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Is the singularity in a Black Hole different from the singularity of the Big Bang?
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A black hole has the singularity on all paths into the future. The big bang has the singularity on all paths into the past. You should read [this](_URL_0_).
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IANAP (physicist), but from my reading as a layperson, the "singularity" is really a placeholder object/concept until we have a theory of quantum gravity that tells us what the hell is actually going on in the centre of a black hole. I don't think most physicists really think that there is an object in there with zero dimension of size and infinite density. Certainly seems to be a very exotic object compared to what we normally encounter in more typical spacetime regimes. But my intuition is that they would merge.
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Why do we get so tired from long car trips?
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As the driver? Because your brain is actually quite active while piloting the vehicle. Though we often drift into our imaginations while driving, the brain is constantly working hard, taking in LOTS of information and reacting to it all-- a lot of things to see, adjust to, and decide about (micro corrections in steering, etc.) while crusing at relatively high speeds around other vehicles. In short, concentration takes lots of energy. (It's also why people are hungry after or during long drives).
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It has a little bit to do with how your brain processes things. Have you ever noticed how drives you do every day (like a commute to work or the store) eventually seem to take no time at all? You get used to them, and you don't have to think about the route you're taking so much. The same thing happens on a smaller level when you take a trip to and from a place. On the way there, your brain is noticing new things, thinking about the route, thinking about where you're going. However on the ride back, you don't have to think so much about the route, and you think about other things. So, the trip seems faster. Hopefully that explains it a little bit! Sort of a weird thing our brains do.
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What is the oldest recorded joke?
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"Something which has never occurred since time immemorial; a young woman did not fart in her husband's lap." It's Sumerian, and dates to 1900BC. Reference: _URL_0_
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I've certainly found plenty of them when researching nineteenth-century jokes, so they go back at least this far. Here's one I remember from 1891: **Chicago Woman**: How much do you charge for a divorce? **Chicago Lawyer:** One hundred dollars, ma’am, or six for 500dols This joke is as much about the loose morals of women from Chicago, but it nicely captures the character of the money-grabbing, amoral lawyer too. It was initially published in an American newspaper, but found its way to Britain (this [transatlantic circulation of jokes](_URL_0_) is my main research interest) - this suggests that the stereotype of the shady lawyer was known in both countries at this time. I don't have any others to hand, but could soon dig out a few more from the 19th century if you're interested!
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How do people make torrents to tv shows with no commercials and in such high quality almost immediately after it has aired on tv?
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The video feed to the TV is split to also feed a digital video recorder; the digital video file is broken up into smaller chunks while recording so you are able to edit the earlier footage while new footage is being recorded. You are able to edit out the commercials this way. And as soon as the whole episode is completed it's a quick render and package to upload to the internet.
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Torrents split up the files into smaller numbered chunks. When you download the torrent, you need people who have the pieces to upload to you. Torrenting works faster when everyone downloading has different parts of the torrent, because then you can upload that portion of the torrent too, meaning the file spreads outwards like a web or ripple. If everyone’s client tried to download sequentially, it would form a bottle neck as everyone else waits to download the same portion, and then upload that same portion to everyone else... causing a wedge-like formation of file dispersion.
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Why Anarchy is portrayed as a violent philosophy when Violence is used to assert dominance and Authoritarianism, the very thing Anarchy is against.
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Anarchy is by definition the absence of authority, law, and government. It is a chaotic "every man for himself" scenario where the strongest take what they want. In addition to that dictionary definition you have the fact that those who wish to eliminate the government (anarchists) often do so by committing violence and causing as much chaos as possible often destroying or hindering as many parts of the current government as they can.
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It doesnt. I mean, people will argue for it, but there has been no proof that a system of anarchy would be anything more than complete and utter chaos.
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Besides human activity, how is the carbon in fossil fuels returned to the ecosystem?
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A large portion of the petroleum in the ground gets released naturally over time; it isn't extracted and used/burned by humans. Still don't know, once it's released to atmosphere/the ocean, how it recycles back into the ecosystem other than micro organisms eating it. Doesn't quite support my statement in full but does explain about the micro organisms: _URL_0_
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Not very much because people generally eat plants (or things that once ate plants) which gather carbon from the atmosphere, essentially life is carbon-neutral. To add carbon dioxide you need to tap into a source of carbon that have been previously removed from the system, like fossil fuels.
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(NSFW)Why is it common for blonde haired people to have Dark pubic hair instead of blonde?
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There are slight discrepancies in gene expression with regard to how hair color is expressed on body hair vs. head hair, and it's possible to have body hair of a slightly different color. With blonde hair, you lack pigmentation altogether, while if a gene that's only expressed in the follicles on the body does code for pigment, then you can end up brownish hair on the body while being a natural blond. It's not like there's one gene for color and that tells the whole story - there are multiple genes expressed in different ways that give us more of the myriad of hair colors than just simply identical brown, black, blond and red.
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The stuff that causes your skin to be darker (melanin) also causes hair to be darker.
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What causes muscle cramps?
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There can be a few causes of muscle cramps. Muscles rely quite heavily on salts like sodium and potassium; when you're working out and sweating heavily these salt levels can get disturbed and result in cramp. Muscles have a mechanism (over short bursts eg 100m sprint) where they can generate the energy they need without adequate oxygen. The flipside of this is that it generates lactic acid, which can result in a cramp. Finally, things like a change in temperature, over stretching or medication side-effects can be causes of muscle cramps.
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A muscle cramp is caused by dehydration, muscle strain, or overuse of a muscle, among other factors. When it occurs, a sudden and involuntary contraction of the affected muscle takes place. To answer your main question, most muscle cramps are harmless, and last between 30 seconds to 15 minutes. A muscle cramp will not permanently damage the muscle tissue, but it will cause fatigue as the muscle is constantly contracted during the cramp. If you are experiencing frequent cramps, the suggested course of action to remember is RICE, which stands for Rest, Ice, and Elevation.
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Are photons the only particles moving at the speed of light?
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All massless particles travel at the speed of light. Presently the only known massless particles are the photon and the gluon (the mediator of the strong nuclear force.) Therefore, gluons also travel at the speed of light. However, due to colour confinement, it's impossible to observe a 'free' (existing independently of any hardons) gluon, so whether they are in fact truly massless (and therefore travel at the speed of light) or just have a very small rest mass is extremely difficult to verify experimentally.
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The way I like to think about it goes like this. The core idea is that of locality, which roughly means that stuff here shouldn't influence stuff far away directly. This is something we observe, and it is a nice simple principle to obey by as well. For this to happen though, signals needs to travel slower than some maximum speed (otherwise, signals could go arbitrarily fast, breaking our principle of locality). So locality implies some maximum speed of signals. This better apply to all reference frames as well (which is the principle of relativity: no reference frame is special, physics work the same in all of them), since otherwise we could just switch frame and get some higher signal speed. It then turns out that any massless particle (so including photons) travels at this speed, and we call it the speed of light.
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Did the Black Panthers ever kill anybody?
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Well it depends on what you mean by whether the Party ever murdered anyone. That is definitely not, but individuals did commit murders, for instance the killing of Alex Rackley by East Coast members of the Black Panther Party because they suspected him of being a police or FBI informant. As an aside, the FBI did plant informants and spied quite vigorously on the Black Panthers, but there is no credible evidence that Rackley was an informant.
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Didn't the British (had guns) try and fight the Zulu (had spears) and get their asses handed to them??
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why are children asked which foot they kick with?
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Because most people do have a dominant foot. If you want someone to play on the left side of the field, people with a strong and controlled left foot have a big advantage for passing towards the centre of the field, particularly a cross from the corner in towards the goal. A right-footed player will have to run round the ball to pass accurately in that direction. Also, if you know which foot they naturally use best, you can work on giving the other one more control.
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It is kicked a different way. During kick off, they are farther back and get more momentum. Additionally, with a field goal, the kicker has to worry about angling higher for the ball not to get blocked while on kick off they can angle it much lower.
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Do police dogs get "paid" in any way?
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They get food. They get a nice place to stay. They get their medical bills covered. They get their education paid for. Dogs don't understand the concept of money, but they have a pretty good life compared to a lot of dogs.
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Depending on the length of the investigation, they might just be given something like $10 000 and told "Hey, you are going undercover for 2 months, this is the money we are giving you to get clothed." and then they make money while undercover. Generally if they are undercover for long, they get paid by the gang or organization, and then after it's done, the police repay them.
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To what extent was there romantic and/or sexual intermingling between the British and their Indian subjects?
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Not a historian, but I'm an Indian. This was definitely a "thing". There still exists a small and shrinking population of "Anglo-Indians" in India. The history and culture of Anglo-Indians in India is a fascinating one. Members of this community would usually be located in towns with British-run Cantonments, hill stations and resorts where the British officers liked to holiday, away from the heat and dust of Northern India. In India's complex caste and social system, the Anglo-Indian occupies a curious place, but the gap of nearly 70 years since independence means some of those defining features and characteristics are diluted. You should google for the history of Anglo-Indians. There are at least a few books that were published in the 1970s and 1980s on this topic.
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That same question was asked here a while ago, [this](_URL_0_) or [this](_URL_1_) thread should help you. The consensus is that no, they really didn't, though subcontinental Indians may have.
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Why does remembering unimportant things seem so much easier than remembering important things?
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Your brain ignores so many unimportant things that you don't even remember how many unimportant things are there.. In simple words sometimes you tend to remember very few such stupid stuff so well that makes you think only if I could remember important stuff like that..
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Way I remember it is that it doesn't actually "forget" things, it just misplaces those memories so they are harder to find. This is why some things can seem really familiar to you, for example I forgot how to do difficult calculus, but when I studied it again I remembered how to do it perfectly
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Do I gain weight from the energy I absorb from the sun?
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Practically? No From a bored physicist's perspective? Slightly First of all, you gain a bit of heat energy. Second, because light has momentum, it presses on what it strikes, similar to air pressure. We can see how much weight you have from heat energy with E=mc^2. Keep in mind that not all heat is from the sun though (fermentation/radioactive decay provide a decent amount of heat on the earth). Also, I'll assume you are made of 100% water... which you aren't. But it works out to be about 9.526×10^-10 kg of mass.
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No, weight gain is not magic, it's physics. If you eat a pound of fat, and that's all you eat, you will be a pound heavier for a while. Most of it will be digested and enter your bloodstream, a small part of it will not be digested and will exit through your anus, some of it will be used for converting ADP to ATP and other things that give you "energy", and the waste products from those reactions will come out through your lungs as CO2, and your urine, sweat, etc., as H2O.
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How do chess sites detect cheating?
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_URL_0_ has some sort of "advanced algorithm" that they refuse to release. To me, this proves that the decision is highly subjective. That said...Basically the moves of a player are run against an engine and if they match too closely for too long a period of time, it becomes progressively more likely that the player is cheating with an engine. I was part of an experiment with the creator and owner of _URL_1_ a few years ago. I was given a bunch of top level correspondence games and a bunch of games from banned _URL_2_ cheaters and was unable to differentiate the games with any statistically significant accuracy. To make this scientific I'd have to have access to _URL_2_'s methodology, but it was enough to convince me that cheating detection is highly inaccurate.
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Nobody is actually monitoring every little bit of information sent in the network, and even if they were, it would be nearly impossible to pick out evidence of a hack - you'd have to have a program cross-referencing known hacks or checking packets. If a hack is not yet known about and doesn't change game files or packets, it won't be detected. Not all e-sports are multi-million dollar affairs like League of Legends championships where PCs are furnished for every player. A lot of tournaments allow players to bring their own equipment.
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Say we sent a spacecraft 4 lightyeads away at .1c and live streamed the whole thing, would we have a 40 or 44 year recording?
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The first video frame would arrive at t=0 years. The last video frame would leave the spaceship 40 years later (in our reference frame) and would arrive at Earth 4 years after that, so in that sense the recording would be 44 years long. Once you sped it back up to normal speed, though, you'd find it was slightly shorter than 40 years thanks to time dilation (but only by about 0.5%).
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Reliably transmitting and recording that data, which would be tens of thousands at any one time, would be a horrific problem. And that's what the black box is for anyway. Little more would be known by capturing a video feed instead of an audio feed.
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Why does the wax in a candle disappear after you light it?
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Wax is a hydrocarbon. That means it’s made of hydrogen and carbon. When it burns, it combines with oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide.
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This question has been asked numerous times in the past. Use the search! The last time I saw this question asked I responded: > You are removing the fuel. A candle flame consists of a pocket of vaporized fuel (wax) whose surface burns, fed by oxygen. When you blow out a candle you are blowing away that pocket of vaporized fuel before it has a chance to be replenished. You have blown out the candle. The candle remains hot enough for a while to continue issuing fuel vapor, but you have blown away the burning surface that previously provided enough heat to ignite the vapor. A match is similar -- it's not just that you are reducing the temperature (as others have asserted) but that you are removing the vaporized fuel. The match will continue to be hot and will emit some ignitable vapor for a short time after it has been blown out, but since the flame is gone the source of high-temperature ignition is gone, and it can no longer self-ignite.
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Before plants began to grow on land, was the dry land on Earth red like Mars is today?
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No. Or at least, not most of the time. Red colouration is usually due to oxidation of iron minerals. That requires oxygen to be in the atmosphere. For the first 3 billion years of Earth, there was no oxygen available to oxidise terrestrial minerals. Only once life had got going enough to produce enough oxygen to allow it to partition out of the ocean was oxygen available to the atmosphere to oxidise the land. once this was complete the concentrations int he atmosphere could build up to levels such that life could survive on land (475 millions years ago, give or take). The really interesting question is why Mars is red at all - we still don't know how so much iron has been oxidised. Instructive diagram: _URL_0_
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Early Earth and early Mars were probably fairly similar. Without plants on either, both would have sandy-looking continents with oceans covering the lower portions of the planet.
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How does Apple/Google Maps generate 3D buildings for such vast areas?
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For Google at least they use a technique called stereo photogrammetry. This takes a 45* angle aerial photo and using specific colorization, creates auto generated 3D photos for large areas. Here is some more info on the process. _URL_0_ _URL_1_
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At least this was the way it was done some years ago; I have not done this in quite a while: individuals draw the buildings using Sketchup (a 3D drawing tool, which is available online). In order for it to be destined to be in Google Earth, Sketchup provides a "location" tool (probably powered by Earth) that lets the user select the geographical location of the actual building. Then the building is drawn and uploaded to a model gallery. It must then be approved by Google (very heavy files are rejected, for exapmple) and it is then uploaded to Earth. So to summarize: -Using Sketchup, select the geographical location of the building (link to the Sketchup website: _URL_0_). -Draw the building. -Upload it to the model gallery and hope it is accepted.
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How Stephen Hawkins spell and speak works? He never types
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> and speaks spontaneously too Well... not really. Nowadays he speaks very slowly (about 1-2 words per minute). Any video that looks like he's responding spontaneously is either edited, or he was given the questions and prepared the answers beforehand.
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Oliver Sachs theorized that Deaf people (capital D) to indicate deaf since birth, deaf community, do not rely upon an internal dialog but have a more complex method of thinking. In his book, Seeing Voices, he compared it to visualizing a train. Either we do so by seeing it go by car by car or we see the whole thing at once, engine to caboose. The inner dialog is analogous to seeing one car at a time. Deaf from birthers often excel at math because of their ability to see a larger picture.
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UK Redditors - why is the gov proposing introducing the 'living wage' rather than raising the National Minimum Wage?
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So this is the labour party making a proposal, not the government, and they intend it to be part of their party platform. Living and minimum wages are different things - though similar. A living wage in London and a living wage in Manchester aren't the same. The Labour party idea is to give incentives (i.e. tax breaks) to companies that pay living wages, but not outright require it. The main thing is that it would be 'voluntary' - unprofitable businesses could still pay minimum wages, but profitable ones would be get tax breaks for paying living wages. I think it's mostly Labour trying to appeal to many groups, and as a result coming up with complex legislation that sort of half appeases everyone.
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Because depending on where you live, the current minimum wage is not a viable option to live off of.
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Why did Mary I of England have to speak Latin to Philip of Spain if she herself spoke Spanish?
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The reason international languages exist is to put both parties on equal footing. It would seem submissive and defeatist for Mary to speak Philip's language, and it would certainly put Philip into a position of power in the negotiations. In order to ensure that both parties were equally speaking a foreign language, Latin was used.
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Did many people in the Phillipines speak Spanish or jsut the ruling class?If someone can answer that that might be the answer.
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How does ISON's speed, currently estimated at > 0.1% the speed of light, compare to the fastest things in our Solar System?
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Most things in the solar system go at 10s of km/s. Earth goes at about 0.01% of the speed of light, or about 30 km/s. Even Mercury is going at less than 60 km/s. So if ISON was going at 0.1% of the speed of light, it's going at 300 km/s, which is more than 5 times faster than the next fastest thing. This speed basically comes from the Sun's gravity: the comet has "dropped" towards the Sun and picked up a lot of speed. The greatest speed you can get from falling downwards (assuming you start pretty stationary) is the same as the escape velocity from the Sun's surface - a bit over 600 km/s. So you'll not likely see anything natural in the solar system going at 600 km/s or faster.
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Fastest: Far away from mass concentrations. As far away from the Sun as possible. Slowest: Inside these mass concentrations. In the core of the Sun. At the surface the effect is a few parts in a million, in the core it should be somewhere around 1 part in 10000 to 1 part in 100,000 slower than far away from the Sun. A better estimate would need a proper calculation.
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Request: Books about the Reformation from the perspective of the Catholic Church.
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[Exsurge Domine](_URL_0_) - the papal bull ordering Luther to recant (spoiler alert: he didn't) Mark Edwards, *Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther* has a chapter on Luther's earliest Catholic critics in print David Bagchi, *Luther's Earliest Opponents: Catholic Controversialists 1518-1525* *Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation*, ed. Rupp and Watson - the amazing letter exchange between the two, in which theologies are explained very well on both sides, one party to the exchange is endlessly gracious, and one party to the exchange lets the snark flow freely If you read Latin and/or early modern German, there are a few treatises and sermons on Google Books and _URL_1_ I could point you to. The Catholics actually had a lot of trouble mounting a literary response to Luther early on, which Edwards and Bagchi discuss.
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Well, they restricted the Reformation to the fringes of Europe, kept Spain & France in particular in the fold, so that'd be where I'd start.
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Why is ultra-realistic art such a modern concept? Why wasn't it possible a long time ago?
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> Especially considering the lack of photography before the modern era, why wasn't art like this more common? answered your own question. try drawing david bowie when the only reference you have is him, in person, standing in front of you for the entire duration that you are drawing/painting him. photo-realistic art is a modern concept because it inherently relies on using photographs as the source material, something that obviously did not exist in antiquity.
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A lot of people look at them and go "Why is this considered art? It's just dripping paint on a canvas?" The issue is that modern art no longer has "try to paint realistic images" as a goal since photographs exist. Instead, modern art is all about the artist trying to convey a feeling, emotions, themes, and evoke a response in the viewer. Many people find Pollock's paintings to be emotionally satisfying, that they look interesting, full of energy and vibrance.
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What is the science behind water fluoridation?
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> Fluoride exerts its major effect by interfering with the demineralization mechanism of tooth decay. Tooth decay is an infectious disease, the key feature of which is an increase within dental plaque of bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus. These produce organic acids when carbohydrates, especially sugar, are eaten. When enough acid is produced so that the pH goes below 5.5, the acid dissolves carbonated hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, in a process known as demineralization. After the sugar is gone, some of the mineral loss can be recovered—or remineralized—from ions dissolved in the saliva. Cavities result when the rate of demineralization exceeds the rate of remineralization, typically in a process that requires many months or years. Essentially as your hydroxyapatite is dissolved it's replaced (with a fluoride anion rather than hydroxide) as Ca5(PO4)3F
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they remove the water by heating it up. heating foods and drinks alters them chemically.
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Why when we yawn our eyes are starting to water?
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Certain facial muscles tense when you yawn, pushing out the water out of the gland where tears are produced.
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Because yawning puts pressure on the tear ducts, forcing out tears. _URL_0_
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Why do we need to send a satellite (New Horizon) to photograph color pluton when we have telescopes that see galaxies much farther?
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The ability to see so far in space is based solely on light. Pluto does not give off light itself and is too distant to reflect visible light from the Sun. When we are looking at distant galaxies through a telescope we are looking at the stars in the galaxy. We have not yet been able to visually see an exoplanet (planets outside of our solar system). We have however confirmed the existence of exoplanets by [other means](_URL_0_).
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We do take them, but the issue is that these images take so long to produce (on the order of weeks) and the telescope cannot be used for anything else in the meantime. Since there is so much to look at that's interesting out in the sky, viewing time is always in very high demand for telescopes such as the Hubble. The more we sit down and look at "nothing" (and taking deep field images) the less time is available for looking at this binary star system or that black hole, or that dark matter filament, or this supernova, and so on. And thus it's the case that we take only a few deep field images compared to the rest of what we look at, because it isn't as useful to take deep field images. Deep field images can only tell us so much about the universe.
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Difference between vegan, vegetarian, ovo-lacto-vegetarian and other similar lifestyles.
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Vegans eat no animal products at all - no milk, no eggs. Vegetarian is a very broad term and can mean a lot of different things, but in general it is someone who chooses not to eat animal flesh. Ovo-lacto vegetarian means specifically that eggs and milk are included in that person's diet, but that (being vegetarian) they don't eat meat.
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Vegetarians don’t eat meat- vegans don’t eat meat OR any other animal byproduct (dairy, honey, eggs, etc. essentially if you need an animal to make the food, they don’t eat it)
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Was there any attempt of reestablishing the French Monarchy after the French revolution?
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Definitely. There were serious royalist uprisings during the Revolution and during the First French Empire as well that had to be, sometimes, violently suppressed. Their intention was to restore the Monarchy to the throne of France. In addition, following both of Napoleon's abdications in 1814 and 1815, the Bourbons were restored to the throne of France, and after Waterloo would remain on the throne for 15 years, failing to undo most of Napoleon's changes to France before being torn down in the Revolution of 1830.
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Given that the monarchy was restored 20 or so years later, the royal family hardly faded into obscurity! The monarchy endured for a further 30+ years, so it could certainly be said that they took up prominent political positions. After the final overthrow of the monarchy, in 1848, there was, of course, a period during which the two competing branches of the royal family were in exile, but both are now able to be resident in France, and are hardly living in obscurity.
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Why don't hospitals/doctors accept all health insurance (or is it vice/versa?)?
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Unless there's another article, it sounds like there were no inpatient hospitals available now matter what the insurance was (psych wards are less profitable than cardiac care or birthing centers so hospitals aren't that interested in building new ones). But to answer your question anyway, providers negotiate a rate with the insurance company. Sometimes they aren't able to negotiate a mutually acceptable rate with a particular company, and sometimes they just choose not to take *any* insurance and operate on a cash only basis.
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Because health insurance originated in hospitals (as a way to provide a more stable income for them and easier to plan expense for patients) and they covered the people who provided services within hospitals. Dentists rarely are affiliated with hospitals, so they started their own insurance programs.
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why conservatives look to get the government out of as many places as possible, except from your intimacy (abortion, gays, etc.). Shouldn't you be just letting people do whatever the hell they want in their private lives, BECAUSE you're conservatives?
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You are describing is called a Libertarian. They base their beliefs around extremely small gov't and let people stand or fall on their own. Politics is a gray scale not black and white. Both left and right pulls a 180 on personal freedom whenever a particular issue they feel is worth it. i.e. conservatives on abortion and liberals on gun control. Disclaimer: I consider myself a liberal (I do own guns though.) I did try to keep this as non-biased as possible.
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There are a couple explinations. The first is that many conservatives have the view that the federal government's main role should be protecting the people, ie raising a military. Libertarians for example think this is pretty much federal governemnts only role and everything else should be left for local governements or for indiviudals to take care of. A second, more cinical, point is business people want small governemnt because it hopefully means lower taxes. However, military spending gives a huge amount of money to US buisnesses each year. So while business people might oppose welfare or student grants because they are money going to indivduals, they are much more likely to favor military spending which mostly goes to business.
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Why are all cars the same width? How did people decide and why did they choose it?
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There is a professional organization known as the Society of Automotive Engneers, them plus Dept of Transportation, and other insurance and government agencies determine all kinds of standards for vehicles. Before that, best thing I can tell you is a story. Many old roads in Europe, America, and perhaps the world follow this same story. Why does this particular old road follow this route? Because that's the route the old stage coaches followed. Why did the stage coaches follow that route? Because that's the route that the old caravans followed. Why did the caravans follow that route? Because that's the trail the native people followed. Why did the native people follow that trail? Because that's the animal trail that the game followed. The point being, when it came time to design cars, many roads were already built and wide enough for 2 horse carts to pass. So cars were built to fit in that same with. Eventually it became officially formalized when standards for roads were formalized as well.
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The wider the road, the wider perspective you have. You can get drivers to slow down just by narrowing a road even if you don't change the speed limit.
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American Politics. As an Australian I know Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders, Jeb Bush and Donald Trump are running. I assume Hillary Clinton is going to "win", but is there anything I don't know?
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There is a bigger question that comes first. Clinton has the Democratic nomination essentially wrapped up. It would take a huge disaster for that not to happen. Sanders is a Democratic nominee but way too liberal to win the nomination. The question is who runs against her in the general election on the Republican side. The others you mentioned are Republicans and there are about a dozen others running as well with more expected to run. There is no real clear front runner right now. Trump is a joke. Bush has his brother's stigma attached to him. You also have Ted Cruz, Rick Perry, Scott Walker and some other pretty big names in the race right now. All of them have their downsides. It will be a bloody battle for that nomination. After that there is no cake walk for Hilary. The general election will most like be close with a few "swing states" like Ohio, Florida, North Carolina, Missouri, and a few others determining the outcome.
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Hillary announced that she was running, so there are very few Democratic candidates who believe they can compete against her name recognition, track record and financial backing. There is no one clear "probably going to win" for the Republicans, so you have a bunch of folks all putting their hats in the ring, hoping that they might have a chance.
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If a person is kicked out of a spaceship to die, assuming they are going fast enough to maintain an orbit around the sun and won't drift towards it, would their frozen bodies exist forever? Or would the radiation break down the frozen bodies over time?
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The radiation wouldn't really be a problem since the person's already dead - after all liquid has evaporated, you'd be left with a mummy not unlike the ones found on earth. Coats of space dust would eventually turn the body unrecognizable in the span of a few millenia, effectively turning it into a micrometeorite. There's also a somewhat related [xkcd](_URL_0_) on this.
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Considering there is no oxygen in space, and no life, I imagine the bodies would not decompose. I know they are finding perfectly preserved wooden ships at the bottom of the black sea due to the lack of oxygen, and hope to soon find perfectly preserved human bodies.
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Why are radio stations all odd numbers?
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It is be because the radio signals don't exist on exactly one frequency. So a radio station's center frequency might be 92.5 MHz but the actual signal extends from 92.3 to 92.7. Now, the FM radio band starts at 88.0 but you couldn't put a station there because it's signal would start at 87.9 (outside the legal band). So they started at 88.1, then spaced the channels every .2 to prevent interference.
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Radio stations use a tiny chunk of the available frequencies, in order to reduce unnecessary noise in other frequencies used for other things. This [chart](_URL_0_) shows just how many things have to fit into the RF spectrum.
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Does my phone still play my music when the volume is set to 0? Or does it just move the time on the song?
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Still decoding the song. You can verify this by looking at the spectrum analyzer while on mute.
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Ah... what you are asking about is called and ["Earworm"](_URL_2_) If you're really interested I would advise you read [This Is Your Brain on Music](_URL_1_) or [Musicophilia](_URL_0_) Short answer is that your brain enters a loop
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Why/how was gay marriage illegal in the first place?
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> I was wondering how and why it became illegal in the first place A number of states enacted laws forbidding gay marriage, as an example California's Prop 8: > Section I. Title > This measure shall be known and may be cited as the "California Marriage Protection Act." > Section 2. Article I. Section 7.5 is added to the California Constitution, to read: > Sec. 7.5. Only marriage between a man and a woman is valid or recognized in California. These and other laws faced a number of legal challenges, not all of which were decided the same way. However, these rulings were essentially superseded by the Supreme Court in [Obergefell v. Hodges](_URL_0_). In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution grants equal marriage rights to gay people under the Fourteenth Amendment. As such, state laws prohibiting that process are invalid.
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Because on Monday, the Supreme Court refused to hear five cases in which lower courts threw out various states' anti-marriage-equality laws. Effectively, their refusal to hear those appeals means that gay marriage immediately became legal in those five states, and most other states covered by those same lower district courts either have or will follow suit and allow it because any litigation over anti-gay-marriage laws in those states is very likely to meet the same fate. [Here](_URL_0_) is an article from CNN in which a legal analyst does a pretty good job of explaining it.
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Why isn't apple a popular ingredient in ice cream?
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Apple has a very mild flavor. If you mix apple juice with ice cream base (milk, cream, vanilla, and sugar), and then freeze it (which further suppresses flavors), you will hardly taste the apple.
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Ice cream is made with cream, milk, sugar, and flavoring (like vanilla or chocolate), sometimes with other ingredients such as eggs. It is churned while it freezes, which mixes air bubbles into it. Gelato is an Italian style of ice cream, made with more sugar and less cream. It has less air in it than most ice cream. Frozen yogurt is made with yogurt, which is milk that has been fermented by certain bacteria. It usually doesn't have cream, which makes it less fatty; so it is sometimes thought of as a healthier option (although it still has a lot of sugar). Frozen custard is like ice cream, but made with more egg. (For sanitation, any ice cream mix that is made with egg should be cooked before it is frozen.) Sorbet is made with water, sugar, and flavoring, usually fruit juice; it has no milk products in it. Sherbet (in the American use) is in-between sorbet and ice cream: it is made with some milk, but not a lot of cream, and is often made with fruit flavors.
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Decibels. How do they work? I understand going from 0 to 10 it gets ten times intense, but what about 0 to 4 or 5? Or towards negative decibel levels?
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For power, dB = 10 log (measured/reference) For everything else, dB = 20 log (measured/reference) For the opposite conversion Measured/Reference = 10^dB/20 For power, Measured/Reference = 10^dB/10 So for say, sound pressure level. If something is half the pressure 20 log (0.5) = -6dB. Or say something is 3dB more powerful 10^3/10 = 2 times more powerful I'm using equations because the point is that decibels are a logarithmic scale and you need the equations to convert. There are some rules of thumb. Each change of 3dB is halfing or doubling of power (for negative and positive, respectively). 6dB is halfing or doubling of intensity of level. 20dB is a factor of 10 for everything but power, 10 dB is a factor of 10 for power.
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Great minds think alike. I've sailed far and returned ta port with this booty. Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5: What are negative decibels? How can a sound be negative? ](_URL_1_) ^(_20 comments_) 1. [ELI5: How is it possible to get negative decibels of sound? What happens at those levels? ](_URL_0_) ^(_3 comments_) 1. [ELI5: How are negative decibel sound readings possible? ](_URL_4_) ^(_9 comments_) 1. [ELI5: What is a "Decibel" and how can you have negative on them? ](_URL_5_) ^(_6 comments_) 1. [ELI5: How can there be negative decibels? ](_URL_2_) ^(_12 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why does the decibel value on my stereo decrease as I increase volume? ](_URL_8_) ^(_ > 100 comments_) 1. [ELI5: What are decibels? ](_URL_6_) ^(_8 comments_) 1. [ELI5: How can the quietest room in the world be -9 decibels? ](_URL_3_) ^(_58 comments_) 1. [ELI5: How can sound measure at negative decibels? ](_URL_7_) ^(_14 comments_)
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Why is Graphene such an amazing electrical conductor but Graphite isnt?
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The bonds between layers absolutely do affect conductivity. Using the tight binding approximation to calculate energy dispersion you find that it is linear in graphene (at the Dirac points). That means the effective mass of electrons is zero, so the conductivity approaches infinity. In graphite, however, the effective mass is not zero, so the conductivity is much lower.
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I am not an expert, but from what I know there's 2 main reasons: 1. It's still quite difficult to mass produce graphene to an amount where companies can incorporate it into there products. 2. As with a lot of nanotechnology, we are still learning about them. The truth is that while they may be useful for a lot of things, we still don't know much about the negatives. It's hard to really measure for example what the environmental impact of graphene might be, because there isn't much of it around in any environment yet, and due to it being nano-sized it's hard to track it once it has been exposed to the environment.
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Why does oil/water soaked paper tend to be translucent?
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Without getting too chemical/physical, the light bounces off of the rough edges of the dry paper and reflects back to your eyes. When it’s soaked in a liquid, the light travels through more uniformly and doesn’t bounce back as much, so you can kinda see through the paper. It’s the same reason ice is more transparent in a cup if you put water in it
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So you can think of a paper towel as being made of two things, the fibers, and the air between the fibers. These two mediums each propagate light differently, and because there is no regularity, its just a mix of air and fibers, the light scatters significantly. Why does it scatter? Well when ever light passes through a boundary between two mediums, it bends. Stick a pencil is a glass cup of water and you will see it's image "shift" as it enters the water. The number that describes this behavior is called the "index of refraction." So the mix of air & fibers has lots of boundaries so you get lots of scattering. The oil will replace the air, and the oil is closer to the fibers in terms of index of refraction,so light feels less of a shift when passing between oil & fibers so does not scatter as much so is more transparent. Water is probably not as close, so a wet towl is more opaque.
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how come the celebrity in the threesome gag order was given the option to take out an injunction whereas some stories are just printed?
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Everyone has the "option" to take out an injunction. However it's quite expensive, you need good lawyers working on your behalf, and crucially you need to know that a story is going to be printed *before* it goes to press. In general when "celeb scandal" stories get printed in the press, that's the first the celebrities know about it. By then it's too late to get an injunction, although the newspaper can be sued for libel if the story is actually untrue.
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Gag orders are in place in situations were free speech runs up against a competing compelling interest. For example, a gag order might be issued in a case involving a minor. The press has a 1st amendment right to report the proceedings, but the minor has a right to privacy. The courts have established that the compelling interest of the minor trumps the first amendment, thus the gag order is acceptable.
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How is the Kepler space telescope kept so precisely stable?
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It has reaction wheels that are spinning at high speeds. This creates a very large angular momentum that is very difficult to change. In deep space (i.e. not earth orbit) you don't have to deal (as much) with forces such as atmospheric drag or the magnetic field, so reaction wheels are sufficient. Edit: think of a top. When a top is spinning quickly, its very easy to balance it precisely on the tip. When its not spinning, its near impossible. Same concept, but imagine the top of the top is a photometer taking pictures of the stars. Source: I do mission ops for kepler
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> A force that's perpendicular to the movement of a point mass alters the direction of it's velocity, yes, but how does the direction of the velocity vector ever start pointing slightly, or even straight to the center of the nebula, making the radius between them diminish? Think about throwing a ball. It flies forward, and gravity acts downward on it, pulling it closer to the ground until it finally hits the ground. As it flies, gravity diminishes the "radius" of its flight. Gravity doesn't often "balance out" against velocity to create nice circular (or elliptical) motion as you're assuming. In the special cases where it does, you get a stable orbit. But if the object isn't moving fast enough, the gravity overpowers the velocity and the object spirals inwards. If the object is moving too fast, the velocity overpowers the gravity, the object flies off into space.
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Has there ever beena popular revolution to instate a monarchy?
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I can think of two examples one 19th century and one biblical. While it was probably not what the people had in mind, when the Greeks won their war of independence in the 1830s they ended up with a new monarchy. This had more to do with larger European assumptions of the appropriate form of government than any Greek aspirations. The Biblical example would be King Saul and the Prophet Samuel. The people of Israel asked the Prophet Samuel to give them a king. Samuel thought it was a terrible idea, and told them so, but he eventually let them have one, and anointed King Saul. It may stretch things a bit to call this historical, but there you have it.
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Yes, Spain got close a few times. France and Italy had fairly large Communist factions but not nearly enough to think a revolution was possible. Here's a link if you want some further reading. _URL_0_
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How does a particle carry a force?
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The idea that forces are transferred by particles shooting other particles at each other isn't really an accurate picture. Particles cause disruptions in fields (for example a charged object modifies the electromagnetic field) and when these particles move, the field around them has to change to accommodate this. These excitations in the fields can be considered virtual (as in, not real) particles and are treated that way mathematically.
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Calling it a force in the f=ma sense is misleading, it's better to call it an interaction. Basically it's a way for one particle to turn into another, while absorbing or emitting a neutrino. The classic example is beta decay, where a neutron turns into a proton and an electron while emitting a neutrino.
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Re: Gardasil- Please help me understand if this article is really wrong or not
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If you do a quick google search you will see that Dr. Diane Harper doesn't in fact work for Gardasil -as the article claims- this immediately throws into question the validity and truth of any claim the article made. I wouldn't trust this article's claims. also, here is an article from that counters the claim made in your article: _URL_2_ edit: grammar
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You may safely disregard that article. It's not even wrong.
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Why was facial hair suddenly discouraged/made against the rules in the U.S. military?
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I thought it was about lice but apparently it's because a gas mask doesn't sit properly on a beard. *The Navy and Coast Guard were the last to ban beards. In January 1985 the Navy banned them. The Coast Guard banned them the next year in 1986. Same reason as the other services. You can't get a good gas mask seal over whiskers.* - Yahoo answers that I googled for you. :P
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Because facial hair is axial hair. It falls into the same category as armpit hair and genital hair. In men the hormone DHT is resposable for baldeness in headhair but has no effect on the axial hair group. [source 1](_URL_1_) [source 2](_URL_0_)
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Who were the first to harness the power of advertising? Who figured out that concept?
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Animals use advertising. Big feathers, bright colors, songs, dances. "I've got the best product! Have sex with me" It's as old as time
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Followup question - In the HBO series *Rome,* they had a big, loud, stoutly built news reader / town crier / Senate press secretary. He had a scene every so often where he announced current events to the crowd at the forum. After announcing the most recent battle results with Julius Caesar, he would end with an 'advertisement,' either a classified ad listing the reward for some valuable runaway slave, or like [here at 1:40](_URL_0_) for the Cateline Brotherhood of Millers, 'true Roman bread for true Romans.' That sounds like an advertisement to me (~49 BC) ...if historically accurate. *Friends, Redditors, Countrymen, lend me your expertise.* Is this element of the TV series historically correct?
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How exactly is the electron-to-proton mass ratio important and what would be different if this ratio changed with time?
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> I am assuming that this ratio of mass between electrons and protons depends on many other fundamental constants in the universe Not particularly. The electron mass is it's own constant, and the proton mass can be calculated from quantum chromodynamics. We often consider the mass ratio to be a fundamental constant, for a variety of reasons. If the mass ratio was changing, we'd point to the proton mass as the culprit. This would mean that the strong nuclear force is changing in strength as a function of time. Fortunately for quantum chromodynamics, there's no experimental reason to think that the strong force has changed strength.
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If you consider the constituent parts of the hydrogen atom, the proton and the electron, when they are bound together, the hydrogen atom does have less mass than the sum of the two individually. However the binding energies of electrons are miniscule (millions of times smaller) when compared to the binding energies of protons (consider the proximity of protons within a nucleus), so the proportional mass change in ionisation of larger atoms would be even more miniscule. The binding energies of valence electrons, which are the electrons lost as they are ionised, are even smaller as well. Playing around with E=mc^2 would give you an answer as to whether that mass change would be smaller/greater than the mass of the lost electron. Best of luck with your studies.
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How different/similar is Android to other traditional GNU/Linux Distros (targeting desktop/other platforms) out there ?
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You're right that Android runs on the linux kernel. That's about the only similarity it has to traditional Linux distros. Everything else in Android differs completely because there are almost no GNU components in the rest of the system (the exception being the kernel itself).
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"Linux" actually only refers to the kernel of the operating system "GNU/Linux", technically speaking. Android is based off it in the sense that they use the kernel Linux, but not some of the features of the "GNU/Linux" operating system. At least, that's what it seems like to me.
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Where was the Judicial Review principle of the United States based from? how did it came to existence?
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See the case of [Marbury v. Madison](_URL_0_). In that case, the Supreme Court under John Marshall found the long-existing concept of judicial review to be implicit in the constitution.
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The *extremely* ELI4 version is that *Marbury v. Madison* established "judicial review" in America: The idea that a court's job isn't just to decide individual cases based on the law, but also decide if laws themselves are in line with the constitution, and strike them down if they aren't. This is a big deal, as judicial review is now 95% of what the Supreme Court does.
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Even though they are all iconic by now, most horrorfilms like Chainsaw massacre or Halloween all have horrible ratings. Why is that? and why especially in the horror-genre?
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Horror movie fans watch them for the monsters & the gore. Other people watch them and notice that horror movies tend to be poorly written & poorly acted. Their ratings are in line with a lot of other cult classics.
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Because most recently produced horror movies are poorly produced, overmarketed money grabs. They don't really have any artistic value, their plots are predictable (wow! The black guy died first again! Who'da thunk?), they don't spend much on special effects, and they don't have any of the philosophical value held by some older thrillers. They were made for one reason and one reason only: to entice people to come to the theater for a cheap thrill and an espensive ticket.
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What causes people with special needs to rock back and forth or have "ticks?"
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It is my understanding that the rocking motion is soothing. I do not have special needs but deal with mental illness and the rocking back and forth is comparable to being cradled. Its repetitive and calming, though it may look strange or frightening.
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Being tickled is actually a form of fear or a panic reaction, and if you're doing it to yourself, then your body knows that theres nothing to fear. you can tickle the roof of your mouth though i read this somewhere, im not sure how correct it is but i've seen it a few places..
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If condoms are still only 98% effective even when used perfectly, what is the “ineffective” 2% caused by?
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A lot of this has to do with the way birth control uses percentages. It's not really 2%. The way you'd read it is for every 100 couples having sex over the course of a whole year, 2 of them using just this one particular form of birth control (and nothing else) will become pregnant. This is a lot less than 2% the way most people think of it, because the couples who did get pregnant had sex plenty of times and didn't get pregnant. & #x200B; As far as condoms, they can break. Most condom problems come from incorrect usage, so if you are saying "used perfectly" means "always used correctly" then it must come from breakage.
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According to this [article](_URL_1_) it's only 42% effective when used by itself. Using condoms upped the prevention rate to 75%. There is also the issue of cost. It costs [$13,900](_URL_1_) a year for the drug. Edit: 1. I removed the TL;DR line 2. Per /u/whatadumbidea's request I am adding a link to the [iprexole](_URL_0_) study that found a 99% protection against HIV.
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Do all insects have [roughly] the same intelligence?
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While I certainly cannot speak for all insects, I learned from a botany professor that flies are less intelligent than bumblebees when it comes to recognizing flowers that they had already visited. Both flies and bumblebees serve as pollinators and are attracted to different types of flowers. Some flowers, especially fly-pollinated flowers, have "traps" in them: They attract flies with a certain scent, but then do not "reward" them with food, but trick them to pollinate them instead. The flies repeatedly fall for the trap in their lifetime, resulting in the pollination of many flowers. If one experimentally makes something similar to that for bumblebees, they will learn to understand the trap and will avoid any similar-looking flowers in the future. This example shows that insects can have varying degrees of intelligence.
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What do you mean by 'intelligence' and 'sentience'? Depending on how you define those, the answer is either 'yes', 'maybe', or 'no'. Under any scientific use of the word intelligence, yes, dolphins and whales are most certainly intelligent, along with countless other species. This is very well documented and accepted. The same goes with sentience. But when some people use 'sentience' what they really mean is 'human-level sentience' (and the same with intelligence). In which case no, there is no reason to think that dolphins or any other animal has the same level of intelligence/sentience as humans have (and every test suggests they do not). But many animals have shown fundamental mental skills such as creativity, problem solving, theory of mind, sense of fairness, altruism, empathy, and so on. There are a fantastically large number of papers on this subject, so I don't even know exactly where to begin. If you can define your question a little more I'd be happy to pull some up for you.
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Even though wigs are made of human hair, why do they still look fake when worn?
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usually because they are cheaply made and poorly styled, and worn by someone with little understanding of adjusting them correctly. Ive had several ex girlfriends who worked in the entertainment industry that sported wigs. Having been in a few wig shops I can tell you they range from the $10 halloween wig to a decent used car.....and the difference is quite obvious. A slight change in makeup, wardrobe and wig and I had trouble recognizing my exfiancee when she would come in some nights.....which wasnt necessarily a bad thing :)
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Society isn't a huge fan of the natural way many african american women's hair grows so fake hair is easier than chemical straighteners or something.
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Why are so many teenagers depressed
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Tons of factors. Depression wasn't diagnosed as much as it is now. Teenagers are hormonally all over the map which can lead to all sort of psychological issues. We also don't really know how spending so many hours on smartphones or laptops affects developing brains. Finally, social media and being constantly surrounded by every detail of every person's life seems pretty damn overwhelming. I was a teenager right before all of this Facebook/Twitter/Instagram/YouTube stuff got going. It was hard enough being a teen then, but adding to that the fact that everyone in school knows every single thing you're up to now and can judge you on it would have been torture for me.
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More people are not depressed. More people are simply *diagnosed* with depression as we come to understand it.
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Did people in the past have a lot of casual sex, or is it something that has only been happening a lot over the past century?
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Yes, people tend to enjoy sex. My favorite medieval examples are the 12th century Paris statutes to build walls around graveyard and lock them at night to prevent people sneaking into them for sex, and the mosques in Islamic Iberia that developed shady reputations as places people went for covert sex. Here's a longer take on the question: * [Did people in the late Middle Ages/Renaissance have casual sex?] (_URL_0_)
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Thank you so much for asking this, OP, I've wanted to know this for years. And I'd like to expand (or maybe define) casual sex for the purposes of this thread. There is sex between people who aren't close and met that night. There is also fooling around between young unattached people. In the liberal arts world, a lot of the academics are in my circles have been of the opinion that all pretenses of monogamy and chastity have always been false, and are so everywhere, and that the only difference between modern western culture and former or distant cultures is that the other ones are lying. As someone who really did have a super-chaste conservative religious upbringing, I know first-hand that something like the traditional conservative ideal of sexuality is possible, but I don't know if my single self-sample is adequate grounds to build a theory. I'd love to know about hooking up, and I'd love to know about the spectrum of sexual behaviors between that and no-sex-till-marriage.
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Why is the complexion of my penis (which gets no sunlight) darker than the rest of my body (which is constantly exposed to sunlight)?
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Often the shaft will be darker and the tip will be lighter because the genitals generally produce more melanocytes to protect them from the sun, but the tip was generally hidden by the foreskin so it didn't have to evolve melanin. This effect is exacerbated by the deflating of these parts in comparison to maximum volume increasing melanin density. This was important historically to prevent dna damage to skin there. It's not caused by blood, as stated in the other post as many pale people lack the melanin and color difference, but definitely do not lack the blood.
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The UV rays present in sunlight are damaging to your body. Too much exposure kills your skin cells, and the dead skin peels off.
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How does soap actually disinfect germs?
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And for the germ-killing (*antibacterial*) soap... Most germs (*bacteria*) are built like medieval cities, with the good stuff inside and walls (*cell membranes*) to protect them. These walls have gates with gatekeepers (*ion channels/porins*) to let only specific things and people (*nutrients and wastes*) pass. If this wall is compromised, things would be really bad. Germ-killing soap almost always work by doing damage to the walls. Some are general "wall-breakers", and others (e.g., gramicidin) insert arbitrary gates into the walls... so workers that were supposed to stay in goes out, and all becomes splattery goo. Ack.
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The surfactants in the soap emulsify the fatty like materials that water cannot dissolve or in any way removed. This combination of water removing things along with the emulsified fats now being able to be removed by the water makes for greater cleanliness. It is the rinsing away of these materials that clean the hands. Any antimicrobial properties of the soap is really pointless, 99.9% of the pathogens are removed mechanically by rinsing.
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Why is a fear of homosexuality called homophobia instead of homosexualiphobia (or something along those lines)?
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I think you might have a point there from a technical perspective. Homophobia technically would mean fear of things that are the same. But in practice this is a lot like asking why does the sun come up in the east and set in the west when we all know that the sun doesn't move, its the earth that does.
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Homophobia is not a recognized clinical disorder the same way acrophobia is. It's first recorded use was in a NY Times article in the 80's. The wiki page on homophobia has a section mentioning the same semantic criticism that you do, with LGBT scholars suggesting terms such as homonegativity or sexual prejudice to replace the pseudo-scientific "phobia" suffix. Personally, I believe homophobia is a dated term that ties back to a time when it was believed that homosexuality and other non-heteronormative behavior was a mental disorder.
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Does pureeing the beans in my black bean soup reduce fiber content?
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No, dietary fiber is essentially carbohydrates that your body cannot digest, such as cellulose. Pureeing beans breaks them down into a mush, but this does not destroy the fiber.
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Even V8 lacks fiber. Big part of why veggies are good for you.
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Why does chronic inflammation, such as in IBD, cause tissue damage?
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Think of chronic imflammation as a war situation. And you are trying to grow and harvest crops when there is an ongoing war over the soil (tissues). There is constantly bombs and fire going on (the citokines), as well as soldiers(neurophiles) fighting each other and dead bodies all over the place (neutrophiles and other dead cells). The tissue needs to remove dead cells via grinders(macrophages) and the soil is not getting the necessary nutrients or any fertilizer (blood flow and oxygen) while all these events are happening. Because of all these factors, the soil gets damaged over time, until the war is gone. Also the soil has its own limits too. after a certain time, if the inflammation takes too long, it doesnt recover to its full potential or may even become barren.
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Ibuprofen fails into the class of nonsteroidal antiinflamatory drugs (NSAID). These drugs inhibit cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes, impairing the transformation of arachidonic acid to various cytokines [(figure)](_URL_1_). More detailed information can be found on [UpToDate](_URL_0_), which is a useful source physicians often use when looking for specific disease or drug related information.
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how does blue light glasses stop people from getting migraines from screens?
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eye doc here. to my knowledge, they do not. Blue light has been proven to be bad for your eyes in high concentration (can contribute to macular degeneration). It also messes with your sleep cycle. This is probably just false advertising. By the way, turning down the amount of blue from your screens does the same thing.
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Imagine migraines and headaches as different things. Headaches are typically caused by dehydration. Your brain “shrinks a little” from water loss and creates a pressure change inside your skull. This pressure change is felt by neurons in the tissues that line the inside of your skull. Migraines are a malfunction INSIDE the brain. It’s thought the part of the brain that’s responsible for processing pain isn’t working properly, and “thinks” it’s getting pain signals from the head—and even all over the body. The whole back 1/3 of your brain is dedicated to simply “seeing” stuff. Light sensitivity is a big issue with migraines as the changes in light information can trick the “pain centers” into thinking there’s pain happening in the eyes...
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Why are there no contemporary records of Jesus Christ?
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Hi there -- the evidence for Jesus existing gets asked here a lot. [This section of the FAQ may be of some interest to you](_URL_0_) -- tl;dr Jesus most likely existed, but historians leave his divinity and miracles up to the theology department, which is over on the other side of the quadrangle.
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It's kind of an amalgamation of several different accounts. It's largely accepted that the current image of Jesus was formed in the 6th century, C.E. (or AD, if you prefer). I like the Robin Williams concept of Jesus, which basically states that Jesus has no fixed physical form. That, to me, seems logical. As Robin Williams said, "Jesus will return -- And this time, he's not going to look like Ted Nugent, Uhh Uhh! This time, he's coming back as a large Black Man named Jesse! And he's going to say, "Where is Jerry Falwell?!?!?!?! I need to speak to him!!!"
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why are people so afraid of sharks, even when they know they have more chances of getting hit by lightning or die in a car accident...?
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Humans are bad at judging and understanding probabilities. We fear things we shouldn't and then take risks that will surely hurt us.
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we are instinctual creatures. Being 'scared' triggers our natural 'fight or flight' mode, and when we 'escape' we successfully outsmart our attacker. Most horror movies target precise fears, because in order for us to react it has to be believable. just like dogs like to catch things, we like the opportunity to be threatened by our fears, only to come out on top and leave unscathed.
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How is all the antimatter in the universe not destroyed by the matter?
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There really isn't much antimatter in the known universe. Why, is a mystery. Positrons are created fairly frequently and they often annihilate with electrons. If you look for positron-electron annihilation in the sky you see it [coming from the galactic center](_URL_0_).
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Antimatter is Matter with inverse charged sub atomic particles. So in normal matter, electrons are negatively charged and protons positively. In antimatter electrons are called positrons and are positively charged and Protons are Antiprotons and are negatively charged. Apart from that antimatter is behaving not so different from matter. If you mix antimatter with matter things get a little more crazy. Matter and antimatter annihilate each other. In this process all their mass is turned to energy. If you would bring 1 g of antimatter hydrogen in contact with 1 g of hydrogen the resulting annihilation would set free 362 TJ energy or roughly 90 kT TNT.
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Is there any truth to the idea that there was a Closet Tax on homes in the United States, and thats why they generally arent seen in historic homes?
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I've only heard it in the context of mythbusting about "room taxes" in general. A few web links: _URL_0_ (and more broadly regarding myths about colonial America, but including it, and more "reputable":) _URL_1_ Honestly, I find the actual explanation for the peculiarities of home construction and furniture design far more interesting than a simple kneejerk tax-avoidance one. But then I'm a historian for a reason...
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The real reason is that the industry of building and selling homes is very powerful politically, and managed to convince Congress to make a special law to benefit their customers, and not to remove it even when the government was short of funds. They made various arguments about why people owning homes is good for the country, but there are *lots* of good things that are not tax deductible -- and this one represents a *huge* amount of potential tax money -- so the real reason is political power.
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How do we know that the speed of light is constant in every reference frame?
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From the laws governing how electricity works, you can figure out what the speed of light is. So if the laws of physics are the same in every reference frame, the speed of light is the same in every reference frame.
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Which one? Special relativity, or General relativity. Special relativity says,quite simply, that the speed of light in any reference frame is always constant, and equal to c. This means, that depending on reference frame other things commonly thought of as constant, such as time, and the length and mass of an object, vary. General relativity is more complex, and has to do with the effects of gravity, acceleration and energy on the time experienced, length and mass of an object.
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If most or a lot of disease is caused by inflammation, why wouldn't taking a daily anti inflammatory be a good preventative regiment
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You have cause and effect backward. Disease is not caused by inflammation; inflammation is a symptom of disease. Specifically, it's your body's immune response.
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Yes, in most cases yes taking an anti-inflammatory will slow the healing process but let you continue on with your life pain free and mobile. There are a few cases where excessive swelling can lead to Compartment Syndrome, in which case an anti-inflammatory drug would speed up the healing process.
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Can every color mixture of Play-Doh always be converted back into any one of its constituent colors through more color mixing?
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I think you are asking, more or less, if there are "anti-colours" which can cancel the effects of adding one colour to another. For paints/play-doh (im assuming you mix the pay-doh so well it acts like mixing paint) when you mix two colours together you are merely changing the light which is observed/reflected. The more colours you add, the more light you absorb and you eventually tend towards grey/black depending what you use. As soon as you've mixed them, theres no going back.
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Subtractive vs. additive colors. Short version, mixing pigments works different than mixing light wavelengths. Long version: [Here](_URL_0_)
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What exactly is inside a water tower?
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Yeah basicly it is just that. And a pump at the ground to get water up there and that's about it. See wiki _URL_0_
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Think of it as an open window between the two compartments. I am fairly sure there was literally an open space allowing water to pass through.
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Why do anti-depressants take so long (up to 12 weeks) to start working fully?
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This is an educated guess (medical student here), but still a guess. We have some evidence that an antidepressant cause a downregulation of some brain activity. This means that the drug per se doesn't cause a direct effect on the brain, but it trigger a chain of events that cause a change in the brain. This change take some time to fully happen.
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This may sound strange but one of the reasons is that severely depressed people lack the energy and motivation to kill themselves. Once an antidepressant drug starts working a lot of them get more motivated to kill themselves. > Most suicides occur within about three months following the beginning of “improvement”, when the individual has the energy to put his or her morbid thoughts and feelings into effect. _URL_0_
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The correct usage of cosplay
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> Isn't saying cosplay enough? "Joker and Harley Quinn cosplay" is fine. > Also all of the Halloween costumes- Are Halloween costumes also cosplay? Conceptually, yes, but you probably wouldn't say it that way because it isn't part of the same "scene". If you bake a cake for Thanksgiving you aren't a "baker" in the same sense as the guy who owns a bakery down the road. Wearing a costume of a character from a movie or series is certainly cosplay but in the context of Halloween it is just dressing up in a costume. > I feel as though cosplay has a dirty connotation to it.. but perhaps that's just me. There is certainly prejudice of it being seen as nerdy. But as above, there is a difference between dressing up as Batman on Halloween and dressing up as Batman at Comicon in the middle of July.
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The word comes from portmanteau of cos (コス - *cosu* - short form of costume) and play ( プレ - *pure* - play). And there is no difference. It is the same thing. Cosplay is just what it is called in Japan. In America, cosplay is associated with dressing up as manga and anime character in particular, but in Japan this distinction does not exist.
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How do private schools have rowing teams? Like do they have their own lake to row on or is it usually a nearby river?
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Why would they need their own lake? Any public use lake of sufficient size & amenities (ie docks of sufficient size & ready access) will do
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1) they have private tutors provided by the university 2) their practice hours during the rest of the year is strictly capped and the school can shift around their course schedule to accommodate the playoff season. 3) These athletes are generally not in work intensive majors like Engineering or Pre-Med.
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How is foreign investment raising housing prices in Vancouver?
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It is really just a result of supply and demand. Supply of housing in most markets is fairly static. However, when more people come to the market to purchase homes, there is more demand to buy the fairly static supply of housing. Econ 101 teaches us that when demand is higher but supply remains static, prices go up.
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They get relocated to other low income/public housing areas.
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When someone is sick with an infectious illness and they sneeze on a surface, how long does a bacteria or virus survive on that surface? What eventually makes them die off or go away?
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Viruses haver varying times they con survive, since we don't know which one you have, and do not know the current conditions in the house it hard to say. Like a poster said before 3 weeks is a good cover all your bases. When you sneeze thing can become aerosolized, these particles will stay aloft longer than droplets. Most virus's die from UV exposers, also they can dehydrate and die. The flu seems to stay around 2-8 hrs Or rhinovirus is 2-4 hrs on surfaces. _URL_0_ _URL_1_
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It really depends on the specific virus, bacteria, ect. Some survive years while others last seconds. Infections like anthrax form a really resilient structure called a spore where they can survive for centuries until they come in contact with a host through inhalation skin ect. Tuberculosis can only be spread thorough inhalation and can survive for about about a month outside a body. More here if you're interested in the actual bacterium. _URL_0_
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Why do black holes have stronger gravity than stars if they are the same mass as a star, but just collapsed?
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Because gravity gets stronger the closer you get to the source. If you treat all the mass as if it's coming from a point (which you can do if you're outside a uniform massive sphere), outside a star you're millions of kilometers from the source, and outside a black hole you're kilometers from the source. Farther away, beyond the original radius of the star, the gravity is the same.
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> gravity is a function of mass and distance. Exactly, so the black hole has the same (or less, if matter was ejected) gravitational pull at large distances. The difference is that, at distances where you would be *inside* the original star (and thus experiencing reduced gravity from the outer layers pulling you up), you'll still be far away from the black hole, so the gravitational pull nearby the black hole is higher than anything the original star was capable of.
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How do they make this camera effect?
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I can't watch the video at work, but I assume that you're talking about a [dolly zoom](_URL_0_). They do it by physically moving the camera either toward or away from the actor on a long track, while zooming the lens in the opposite direction.
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It is called chromatic aberration and it is from the lens of the camera used to take the picture. You now how a prism used to split light will bend light different angles depending on its wavelength? The lens does that too, just the effect is attempted to be minimized.
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Can your heart rate affect the tempo of a song you're listening to?
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> Can your heart rate affect the tempo of a song you're listening to? Yes. My friend was rapping to my pulse rate monitor in the hospital the last time I was on one. > I was listening to some music today whilst on a bike ride and a generally fast song (about 110 BPM) seemed much slower. This has nothing to do with the tempo of the song. Only your perception of the tempo.
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The low BPM of the music causes your heart rate to slow down as well, coupling this with soft melodies and understated backing percussion makes for great relaxation music.
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Why Ayn Rand is loved and hated by so many people?
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She's a polarizing figure, that's why. People who are highly individualistic and less concerned with helping others are more likely to get on board with her philosophy of Objectivism and, conversely, those who consider themselves more altruistic and group-minded find her ideas disagreeable. I'm speaking broadly here, but these two groups of people seem to fall into two categories: conservatives and liberals. Some like to prance around and avoid the labels, but from what I've witnessed, those who are pro-Ayn Rand are usually conservative and those who are anti-Ayn Rand are usually liberal. This is essentially why she's so loved and hated -- because it boils down to those two kinds of politics and philosophies which are already polarizing.
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Hatred of Rand doesn't necessarily stem from her philosophy. Some people simply dislike her as an author for various reasons. Some people dislike her because they believe that she writes weak characters that undergo no growth. Others believe that her novels go on for about 800 more pages than necessary - in fact, in Atlas Shrugged, a character goes on a rant about Objectivism for around 90 pages, which for some equates to being hit repeatedly in the face with a hammer marked NOVEL THEME. However, you could always ask your roommate why he hates Rand.
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When and why did people begin consuming the milk of other species (cow, goat, etc)?
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This is not that uncommon among animals. Different animals might try to steal milk from other mothers, including different species. But it was not until right after humans domesticated animals that we started doing it on a large scale. Initially it was only for babies and in large parts of the world it is still only babies who drink milk. Most animals including humans change their digestive system as they gets mature so they can no longer efficiently process milk. However with humans there was a mutation that prevented this from happening. And due to the availability of milk to humans as opposed to other species this mutation have spread to a large part of the population.
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Many cultures (Central Asia) drink horse milk and use it for cooking. Goats milk is also big in many cultures. The reason cows and water buffaloes are popular for commercial milk production is because of the large quantity of milk they produce daily and equally importantly the high fat content of their milk (from which you can make cream, cheese etc more easily than with goat milk).
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What happens in America when you are seriously injured in, let's say, a car accident and don't have health insurance?
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Hospitals will help you if you don't have insurance, however your bill will most likely bankrupt you.
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This is coupled with the "no preexisting conditions" portion of the ACA. If there was no requirement to get insurance people would simply not get it at all until they got sick, then get insurance, then cancel.
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Why are professional video cameras so much larger than professional photography cameras?
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I think the question you're trying to ask is why professional movie cameras are much larger compared to a professional still camera (for example a DSLR)? A few factors: - Image sensor/film size. A larger sensor or film format will require a larger unit and a larger set of lenses. Note that both still and video cameras come in a variety of sensor/film sizes. You can get a professional still camera that's bigger than a professional video camera. It all depends on the application. - Flexibility. A movie camera lens typically needs a wider zoom range than a still camera, particularly still professionals using primes (non-zoom) lenses. This means bigger, heavier lenses. - Ergonomics. A movie camera needs a greater degree of smooth control over the camera so you can do smooth zooms, smooth pans, smooth tilts etc so there's additional control and mounting hardware. - Movie cameras tend to have a viewing screen as opposed to a small optical viewfinder. - Storage requirements are higher for movie cameras.
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Hi def cameras are much more expensive and the video takes up a lot of storage space as well.
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What is the purpose of a tiny resistor in an array of high powered LEDs?
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Those resistors are there to limit the current. How well they'll do depends on a few things. My guess on the 1 ohm is that the calculator just defaults to 1 ohm when the V_f's and V_s add up to the same value. Plugging in some other numbers seem to suggest this is the case. First of all, from the datasheet for your LEDs, what is the minimum and maximum forward voltage? The "2V" number is a nominal number, and the actual diodes will vary. If you happen to get a bunch that are all low (e.g., 1.8V), then you'll have 1.2A running through that 1 ohm resistor. On the other hand, if you happen to get a bunch at 2V and one or two at 2.1V, you'll have a problem with them not fully lighting up.
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Imagine you've got two branches of a river. On one branch, you build a dam 1 foot high. On the other, you build a dam 2 feet high. As the river rises, it starts to overtop the 1 foot high dam. But it never overtops the 2 foot high dam because once it's flowing over the 1 foot dam that's where all the water goes. If you look at the performance of a diode, what you'll observe is a 'forward bias voltage'. Until you've hit this voltage, the diode simply blocks current. Once you hit this voltage, the diode starts to look an awful lot like a short circuit (not quite, but fairly close). What this means is practice is that the voltage at the common node above the 1 LED and the 2 LED in series can never rise (much) above the forward bias voltage of the single LED path.
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Recent advances in Navier-Stokes equations?
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For reference, the Millennium problem about the well-posedness of the Navier-Stokes equations can be found at: _URL_2_ One of the more recent results is due to Terence Tao from 2014/2016 _URL_1_ _URL_0_ He shows that an averaged version of the Navier-Stokes equations exhibits finite time blow-up, which suggests that either blow-up also occurs for Navier-Stokes or a much deeper understanding is necessary to show that this is not the case.
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Dr. Terrence Tao, a renowned mathematician, is working on the Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness problem. In 2014, he had a big result for a certain form of the equation. I was still in college at the time and my PDE professor said that most of the mathematics community expects him to be the one to win the prize for it. This particular professor was so confident that he predicted that Dr. Tao would do it by 2016. I had never heard of him at the time but it turns out Dr. Tao was a child prodigy in maths and was a full professor at 24.
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What is a respiratory therapist?
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From what my father(who is a respiratory therapist) says: all you really do is hook people up to ventilators(things that breath for you) and beat their heart for them(you know so they don't die).
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The person is given drugs that heavily sedate him or her and paralyzes all muscle activity (even breathing). The patient is put on a mechanical ventilator and is given nutrition via IV or feeding tube. This is done for patients who need to recover from brain injuries that often cause a patient to be disoriented, upset or even combative. It can also be used for patients who would otherwise be in great pain or discomfort during the recovery process. The patient is very slowly weaned off the medications and the mechanical ventilator until the doctors are confident that the person is able to breathe on there own
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Why do hackers feel the need to release private information to the public like officals' names and addresses? What do they gain from this?
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The same thing that kid in middle school got out of making fun of your shoes and squirting ketchup on them. Publicity and embarrassment. Bullies thrive off of the reaction they get out of it, my assumption is thats what pointless hackers get out of pointless hacking.
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One of the sections of the Patriot Act (Title II)gives the law enforcement authorities to wiretap phones, go through e-mail and financial, business records as well as search a home or a business without the consent of the owner or without a court order. This provision was to expand the surveillance efforts and enable the authorities to prevent any terrorist incident by spying on potential targets. Because the data on individuals is collected without any oversight or court order, it also has the potential to be misused by the government to spy on average citizens, political opponents, journalists etc. and prevent anyone from criticizing or raising their voice against the government.
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If most of the energy required to lift things into orbit is used to carry its own fuel, are bigger planet civilizations doomed?
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Bigger planets are likely to have a thicker atmosphere, making [balloons an even more viable first-stage of a rocket than they are here](_URL_0_).
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As far as we know right now, there isn't a way for us to get enough fuel to Mars to be able to fly back.
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What causes flames to change color and what causes elements to have different color flames?
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Okay, this is a great question for this subreddit. There is a contest held every year where people compete to try to explain what a flame is to an 11-year-old. It's called the Alan Alda Challenge, and [this is last year's video winner.](_URL_0_) He does a fantastic job explaining exactly what a flame is and why it looks the way it does. Different compounds/elements burn different colors because the color of the flame is dependent on the energy that is emitted by atoms of the broken compounds. Light is emitted when atoms are excited by thermal energy, and different colors of light are emitted because different atoms obtain different levels of excitement. Copper gets really excited and produces a green/blue flame. Lithium and chloride together don't get too excited, and produce a red flame.
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All fire is just light coming from excited plasma molecules. Different color fire is at different wavelengths, energy, and temperature. It may be the result of burning off different things in the plasma or other controls. Fire is fire and there's nothing particularly special about the different kinds. The different colors are used for fireworks... In science we can really narrow down what the color is to the wavelength. We've also learned that certain atoms when receiving light of certain energy will reemit or let out light of certain colors. This makes identification of substances possible by seeing what color they shine back.
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How much of a thing are prosthetics controlled by the mind and how do they work?
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They aren't really a thing outside of research labs. And even in research labs, it's mostly about controlling prosthetics by _nerve impulses_, not "the mind." I.e. contact electrodes placed on particular areas of the appendage detect nerve impulses and then trigger prosthetic movement based on that nerve impulse. In short, when you think about moving your index finger, your brain sends a nerve impulse along the nerve path to your index finger ... even if that index finger no longer exists because your hand was amputated. If that impulse can be isolated and monitored, it can be used to trigger prosthetic actions. That's categorically different than attaching electrodes to _the brain_ and using recognizable brain activity as the trigger to move a prosthetic. That's a *much* harder task, because isolating that brain activity is *way* harder than isolating a nerve impulse.
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They exist, and can even be "tricked" into thinking an arm is still there which is basically phantom limb syndrome; it's also the basis for some robotic prosthesis which wouldnt work if the brain didnt retain those faculties; there are some local neurons that likely need to be developed, but the brain remains entirely undisturbed.
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Could virtual particles turn out to be just mathematical fictions, a bit like epicycles?
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We kind of already know this. The virtual particles arise in Feynman diagrams as terms in a Dyson series expansion. Each diagram is a term in the expansion. There are some problems in field theory which do not need to be solved as perturbations, so virtual particles never arise whatsoever. Essentially, don't think of virtual particles as necessarily what nature really does, but more of a mathematical artifact. None of this is a disparagement however, virtual particles are *very* useful in calculations.
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A real particle is a thing you can measure. A virtual particle is something which looks a particle if you represent perturbative calculations by feynman diagrams and has basically nothing to do with an actual particle.
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What did Obama do when he was a" community organizer" in Chicago?
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Obama has been a lawyer, professor and wrote two best selling books (this is where most of his money came from, he sold millions of copies) before every becoming president. His wife has also held many high paying jobs. Rich people come from poor backgrounds all the time. Not that every poor person becomes rich (obviously) but being rich doesn't mean you were born rich. Right now none of the 10 richest men on earth came from very wealthy backgrounds. As to the other unrelated question, "community organizer" includes a lot of things. Overall though, it is about helping people organize for political ends. That could include helping people navigate the hurdles that occasionally come with applying for government benefits, or organize for more political ends like voter registration and lobbying elected officials.
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Candidate Obama ran a campaign on the idea of being in the middle of the road of the Democrats. Close Guantanamo, increase environmental regulations, and single-payer health care immediately come to mind. He was going to go out and fight for the liberal causes, and he was going to change the tone of Washington. President Obama was a moderate liberal technocrat. Far from being a particularly cunning politician, his biggest goals seemed to be seen as reasonable on everything which was wildly exploited by the GOP and Frank Luntz' No Compromise strategy. He quickly gave up on idea of closing Guantanamo and started his negotiations on health care by compromising with himself and giving up single payer without any concessions in return. Rather than maneuvering and picking political fights he could win, he basically seemed to let the GOP set the tone on everything and only seemed to win political battles when the GOP overreached and started fighting internally.
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Were there ever accidental engagements of Soviet and American forces at the end of WWII when the two countries started to meet?
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My understanding of it, based on *The Last Thirty Days: The War Diary of the German Armed Forces High Command from April to May 1945* and Cornelius Ryan's *The Last Battle,* was that the actual mechanics of the German collapse prevented this from ever happening. By late April of 1945, the final week of the war, the Allies were still over 120 miles from Berlin, where the Russians were fighting. Kesselring's entire army group still guarded the south, to the west of the Czech border, and the Americans were primarily concerned with what they thought would be a fight to the finish in the southern part of the country, the "Redoubt." The Germans were definitely getting sandwiched, but I don't think there was a point where they were in fifty miles of each other during the actual fighting. The meet-ups were after the fall of Berlin, and were largely ceremonial affairs. [This map](_URL_0_) gives an idea of where the forces were when the war was ending
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December 7th 1941, he was definitely not going to defeat the United States and USSR at the same time.
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Why does grass make people itchy?
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From what I learned ( I have no source ). But the grass makes little incisions in your skin because its actually kinda sharp. Then the oils and other stuff on the grass gets in there and irritates your skin, thus making it itchy. Ever notice how grass kinda gives you an itch that can't be satisfied with a good scratch? That's because you're just making it worse. Again, I learned this in passing, but it makes sense to me.
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Grass can give you tiny cuts, and when the sweat gets into those cuts, that's why you feel itchy or sometimes a burning feeling.
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On average, do currency bills get heavier over time from picking up particles from everything, or lose weight because of crumpling and abrasions?
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First, dollar bills generally weigh one gram, something fun to keep in mind the next time you're considering how much sugar or fiber a grocery item contains (this is a little over 1/500ths of a pound for users of U.S. customary measurements). Bills lose rather than gain weight over time from the loss of surface and edge material from abrasion. Take a look at your lint trap the next time you do the wash, and consider the loss of mass your darks experience in a single week. Bills are made of a mix of paper and cloth and experience a similar loss of mass, though obviously bills are designed for longevity rather than comfort and you aren't often cleaning noticeable bits of "lint" out of your wallet.
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Not at all. There's lots of different ways of measuring how much money there is in the system, and of these the actual amount of paper bills is only a small portion of total money in the world.
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What's the difference between Cloud computing and Fog computing?
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From what I understand, cloud computing is when all the hard work and computation is done on some other system/network and then is sent through the internet or network in general to the client. Where as fog computing is where the services and computing is done at the "edge" of a network or on client end systems like access points which reduces latency. I don't really know for sure I just used the link below: _URL_0_
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Difference in potential is what allows electricity to flow, fog essentially is at the same potential as the ground it covers. Any difference it might generate quickly dissipates to ground, in the case of clouds they are very high and to bridge the difference over an air gap they can build quite a charge before it can dissipate. _URL_0_
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Polymerase Chain Reactions
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You mix together water, buffer (keeps pH constant, some salt so the polymerase folds and functions right), primers (short pieces of DNA that match the beginning and end of the sequence you want to amplify), dNTPs (raw DNA bases), the template DNA you want to amplify off of, and DNA polymerase (the protein that extends a DNA molecule by copying a template). You then cycle the temperature. At 95ºC the DNA is denatured (uncoiled to single strands). At 55ºC the DNA primers anneal (bind) to the template DNA sequences that they match. At 72ºC the DNA polymerase is active. It extends from the primers to copy the DNA sequence you want. Theoretically, each time you run a cycle the number of DNA strands is doubled. This makes it very good at rapidly amplifying specific DNA sequences.
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Sounds like you're looking at 1 amino acid being added to the polypeptide. I believe this is called an insertion. If one base disappears (a deletion) from a coding strand of DNA then there will be a "frame shift" mutation and you will most likely end up with a non functioning protein. Anybody care to back me up? It's been a while since genetics.
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