the prefects' bathroom to work out the clue, but Harry is reluctant to accept the advice because he is jealous over Cho.
Rita Skeeter writes an article revealing Hagrid's half-giant parentage (though it is a mystery how she found out), a taboo in the wizarding world. After Hermione confronts her, Skeeter writes articles painting Hermione as Harry's unfaithful girlfriend. After masses of hate mail, Hermione swears revenge on Skeeter.
The trio secretly meet Sirius at Hogsmeade, who tells them that Barty Crouch was fanatical about catching dark wizards, often stooping to the same level to punish them. This culminated in Crouch sending his own son to Azkaban. His son later died there. Sirius suspects that someone is attempting to attack Harry through the Tournament and make it look like an accident. He suspects Karkaroff, who is a former Death Eater who walked free.
Finally acting on Cedric's tip, Harry takes the egg to the prefects' bathroom by night, where with help from Moaning Myrtle he listens to the egg underwater. There, the shrieks become the words of a song, which tells Harry that the task is to recover something dear to him from Merpeople at the bottom of the lake in the grounds. While sneaking back to Gryffindor Tower under his invisibility cloak, he sees Barty Crouch in Snape's office on the Marauder's Map, despite Crouch supposedly being too ill to judge the Triwizard Tournament. While investigating, Harry falls into a trick step and drops the egg, which shrieks loudly and attracts Filch, Snape (who has had potion ingredients stolen), and Moody. Moody's magical eye sees Harry stuck in the stair under his cloak, but Moody covers for him, then borrows the Marauder's Map.
Harry, Ron, and Hermione are unable to find a way to survive underwater for the second task, leaving Harry panic-stricken. He is rescued on the morning of the task by Dobby, who gives him some Gillyweed that he heard Moody and Professor Sprout talking about. The Gillyweed gives Harry flippers and gills and allows him to find Ron at the bottom of the lake. However, he refuses to leave the hostages belonging to the other champions behind, and insists on rescuing Fleur's sister when Fleur does not arrive. Although Harry finishes last, the judges (apart from Karkaroff) still award him high marks for 'moral fibre.'
One month before the final task, Harry and Krum are talking near the Forbidden Forest when they encounter Barty Crouch, who stopped appearing to work at the Ministry several months ago. Although insane, in moments of clarity he confesses to have done 'something terrible,' that Bertha Jorkins is dead, and begs for Dumbledore. Leaving Krum with Crouch, Harry fetches Dumbledore but returns to find Krum stunned and Crouch gone, Krum claiming that Crouch attacked him from behind. Moody gives chase but does not find Crouch.
During a Divination lesson, Harry experiences another dream involving Voldemort punishing Wormtail for a 'mistake.' Harry tells Dumbledore about this, and stumbles upon a memory-keeping device in Dumbledore's office, a Pensieve. Inside the Pensieve, he discovers that Ludo Bagman was accused and acquitted of Death Eater activity, and that Barty Crouch's son was sent to Azkaban for supposedly helping to torture Neville Longbottom's parents into insanity.
Harry prepares for the final task, a hedge maze filled with dangerous creatures and obstacles, the goal being to reach the Triwizard Cup at the centre. Inside the maze, Harry stuns Krum, who was using the Cruciatus Curse on Cedric. Helping each other, the two reach the Cup. They agree to touch it at the same time and become joint winners. However, on touching it they discover that it is a Portkey that transports them to a graveyard. There, Wormtail appears, kills Cedric using Voldemort's wand, and ties up Harry. Wormtail uses Harry's blood, Tom Riddle Sr.'s bone, and his own hand to restore Lord Voldemort to a body.
Voldemort, alive again, summons his Death Eaters, berates them for believing him dead, and mentions that he has a single 'faithful servant' concealed at Hogwarts, who has led Harry to the graveyard for the resurrection. He tortures Harry, then challenges him to a duel to prove his prowess. However, when he and Harry fire spells at each other, their wands connect unexpectedly, causing echoes of Voldemort's previous magic to appear, including manifestations of Cedric and Harry's parents. These echoes provide a distraction for Harry, who escapes with Cedric's body to the Cup, which takes him back to Hogwarts.
Under the panic caused by his arrival, Moody takes a traumatised Harry to his office. He reveals himself to be Voldemort's 'faithful servant.' He explains that he put Harry's name into the Goblet of Fire under a different school and has been guiding him through the tournament to ensure he would touch the Cup first: he gave him the hint about flying, staged a conversation about Gillyweed in front of Dobby, cursed obstacles from outside the hedge maze, and used the Imperius Curse on Krum to force him to curse Cedric. As Moody prepares to kill Harry, Professors Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape intervene and stun Moody. Slowly, Moody changes appearance to become Barty Crouch Jr., the supposedly long-dead son of Barty Crouch Sr., who was using Polyjuice Potion to impersonate Moody.
Using Veritaserum, a truth potion, they learn that Barty Crouch Sr. rescued his son from Azkaban as a favour to his dying wife: the Crouch Jr. who died in Azkaban was his mother, disguised under Polyjuice Potion. Crouch Jr. was kept imprisoned at home. Winky convinced Crouch Sr. to allow Crouch Jr. to see the Quidditch World Cup, where he stole Harry's wand, escaped, and conjured the Dark Mark. Wormtail, meanwhile, had captured Bertha Jorkins, who had once seen Crouch Jr. at home and been bewitched to forget. This allowed Voldemort to discover Crouch Jr.'s whereabouts, then formulate a plan to install Crouch at Hogwarts and lead Harry to him. Crouch Sr. was imprisoned by Wormtail, and when he escaped to Hogwarts, Crouch Jr. killed him.
Dumbledore explains that Harry's and Voldemort's wands connected because they share a core of a feather from the same phoenix, coincidentally Dumbledore's own phoenix Fawkes.
Dumbledore announces Lord Voldemort's return to the school. However, many people, including Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, refuse to believe it. Fudge hastily has the Dementor's Kiss performed on Crouch Jr., who is thus unable to give testimony proving Voldemort's return. Dumbledore puts his own anti-Voldemort plans into action.
Hermione discovers Rita Skeeter is an unregistered Animagus who can take the form of a beetle, allowing her to eavesdrop on secrets. She blackmails Skeeter to force her to stop writing her libelous stories. Not wanting his tournament winnings, Harry gives all one thousand Galleons to Fred and George to start their joke shop, and returns home with the Dursleys.
2000 books
Harry Potter books |
17670 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crohn%27s%20disease | Crohn's disease | Crohn's disease is a disease that causes the intestines to become swollen. It is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The intestines may also develop ulcers. People with Crohn's disease often have pain in the stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, and weight loss. Crohn's can also cause skin rashes, arthritis, and swollen eyes. It is named after Burrill Bernard Crohn, who described cases in 1932. It was first
described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771) in the 18th century.
Nobody knows exactly what causes Crohn's disease. In the disease, the person's body attacks itself. The immune system attacks healthy parts of the digestive tract. This causes swelling in the digestive tract.
Though Crohn's is an immune-related disease, it is not an autoimmune disease (the immune system is not triggered by the body itself). The exact underlying immune problem is not clear. Crohn's disease seems to be connected to the person's genes. People whose brothers or sisters have the disease are the most likely to get it. Men and women can both be affected by Crohn's disease.
Managing Crohn's disease includes both lifestyle changes and various kind of medication. It is a chronic condition for which there is no cure. Certain parasitic intestinal worms appear to make the bowel less inflamed. It is supposed that the worms modify the immune reactions in the parts of the intestine where they live.
Alternative medicine of various kinds has been tried, with uncertain results.
References
Other websites
Crohn's disease information and tools for patients
Crohn's disease facts from the National Institutes of Health
Crohns Disease Resource Site
Diseases
Immunology |
17675 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet%20door | Pet door | Pet doors, also known as cat doors, dog doors, doggie doors, or in the United Kingdom, cat flaps, are small doors for pets. They are usually built in regular doors, but can also be in windows or walls. They usually have the hinge on the top, with no latch, so the animal can push their way in and out. Newer models sometimes only let the pet go outside, but not inside. Others have a latch and something that can be put on the pet that makes the latch open when the pet gets close to the door. They are most commonly used for pet cats, but can also be used for dogs, miniature pigs, or other small pets.
The pet door was developed by Isaac Newton.
Pets
Architectural elements |
17681 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Rainier | Mount Rainier | Mount Rainier is a mountain 54 miles (87 kilometres) southeast of Seattle, Washington, in the United States. The volcano is the highest mountain in the Cascade Range, at 14,410 feet (4,392 metres). The top of the mountain is mostly covered by snow and glaciers. Rainier is an active volcano, but has not had an eruption for more than 100 years. Some describe Rainier as dormant or inactive.
On March 2, 1899, U.S. President William McKinley made the mountain and area around it Mount Rainier National Park. It was the country's fifth national park.
References
Other websites
USGS: Mount Rainier -- Learning to Live with Volcanic Risk
Mount Rainier National Park
Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System
Mount Rainier stream drainage
Volcanoes of Washington (U.S. state) |
17686 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Knox | Fort Knox | Fort Knox is an U.S. Army post in Kentucky. Named after Henry Knox, the fort is now the site of the U.S. Bullion Reservatory (where the United States keeps its gold). The fort's fortifications were built in 1862 during the American Civil War; however, after the war the camp became abandoned until 1917.
It is named for Henry Knox, a general in the American Revolutionary War.
American Civil War
Buildings and structures in Kentucky
Knox
Census-designated places in Kentucky
Hardin County, Kentucky
Bullitt County, Kentucky
Meade County, Kentucky
1862 establishments in the United States
1860s establishments in Kentucky |
17690 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s%20equations | Maxwell's equations | Maxwell's equations describe how electric charges and electric currents create electric and magnetic fields. They describe how an electric field can generate a magnetic field.
In the 1860s James Clerk Maxwell published equations that describe how charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic force per unit charge. The force per unit charge is called a field. The particles could be stationary or moving. These, and the Lorentz force equation, give everything one needs to calculate the motion of classical particles in electric and magnetic fields.
The first equation allows one to calculate the electric field created by a charge. The second allows one to calculate the magnetic field. The other two describe how fields 'circulate' around their sources. Magnetic fields 'circulate' around electric currents and time varying electric fields: Ampère's law with Maxwell's extension, while electric fields 'circulate' around time varying magnetic fields: Faraday's law.
Maxwell's Equations in the classical forms
where the following table provides the meaning of each symbol and the SI unit of measure:
and
is the divergence operator (SI unit: 1 per metre),
is the curl operator (SI unit: 1 per metre).
The meaning of the equations
Charge density and the electric field
,
where is the free electric charge density (in units of C/m3), not counting the dipole charges bound in a material, and is the electric displacement field (in units of C/m2). This equation is like Coulomb's law for non-moving charges in vacuum.
The next integral form (by the divergence theorem), also known as Gauss' law, says the same thing:
is the area of a differential square on the closed surface A. The surface normal pointing out is the direction, and is the free charge that is inside the surface.
In a linear material, is directly related to the electric field with a constant called the permittivity, (This constant is different for different materials):
.
You can pretend a material is linear, if the electric field is not very strong.
The permittivity of free space is called , and is used in this equation:
Here is the electric field again (in units of V/m), is the total charge density (including the bound charges), and (approximately 8.854 pF/m) is the permittivity of free space. One can also write as . Here, is the permittivity of the material when compared to the permittivity of free space. This is called the relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
See also Poisson's equation.
The structure of the magnetic field
is the magnetic flux density (in units of tesla, T), also called the magnetic induction.
This next integral form says the same thing:
The area of is the area of a differential square on the surface . The direction of is the surface normal pointing outwards on the surface of .
This equation only works if the integral is done over a closed surface.
This equation says, that in every volume the sum of the magnetic field lines that go in equals the sum of the magnetical field lines that go out. This means that the magnetic field lines must be closed loops. Another way of saying this is that the field lines cannot start from somewhere.
This is the mathematical way of saying: "There are no magnetic monopoles".
A changing magnetic flux and the electric field
This next integral form says the same thing:
Here
This is what the symbols mean:
ΦB is the magnetic flux that goes through the area A that the second equation describes,
E is the electric field that the magnetic flux causes,
s is a closed path in which current is induced, for example a wire,
v is the instantaneous velocity of the line element (for moving circuits).
The electromotive force is equal to the value of this integral. Sometimes this symbol is used for the electromotive force: , do not confuse it with the symbol for permittivity that was used before.
This law is like Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Some textbooks show the right hand sign of the integral form with an N (N is the number of coils of wire that are around the edge of A) in front of the flux derivative. The N can be taken care of in calculating A (multiple wire coils means multiple surfaces for the flux to go through), and it is an engineering detail so it's left out here.
The negative sign is needed for conservation of energy. It is so important that it even has its own name, Lenz's law.
This equation shows how the electric and magnetic fields have to do with each other. For example, this equation explains how electric motors and electric generators work. In a motor or generator, the field circuit has a fixed electric field that causes a magnetic field. This is called fixed excitation. The varying voltage is measured across the armature circuit.
Maxwell's equations are used in a right-handed coordinate system. To use them in a left-handed system, without having to change the equations, the polarity of magnetic fields has to be made opposite (this is not wrong, but it is confusing because it is not usually done like this).
The source of the magnetic field
H is the magnetic field strength (in units of A/m), which you can get by dividing the magnetic flux B by a constant called the permeability, μ (B = μH), and J is the current density, defined by:
J = ∫ρqvdA
v is a vector field called the drift velocity. It describes the speeds of the charge carriers that have a density described by the scalar function ρq.
In free space, the permeability μ is the permeability of free space, μ0, which is exactly 4π×10−7 W/A·m, by definition. Also, the permittivity is the permittivity of free space ε0. So, in free space, the equation is:
The next integral form says the same thing:
s is the edge of the open surface A (any surface with the curve s as its edge is okay here), and Iencircled is the current encircled by the curve s (the current through any surface is defined by the equation: Ithrough A = ∫AJ·dA).
If the electric flux density does not change very fast, the second term on the right hand side (the displacement flux) is very small and can be left out, and then the equation is the same as Ampere's law.
Covariant Formulation
There are only two covariant Maxwell Equations, because the covariant field vector includes the electrical and the magnetical field.
Mathematical note: In this section the abstract index notation will be used.
In special relativity, Maxwell's equations for the vacuum are written in terms of four-vectors and tensors in the "manifestly covariant" form. This has been done to show more clearly the fact that Maxwell's equations (in vacuum) take the same form in any inertial coordinate system. This is the "manifestly covariant" form:
,
and
The second equation is the same as:
Here is the 4-current, is the field strength tensor (written as a 4 × 4 matrix), is the Levi-Civita symbol, and is the 4-gradient (so that is the d'Alembertian operator). (The in the first equation is implicitly summed over, according to Einstein notation.) The first tensor equation says the same thing as the two inhomogeneous Maxwell's equations: Gauss' law and Ampere's law with Maxwell's correction. The second equation say the same thing as the other two equations, the homogeneous equations: Faraday's law of induction and the absence of magnetic monopoles.
can also be described more explicitly by this equation: (as a contravariant vector), where you get from the charge density ρ and the current density . The 4-current is a solution to the continuity equation:
In terms of the 4-potential (as a contravariant vector) , where φ is the electric potential and is the magnetic vector potential in the Lorentz gauge , F can be written as:
which leads to the 4 × 4 matrix rank-2 tensor:
The fact that both electric and magnetic fields are combined into a single tensor shows the fact that, according to relativity, both of these are different parts of the same thing—by changing frames of reference, what looks like an electric field in one frame can look like a magnetic field in another frame, and the other way around.
Using the tensor form of Maxwell's equations, the first equation implies
(See Electromagnetic four-potential for the relationship between the d'Alembertian of the four-potential and the four-current, expressed in terms of the older vector operator notation).
Different authors sometimes use different sign conventions for these tensors and 4-vectors (but this does not change what they mean).
and are not the same: they are related by the Minkowski metric tensor : . This changes the sign of some of F's components; more complex metric dualities can be seen in general relativity.
Other websites
Maxwell equations - Citizendium
Electromagnetism
Basic physics ideas
Partial differential equations |
17691 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Knox | Henry Knox | Henry Knox (1750-1806) was a military leader for the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. Originally from Boston, Massachusetts, he was appointed Chief Artillery Officer of the Continental Army. He is best known for transporting cannons and other artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston through icy conditions using oxen. Later, George Washington named him the first Secretary of War.
Fort Knox in Kentucky & Maine are named after him.
1750 births
1806 deaths
American generals
American revolutionaries
Founding Fathers of the United States
Politicians from Boston, Massachusetts
18th-century American politicians |
17692 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Revolutionary%20War | American Revolutionary War | The American Revolutionary War was a war fought between Great Britain and the original Thirteen Colonies in North America from 1775 to 1787. Most of the fighting was in North America and other places. The Continental Army, the rebel army, was led by George Washington and helped by France and Spain. They defeated the British Army after the British moved their attention to other matters. This happened as the British had far more lucrative colonies whilst America at the time had very little of value so they let America have its independence so they could focus on what were richer colonies.
After the war ended, the Thirteen Colonies became independent, which meant that the British Empire was no longer in charge of them. They became the first 13 states of a new country see the world which they called the United States of America.
Background and causes
The war started after years of problems between the British Empire and the colonists of North America after the French and Indian War (also called the Seven Years' War). People in the Thirteen Colonies disliked many of the actions of the British government, such as the Intolerable Acts. For many years, the British government decided the countries that could trade with the colonies instead of letting the colonies decide for themselves. Many colonists wanted free trade.
In 1765, the British Parliament needed money to pay back the debt for the French and Indian War. They passed a Law called the Stamp Act. This law said that colonists had to buy stamps for legal papers, newspapers, and even playing cards, as other British people did. The money from the stamps went to the King. The colonies did not follow this law. The colonies kept refusing to do what the King wanted. The Boston Tea Party and Boston Massacre caused people to become more angry about the situation. The British sent more soldiers (who were called Red Coats by the colonists to insult them) to keep control of the colonies and they sometimes had to fight. In 1774, the British passed the Intolerable Acts to punish the colonists in Boston for the Boston Tea Party.
Not all colonists wanted to leave the British Empire. The Loyalists, or Tories, stayed loyal to Great Britain. They were not going to change their views. The Patriots, or Whigs, wanted independence. Before the Revolutionary War, most people in America were Loyalists; but after it, most people were Patriots.
Many colonists wrote letters showing how they felt. Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense, a famous pamphlet about independence from Britain. Other colonial leaders, such as Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson wanted independence.
Northern battles
The first battles of the American Revolutionary War were Lexington and Concord. One of the first major battles was the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. Then, the British controlled Boston. Soon, the Second Continental Congress sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III, which he rejected, and named George Washington head of the army. Early in 1776, Washington's army drove the British out of Boston.
A few months later, the Continental Army and the British troops under William Howe fought the New York and New Jersey Campaign. During the New York battles, the British started using Hessian troops, who were from Germany. Though the colonists lost New York, which the British would hold it for the rest of the war, Washington was able to hold onto most of his army. Over Christmas, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and defeated the Hessians at Trenton and the British at Princeton.
In 1777, the British attacked Philadelphia, which was the American capital. Two battles were fought over Philadelphia: Brandywine and Germantown. Again, the Americans lost a major city, but Washington was able to keep most of his army. Around then, the marquis de Lafayette joined the American Army from his native France. In 1778, the British left Philadelphia.
Between 1778 and 1781, most battles between Washington and the British were inconclusive and had no major effect militarily.
One of the most important battles was the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. American soldiers under Horatio Gates forced a British surrender under John Burgoyne. That led to France and Spain joining the war on the side of Americans, who they thought would win. Both powerful countries fought the British around the world. From 1778 to 1780, there was fighting in the West.
The Scottish commerce raider John Paul Jones also won several naval battles for the Americans over the British, but the French Navy did most of the fighting at sea. The Americans tried to capture Canada several times but failed.
Southern battles
In 1779, the main fighting shifted to Georgia and South Carolina. As the fighting spread northward, General Nathanael Greene led the rebels' campaign. He caused many people in the South to be Patriots instead of Loyalists and won several battles against the British.
In 1781, Washington and French General Jean Rochambeau led an offensive against British troops at Siege of Yorktown in Virginia. When their soldiers lost this battle, the British surrendered to the Americans. However, the British continued to fight the French and Spanish for two years and won in India, Gibraltar and elsewhere.
End of war
The American Revolution came to an end in 1783 when a peace treaty was signed in Paris, France. In the Treaty of Paris, British King George III accepted the independence of the colonies and recognized the newly-created nation as the United States of America.
The treaty also gave all the land Britain claimed to own west of the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi River to the new country. The land would eventually become part of the United States and lead to the creation of 35 new states (some of them later rebelled as part of the Confederate States of America) that now make up the contiguous United States. Many Loyalists fled to Canada.
Casualties
As Is usual for 18th-century wars, casualty figures (killed/wounded/missing/captured) for the American Revolution are poorly known. Unlike American Civil War casualties, which were published in newspapers, Revolutionary War casualty reports are found in local town histories; total casualties of the Revolution are rough estimates.
References
Other websites
American Revolution, military history -Citizendium
Rosters and Registers of the American Revolution
Roll of New Hampshire Soldiers in the American Revolution
Revolutions
Wars of independence
Wars involving the United States
Wars involving France
18th century rebellions
Rebellions in North America |
17694 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1775 | 1775 |
Events
May – beginning of American Revolutionary War
May – First Continental Congress
June – Second Continental Congress |
17695 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental%20Army | Continental Army | The Continental Army was the fighting force of the thirteen British colonies in the American Revolutionary War. It was created in 1775 by the First Continental Congress. Most of the army was disbanded in 1783 after the conclusion of the war. The army was officially closed by a resolution of Congress in 1784. A Legion of the United States partly replaced it in 1792, and the United States Army replaced it in 1796.
Congress elected George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army when it was formed. He led the army until it was disbanded.
United States Army
American Revolutionary War
1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1784 disestablishments
18th-century disestablishments in the United States |
17700 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cream%20cheese | Cream cheese | Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting, white cheese. Sometimes, it is given extra flavor by adding additional seasonings such as puréed garlic, chopped dill, or chopped olives; as well, some cream cheese has small pieces of fruit or other sweet food blended into it. Cream cheese is different from other cheese in that it is not allowed time to mature. It is either made by cream or a mixture of milk and cream.
Serving
Cream cheese is often spread on toasted bagels. Waffles with cream cheese and salsa is eaten in some areas of the United States.
As an ingredient
Cream cheese is used to make cheesecake, a sweet, rich cake that is served for dessert.
Related pages
Fromage frais
References
Cheeses
Spreads |
17703 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrewsbury | Shrewsbury | Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, a county of England. It is located 9 miles (14 km) east of the Welsh border and serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid-Wales.
The town is very old. It was started around 700 AD. The town centre has almost the exact same medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. Many of these buildings have timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries. There is also Shrewsbury Castle, which was built in 1074, and Shrewsbury Abbey, which was built in 1083. The town centre is almost completely surrounded by the River Severn.
Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury and lived there for 27 years.
The population of Shrewsbury is just over 71,000, making it the second largest town in Shropshire, the biggest being Telford.
The town has a railway station and a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town, who compete in League One.
Twinning
Shrewsbury is twinned with Zutphen, Netherlands.
In fiction
Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters (Edith Pargeter). The books were later made into a television show. The story is about a 12th-century monk who solves mysteries. In 2013, the Abbey honoured Pargeter on the 100th anniversary of her birth.
Gallery
References
County towns in England
Market towns in Shropshire |
17704 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telford | Telford | Telford is a large town in the county of Shropshire, England. It is in the borough of Telford and Wrekin.
It is a new town and building began in the 1960s. It is known for its large shopping centre in the town centre. It also has an ice rink and a large park.
The population of Telford is just over 140,000. It is the largest town in Shropshire, however the county town is Shrewsbury.
The town has a railway station, Telford Central. The town also has a football club, A.F.C. Telford United.
Gallery
Towns in Shropshire |
17705 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow | Ludlow | Ludlow is a town in Shropshire, a county of England. The town is very old and dates back to around 800 AD. There is a large castle and many other historic buildings.
There are just over 10,000 people living in the town.
It is the largest town in the South Shropshire area.
The town, though not large, is important in its area, which includes the Welsh Marches, Wales and South Shropshire. Its parish church, St Laurence's, is the largest in the county.
Transport
Road
The A49, A4117, B4361 and B4365 roads pass through or go near Ludlow.
Rail
Ludlow has a train station.
References
Towns in Shropshire
9th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in England
Civil parishes in Shropshire |
17706 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Shropshire | South Shropshire | South Shropshire is an area of Shropshire in England.
It is very hilly and has few people living there. The only large town is Ludlow.
The area has many castles and other ancient features, such as stone circles.
District and borough councils in England
Shropshire |
17714 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Yorktown%20%281781%29 | Battle of Yorktown (1781) | The Battle of Yorktown, also called the Siege of Yorktown, fought from September 28-October 19, 1781. It is considered the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army, led by General George Washington, won a decisive victory against the British Army, led by General Lord Charles Cornwallis. Cornwallis was forced to surrender after being surrounded by Washington's army.
The Americans were assisted by the French, led by the Comte de Rochambeau. The battle took place in Yorktown, Virginia, near the York River. After the French fleet defeated a British fleet, Cornwallis was cut off and had to surrender to the French and the Continental Army. Eventually, it led to the Treaty of Paris in 1783, two years later.
Background
British General Lord Cornwallis had fought against the Americans in 1776 and 1777. He was convinced the Americans could not defeat a British army in the field. In 1778 he returned to England to care for his wife who died in February of 1779. After a few months he returned to America to continue the fight. While he was gone, there was a change in British strategy. Before, the British had concentrated on defeating and destroying Washington's army. Now, since the French had joined the Americans, it was no longer just a rebellion but a world war. Earlier, the French had been helping the Americans with loans and war supplies. Now France and Spain were fighting against the British, who had to move troops from North America to defend other places. The new strategy was to win back the Southern colonies beginning with Georgia. The British thought that as many as 50 percent of the population in the South was loyal to Britain. They would start with Georgia and move north through The Carolinas to the Virginia Colony.
On his arrival in New York City, Cornwallis was made second-in-command to General Henry Clinton. The two generals did not trust each other. Clinton was convinced Washington would attack him in New York. He was afraid of sending troops home and having to depend more on Loyalist militia. Cornwallis was ready to go ahead with what troops he had. Clinton was suspicious Cornwallis' return from England was to get a command for himself. In fact, Cornwallis had secured a commission to replace Clinton if Clinton repeated his threats to resign.
Clinton sent Cornwallis south to recapture Charleston, South Carolina following the new plan. Soon, Cornwallis began acting independently of Clinton, who stayed safe in New York City. Cornwallis wasn't going to play it safe and advance by careful steps as he had been instructed. When he saw a chance to attack the new patriot army under Major General Horatio Gates, he did so without orders nearly wiping out the Americans.
Cornwallis moved carelessly. He left American units, such as the one led by Francis Marion (called the "Swamp Fox"), in his rear. The American general Nathanael Greene noticed this right away. He broke up his command into smaller units in order to plague Cornwallis. Finally the two armies met at the Battle of Guilford Court House, which neither army won. During this time Cornwallis was not sending messages to Clinton telling him where he was. After Guilford Court House, Cornwallis moved to the coast of North Carolina to rest his men. Then, again without orders, he decided to march north to Virginia. Frustrated by this, Clinton sent Cornwallis a number of contradictory messages. Most of them were worded as suggestions rather than orders. But he did order Cornwallis to find a defensible position. This was so he could be evacuated by the Royal Navy, possibly to Philadelphia. Cornwallis decided on the community of Yorktown and his men started building defenses there in August of 1781 to wait for the Navy.
In New York, Washington learned that the French Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse was sailing north from the West Indies. Rochambeau convinced Washington they could attack and defeat Cornwallis. The two commanders began marching south to meet de Grasse's 27 ships and 3,200 troops. Clinton learned of this and sent a British naval fleet to the Chesapeake Bay to cut them off. But the French and Americans arrived first. In the Battle of the Chesapeake the French navy forced the British ships back to New York City. Clinton warned Cornwallis in early September he would soon be facing American and French troops but promised him reinforcements by sea. Clinton had not yet learned of the French naval victory and did not know he could not rescue Cornwallis by sea. By the end of September, Washington and Rochambeau had surrounded Yorktown. Cornwallis received another message in late September from Clinton telling him help was on the way. Cornwallis was misled again and thought he only had to hold out for a few days.
The Siege of Yorktown
Just after the clash between the French and British Fleets, a smaller French squadron carrying the French army's siege artillery slipped into the Chesapeake. Now the French and Americans had bigger guns than Cornwallis had behind his earthen fortifications.
Marching out of Williamsburg, Virginia the Americans and French arrived on September 28, 1781 at Yorktown. They surrounded the earthworks in a Semicircle with the York River completing the circle. Cornwallis made the first move, abandoning his outer works made up of four redoubts. Washington and Rochambeau thought this was a mistake. They sent troops to occupy the outer earthworks. The Americans and French began setting up their siege operations on September 30, first on the east side. By October 9, they were close enough to begin the bombardment. The Americans and French stormed two of the redoubts on October 14, forcing the British back even further. By that time it became obvious the British could not hold out much longer. On October 16, the British attacked two of the redoubts they had abandoned and spiked the guns. At the same time Cornwallis attempted to slip past the guards to Gloucester (now Gloucester Point, Virginia) across the river but was turned back by a storm. Finally, with no sign of relief as promised by Clinton, Cornwallis' army of 6,000 soldiers surrendered.
The casualties were about 500 British, 200 French and 80 Americans. Captured were 240 artillery pieces, a large supply of small arms and ammunition, plus equipment. General Cornwallis did not attend the surrender. Claiming to be sick, he sent General Charles O'Hara to surrender for him. O'Hara first tried to surrender to Comte de Rochambeau. Rochambeau directed him to surrender to General Washington. In turn, Washington directed him to surrender to General Benjamin Lincoln who accepted O'Hara's sword. As the British stacked their guns marching out of the fortress, their band played "The World Turned Upside Down". When Lord North, the British Prime Minister, received news of the surrender he cried out "Oh God, it is all over!"
Results
The battles of Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781 were two major turning points in the Revolutionary war. Both were American victories over the British, but with very different results. The British defeat at Saratoga prolonged the war, while the battle at Yorktown foretold its end. Saratoga convinced the French to join the Americans against the British. Yorktown was a joint victory by the French and the Americans over the British. France and her allies continued to fight hard for two more years, but there was little fighting anymore on the American continent. The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war.
References
Other websites
America's Final Victory - 1781; YouTube
The Surrender of Yorktown 1781; YouTube
Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1781 in North America
1780s in the United States
18th century in Virginia |
17715 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Saratoga | Battle of Saratoga | The Battle of Saratoga is considered the turning point of the American Revolution. The battle was fought in late 1777. It was actually two engagements: the Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19) and the Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7). The Americans were led by General Horatio Gates. The British were led by General John Burgoyne. On October 17 Burgoyne surrendered his army of nearly 6,000 British soldiers. The American victory helped convince France to come to the aid the Continental Army. It also helped them recognize the United States.
Prelude
In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia. This would destroy the rebellious American government. In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet General Howe at Albany. This would divide the colonies. London approved both plans. Burgoyne began moving down the Hudson River valley from Canada. He split his force into two columns. One, under Colonel Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario down the Mohawk Valley. They attacked the Americans at Fort Stanwix. The Americans sent two parties to relieve the fort. The second, under the command of Benedict Arnold, drove the British away from the fort. St. Leger's column retreated back to Lake Ontario. Burgoyne continued south with his own column of about 7,000 British and Hessian soldiers. He was joined by about 500 native Americans, allied to the British.
Burgoyne made a proclamation to his Indians to go out and strike at the enemy. He added that women and children, or any who did not oppose them should not be killed. But men, women and children were killed. One famous incident upset all the colonists. A young woman named Jane McCrea was engaged to marry one of Burgoyne's young tory officers. Indians bringing her to Burgoyne fought over her, killed and scalped her. Burgoyne wouldn't punish the Indian who killed her. This proved he could not even protect friendly colonists. Newspapers in the colonies spread the story. As a result, a great many Americans who had been neutral took up arms against the British. The story even reached England. In the House of Commons Edmund Burke spoke out against the British policy of using Native American allies.
Battle of Freeman's Farm
Howe had captured Philadelphia. But it took so long he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne. On September 19 Burgoyne attacked the Americans who were entrenched on Bemis Heights near Saratoga. He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm. This time it was American riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan. American Marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers. This was intended to cause confusion among the British forces. Burgoyne lost about 600 casualties. He claimed victory although he was still held in place by the Americans.
Battle of Bemis Heights
Burgoyne tried and failed to attack the Americans again on October 7. But the Americans held out against him. A counterattack led by Benedict Arnold pushed the British back further until they finally retreated back to Saratoga. This battle cost Burgoyne another 600 casualties. The American losses were less than 150. Burgoyne's army was now surrounded by a much larger and growing American army. On October 13, 1777 Burgoyne asked for a Ceasefire. Horatio Gates, the American commander asked for Burgoyne's surrender. But Burgoyne stalled and did not give an answer. The terms given by Gates were harsh. Finally Gates offered better terms. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered.
British surrender
Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752. He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies. Officers were separated from their men and placed on parole. Unlike their men they were allowed to keep their pistols. Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him. The two men were friendly. Each toasted the other's leader. The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston. Per the agreement they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again. While some did return to England, Congress changed the terms. Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war.
References
Other websites
Battle Of Saratoga - Sept & Oct 1777
The Battle of Saratoga 1777; British Battles
Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1777 in New York (state) |
17716 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1189 | 1189 |
Events
January 21 – Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade
September 3– Richard I of England is crowned as king of England.
August 29– Ban Kulin wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian statehood
This year was fixed as the start of time immemorial in English law in 1276.
Beginning of the Siege of Acre.
The Crusader castles of Montreal and Kerak are captured by Saladin.
Births
Yuri II, grand prince of Vladimir (d. 1238)
Deaths
July 6 — King Henry II of England (b. 1133) |
17717 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio%20Gates | Horatio Gates | Horatio Gates (1726 - 1806) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War. General Gates fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777.
In the earlier French and Indian War, he fought along with George Washington against the French, as an officer in the British Army.
However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780. He had a child named Robert.
1726 births
1806 deaths
American revolutionaries |
17718 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1276 | 1276 |
Events
February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens move from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong to get away from an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
June – King Rudolph I of Germany starts a war with King Otakar II of Bohemia; by November, Otakar II has to give him four important pieces of land. (The diet of Nuremberg already decided this in 1274.)
Four different men are pope in this year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in a short time.
King Otakar II of Bohemia lays the foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna.
Mamluk sultan Baibars takes Al-Maris, which was part of Makuria, and goes through it into Egypt.
A 23-year drought begins to change the Grand Canyon area. In the end, the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture has to migrate out of the region.
Births
October 19 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France
Deaths |
17719 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1274 | 1274 |
Events
May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the conquest of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church. The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to conquer the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism which ultimately proves unsuccessful.
November – The diet at Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who had benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over three years to elect him. |
17720 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1198 | 1198 | 1198 (MCXCVIII) was .
Events
End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan
Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan
January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne
Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily
Births
August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249)
Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281)
Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252)
Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230)
Deaths
January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106)
March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175)
September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160)
November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154)
December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126)
Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150)
William III of Sicily (b. 1190)
June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139)
William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135) |
17721 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1433 | 1433 |
Events
Winter: Much of the English town of Alnwick in Northumbria burnt by Scottish a raiding party.
The Ming dynasty in China disbands their navy, altering the balance of power in the Indian Ocean, making it easier for Portugal and other Western naval powers to gain dominance over the seas. |
17722 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1435 | 1435 |
Events
September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy. |
17723 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich-Heine-University | Heinrich-Heine-University | Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (HHU) () is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.
History
In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte there was the first university in Düsseldorf, which ended after Napoleon surrendered.
So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf. In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital. The university started about 1970.
It got its name only in the 1980s, because the medicine faculty wanted to have a physician's name, because of the tradition as Medical Academy.
Current situation
Currently the Heinrich-Heine-University is a university with about 20,000 students, which is middle-class in Germany.
It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on. The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.
Subjects
Like most German universities it has many subjects:
Other websites
http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de
Colleges and universities in Germany
Düsseldorf
Education in North Rhine-Westphalia |
17724 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1239 | 1239 | 1239 is a year in the 13th century
Events
September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.
Births
June 17 – King Edward I of England (died 1307)
December 17 – Kujo Yoritsugu, Japanese shogun (died 1256)
Peter III of Aragon (died 1285)
John II, Duke of Brittany (died 1305)
Ippen, Japanese monk (died 1289)
Deaths |
17726 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian%20tiger | Siberian tiger | The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the largest felid in the world. They live in eastern Russia's birch forests, and there are some in China and North Korea. It is estimated that there are around 400 to 500 Siberian tigers left in the wild.
In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes all the tiger populations in mainland Asia as P. t. tigris.
Description
Siberian tigers are the largest of all tigers, as well as the largest of all the big cats. They can grow up to the length of 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 meters), but some can be as long as . They usually weigh around 300–600 pounds, but can weigh as much as 700 pounds or more. To keep themselves from becoming cold in the winters, Siberian tigers have thicker fur coats than tigers which live in southern Asia. They also have a thick layer of fat which helps keep them warm. Like all other tigers, Siberian tigers have orange fur with black stripes. Siberian tigers have extra fur around their necks and paws which helps them keep warm. Siberian tigers have less orange in their coats, and have fewer stripes.
Where they live
Siberian tigers are located in northeast China, the Russian Far East and parts of North Korea. This region is called the "Amur Region", which is named after the Amur River. This region is covered with mountainous areas and coniferous forests. In the summer, the temperature is between mild and hot. In the winter, it may be very cold, especially at higher altitudes.
Behavior
Like other tigers, the Siberian tiger likes to live on its own. Each Siberian tiger has its own large amount of territory. Male tigers' territories will usually cross those of several females' territories, but will usually not cross the territories of other males. In their territories, Siberian tigers usually have a lair in a cave or another area.
Feeding
Since Siberian tigers live in such cold regions, an adult needs to eat at least of food every day to survive, but adults can eat as much as 50 kilograms of meat. Siberian tigers are carnivores. Siberian tigers are apex predators. Siberian tigers feed mainly on wild boar, moose and deer. If regular prey is unavailable they will eat fish, rodents, rabbits and even small bears. During normal conditions, around 50 percent of the tiger's diet will be of wild boar.
Hunting
While hunting, a Siberian tiger can run faster than , but running at this speed takes a lot of energy, so the Siberian tiger will only run short distances. The Siberian tiger has good night vision and likes to hunt during the night, when it can more easily surprise its prey. It also has excellent hearing and sense of smell which it uses to find and attack prey.
Reproduction
Siberian tigers live alone and only come together in mating season. The mating season usually begins in December, and lasts through January. Females are pregnant for around three to three and a half months before giving birth to their cubs in early spring. Females usually give birth to around 3–4 cubs at a time. When born, the Siberian tiger cub is blind and toothless and is no larger than a normal house cat. It stays blind for around two weeks. The mother starts teaching the cubs how to hunt when the cubs are around 1 year old. The cubs then stay with their mother until they are 3–5 years old.
References
Other websites
"The Amur tiger in the 20th century" article from the Tigris Foundation website
Siberian Tiger at the AMUR website
Tigers |
17728 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1455 | 1455 |
Other calendars
Buddhist calendar: 1997 - 1998
Hebrew calendar: 5215 - 5216
Islamic calendar: 859 - 860
Events
February 9 – Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector
February 23 – Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press
May 22 – Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans – Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed. York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England.
May 25 – Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St. Paul's Cathedral. |
17730 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette | Cassette | Cassette may mean:
Some of kinds of cassettes are:
Audio cassettes, a kind of cassette which can store music and sounds. It is used with a "cassette player" or "cassette recorder".
Videotape cassettes, which can store video and sounds
Cassette single, a recording of a single song sold on a compact audio cassette
Digital Compact Cassette, a format of magnetic tape, developed to replace the compact cassette |
17733 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20cassette | Audio cassette | An audio cassette is a type of cassette which can store music and sounds. To play a tape, a cassette player or cassette recorder is used. This is also known as a cassette deck, by analogy with reel-to-reel decks. Cassettes store the sound on a magnetic tape that is wound around the two reels in the cassette. Like vinyl records, most cassettes have two sides, called the A-side and B-side. The listener flips the cassette over to play or record on the other side. Some players have auto-reverse, meaning they can play both sides on their own. Cassettes have a tab in the upper left corner that can be removed to prevent accidentally recording over the tape. Cassettes typically hold anywhere from a few minutes up to an hour of audio per side. The longer the tape, the thinner it must be. Tapes longer than 60 minutes (30 minutes per side), and especially those longer than 90 minutes (45 minutes per side), tend to be fragile and more likely to break or get jammed inside the player.
History
The standard audio cassette was invented in 1962 by Lou Ottens of the Philips company. They named it the "Compact Cassette". The first cassettes and cassette recorders had poor audio quality. They were used for recording speech rather than music. Over time, audio quality improved, and they became usable for music. During the 1970s, the cassette grew to be a popular physical audio format. Their popularity grew further during the following decades. The Walkman, released in 1979, made the cassette very popular in the 1980s. In the 1990s, CDs became more popular than cassettes for prerecorded music, however the cassette remained the most popular format for homemade recordings until CD recorders became affordable in the early 2000s.
Types of cassette
There are four types of cassettes, each using a different magnetic particle bonded to the plastic tape stock. The tape type alone is not an indicator of the quality of the tape.
Type I - Ferric - Type I was the original cassette formulation and is made from rust-like ferric oxide particles. These particles give the tape its characteristic brown color. Type I tapes have strong, high-quality bass and midrange, but less treble response than the other types.
Type II - CrO2 and cobalt - Type II tapes are made from chromium dioxide or a mixture of cobalt and ferric oxide particles. The tape is typically black or very dark brown. Type II tapes have good treble response, and acceptable bass response, although the bass is not as strong as Type I.
Type III - Ferrochrome - Type III tapes are a hybrid of Types I and II. They consist of a layer of ferric tape for strong bass, and a layer of chromium dioxide tape for strong treble. Type III tapes are no longer made and were never very popular. Many tape recorders do not have a setting for them. On decks without a Type III setting, they should be recorded as a Type I.
Type IV - Metal - Type IV tapes are made from metal particles rather than metal oxides. The tape is typically a shiny metallic black color. They have good treble and bass response and very high dynamic range. Type IV tapes are no longer made.
Decline in popularity
As compact discs grew in popularity, cassettes were used less. In 2011, the Oxford English Dictionary attempted to remove the word "cassette tape" from a small version of its book. Cassettes are still popular with some audiophiles, as it is an analog format that is portable and more convenient than vinyl.
References
Magnetic tape |
17744 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1694 | 1694 |
Events
February 6 – The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed.
July 27 – A Royal Charter is granted to the Bank of England.
December 22 – The Triennial Bill became law.
December 28 – Queen Mary II of England dies; King William III of England, Scotland and Ireland is now sole ruler after his co-ruler's death.
Much of the town of Warwick, England destroyed by fire.
The Lao empire of Lan Xang unofficially ends. |
17745 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1290 | 1290 |
Events
March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon, Portugal by King Denis of Portugal; it moves to Coimbra in 1308.
July 18 – King Edward I of England banishes all Jews (numbering about 16,000) from Britain; Jews traditionally hold that this event occurs on Tisha B'Av, a sorrowful Jewish holiday.
August 1 – The country of Wallachia is founded (traditional date).
December – The twelve Eleanor crosses are erected between Lincolnshire and London in England as King Edward I mourns the death of his queen consort Eleanor of Castile.
Construction of Llandaff Cathedral is completed in Cardiff, Wales, 170 years after it was begun.
The Mongol Empire invades the Bessarabia region of Moldavia.
The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church. The statute Quia Emptores is also passed, reforming the feudal system of land leases and allowing the sale of fee simple estates.
King Denis of Portugal decrees that Portuguese be the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity.
Construction on the Akershus Fortress of Oslo, Norway is begun. |
17746 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight%20Club | Fight Club | Fight Club is a 1999 American drama movie. It stars Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, and Helena Bonham Carter. The movie was directed by David Fincher. It is based on a novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk.
The story is about an unnamed character's path during a dark form of personal enlightenment (or eternal happiness) which is achieved primarily through fighting. The story is dark and, in both the book and the movie, contains strong depictions of violence. There are a large number of metaphors which are revealed in its complex and twisted storyline. Some would think that the morals and life guidelines taught in the story would be an extreme form of Buddhism, such as the idea of detachment from material possessions (things). The central character has dissociative identity disorder.
Cast
Brad Pitt as Tyler Durden
Edward Norton as the Narrator
Helena Bonham Carter as Marla Singer
Meat Loaf as Robert Paulson
Jared Leto as Angel Face
Other websites
Fight club wallpapers
1999 drama movies
1990s satirical movies
American drama movies
American satirical movies
Cult movies
Dissociative identity disorder in movies
English-language movies
Movies about terrorism
Movies based on books
Movies directed by David Fincher
20th Century Fox movies |
17747 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20of%20the%20Pops | Top of the Pops | Top of the Pops is a British music show, which featured popular artists performing their songs. It started in 1964 and ended in 2006 because not enough people were watching it any more. It was hosted by many presenters over the years, most notably by Sir Jimmy Savile, who opened the very first show on New Year's Day 1964 on BBC1.
TOTP2 (Top of the Pops 2) is a variant of the show. However, it featured a collection of archive performances by artists spanning the past four decades.
The show was regularly hosted by Steve Wright, up until 2009, when Mark Radcliffe replaced him. A new episode of the programme is shown on 25 December each year.
Other websites
References
1964 television series debuts
1960s British television series
1970s British television series
1980s British television series
1990s British television series
2000s British television series
BBC Television programmes
Music television series
1964 in music
CBS network shows
English-language television programs |
17751 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad%20and%20Tobago | Trinidad and Tobago | The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a nation in the south Caribbean Sea. It is 11 km (7 miles) away from Venezuela. The country has two bigger islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and many smaller islands. The capital is Port-of-Spain. The country has about 1,262,366 people in it.
Trinidad and Tobago received independence from the United Kingdom on August 31, 1962. Before that, it was ruled by the U.K. Right now, the head of state (person who is in charge of the country) is Ms Paula-Mae Weekes. The head of government (person who is in charge of the government) are Prime Minister Keith Rowley and President Paula-Mae Weekes.
Trinidad and Tobago is very diverse. It has people of many different races and religions. There are people who are children of Africans, Europeans, Arabs, Indians, and Chinese who moved to the islands a long time ago. The biggest religions in the country are Christianity and Hinduism. There are also Islam and African religions in the country. Trinidad and Tobago was home to the indigenous Caribs.
The country has some natural gas beneath the ground and underwater in the ocean. Natural gas is a liquid that makes machines work and heats houses. Also, many people called tourists visit the islands. They take pictures and learn about the islands.
The people in the country are famous for their music and artists such as Nicki Minaj and Haddaway. They also play football and cricket.
Demographics
The population of Trinidad and Tobago is 1.17 million as of (2002). The ethnic groups of the population are:
40.3%: East Indian
39.5%: West African descent
18.4%: Mixed Race
1.2%: Chinese and Other
0.6%: European descent
Related pages
List of rivers of Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics
Trinidad and Tobago national football team
References
Other websites
Official Government Website
Official Tourism Website
National emblems of Trinidad and Tobago
Central Statistical Office, Government of Trinidad and Tobago
Caribbean Community
1962 establishments in North America |
17756 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20St.%20Helens | Mount St. Helens | Mount St. Helens is a volcano in the U.S. state of Washington. It is 96 miles (154 km) south of Seattle and 53 miles (85 km) northeast of Portland, Oregon. The volcano is in Cascade Range of mountains. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanos. This is a deadly volcano.
Mount St. Helens was first called Louwala-Clough, which means "smoking" or "fire mountain" in the language of the Native American Klickitat people. This volcano is well known for its explosions and flows of lava. Its most famous volcanic eruption was on May 18, 1980. In 1982, U.S. President Ronald Reagan and the United States Congress made the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a 110,000 acre (445 km²) area around the volcano that is also a part of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.
The 1980 eruption was the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States. 57 people were killed; 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles of railways, and 185 miles of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche was triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale. This caused the eruption, which reduced the height of the mountain's summit from to and replacing it with a wide horseshoe-shaped crater. The earthquake was caused by a sudden surge of magma from the Earth's mantle. The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 cubic miles (3.1 cubic kilometers) in volume.
History
Before the eruption in 1980, Mount St. Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington State. The peak rose more than 5,000 feet (1,525 m) above its base, where it rises from the ridges that are around it. It stood out from the surrounding hills because of the symmetrical cone shape and the snow that covered the top. Because of its cone-shape, it was called the "Mount Fuji of America", after the famous Mount Fuji which is a symbol of Japan.
Modern eruptions
In the months before the large eruption that took place on May 18, 1980, there were many signs of volcanic activity. On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens was the center of a magnitude 4.2 earthquake. Steam venting from the volcano started on March 27. By the end of April, the north side of the volcano started to grow larger.
On May 18, a second earthquake of magnitude 5.1 made a huge part of the north face of the volcano collapse. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. At 8:32 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time, the magma inside of St. Helens exploded. On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a five, which is the same rating of the famous Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD.
For more than nine hours, ash erupted from the volcano, rising into the air for 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level in the air. This cloud rising from a volcano is called a "plume". The pyroclastic flow of heated rocks and gas that poured out of the Volcano spread over an area of over 230 square miles (600 km²), destroying plants and buildings. The ash spread east at about 60 miles per hour (95 km/h), with some ash reaching Idaho by about 12:00 pm, almost 3.5 hours after the eruption. By about 5:30 pm the plume of ash became smaller. Through the night and for several days after, there were smaller eruptions.
As well as the effect of the fast-moving hot gasses and stones from the explosion, the collapse of the northern side of Mount St. Helens caused lahars, or volcanic mudflows. These were mixtures of volcanic ash with melted ice and snow. The lahars went many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz rivers, destroying bridges and killing many trees. A total of 3.9 million cubic yards (3.0 million m³) of material was carried 17 miles (27 km) south into the Columbia River by the lahars.
The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy. It released more than 0.67 cubic miles (2.8 cubic km) of ash and other material. The collapse of the north side of the volcano shortened St. Helens' height by about 1,300 feet (400 m) and left a volcanic crater one to two miles (1.6 to 3.2 km) wide and half of a mile (800 m) deep. The eruption
killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and about 12 million fish from a fish farm. It destroyed or damaged over 200 homes, 185 miles (300 km) of highway and of railways.
1980-2004
Between 1980 and 1986, more volcanic activity continued at Mount Saint Helens, with a new lava dome made in the crater. Several small explosions and eruptions took place, making more lava domes. From December 7, 1989 to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990 to February 14, 1991, the volcano erupted with sometimes huge clouds of ash.
The ash reached a number of states, as far east as Montana and as south as Colorado.
2004 to present activity
Magma bubbles came to the top of the volcano on about October 11, 2004, and a new lava dome was made on the first dome's south side. This new dome grew throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several new features were seen, such as the "whaleback," which is solid magma being pushed to the top of the volcano by magma under it. These features do not last long and break down soon after they are formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, and a rockfall sent ash several hundred meters into the air.
Mount St. Helens showed important new activity on March 8, 2005, when a 36,000-foot (11,000 m) plume of steam and ash came from the volcano. The plume was seen from as far away as Seattle, a city that is 96 miles away. This fairly small eruption took place because of a new lava dome being formed and a 2.5 magnitude earthquake.
Another feature that grew from the dome is a "fin" or "slab." About half the size of a football field, the large volcanic rock was being moved up as fast as 6 feet (2 m) per day. In mid-June 2006, the slab had rockfalls very often, but was still being pushed up from inside the volcano.
On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke the lava dome. The resulting collapse and avalanche sent an ash plume 2,000 feet (610 m) over the crater, although it quickly disappeared.
On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of steam was seen, and some journalists from the media thought there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the United States Geological Survey says that there was no large ash plume, so it could not have been an eruption. The volcano has been erupting on occasion since October 2004.
References
Other websites
Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument website from the U.S. Forest Service.
Mount St. Helens picture and current status from the United States Geological Survey website
The VolcanoCam Live camera from the U.S. Forest Service
Volcanoes of Washington (U.S. state) |
17758 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1795 | 1795 |
Events
Frankfort becomes capital of Kentucky. |
17760 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder-Neisse%20line | Oder-Neisse line | The Oder-Neisse line (named after the Oder and Neisse rivers) is the border between Germany and Poland since the end of the Second World War. As a result of the defeat Germany lost a part of its territory to Poland. Previously, the German Empire had to cede the former Prussian provinces of Posen and Westpreußen, as well as parts of upper Silesia, to the newly founded Polish state after the First World War in 1919. In earlier centuries these territories were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. They were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia, as a result of the tripartite partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Kingdom Prussia, the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire.
Most of the ethnically-German part of the population of these provinces, alongside most of the German minority population in what was Poland before the Second World War (741,000 people), either fled before the Red Army to central and western Germany or were forcibly resettled later. It should be noted here that German citizens of Polish descent and ethically-Polish residents of these regions and other parts of Germany faced systematic discrimination, internment in concentration camps, property-confiscations, forced-resettlement and expulsion under the Nazi administration.
Geography of Germany
History of Germany
Geography of Poland
History of Poland
World War II |
17768 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20Wales | Jimmy Wales | Jimmy Donal "Jimbo" Wales (; born August 7, 1966) is an American-born British Internet entrepreneur. He is one of the people who started Wikipedia and Wikia. Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. There, he went to Randolph School. He then earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in finance. In 1996, he and two partners started Bomis. Bomis was an Internet portal with entertainment and adult content. The company gave money for Nupedia (2000–2003) and, after that, Wikipedia.
Personal life
Wales has been married three times. He also has two children. When he was 20, Wales married Pam. Pam was a worker at a store in Alabama. He met his second wife, Christine Rohan, through a friend in Chicago. They had a daughter before their marriage ended. Wales moved to San Diego in 1998. In 2002, he moved again to Florida. In 2007, he still lived there. As of 2012 he lives in London, England. In 2012, Wales married Kate Garvey, a government worker for Tony Blair. Wales has three daughters: one with Rohan and two with Garvey.
Wales says that he follows the ideas of Objectivism. He also says that he is a libertarian to some extent, meaning that he thinks people should be allowed to do whatever they want so long as they do not hurt others.
Career
On January 15, 2001, with Larry Sanger and others, Wales started Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a free, open content encyclopedia. It grew and became popular very quickly. As Wikipedia became known to the public, he became the project’s promoter and spokesperson. He is often called a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has argued against the "co-" part. He said he was the only founder. Wales is on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki-hosting service which tries to make money. In 2015, Wales started the Jimmy Wales Foundation for freedom of expression, to try to help bloggers or internet activists who are in prison.
References
1966 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Alabama
Writers from Huntsville, Alabama
Wikimedia Foundation
Wikipedia people
Libertarians
British bloggers |
17772 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter | Exeter | Exeter is a city in South West England on the River Exe, from which it takes its name. It is the county town of Devon. Just over 100,000 live there. In the city are a ruined castle, much of the old Roman city wall, and Exeter Cathedral.
History
Exeter was built by the Romans, who called it Isca Dumnoniorum (Isca of the Dumnonii, the local British tribe). After the Romans left and the Anglo-Saxons moved into the area in the seventh century, the name changed to Exeter. In the 1060s, Exeter was a centre of resistance to the Norman conquest.
In 1050, the Bishop of Crediton moved to Exeter; from then until 1876 the bishops were the heads of the church in the whole of Devon and Cornwall. Now, only Devon is within the Exeter diocese.
Today
Today it is home to the Meteorological Office, which forecasts the country's weather.
County towns in England
Settlements in Devon
Cities in England |
17795 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Congress | United States Congress | The United States Congress is the legislative, or law making, branch of the United States government. It meets in the United States Capitol.
It has two houses (parts): The United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. This two house system is known as a bicameral (bi is the Latin word for "two", and camera is Latin for "chamber" or "room") legislature. There are 435 Representatives in Congress, split between the states based on how many people live in the state. There are 100 Senators in Congress, with two coming from each state.
The primary duty of Congress is to write, debate, and pass bills (laws they want). For Congress to pass a bill, both houses must pass exactly the same bill. For each house to pass a bill, more than half of its members must vote in favor of passing the bill. After both houses pass the same bill, this bill is then sent to the President. If the President agrees the bill should be a law he or she signs the bill within 10 days. If the president does not agree, then he or she can veto the bill and send it back to Congress. If the bill is neither signed nor vetoed by the president within 10 days, the bill becomes law anyway if Congress does not adjourn (end its session) within that time. If Congress adjourns within that time, the bill does not become a law. Congress may override a president's veto of a bill by having more than two thirds of its members passing the bill. In that case, the bill becomes law even though the president vetoed it.
Article 1 of the United States Constitution lists what subjects Congress can pass laws on.
Members of Congress cannot be arrested, except for certain crimes, during a session of Congress or going to or returning from a session.
Each house of Congress can decide to expel (throw out) one of its members if more than two thirds of them vote to expel him or her.
The political party with the most members in a house of Congress usually decides which bills are voted on in their house.
Related page
Parliamentary procedure
References |
17800 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Cornwallis | Charles Cornwallis | Lord Charles Cornwallis (31 December 1738 5 October 1805) was a British general and colonial governor. He is best known for leading the British forces in the American Revolution.
His parents were Elizabeth, and Charles Cornwallis, 1st Earl Cornwallis.
Cornwallis moved to the 13 colonies in North America in 1776 to try to control the rebelling colonies. He fought at the Battle of Princeton. George Washington led the Americans in that battle. Later, Cornwallis led British forces through North Carolina and South Carolina, where he fought against American forces under Nathanael Greene. In October 1781, Cornwallis's forces surrendered to George Washington at the Battle of Yorktown, ending the American Revolution.
In 1786 Cornwallis was appointed Governor-General of the British colony of India.
From 1798 to 1801 Cornwallis was Lord Lieutenant and Commander in Chief of Ireland.
He died in 1805 because of a fever.
1738 births
1805 deaths
People from London
British in the American Revolutionary War
British Earls
British Marquesses |
17804 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1738 | 1738 |
Events
November 13 – Treaty of Vienna
Births
Ethan Allen – January 21
Lord Charles Cornwallis – December 31
Deaths
Charles Townshend – June 21 |
17805 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Princeton | Battle of Princeton | The Battle of Princeton was a battle during the American Revolution. It was fought in January of 1777 near Princeton, New Jersey. The battle came a week after the Battle of Trenton, where General George Washington had led the Continental Army to a surprise victory over the British.
The Continental Army, led by Washington, advanced to Princeton after their victory at Trenton. The army defeated a small British force. A larger British force, led by Charles Cornwallis, was alerted and gave chase. However, the Continental Army burned the bridges behind them and sniped at the British army before escaping to Morristown, New Jersey.
The battle resulted in about 200 casualties (deaths) for the British along with another 300 injured or captured, while the Americans suffered minimal losses. The battle boosted American morale.
Princeton
1777 in the United States
18th century in New Jersey
January events |
17808 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fork | Fork | A fork is a tool for eating. It has points called tines. Most forks have three or four tines. Some cooking-forks have two tines. The tines help you pick up your food. Forks are useful only for eating solid food. For example, a fork would be useless for eating soup because all the soup would fall through the tines and into your lap. Most forks are made of metal. Some are made of plastic or wood.
The word "fork" is also used to describe a two choices of course. A fork in the road would be a split in the road leading in two (or more) directions. A forked tongue would have two parts or tips.
Forks are very common in Western culture. Many countries do not use forks, but instead have their own ways to eat food, such as chopsticks.
Related pages
Garden fork
Basic English 850 words
Food utensils
de:Essbesteck#Gabel |
17809 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | Backgammon is a game played by two players. Each player moves pieces around a board. Players roll two dice to find out how far their pieces can move in one turn. The winner of one game is the first to get all pieces all the way around, and off, the board.
The game is laid-out asymmetrically. White's direction of travel is counter-clockwise, whereas black's direction of travel is clockwise. (There is no advantage to either side due to this asymmetry.)
White moves from white's far right to white's home area on white's close right, in the shape of a right-hand "C" from white's point of view. Black moves along the same "C", beginning from black's far left and ending at black's home area on black's close left. (The "C" is the same for both sides - the "C" points to the right for white and points to the left for black.)
As shown in the image, some pieces (for each side) begin already in the home quadrant, and some pieces must make their way all the way around. Pieces can be sent backwards to their starting position during play.
The roll of two dice introduces a random component in the game, but Backgammon is basically a game of strategy.
Usual playing time is around 15– 30 minutes, for a single game (which could be thought of as something like one particular long "hand" of a card game). An overall championship or round of backgammon involves a number of ongoing single games, with the involvement of points, a "doubling cube," and other complications.
The game has a long history. Games that resemble it have been played for thousands of years. Archaeologists doing excavations at a place called Burnt City in modern-day Iran have found parts of a game that resembled backgammon. They have found 60 pieces to play with, and two dice. They could show that the game utensils date from around 3000 BC. These pieces around 100–200 years older than another set, found in Ur, in Mesopotamia.
Other websites
http://www.backgammon-fr.com
References
Dice games
Backgammon |
17810 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20wall | Cell wall | A cell wall is the wall of a cell in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animal cells do not have cell walls, nor do protozoa. Cell walls protect the cells from damage. It is also there to make the cell strong, to keep its shape, and to control the growing of the cell and plant.
The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is outside the cell membrane and gives these cells support and protection, as well as acting as a filter. The cell wall also acts as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell by osmosis.
The material in the cell wall varies. In plants and algae, the cell wall is made of long molecules of cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose. The cell wall has channels which let some proteins in and keeps others out. Water and small molecules can go through the cell wall and the cell membrane.
Functions
Strength
The cell wall has mechanical strength, and supports cell shape. This mechanical strength is its main function:
"Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside. Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage. Thus the [organisms] cell that have a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall".
Although the plant cell wall is strong, it is not rigid or stiff. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop.
Some plants add stiffening material to some of their cell walls. A secondary cell wall is an additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. More layers may be added containing lignin in xylem cell walls, or containing suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof. They make the secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may get reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.
Permeability
Small molecules, including small proteins, can easily get through the primary plant cell wall. Water and carbon dioxide are distributed throughout the plant. The pH is an important factor in the transport of molecules through cell walls.
Bacterial cell wall
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively.
The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria. The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.
Middle lamella
The middle lamella gives the cell shape, support, and strength. It is made of calcium and magnesium. Even though it is called middle lanella, it is the outer part of the cell. The middle lamella is the first wall of the cell to give protection.
Animal cell membrane
Animal cells do not have cell walls. They have microfilaments (the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton).
References
Cell biology
Plant anatomy |
17811 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction | Friction | Friction is a force that acts to stop the movement of two touching things. The energy lost to friction is turned into sound and heat. Two kinds of friction are static and kinetic. Static friction is when the friction is strong enough to stop movement between two objects. Kinetic friction is used when the frictional force is not strong enough to stop all motion. An effect of kinetic friction is heat production.
Many everyday mechanisms that utilize friction include car brakes, suitcases, and shoes. Even a person sliding across the floor uses a form of friction.
Some facts about friction are:
Friction can be thought to be caused by bumps on two touching surfaces. These bumps are called asperities. As these two rough surfaces move against each other they get stuck and prevent motion until the asperities are broken or slid over. Even the smoothest materials have these asperities.
As the force that is pushing on an object increases, the static friction increases too. However, if the force gets bigger than the maximum static friction, it makes the object accelerate. The object will begin to accelerate as soon as the static friction is less than the force pushing on it. After that point kinetic friction will act on the object.
The coefficient of friction is the ratio between the force slowing something down and the force pushing them together. The larger it is the stronger friction is (and the more the object is slowed down). For example, a person's skates on ice have a small coefficient of friction, but rubber on concrete has a big one.
Internal friction in a fluid is called viscosity. Viscosity is how hard it is for the fluid to move or flow. For example, honey is more "viscous" than water.
Friction is caused by electromagnetism. When the atoms that make the objects come close they are drawn to each other and may connect. Effort is needed to break this connection in objects that are not moving and effort is needed to keep an object moving against this attraction. Things with high friction have many points of contact or have atoms that strongly attract others. There are 4 types of friction. Static, sliding, rolling,Fluid friction.
Related pages
Laminar flow
Force
Movement
Force |
17813 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lima | Lima | Lima is the capital city (where the government works), and is considered the most important and largest city of Peru. 75% of the Peruvian economy is handled in Lima.
Lima is the industrial and financial center of Peru, and one of the most important financial centers in Latin America.
It is an important city of South America and the entrance to Peru. Lima is city in constant urban growth. It has a large population. Over 8 million people live in the metropolitan area, which includes Callao Seaport. Lima is the fifth largest city in Latin America, behind Mexico City, São Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro.
The city was founded by the Spanish conquistador (conqueror) Francisco Pizarro on January 18, 1535. He called it 'La Ciudad de los Reyes' (the City of the Kings). It became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Perú. And after the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru.
In the 1940s, Lima started a period of rapid growth, with the migration from the Andean regions of Peru, as rural people. They wanted to find better opportunities for work and education. The population, estimated at 0.6 million in 1940, reached 1.9M by 1960 and 4.8M by 1980.
Lima has developed an important tourism industry, characterized by its historic center, archeological sites, nightlife, museums, art galleries, festivals, popular traditions, and gastronomy. Lima is considered Americas's gastronomical capital.
Lima is made up of mainly Spanish speaking inhabitants with over 90% of the population speaking the language. Lima Province has 43 districts, including:
1 - Cercado de Lima
3 - Ate
4 - Barranco
5 - Brena
7 - Comas
9 - Chorrillos
10 - El Agustino
11 - Jesus Maria
12 - La Molina
13 - La Victoria
14 - Lince
17 - Magdalena del Mar
18 - Miraflores
21 - Pueblo Libre
22 - Puente Piedra
25 - Rimac
27 - San Isidro
28 - Independence
29 - San Juan de Miraflores
30 - San Luis
31 - San Martin de Porres
32 - San Miguel
33 - Santiago de Surco
34 - Surquillo
35 - Villa María del Triunfo
36 - San Juan de Lurigancho
38 - Santa Rosa
39 - Los Olivos
41 - San Borja
42 - Villa El Savador
43 - Santa Anita
References
1535 establishments
16th-century establishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru
1530s establishments in South America |
17816 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaner | Cleaner | A cleaner (or janitor) is someone who takes away garbage and cleans surfaces. Cleaners sometimes repair things, and maintain their equipment in good working order, as well as dusting, washing, waxing and polishing.
Heavy duty cleaners often move furniture, large containers of recycled materials and waste, and other objects, and operate large buffers and other weighty equipment. "Light" duty cleaners clean chalk boards, windows, shelves, desks, light fixtures, and ledges. Some duties, like using a vacuum cleaner, can be done by either "light" or "heavy" duty cleaners. Cleaners can clean offices, staircases, kitchens, bathrooms, hallways, sidewalks, elevators, escalators, and other areas. Cleaners can specialize in washing windows, or in cleaning carpets, hospitals, food processing plants, or construction sites. Cleaners who discover seriously damaged surfaces and equipment on their sites can notify specialists, like plumbers and carpenters, about the need for professional repairs.
Cleaners are also alert for security problems, like vandalism, signs of theft (forced windows or doors, missing computers or stock), blocked fire escape routes, lights or fire alarms not working, or trespassers. When these occur, the cleaners promptly notify their sites' Security Officers and Site Supervisors. Janitors know how to keep themselves and their sites safe, by immediately removing hazards like broken class, spilled fluids, and waste from kitchens and bathrooms, and by checking hand rails, floor mats, stairs, automated doors, escalators, elevators, intercoms, and plumbing.
References
Occupations |
17836 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovinae | Bovinae | Bovinae is a subfamily of the even-toed ungulate family Bovidae. About 26 species of bovines belong to this subfamily.
Bovines are herbivores, and they mostly eat grass.
Taxonomy
Subfamily Bovinae
Tribe Boselaphini
Genus Tetracerus
Four-horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis)
Genus Boselaphus
Nilgai, Boselaphus tragocamelus
Tribe Bovini
Genus Bubalus
Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis)
Lowland Anoa (Bubalus depressicornis)
Mountain Anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)
Genus Syncerus
African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
Genus Bos
Zebu Cattle (Bos indicus)
Kouprey (Bos sauveli)
Banteng (Bos javanicus)
Gaur (Bos frontalis or Bos gaurus)
Yak (Bos grunniens)
Aurochs or urus (Bos primigenius) †
Domestic Cattle (Bos taurus)
Genus Pseudoryx
Saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis)
Genus Bison
American Bison (Bison bison)
Wisent (Bison bonasus)
Tribe Strepsicerotini
Genus Tragelaphus
Sitatunga, Tragelaphus spekeii
Nyala, Tragelaphus angasii
Bushbuck, Tragelaphus scriptus
Mountain Nyala, Tragelaphus buxtoni
Lesser Kudu, Tragelaphus imberbis
Greater Kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros
Bongo (antelope), Tragelaphus eurycerus
Genus Taurotragus
Common Eland, Taurotragus oryx
Giant Eland, Taurotragus derbianus
The four genera Tetracerus, Boselaphus, Tragelaphus and Taurotragus are sometimes put into their own subfamily Tragelaphinae, and sometimes with the bovines.
Images |
17840 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia | Mongolia | Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia and Central Asia. It borders Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.
Until recently, most of the people there were Buddhists. Many of them are nomads (people who always move from place to place and do not stay in one home), but this is changing. The largest city, and capital city is Ulaanbaatar. It is where about 38% of the population live. This has been spelled Ulan Bator/ Ulaan Battor and other ways in the past. The north and east parts of the country have many mountains. Part of the south part is the Gobi Desert. There are 2,791,272 people living in Mongolia. The country is the 18th biggest country in the world, with an area of .
Mongolia is mainly rural with the lowest population density of all independent countries in the world.
History
The area which is Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires. This was until the great 'Mongol Empire' was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. After the Yuan Dynasty collapsed, the Mongols became nomads again. After the 16th century, Mongolia were influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. By the end of the 17th century, most of Mongolia was part of an area ruled by the Qing Dynasty. When the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, Mongolia declared independence. But they had to fight against the Chinese. They were helped by the Soviet Union. In 1921, the world accepted its independence. Shortly after the death of Bogd Khaan, the last monarch of Mongolia the monarchy was replaced by a communist government in 1924, and the country was renamed the Mongolian People's Republic. Up until the fall of the Soviet Union, Mongolia was a satellite state for the Soviets. The Mongolian Red Cross Society was set up in 1939. It has its headquarters in Ulaanbaator.
Following the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia's interest in Mongolia has declined. China and South Korea are currently Mongolia's main trade and political partners.
Government
Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. People vote for their government. The President of Mongolia is elected to a four-year term, and cannot be elected President more than twice. The current President is Khaltmaagiin Battulga. He was first elected as President on July 7, 2017.
Climate
Mongolia has a steppe climate. It has very cold winters and mild summers. Recently, winters have become very cold. This has killed many people and cattle. On June 2, 2008, 52 people and 200,000 head of cattle died in heavy blizzards in Mongolia.
On March 1–2, 2008, a heavy dust storm hit northeast China and parts of Mongolia. and ended over North Korea and South Korea on the March 4.
Twenty one people died in a rural Mongolian blizzard on May 8, 2008. Parts of the Chinese province of Inner Mongolia were also affected on the May 8, 2008.
On June 2, 2009, it was said that 15 people and 10,000 head of cattle had died by this date in Mongolia.
April 1–2, 2010 had temperatures plummet to -50 degrees in Mongolia’s Tuul valley, A nomad named Urna said she bought 400 bundles of grass to feed the animals in preparation for more bad weather. The Mongolian Red Cross has said that about 4,500,000 livestock died as a result of the bad weather this year [2010]. Tume, who lives in Ulan Bator, said that he had noticed that there were several really harsh winters in a row too. He blamed climate change, but experts said that overgrazing by cattle had also killed off most of the country’s grassland.
Mongolia known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" () because it has over 250 sunny days a year.
Geography
Mongolia is the world's 19th-largest country (after Iran). It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, but its westernmost point is only 38 kilometers (24 mi) away from Kazakhstan.
The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Most of Mongolia consists of steppes, with forested areas comprising 11.2% of the total land area. The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif, at a height of 4,374 m (14,350 ft).
Provinces
Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces called aimags. The aimags are divided into 329 districts called sums.
Arkhangai
Bayan-Ölgii
Bayankhongor
Bulgan
Darkhan-Uul
Dornod
Dornogovi
Dundgovi
Govi-Altai
Govisümber
Khentii
Khovd
Khövsgöl
Ömnögovi
Orkhon
Övörkhangai
Selenge
Sükhbaatar
Töv
Uvs
Zavkhan
Languages
The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryatare are spoken across the country. Turkic languages, such as Kazakh and Tuvan, are also spoken in the western part of the country.
Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, although in the past it was written using the Mongolian script. The traditional alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools recently.
Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia due to their diplomatic ties as former communist states. However, English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language in order to become part of the world economy. Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work and study in South Korea. Interest in Chinese has been growing because of the neighboring power.
Swine flu
Mongolia is currently free of bird and swine flu, but 103 air travelers who were suspected victims, and the plane crew of 6, were quarantined for 7 days in Ulaan Bator(Ulaanbaatar) in May 2009.
It may have come over the border from the Chinese province of Inner Mongolia.
National Holidays
Related pages
List of rivers of Mongolia
Mongolia at the Olympics
Mongolia national football team
Sources
References
General sources
Expedition trip to the North-West Mongolia, Tomsk State University and the University of Hovd, cooperation. Video.
Notes
Other websites
Mongolia's UK embassy- Embassy of Mongolia.
Mongolia’s American/USA embassy- .
MIAT (Mongolian airways)- Alternative Airlines. Safety concerns exist about some of the older and less reliable aircraft in its domestic fleet.
Mongolian Open Government (by Mongolia's Prime Minister) (in Mongolian and English) (uses, but does not need Macromedia Flash)
Mongolian Red Cross Society- Mongolian Red Cross Society Profile
Mongolian Red Cross Society- Official Red Cross Web Site |
17845 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier%20transform | Fourier transform | The Fourier transform is a mathematical function that can be used to find the base frequencies that a wave is made of. Imagine playing a chord on a piano. When played, the sounds of the notes of the chord mix together and form a sound wave. This works because each of the different note's waves interfere with each other by adding together or canceling out at different points in the wave. A Fourier transform takes this complex wave and is able to find the frequencies that made it, meaning it can find the notes that a chord is made from.
The output of a Fourier transform is sometimes called a frequency spectrum or distribution because it displays a distribution of possible frequencies of the input. This function has many uses in cryptography, oceanography, machine learning, radiology, quantum physics as well as sound design and visualization.
The Fourier transform of a function , sometimes written as , is given by
where:
is a frequency.
is the Fourier transform function and returns a value representing how prevalent frequency is in the original signal.
represents wrapping the input wave function around the origin of the complex plane at some frequency .
The inverse Fourier transform is given by
A Fourier transform shows what frequencies are in a signal. For example, consider a sound wave which contains three different musical notes: A, B, and C. Making a graph of the Fourier transform of this sound wave (with the frequency on the x-axis and the intensity on the y-axis) will show a peak at each frequency which corresponds with one of the musical notes.
Many signals can be created by adding cosines and sines together with varying amplitudes and frequencies. The Fourier transform plots the amplitudes and phases of these cosines and sines against their respective frequencies.
Fourier transforms are important, because many signals make more sense when their frequencies are separated. In the audio example above, looking at the signal with respect to time does not make it obvious that the notes A, B, and C are in the signal. Many systems do different things to different frequencies, so these kinds of systems can be described by what they do to each frequency. An example of this is a filter which blocks high frequencies.
Calculating a Fourier transform requires understanding of integration and imaginary numbers. Computers are usually used to calculate Fourier transforms of anything but the simplest signals. The Fast Fourier Transform is a method computers use to quickly calculate a Fourier transform.
Related pages
Fourier analysis
Fourier inversion theorem
Fourier series
Laplace transform
References
Other websites
Digital signal processing |
17851 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1671 | 1671 |
Events
April – Battle of Saraighat. The Ahom general Lachit Borphukan defeated the Mughal forces on the outskirts of present-day Guwahati of then sovereign Assam.
May 9 – Thomas Blood, disguised as a clergyman, attempts to steal the Crown Jewels from the Tower of London. He is immediately caught because he is too drunk to run with the loot. He would later be condemned to death and then mysteriously pardoned and exiled by King Charles II.
June 22 – Ottoman Empire declares war on Poland
Births
April 21 - John Law, Scottish economist
May 24 - Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
Deaths
June 11 - Yun Seon-do, Korean politician |
17852 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1679 | 1679 |
Events
January 24 – King Charles II of England disbands Parliament
June 22 – the Duke of Monmouth subdues an insurrection of Scottish Covenanters at Birthwell Bridge
August 7 – The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes.
December 24 – Domenico Sarro, a composer from Italy, was born.
Battle of Bothwell Bridge
Habeas Corpus Act 1679 passed in England.
European explorers discover Niagara Falls. |
17853 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1691 | 1691 |
Events
March 5 – French troops under Marshal Louis-Francois de Boufflers besiege the Spanish-held town of Mons
March 20 – Leisler's Rebellion – New governor arrives in New York – Jacob Leisler surrenders after standoff of several hours
March 29 – Siege of Mons ends to the city’s surrender
May 6 – Spanish inquisition condemns and forcibly baptizes 219 Jews in Palma Majorca. When 37 try to escape the island, they are burned alive at the stake
May 16 – Jacob Leisler is hanged for treason
October 3 – Treaty of Limerick which guaranteed civil rights to Catholics was signed. (it was broken "before the ink was dry")
Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Suleiman II (1687-1691) to Ahmed II (1691-1695).
Michel Rolle invents Rolle's theorem, an essential theorem of mathematics.
In New England the two separate Colonies of Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony are united into a single entity by an act of the King and Queen of England.
Births
February 27 - Edward Cave, English publisher
Deaths
January 13 - George Fox, one of the founders of the Quakers
December 31 - Robert Boyle, Irish scientist |
17855 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1719 | 1719 | 1719 is a year in the common era.
Events
January 23 – The Principality of Liechtenstein is created within the Holy Roman Empire
April 25 – Daniel Defoe publishes Robinson Crusoe
June 10 – Battle of Glen Shiel
Prussia conducts Europe's first systematic census
Miners in Falun, Sweden find an apparently petrified body of Fet-Mats Israelsson in an unused part of the copper mine.
France declares war on Spain
Births
Deaths
Christoph Ludwig Agricola |
17856 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1753 | 1753 |
Events
January 1 – Britain and its colonies adopt the idea that 1 January should be New Year's Day, following adoption of the Gregorian calendar in September 1752. The concept was first conceived in 1582, but suffered from slow public adoption.
January 13 – Sentenced conspirators of the Tavora affair are executed
January 29 – After a month's absence, Elizabeth Canning returns to her mother's home in London and claims that she was abducted. Following criminal trial causes uproar.
April 5 – Founding charter of the British Museum
Sweden adopts Gregorian calendar
British parliament extends citizenship to Jews
Publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus on 1 May, adopted by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature as the formal start date of the scientific classification of plants
James Lind writes A Treatise of the Scurvy
Tobias Smollett writes Ferdinand Count Fathom
Robert Wallace writes On the Numbers of Man |
17865 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Divine%20Comedy | The Divine Comedy | The Divine Comedy is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri. It is about a trip through the afterlife. The poem has three parts: Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Paradise, or Heaven). The Divine Comedy is a piece of world literature.
Inferno is the most famous section of the poem. The poem is about the travels of a man through Christian hell, purgatory, and heaven. Note that "comedy" does not mean funny here, but rather that it has a positive ending.
Inferno
The narrator, Dante Alighieri, is lost in a forest in front of a giant mountain which symbolizes sin, and is harassed by a lion, leopard and she-wolf. He finds the Roman poet Virgil, who has to lead him through the nine circles of hell so Dante can be saved.
First circle (Limbo)
Souls that did not accept Christ are here. This includes atheists, pagans, and the unbaptized. They did not actively sin, but they could not enter Heaven because of their lack of faith and even Hell would not allow them to enter very far.
The punishment for the souls is not physical, but that they have no hope of seeing Christ, so they are mentally punished.
Beyond the first circle, souls are assigned their place by Minos, who wraps his tail around his legs a corresponding number of times,and forces them to descend to their appropriate circle.
Second circle (Lust)
In this circle souls who succumb to lust. They are the first ones to be truly punished in Hell. These souls are blown around in a giant storm which will last forever. This symbolizes the power of lust to blow one about aimlessly.
Third circle (Gluttony)
This circle is guarded by Cerberus. The gluttons are punished here, lying in cold mud. While in life they were provided with warmth and comfort from their food, in Hell the souls are punished with cold and heavy rain. Cerberus claws at the spirits, rips at their skin, and bites holes.
Fourth circle (Greed)
In life the sinners miserly hoarded their money greedily, while the prodigal spent their money foolishly. Both groups are pushing and pulling great bags of gold as they did in life. The greedy are guarded by Plutus, god of riches and wealth.
Fifth circle (Wrath)
In the river Styx the wrathful fight each other on the surface. The river surrounds the city of Dis, where active sinners are located. When Virgil tries to enter, the angels of Hell slam the door in his face. He and Dante proceed to the gate where Christ entered Hell during his three-day trip to release a select few people. During Christ's Harrowing of Hell he broke the door so it could never close again.
Sixth circle (Heresy)
The heretics are trapped in red-hot iron tombs.
Seventh circle (Violence)
This circle holds those who were violent in their lives. The people who were violent to people and property are in a river of fire. The depth of their placement in the river corresponds to how much you damaged in life. For example, Alexander the Great is immersed up to his eyebrows. The violent against self are turned into plants and are pecked at and ripped apart by birds. The violent to God and the violent to nature are also here. They have to walk on flaming sand for eternity.
Eighth circle (Fraud)
Pimps, seducers, flatterers, simonists, sorcerers, fortune-tellers, false prophets, corrupt politicians, hypocrites, thieves, schismatics, alchemists, and counterfeiters are in this circle. Each punishment is the opposite of what they did in life. Fortune-tellers, who tried to see things ahead of time, are forced to walk backwards.
Ninth circle (Treachery)
The traitors to family are immersed in ice up to their faces. Traitors to political entities are also here. Traitors to guests lie in the ice, which covers them completely except for their faces. Traitors to their lords and benefactors are completely buried in ice in various positions.
In the very center of Hell, because he sinned the ultimate sin (treachery against God), lies Satan. Satan is described as a beast with three faces, six wings, and is eternally weeping from his six eyes. Each of Satan's mouths chews on a famous traitor from history. Brutus and Cassius are being chewed feet-first. The center mouth is chewing on Judas Iscariot. His head is being chewed on by Satan, and his back is being skinned by Satan's claws.
Dante and Virgil escape by climbing down Satan's fur through the center of the earth and out the other hemisphere, where they will climb Mount Purgatory.
References
Epic poems
14th-century books
Afterlife |
17867 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist | Artist | An artist is a person who creates art. This word is used most often for person and activities of 'high culture'. That is for example drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, photography, and music. Sometimes a person who is very good at their job is called an artist, even if it is not considered as art. A scientist or mathematician can be called an artist.
Dictionary definitions
Wiktionary defines the noun 'artist' (one artist, two artists) as follows:
A person who creates (makes) art.
A person who creates art as an occupation, that means the person earn their money with art.
A person who is skilled at some activity, that means a person who is very good in something.
History of the term
In ancient Greece there was the word "Techne" which is often translated as art. From this word comes "technical" and America is now the root of words such as technical, technology, etc. The seven muses were the gods of artists in the seven fields of human excellence: • Epic and lyric • History • Choral singing and poetry of love • Music • Tragedy • Religious Hymns • Gay poetry, poetry and rustic comedy • Dance • Astronomy and Geometry.
The word comes from Latin art "ars", that literally means skill method or technique, combined with the beauty of the objects produced. In the Middle Ages already existed the word artist, although its meaning is closer to what we now call the craftsman.
The present day concept of an artist
Concept art expresses a series of creations, called classical arts (painting, sculpture, literature, dance, music, architecture and cinema). However, considering someone as an artist is not limited to a series of works or concrete creations.
An artist is a person exercising the arts and produce artistic works. The artist is someone who has a special sensitivity to create a work or activity. There is no specific classification of what are an artist's own activities .In any case, the concept artist implies knowledge of art and at the same time, is a craft that can be professional but not necessarily. The artist seeks to create an object or activity that has a component of beauty. Very beautiful is one aspect cherished by the creators, but not only that. It also seeks to communicate feelings and ideas and form their own world.
Painter
An artist is a person able to put their point of view, their way of seeing the world and feel things on a canvas, a sheet or paper. An artist is a dreamer, is a poet, he is a speaker, is someone provided with sensibility sufficient or necessary to make us see things through their eyes.
Examples of art and artists
Abstract: Jackson Pollock
Actress: Greta Garbo
Animation: Walt Disney
Architect: Antoni Gaudí
Ballet: Margot Fonteyn
BioArt: Hunter O'Reilly
Calligraphy: Rudolf Koch
Ceramics: Grayson Perry
Choreographer: Martha Graham
Comics: Will Eisner
Composer: Giuseppe Verdi
Conceptual art: Sol LeWitt
Cubism: Pablo Picasso
Dancer: Isadora Duncan
Designer: Arne Jacobsen
Doll Maker: Greer Lankton
Entertainer: PT Barnum
Fashion designer: Alexander McQueen
Fluxus art: Yoko Ono
Game designer: Peter Molyneux
Graphic Artist: Ludwig Merwart
Graphic designer: Peter Saville
Horticulture: André le Nôtre
Illusionist: Houdini
Illustrator: Quentin Blake
Impressionism: Claude Monet
Industrial designer: Pininfarina
Jewelry: Fabergé
Landscape architect: Frederick Law Olmsted
Minimalist artist: Donald Judd
Movie director: Sergei Eisenstein
Muralist: Diego Rivera
Musician: John Lennon
New Media: Genco Gulan
Novelist: Charles Dickens
Musical instrument maker: Stradivari
Orator: Cicero
Outsider Art: Nek Chand
Painter: Rembrandt van Rijn
Painter: Mr. Glowa
Performance Art: Carolee Schneemann
Photographer: Bill Brandt
Photomontage: John Heartfield
Pianist: Glenn Gould
Playwright: Alan Bennett
Poet: Pablo Neruda
Potter: Bernard Leach
Printmaker: William Hogarth
Sculptor: Michelangelo Buonarotti
Singer: Maria Callas
Street Art: Banksy
Typographer: Eric Gill
References
Occupations |
17870 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonville%2C%20Florida | Jacksonville, Florida | Jacksonville is the largest city in the state of Florida and one of the 15 largest cities in the United States. It is home to the University of North Florida. It is the county seat of Duval County.
It is the largest city in the Continental United States in terms of area. It covers nearly all of Duval County in North Florida. The Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL play here.
References
Other websites
County seats in Florida |
17874 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetishism | Fetishism | Fetishism can be one of the following:
The belief that certain natural or man-made things/objects, have supernatural/magical powers. This thing is called a fetish.
Sexual fetishism, sexual attraction to objects that do not move on their own. |
17878 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Heine | Heinrich Heine | Christian Johann Heinrich Heine (; born Harry Heine; 13 December 1797 – 17 February 1856) was one of the most significant German poets of the 19th century.
Heine was born into an assimilated Jewish family in Düsseldorf, Germany. His father was a tradesman.
After his father's business failed, Heine was sent to Hamburg. His uncle in Hamburg was a very successful banker, so Heine started learning banking, but he soon dropped it. Then Heine started to study law at the universities of Göttingen, Bonn and Berlin but was more interested in literature than law. He nonetheless took a degree in law in 1825. At the same time he decided to convert from Judaism to Protestantism because of the severe restrictions on Jews in the German states. Only Christians were allowed to have certain businesses or to be clerks of the state. Jews were also forbidden to become university professors, a particular ambition at the time for Heine. Heine himself said, his conversion was "the ticket of admission into European culture".
Heine is best known for his lyric poetry, much of which was set to music by lieder composers, including especially Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann.
His start as poet Heine was made with Gedichte ("Poems") in 1821. Heine's infatuation with his cousins Amalie and Therese later inspired him to write some of his loveliest lyrics; Buch der Lieder ("Book of Songs", 1827) was Heine's first comprehensive collection of verse.
Heine left Germany for Paris, France in 1831. There he associated with utopian socialists. He met people who followed Count Saint-Simon, who preached an egalitarian classless society.
He remained in Paris for the rest of his life. His only visit to Germany was in 1843. German authorities banned his works and those of others who were considered to be associated with the Young Germany movement in 1835.
Heine continued to comment on German politics and society from a distance. Heine wrote Deutschland. Ein Wintermärchen (Germany. A Winter's Tale). In 1844; his friend, Karl Marx, published it in his newspaper Vorwärts ("Forward") in 1844.
One of the books was burned by the Nazis. One of Heine's most famous lines is now: "Where they burn books, they will, in the end, burn human beings too" (Almansor, 1821).
In 1851 Heinrich Heine wrote the "König Richard" poem. The poem was written in tribute to King Richard I of England and it was translated into several languages.
Some works
Gedichte, 1821
Tragödien, nebst einem lyrischen Intermezzo, 1823
Reisebilder, 1826-31
Die Harzreise, 1826
Ideen, das Buch le Grand, 1827
Englische Fragmente, 1827
Buch der Lieder, 1827
Französische Zustände, 1833
Zur Geschichte der neueren schönen Literatur in Deutschland, 1833
Die romantische Schule, 1836
Der Salon, 1836-40
Über Ludwig Börne, 1840
Neue Gedichte, 1844 - New Poems
Deutschland. Ein Wintermärchen, 1844 - Germany
Atta Troll. Ein Sommernachtstraum, 1847
Romanzero, 1851
Der Doktor Faust, 1851.
Les Dieux en Exil, 1853
Die Harzreise, 1853
Lutezia, 1854
Vermischte Schriften, 1854
Letzte Gedichte und Gedanken, 1869
Sämtliche Werke, 1887-90 (7 Vols.) (collected works)
Sämtliche Werke, 1910-20 (collected works)
Sämtliche Werke, 1925-30 (collected works)
Werke und Briefe, 1961-64 (works and letters)
Sämtliche Schriften, 1968 (all written works)
Other websites
"Ihr Lieder! Ihr meine guten Lieder!" A guide to musical settings for one or two voices of the poetry of Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) by Peter W. Shea.
Heinrich-Heine-Gesellschaft e.V.
Heinrich-Heine-Institut
Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf
Complete works of Heine online (in German)
Selected English translations online
Art of the States: The Resounding Lyre Musical setting of Heine's poem "Halleluja"
References
1797 births
1856 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
German poets
Jewish German writers
Jews who converted to Christianity
People from Düsseldorf |
17880 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage | Cabbage | Cabbage (Brassica oleracea Capitata Group) is an edible plant. It is a lot like broccoli, cauliflower or Brussels sprouts. Cabbage is eaten in many ways around the world. Coleslaw and sauerkraut are popular foods that use cabbage. It is also used to make kimchi and borscht, and can also be used in salads. Red cabbage juice can be used as a pH indicator. Cabbages are usually green, but they can also be red.
Types of cabbage
Cabbages can come in many different types, such as the previously mentioned red and green cabbages, but they can also be in other types. These include white cabbage, also known as Dutch cabbage, and Savoy cabbage.
References
Brassicaceae
Leaf vegetables |
17881 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pool | Pool | The word pool refers to many different things:
A pool is a body of water. It is also called a pond. It can also mean a body of water that people have made. This is called a swimming pool.
Pool is also a game. It is a form of billiards. The object is to use a cue ball to knock other balls into pockets around the edge of the table.
People also use the word "pool" to mean something many people have contributed to. People can pool their money to buy something, or to make a bet. Sometimes it can mean cooperation, people working together to get something done. |
17883 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupee | Rupee | The rupee is the name of a currency amount ("denomination" of money) in various countries.
It is used in the Republic of India and Pakistan. It was also used in British India, the former East Pakistan until 1971, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mauritius, and the Seychelles. In past times, rupees were also the name of the money used in Burma and in the German and British colonies in East Africa. The name comes from a Sanskrit word meaning silver. The rupiah of Indonesia and the rufiyah of the Maldives are kinds of money that also got their name from this word. All of these were previously Spanish dollars.
Related pages
Indian rupee
Pakistani rupee
Currency of Africa
Currency of Asia
Mauritius
Nepal
Seychelles
Sri Lanka |
17899 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/500 | 500 | 500 (Roman numerals: D) is a common year of the Gregorian calendar. It started on a Friday.
It is one of only seven years to use just one Roman numeral. The seven are 1 AD (I), 5 AD (V), 10 AD (X), 50 AD (L), 100 AD (C), 500 AD (D), and 1000 AD (M).
Events
Possible date for the Battle of Mons Badonicus: Romano-British and Celts defeat an Anglo-Saxon army that may have been led by the bretwalda Aelle of Sussex (approximate date; suggested dates range from 490 to 510) Note: This battle may have influenced the legend of King Arthur
Possible date at which Fergus I of Dalriada begins his reign
Approximate beginning of the Heptarchy period in the history of England
Approximate year of the founding of the Kingdom of Essex
Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei China becomes sovereign of the Northern Wei Dynasty
Uxmal founded (approximate date)
Traders from southern Arabia settle in northern Ethiopia |
17900 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1555 | 1555 |
Events
Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland
February 2 – Diet of Augsburg begins
February 4 – John Rogers becomes first Protestant martyr in England
February 9 – Bishop of Gloucester John Hooper is burned at the stake
May 23 – Paul IV becomes Pope.
September 25 – Peace of Augsburg is signed.
Births
Deaths |
17901 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel%20fuel | Diesel fuel | Diesel oil or diesel fuel is a type of fuel for cars. It is also an oil used for an energy source. It is made from petroleum and from various other sources.
It is named after Rudolf Diesel who in 1892 invented the diesel engine.
Related pages
Biodiesel
References
Fuel |
17907 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf%20International%20Airport | Düsseldorf International Airport | Düsseldorf International Airport (; is an airport in Germany. It is eight kilometres from Düsseldorf. The airport has the IATA Airport Code DUS. There is one other airport named "Düsseldorf Express Airport, Mönchengladbach", but that is only a continental airport and has only a few lines, mostly private jets.
The international airport supports flights to 180 destinations on four continents and hosts 70 airlines. The airport has 800 takeoffs and landings per day.
The airport was opened on April 19, 1927, after two years of construction. However, the first aircraft to land in northern Düsseldorf was the Zeppelin LZ-III in 1909.
On April 11, 1996 there was a fire in the airport, probably caused by welding work on the roof. 17 people were killed, mostly due to smoke inhalation. The terminal building was badly damaged, and was closed for five years. By July 1, 2001 it had been nearly completely re-built and was re-opened.
A suspended monorail connects the terminal building with the InterCity and ICE train station (High speed and extremely high speed trains). The so-called SkyTrain travels the 2.5 kilometers between the terminal and station at a maximum speed of 50 km/h. It started operation in 2002, replacing a shuttle bus service, and is not free of charge to use.
Airlines serving Düsseldorf International Airport
Currently, the following airlines operate routes to and from Düsseldorf International Airport:
Aegean Airlines
Aer Lingus (Dublin)
Aero Lloyd
Aeroflight (Catania, Nador, Tivat)
Aeroflot (Moscow Domodedovo)
Air Adriatic
Air Botnia
Air Europa
Air France (Lyon, Nice, Paris)
Air Malta
Air Via Bulgarian Airways
Alitalia (Milan-Malpensa, Rome)
AMC Aviation
Atlasjet International (Ankara)
Austrian Airlines (Vienna)
Balkan Air
BH Airlines
Bluewings (Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir)
British Airways (London-Heathrow)
British Airways Citiexpress (Birmingham, Manchester)
Bulgarian Air Charter (Burgas, Varna)
Cimber Air
Cirrus Airlines
Condor Flugdienst (Arrecife, Heraklion, Las Palmas, Palma)
Croatia Airlines (Split)
Czech Airlines
dba (Berlin-Tegel, Lamezia, Munich, Nürnberg)
Delta Air Lines (Atlanta, beginning March 2006)
Denim Airlines
Deutsche BA
Egyptair (Cairo)
El Al
Emirates (Bombay, Delhi, Dubai, Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Osaka, Perth, Singapore)
Eurocypria Airlines
Eurowings
Finnair (Helsinki)
Fly Air
Freebird Airlines
Germania Airlines (Lamezia, Zadar)
Germania Express (Sarajevo, Zadar)
German Wings (Berlin-Schonefeld)
Hapag-Lloyd (Bodrum, Catania, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Palma)
Hola Airlines
Iberia Airlines (Madrid)
Islandsflug-Icebird
Karthago Airlines
Kibris Turkish
KLM Cityhopper (Amsterdam)
LOT Polish (Warsaw)
LTE International
Luftfahrtgesellschaft Walter (Erfert)
Lufthansa (Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin-Tegel, Birmingham, Boston, Bucharest, Budapest, Chicago, Denver, Dresdon, Frankfurt, Geneva, Hamburg, Houston, Jersey, Leipzig-Halle, London-City, London-Heathrow, Los Angeles, Lyon, Manchester, Milan-Malpensa, Montreal, Munich, Newark, Nurnberg, Paris, Portland, Prague, Rome, San Francisco, Seattle, Stockholm, Stuttgart, Toronto, Turin, Zürich)
Macedonian Airlines (Ohrid)
Mahan Air (Bangkok, Delhi)
Middle East Airlines Liban
MNG Airlines (Bodrum)
Montenegro Airlines
Nouvelair Tunisie (Monastir)
Onur Air (Ankara)
Pegasus Airlines (Bodrum)
Privatair
Rossiya
Royal Air Maroc (Nador)
Scandinavian Airlines System (Copenhagen)
Shorouk Air
Sky Airlines
Styrian Spirit
SunExpress (Antalya, Bodrum)
Swiss International Airlines (Geneva, Zürich)
S7
TAROM (Bucharest)
Thomas Cook Airlines
Tunisair
Turkish Airlines (Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir)
Viking Airlines
Vueling Airlines (Barcelona)
White Eagle Airlines
World Focus Airlines (Ankara)
Before September 11 Düsseldorf International Airport had many flights from the United States. Now the only direct flight to the United States is from Privatair. Privatair has a flight going to New York Newark airport, which is codeshared with Lufthansa.
Sources
Other websites
Düsseldorf International Airport Homepage
Sky-Train Düsseldorf
Airports in Germany
Buildings and structures in North Rhine-Westphalia
Düsseldorf
1927 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Germany |
17908 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauna | Sauna | A sauna is a small room or building that is made hot. The heat of a sauna is calming and makes the person using it sweat. This is believed to help people be more healthy though it causes stress on the body by overheating. Today many countries and groups of people have different ways of heating and using a sauna. The temperature is often 80°C in Finnish saunas. The heat can be more than 100°C. Finnish and Swedish saunas have lower humidity (the air is less wet) to make this high heat comfortable.
The Turkish hammam has a high humidity (the air is more wet) and a lower temperature.
Today saunas can often be found at hotels and places for sports and exercise. In Finland, they are more common and are also often in private apartments and office
buildings.
In almost every house in Finland they have a sauna.
Common rules for public saunas
In some cultures, swimsuits must be worn in a sauna. In other cultures swimsuits are not be worn. Swimsuits are more often worn when men and women use a sauna together. Some saunas are only for men, or only for women. Some places have fixed times when each gender can use a sauna. Private saunas may have their own rules.
Areas where the sauna is used while nude
Germany
Austria
North-eastern Italy
Finland
Russia
Slovenia
Sweden
Croatia
Japan
Netherlands
Flanders
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Areas where the sauna is used in a swimsuit or covered by a towel
France
United Kingdom
United States
Hungary
South America
Africa
Wallonia
Area where men and women do not sauna together
Russia
Japan
Areas where sitting on a towel is required
Germany
Austria
North-eastern Italy
Netherlands
Flanders
Related pages
Onsen
Sentō
Jjimjilbang
Banya
Health
Finnish culture |
17909 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Beuys | Joseph Beuys | Joseph Beuys (pronounced "boyce") (12 May 1921 – 23 January 1986) was a German artist who made arts in many forms including sculpture, performance art (happening, fluxus), video art, and installations. He was an important artist in the second half of the 20th century.
Early life
Beuys was born in Krefeld on 12 May 1921, and grew up in the nearby city of Kleve. His family was strong catholic. As a young child he began his interest in art by often engaging in making watercolours. He first saw modern art when visiting the studio of Achilles Moortgat. At the age of seventeen in 1938, he joined Hitler Youth, like many young German men at that time. He studied many disciplines before engaging in his art practice, and was particularly interested in natural sciences and history, including alchemy, and focussed on medicine with the intention of becoming a doctor. During his studies, however, World War II began, and he became a soldier in the German air force. There, he was a rear gunner (gunner in the back) in a military airplane. In 1943 one of his close friends died in a concentration camp.
One fascinating aspect of Joseph Beuys's personal history is the reason he consistently used felt and fat in his works. He is quoted as saying: "For me, fat was a great discovery, because it was the very material that could seem the most chaotic and indeterminate. I could use it with heat or cold, I could transform it with means that are not the traditional ones for sculpture- with temperature, for example. So I could turn the character of this fat from a chaotic and fluctuating condition to that of a rigid form... So I took an extreme position in sculpture and a material that was absolutely fundamental for life and not associated with art.”
Many people believe that this use of felt and fat recalled a plane crash experienced while flying for the Luftwaffe in the Crimea in the winter of 1942-43. Beuys claimed that he had been saved by a nomadic tribe of Tartars who, sympathetic to the Germans after persecution by the Soviets, ‘covered my body in fat to help it regenerate warmth, and wrapped it in felt as an insulator to keep warmth in’. In fact this episode was fabricated, partly on the basis of a dream, but he consistently referred to this episode and it can be seen as a private mythology of his.
Development as artist
After the war Beuys studied at the academy in Düsseldorf from 1946 to 1951. For most of the 1950s he was mostly drawing.
In 1961 he became professor of sculpture there, but was fired in 1972 because he said that his classes must be open to anybody who wanted to take them. He thought that classes should be free and he worked in his classes with everybody who wanted. His students protested when he was fired, so he was allowed to hold his studio there, but he still lost his job.
In 1962 Beuys was member of the "Fluxus movement". They made art together by drawing, sculpting, making music, and literature.
Politics
Beuys believed that arts has an important role in society. His first problems with politicians were when he lost his job as professor.
In the 1980s he was part of the Peace Movement and protested against nuclear missiles in Germany. He was one of the first members of the Green Party in the 1980s.
Works
Famous works are for example:
Felt Suit (1970), a felt suit exhibited on a coat hanger;
the performance piece Coyote, "I Like America and America Likes Me" (1974), Beuys wore felt and carried a shepherd's staff and stayed in a room with a coyote for five days;
sculpture Fat Corner, fat piled into the corner of a space, left to melt and turn rancid over many days. However the fat was accidentally destroyed by the cleaning crew.
How To Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (1965), he walked around with his face covered in honey and gold leaf, carrying a dead hare which he talked with, explaining the pictures before them.
In 1979, a large retrospective of Beuys' work at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City confirmed his reputation as one of the most important artists of his time. He died in 1986 in Düsseldorf.
Pop cultural references
The web comic Cat And Girl makes frequent reference to Joseph Beuys, including his art (reference 1 reference 2) and cultural references.
Related pages
German art
Other websites
actual exhibitions with Joseph Beuys on Artfacts.Net
Details of the 7000 oaks project
Joseph Beuys Music on Ubuweb
Athena—The Joseph Beuys Online Guide
Beuys' writings and works influenced by Beuys (In German)
Articles about Beuys
1921 births
1986 deaths
Sculptors
People from Düsseldorf
Greens politicians |
17912 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstakademie%20D%C3%BCsseldorf | Kunstakademie Düsseldorf | The Staatliche Kunstakademie Düsseldorf is the Arts Academy of the city of Düsseldorf. It is well-known all over the world by its most famous members like Joseph Beuys.
History
The arts school started 1762 as school of drawing by Lambert Krahe (1710 - 1790), in 1773 it became Academy of drawing, painting and sculpturing of the Earls of Palatine.
In time of the Napoleonic Wars it moved to Munich. So the government of Prussia, who annexed the region of Düsseldorf after Napoleon surrendered, to open a new Royal Arts Academy in Düsseldorf. It started in 1822.
In the 1850s the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf became an international well-known arts school. The "Düsseldorfer Malerschule" was internationally known as a special kind of drawing countryside. Many students came from Scandinavia, Russia, and the United States of America to Düsseldorf.
Directors
1819 - 1824 Peter von Cornelius
1826 - 1859 Wilhelm von Schadow
1924 - 1933 Walter Kaesbach
1945 - 1946 Ewald Mataré
1959 - 1965 Hans Schwippert
1972 - 1981 Norbert Kricke
since 1988 Markus Lüpertz
Well-known professors and students
Andreas Achenbach (1827 - 1834 Student)
Adolf Seel
Oswald Achenbach (1835 - 1841 Student; 1863 - 1872 Professor)
Peter Angermann (1968-1973)
Joseph Beuys (1947 - 1952 Student, 1961 - 1972 Professor)
Arnold Böcklin (1845 - 1847 Student)
Michael Buthe (1944 - 1994 Professor)
Max Clarenbach (1894 - 1901 Student, 1917 - 1945 Professor)
Tony Cragg (1979 - 1988 Assistant Professor, 1988 - 2001 Professor)
Siegfried Cremer (1977 - 1994 Professor for drawing technics)
Rolf Krummenauer (1953 - 1969 Teacher for Arts Forming)
Felix Droese (1970 - 1976 Student)
Helmut Federle (1999 - Professor)
Anselm Feuerbach (1845 - 1848 Student)
Rupprecht Geiger (1965 - 1976 Professor)
Eugen Gomringer (1977 - 1990 Professor)
Günter Grass (1948 - 1952 Student)
Gotthard Graubner (1954 - 1959 Student, 1976 - 1992 Professor)
Erwin Heerich (1958 - 1965 )
Hans Schwippert (1959 - 1965 Professor and Director)
Hans Hollein (1967 - 1965 Professor)
Ottmar Hörl (1979 - 1981 Student)
Candida Höfer (1973-x Student)
Oliver Jordan (1980 - 1985 Student)
Johannes Hüppi (1984 bis 1990 master-student of Dieter Krieg)
Jörg Immendorff (1963 - 1964 Student, since 1996 Professor)
Karin Kneffel (1981 - 1987 master-student of Gerhard Richter)
Paul Klee (1931 - 1933 Professor)
Walter Köngeter (1952 - 1967 Professor for constructing arts)
Rita McBride (Professor for sculpturing)
Yoshitomo Nara (1988 - 1993 Student)
Heinrich Nauen (1921 - 1937 Professor)
Albert Oehlen (seit 2000 Professor)
Markus Oehlen (1976 - 1982 Student)
Nam June Paik (1979 - 1996 Professor for Video Arts)
Sigmar Polke (1961 - 1967 Student)
Lois Renner (1985 - 1988 Student)
Gerhard Richter (1961 - 1963 Student, 1971 - 1993 Professor)
Klaus Rinke (1974 - 2004 Professor)
Reiner Ruthenbeck (1962 - 1968 Student)
Thomas Ruff (Student, Professor)
Kaspar Scheuren (1829-1835 Student)
Rudolf Schwarz (1953 - 1961 Professor)
Thomas Schütte (1973 - 1981 Student)
Norbert Tadeusz (1961 - 1966 Student)
Rosemarie Trockel (Professor)
Günther Uecker (1953 - 1957 Student, 1976 - 1995 Professor)
Georg Wilhelm Volkhart (1831 - 1840 Student)
Max Volkhart (1848 - 1924 Student)
Related pages
Düsseldorf school of painting
References
Other websites
www.kunstakademie-duesseldorf.de
Schools in Germany
Düsseldorf
Education in North Rhine-Westphalia
1762 establishments
18th-century establishments in Germany |
17913 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet | Poet | A poet is someone who writes poetry. Poetry can be written in any language by a poet.
Sappho was an Ancient Greek poet. She lived in Lesbos, Greece. She was famous for writing lyric love poems to women. She wrote in the Ancient Greek language.
Famous English poets are William Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, William Wordsworth, William Blake, John Keats, and Percy Shelley. They wrote in the English language. Their poetry comes in different styles and forms. Often their poetry is lyrical and rhymes.
The most famous American poets include Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman. They wrote in English. Often their poetry did not rhyme. They lived in the 19th century in the United States. Later 20th century American poets include Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton.
Modern French poets are Arthur Rimbaud and Charles Baudelaire. Rimbaud was famous for his poetry collection called “Illuminations.” Baudelaire wrote of beauty, decay, and spirituality in his famous work “Flowers of Evil.”
Great Spanish poets are Garcilaso de la Vega Frederico García Lorca, Antonio Machado, and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Vicente Aleixandre won the Nobel Prize.
Three Latin American poets won the Nobel prize in the 20th century. They include Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and Octavio Paz. They wrote in Spanish.
Caribbean poets Derek Walcott and Giannina Braschi wrote epic poetry. Winner of the Nobel Prize, Walcott wrote Omeros and In a Green Night in English. Giannina Braschi writes epic poetry in English, Spanglish, and Spanish, including Empire of Dreams
Ancient Chinese poets are Wang Wei, Du Fu, and Qu Yuan. They wrote in Chinese about the nature and man.
Related pages
poetry
sonnet
References
Occupations
Writers
Literature |
17915 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhr-Universit%C3%A4t%20Bochum | Ruhr-Universität Bochum | The is one of the biggest universities in Germany. It is in the Ruhr-Area, in the city of Bochum.
History
The Ruhr-Universität was the first public university that was founded in West Germany after World War II (in 1962). Later in the 1960s, education expanded in West Germany and more universities were founded, but Bochum has a bright selection of subjects because it was the beginning of education expanding.
The Ruhr-University was one of the fourth largest university in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s with more than 40,000 students. But after the state of North Rhine-Westfalia decided to earn study fees, many students left the university and school examiners do not start studying anymore. Actually the fees are 1,000 Euro in the year (about 1,100 US $), but the Ruhr-Area is traditionally a working class region. Sommer Semester 2011 was the last semester with tuition fees http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/studienbeitrag/ . The number or students now is more than 34 000 http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/universitaet/fakten/menschlich/index.html
The university of Bochum was one of the first to have Bachelor and master's degrees instead of the traditional German Diplom and Magister degree.
Present situation
The Ruhr-University has about 34,000 students.http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/universitaet/fakten/menschlich/index.html Academically it is an upper middle-class university with a lot of international affairs, especially with Eastern Europe and Asia. The Ruhr-University Bochum lost some subjects by when the state reduced its budget.
The main focuses in research are neurosciences, engineering, European law, plasma physics, solidstate physics, biochemistry, economics, Middle Ages and modern history, philosophy and languages.
Subjects
Mathematics
Applied Computational Science
Physics and Astronomy
Chemistry and Biochemistry
Biology and Neuro Sciences
Geosciences (Geology, Geophysics, Mineralogy, Palentology)
Geography
Civil Engineering
Electro Engineering
Nanotechnology
Psychology
Medicine
Philosophy
History (Old, Middle Ages and New History, History of Arts)
Archeological Sciences
Chinese(language and literature, there are regional studies for eastern Asia, too)
Eastern Asian Studies (China, Korea and Japan)
English Language and Literature American and Canadian Literature
Romanic Languages and Literature (Italian, French, Spain, Portuguese)
Slavic Languages and Literature (Russian, Polish)
German Languages and Literature
Comparative Literature
Latin and Old Greek
Near and Middle Eastern Studies (Arabian Stuies, Indian)
Roman Catholic Theology
Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
Economy
Laws
Social Sciences (Sociology, Social Psychology, Politics, Socail-Economical studies)
Environmental Studies
Development policy
Working Sciences
Sports
Music Sciences
Educational Sciences
Other websites
English website
Bochum
Colleges and universities in Germany
Education in North Rhine-Westphalia |
17920 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen | Aachen | Aachen ( ; Aachen dialect: Oche [ˈɔːxə]; French and traditional English: Aix-la-Chapelle ; Latin: Aquae Granni or Aquisgranum; ) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has about 260,000 inhabitants and a well-known university, the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH).
History
The Romans built a spa over hot water springs here in ancient times.
In the Middle Ages, it was the capital city of the Frankish emperor, Charlemagne. The city was called Aix-la-Chapelle by the French.
Charlemagne ordered the building of a cathedral in 786 AD. He was buried in a tomb in this cathedral. German emperors were crowned in the cathedral in Aachen until 1531.
European countries made two important peace agreements in Aachen. In 1668, the first treaty (agreement) ended the War of Devolution between France and the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden. The treaty allowed France to keep most of the towns it had captured in Flanders the year before. In 1748, the second treaty ended the War of the Austrian Succession. In this war, France, Prussia, and other nations tried to take territory from the Austrian Empire. The treaty said that Maria Theresa of Austria was the ruler of these territories. It also gave Prussia the territory of Silesia.
Since 1972, Aachen has been part of the Cologne Government Region.
Notes
References
Other websites
Spa towns in Germany
Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
1306 establishments
14th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Germany
1801 disestablishments
1800s disestablishments in Germany |
17921 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg | Marburg | Marburg is a city in Hesse, Germany, on the Lahn river. It is the main town of the Marburg-Biedenkopf Rural District. It has about 80,000 inhabitants and a small, but well-known university, the Philipps-University.
The upper part of Old town, near the castle and above the former village 'Weidenhausen' at river Lahn and a bridge is called 'Oberstadt' (upper town).
There are timber framing houses, similar to some houses in Alsfeld (Vogelsbergkreis).
Cycling trail Lahntalradweg along the river connects Marburg with Gießen in the South.
Geography
The Lahn valley is surrounded by hill chains called Lahnberge and Marburger Rücken in the Central Uplands (Mittelgebirge), part of West Hesse Highlands. The city districts Cyriaxweimar, Elnhausen, Michelbach and Schröck are on the other side of these two hill chains.
References
Other websites
Marburg-Biedenkopf |
17922 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akron%2C%20Ohio | Akron, Ohio | Akron is a large city in the U.S. state of Ohio. It is found near the Ohio & Lake Erie canal. It is home to the U.S. rubber industry, including Goodyear tires.
References
Other websites
City of Akron
Akron Wiki
County seats in Ohio
1825 establishments in the United States
1820s establishments in Ohio |
17923 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipps%20University%20of%20Marburg | Philipps University of Marburg | The Philipps-University of Marburg is the oldest Protestant university of the world, and was founded by Martin Luther's friend Philipp of Hesse in the time of the reformation.
Major areas of research are medicine, nano-science, materials science, and near eastern studies.
List of subjects
Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Medicine
Dental Medicine
Pharmacology
Geography
Philosophy
History
Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
Roman Catholic Religious Studies
Latin and Ancient Greek
English
German
Romance Languages and Literature (French, Italian, Spanish)
Near Eastern Studies
Social Science and Political Science
Economics (strong point is microeconomics)
Slavic Languages and Literature (Polish, Russian) (well-known, but may be closed soon)
Far Eastern Studies (China, Japan) (will be closed soon)
Other websites
http://www.uni-marburg.de
Colleges and universities in Germany
Education in Hesse |
17924 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngstown%2C%20Ohio | Youngstown, Ohio | Youngstown (also known as Zamrowskistown) is a city in Ohio, United States. It is the county seat of Mahoning County. Part of Youngstown is also in Trumbull County. The town is on the Mahoning River. It is about southeast of Cleveland and northwest of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Youngstown has its own metropolitan area; it is often thought of as part of the Pittsburgh Tri-State area and Greater Cleveland. Youngstown is west of the Pennsylvania state line. It is midway between New York City and Chicago via Interstate 80.
The city was named for John Young. He was an early settler from Whitestown, New York, who started the town's first sawmill and gristmill. Youngstown is in an area of the United States that is often called the Rust Belt. The town was known as a center of steel making. Youngstown was forced to change itself when the U.S. steel industry fell into decline in the 1970s. Towns in the area did not have a lot of business after that. Youngstown also falls within the Appalachian Ohio region, among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. The 2010 census showed that Youngstown had a total population of 66,982, making it Ohio's ninth largest city. The city has had a decline of over 60% of its population since 1960.
According to the 2010 Census, the Youngstown-Warren-Boardman Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) contains 565,773 people and includes Mahoning and Trumbull counties in Ohio, and Mercer County in Pennsylvania. The Steel Valley area as a whole has 763,207 residents.
History
Youngstown was named for New York native John Young. He surveyed the area in 1796. He moved there soon after. On February 9, 1797, Young bought the town of from the Western Reserve Land Company for $16,085. The 1797 start of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19, 1802.
The area of today's Youngstown was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve. This was a part of the Northwest Territory for settlers from the state of Connecticut. While many of the area's early settlers came from Connecticut, Youngstown also had a large number of Scots-Irish settlers from neighboring Pennsylvania. The first European Americans to settle in the area were Pittsburgh native James Hillman and his wife, Catherine Dougherty. By 1798, Youngstown was the home of several families who were lived near the point where Mill Creek meets the Mahoning River. Boardman Township was started in 1798 by Elijah Boardman. He was a member of the Connecticut Land Company. Also started in 1798 was Austintown by John McCollum. He was a settler from New Jersey.
In 1800, governor Arthur St. Clair made Trumbull County (named for Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull). He named the smaller town of Warren as its "county seat". In 1813, Trumbull County was divided into townships, with Youngstown Township being a big part of what became Mahoning County. The village of Youngstown was incorporated in 1848, and in 1867 Youngstown was chartered as a city. It became the county seat in 1876.
The discovery of coal by the community in the early 19th century helped Youngstown become part of the Erie Canal. The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal Company was organized in 1835. The canal was completed in 1840. David Tod, who was later Ohio governor during the Civil War, persuaded Lake Erie steamboat owners that coal from the Mahoning Valley could fuel their vessels if canal transportation were available between Youngstown and Cleveland. The arrival of the railroad in 1856 made it easier for more economic growth.
Youngstown's industrial development made the Mahoning Valley different. The community's coal industry made hundreds of immigrants from Wales, Germany, and Ireland come to the area. With the start of steel mills in the late 19th century, Youngstown became a popular destination for immigrants from Eastern Europe, Italy, and Greece. In the early 20th century, the community saw more immigrants from non-European countries including what is today's Lebanon, Israel, and Syria. By the 1920s, this change in the town's population made people who were there earlier upset. Because of their anger, the Mahoning Valley became a center of Ku Klux Klan activity. The situation reached a climax in 1924, when street clashes between Klan members and Italian and Irish Americans in neighboring Niles led Ohio Governor A. Victor Donahey to declare martial law. By 1928 the Klan was in steep decline; and three years later, the group sold its Canfield, Ohio, meeting area, Kountry Klub Field.
The growth of industry made more people from the United States and Latin America come to Youngstown. By the late 19th century, African Americans were well represented in Youngstown. The first local African Methodist Episcopal Church was started in 1871. In the 1880s, local attorney William R. Stewart was the second African American elected to the Ohio House of Representatives. A large increase of African Americans in the early 20th century was because of changes in the industrial area. During the national Steel Strike of 1919, local industrialists recruited thousands of workers from the South, many of whom were Black. This move upset local Whites, and for decades, African-American steelworkers experienced discrimination in the workplace. Migration from the South rose dramatically in the 1940s, when the mechanization of southern agriculture brought an end to the exploitative sharecropping system, leading onetime farm laborers to seek industrial jobs.
The city's population became more diverse since the end of World War II, when a seemingly robust steel industry attracted thousands of workers. In the 1950s, the Latino population grew significantly; and by the 1970s, St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic Church and the First Spanish Baptist Church of Ohio were among the largest religious institutions for Spanish-speaking residents in the Youngstown metropolitan area. While diversity is among the community's enduring characteristics, the industrial economy that drew various groups to the area collapsed in the late 1970s. In response to subsequent challenges, the city has taken well-publicized steps to diversify economically, while building on some traditional strengths.
Geography and climate
The United States Census Bureau says the city has a total area of . Land is of that area, and water is .
Youngstown is in the Mahoning Valley on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau. The glaciers left behind a plain with valleys at the end of the last Ice Age. The valleys were caused by the Mahoning River crossing the plain. Lakes made by glaciers that dammed small streams were eventually drained. This left behind fertile land.
References
Cities in Ohio
County seats in Ohio
1796 establishments in the United States
1790s establishments in the Northwest Territory |
17925 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dortmund | Dortmund | Dortmund (; Westphalian [ˈdyːœɐ̯pm̩]; ) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region
Dortmund has about 590,000 inhabitants and is in the Ruhr Area. There is a university in Dortmund. The biggest soccer club is Borussia Dortmund.
References
Imperial free cities |
17932 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands%20Antilles | Netherlands Antilles | The Netherlands Antilles was a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country was originally a group of six islands in the Caribbean Sea. Some were discovered in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and some were discovered in 1499 by Alonso de Ojeda.
Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao are part of the Leeward Islands. They are near Venezuela. Saint Martin, Sint Eustatius, and Saba are part of the Windward Islands. They are near Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Of these, the island Sint Maarten is in fact part of two countries: the northern part belongs to France (as Saint Martin), but the southern part is Dutch (as Sint Maarten).
Aruba left the Netherlands Antilles in 1986. When Curaçao and Sint Maarten did the same thing on 10 October 2010, the country no longer existed. The remaining BES Islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba now belong to the Netherlands and are called the Dutch Caribbean islands.
Because the Netherlands Antilles was a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands proper was also the Queen of the Netherlands Antilles, but the islands' residents had a government of their own. Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are now separate countries within the Kingdom. All of these places still have King Willem-Alexander as their monarch today.
The last Prime Minister of the Netherlands Antilles was Emily de Jongh-Elhage. The last Governor was Frits Goedgedrag, who is since the 10 October 2010 the first Governor of Curaçao.
Other websites
Method of Securing the Ports and Populations of All the Coasts of the Indies is an old document from 1694 that talks about the Netherlands Antilles
Dutch-speaking countries |
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