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Why is Poland's coat of arms an eagle, just like the Holy Roman Empire?
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The eagle is in reference to Polish legend about its founding. The legend is about three brother rulers Lech, Czech and Rus, who set out to find new homelands for their people. Lech is the leader of the Polish, Czech of the Czech and Rus of the Russians. Lech is said to venture West and find a suitable place when he comes upon a white eagle's nest upon sunset. The rays of light passed through some of the feathers, illuminating them in a gold like shine, with the rest of the eagle pure white against a red backdrop. Edit: I didn't address why the HRE uses the eagle, sorry. They based it on the Roman eagle standard used in legions. The main HRE imperial coat though has a double headed eagle which is worth mentioning. Also, the Silesian Piast dynasty (fragmentation of the original ruling dynasty of Poland) used the same stylized eagle except gold on a blue background, and then used a black eagle on yellow backdrop when they came into Bohemian sphere of influence.
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Did the symbol of the eagle continue on to the Holy Roman Empire and consequently- to Germany?
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Some people are considered "smart. Some people aren't. Are humans the only ones to have such a variance of ability within a species?
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We don't have precise IQ qualifications for non-human species, because our communication skills let us easily gauge intelligence within our own species. The problem is more that we don't know how to look for intelligence and intelligence differences in animals.
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Evolution doesn't have "levels", it just has features that aid survival. Intelligence happens to be something that helps us, but what would a really smart bear do with that? Make a spear with bear paws? Our ancestor species benefitted from being more and more intelligent because we had the dexterity to build tools, but most other animals cannot manage that, smarts or not.
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What happened to property owned by Loyalists after the independence of the USA from GB?
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I find the assumption that the Loyalists fled "back to Britain" a bit problematic. The majority were not born in Britain but were rather North American colonists living in the thirteen colonies who remained loyal to and "rendered service" to the crown. More than 50,000 (about half of those who fled) went to the colonies that would eventually become Canada.
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[This](_URL_0_) video explains it perfectly. Basically, land rental to the UK government given during the time of King George III primarily, though other sources as well. Although the UK profits more from the land rental.
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At what point did the Catholic church realize the true scope Protestantism reformation , and that they weren't going to be able to simply stamp it out like they had done with the Cathars and Waldensians?
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If I can recommend a look at this from the Protestant side, the book [Christianity's Dangerous Idea](_URL_0_) by Oxford theologian Alister McGrath might be worth a look.
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It was not always so. Initially, there was support from the Catholic Church for the Nazi regime based on the Nazis' anti-communism, the Nazis' conservative nationalism (which many German priests shared), and the anti-semitism that both groups shared. However, the Nazis were always somewhat suspicious of the Catholic Church because it was a multi-national organization based in a foreign country, therefore not of German origin. The major break came when the public became aware of Aktion T4, the so-called "Euthanasia Program" where the Nazis, in a "dress rehearsal" for the extermination camps, killed thousands of mentally a physically disabled. The Catholic Church was very vocal in protest and helped force the Nazis to publicly end the program (it continued in more careful secrecy). The relationship is much more complex than that, but those are some of the highlights. For further reading, see Doris Bergen's "Twisted Cross."
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Why is Nestle so bad?
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They cut off water sourcer that run into poor villages in poor countries and force them to buy the bottled water that Nestle conveniently sells. They convinced a bunch of women in Africa that their infant formula was healthier than breast milk (it isn't,) gave away free samples which the women used (because hey, it's free) which unfortunately caused them to stop producing their own milk (since they weren't using it, their bodies stopped producing it) which forced them buy the formula because otherwise the babies would starve. The formula was too expensive for them to afford, so they had to dilute the formula, which caused the babies to starve to death. tl;dr They literally kill babies.
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It looks like depending on the species there is different tendencies to naturally start building a nest. So some species instinctively build a nest and prefer certain materials. The way they build a nest though and preferences for materials can change over time often by watching their neighbors or parents. They can if isolated learn to build better nests through practice. The Development of Nest-Building Behavior in a Weaverbird Elsie C. Collias and Nicholas E. Collias _URL_0_
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What role did Hannibal serve in the court of Antiochus III?
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He was seeking refuge. After the Second Punic War was over, Hannibal left Carthage and went to Tyre. He eventually commanded a Seleucid fleet for Antiochus III in the Roman-Syrian War.
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Well, he supposedly took about 200 gold signet rings off the bodies of dead upper-class Roman citizens after Cannae and sent them back to Carthage to be dumped in front of the Carthaginian senate to convince them he had Rome on the ropes. Most of our sources on Hannibal were written by his Roman enemies and so are not entirely reliable when judging the man. He is generally portrayed in those sources as quite savage and bloodthirsty. Roman writers of later generations had good reason to cast Hannibal as a monster -- it made the Roman victory over him seem even more impressive and noble.
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Why is Czar/Kaiser such a popular name for emperors?
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'Caesar' became a title in the late Roman Empire under Diocletian to denote junior emperors under Augusti. From there, it was adopted by countries influenced by the Eastern Roman Empire, such as Russia, Bulgaria and Serbia. The German 'Kaiser' comes from the use of the title for the Holy Roman Emperor, who was in fact titled Emperor of the Romans. Interestingly, 'Caesar' is not the only name to have done this - Turkish and some Slavic languages use the word 'Kral' for king. Kral is a Slavic pronunciation of the Frankish name 'Charles' - that is, Charlemagne (King Charles the Great), known in the region for his conquest of the Avars.
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Wilhelm already was a king: the King of Prussia. The point of the imperial title was to elevate its holder above other kings. Thus by being an Emperor, the Kaiser could elevate himself above the other kingdoms which constituted Germany (Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg). If he were simply a king and not also an emperor, he would have merely been the equal of those figures. The Austrian imperial title was to some degree a continuation of the imperial title of the Holy Roman Empire. As that empire was coming to an end, the Austrian rulers were in need of another imperial title in order to maintain their 'rank'. It also gave the Habsburg Monarchy an overarching structure, whereas it had previously been merely a collection of titles.
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Why is it that some celestial objects (such as planets) spin clockwise and others spin counter-clockwise?
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The solar system didn't come into existence until about 9 billion years after the Big Bang. There is no way that the planetary spins observed can be related to it in any way. Most planets in the solar system spin in the same direction as the result of accretional processes in the original protosolar nebular disk. (See the Wiki article on the [formation of the solar system](_URL_0_) for more information. The planets that spin in other directions, or along tilted axes, are hypothesized to be the result of large collisions late in the formation of the solar system.
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In physics, point particles have chirality, so you can superimpose "left-handed" and "right-handed" particles on each other without a problem. What chirality actually comes from is the property called spin. If you look at a particle coming towards you, and it's spinning counterclockwise, you call it right-handed; if it's spinning clockwise, you call it left-handed. Simple enough. The only problem is that a particle having spin doesn't actually mean that it's spinning. It's a point particle, after all; you need a radius to have rotations. What it *does* mean is that it has many of the same properties - for example magnetic moment - as it might if it had a very small radius and were actually spinning.
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If the sum of two even numbers is an even number, and the sum of two odd numbers is also an even number, then how are there the same number of even numbers as odd numbers?
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Because there are another two possibilities. Say you have two numbers, X and Y. There are 4 possible odd/even combinations: * X is even, Y is even. Result is even. * X is odd, Y is odd. Result is even. * X is odd, Y is even. Result is odd. * X is even, Y is odd. Result is odd. 2/4 have an even result, 2/4 have an odd result.
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You don't need an even number of teams to play an even number of games. To simplify it, imagine there are 3 teams. Team 1 plays team 2. Then team 1 plays team 3. Finally team 2 plays team 3. Now each team has played eachother and played 2 games despite being an odd number of teams.
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How is the helium escaping from the volcano in Yellow Stone enough reason to believe it can erupt?
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In reality theres no sure fire way of knowing its going to erupt soon until, you know, it erupts. The thing could be completely inactive for all we know. Also, dont worry, because its completely out of your control.
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There are enough geologists here to give you a detailed answer, but I'm really curious about how on earth he explains volcanoes?
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How did the USSR maintain a powerful nuclear navy without a warm-water port?
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Your question is based on false pretenses. Russia had/has several warm water ports. To name three of the most prominent: St. Petersburg (Baltic Sea and direct access to the Atlantic via the North Sea), Sevastopol (Black Sea, with direct access to the Mediterranean via the Turkish Straits), Vladivostok (direct access to the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean). This is to say nothing of those states, like the Baltic States, that are not a part of Russia, but very much were a part of the Soviet Union.
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high strength steel containers. the coffin surrounding the reactor is strong enough to survive a torpedo hit. the rest of the submarine will be destroyed before the reactor leaks. the entire thing is shielded like crazy....because if it wasn't, the entire crew would be dead in a matter of hours. there is no direct contact of radioactive coolant and seawater. there's nothing to leak.
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Why does banging on electronics sometimes make them start working
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Usually there's an iffy solder joint or a sort of loose physical connection somewhere inside. A good smack jars it and completes the connection better. Known as percussive maintenance
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I'm an electronics technician that uses this technique on a regular basis. Generally the problems this fixes are mechanical in nature. For instance in an old radio, you might have some corrosion built up on battery contacts, volume control contacts, cold solder joints,etc. Jarring these connections can cause the metal surfaces to rub across each other, exposing clean metal, causing current flow to happen in that part of the circuit again. In something like a water cooler, either it's similar to the radio examples above, or some mechanical linkage is stuck and jarring this linkage allows the parts to move freely again. There is a limit though, as I discovered with a few laptops / computers over the years as striking them too hard tends to cause hard drive crashes.
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Why do apartments keep raising rents every year until you leave, if they're just going to rent it out to someone new and unknown at a lower rent afterwards?
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They aren't. Your rent is being increased to keep up with inflation, and rental prices in your market. Any new tenet will be paying a comparable amount to you.
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Rent to own is some agreement with the house owner where a portion of your rent goes toward a down payment, and after a certain amount of time renting you can get the mortgage yourself. Why do more people not do it? Because owning a house is **expensive.** When you're the owner, all the maintenance is your problem, as opposed to being able to call the landlord when an appliance breaks or a tree limb falls through the roof.
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Why is there a difference between a nautical mile and a statue mile?
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A mile on land was defined by 1000 paces by a man back in roman times. A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the planet Earth. If you were to cut the Earth in half at the equator, you could pick up one of the halves and look at the equator as a circle. You could divide that circle into 360 degrees. You could then divide a degree into 60 minutes. A minute of arc on the planet Earth is 1 nautical mile. This unit of measurement is used by all nations for air and sea travel. ELI5: So the difference is due to how the length of a mile was decided, a statute mile was 1000 paces of a fully grown man and the the nautical mile was made by dividing up the circumference of the earth into more manageable slices.
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The mile traces its origins to the Roman Empire and was originally 1000 paces (2000 steps), hence its similarity to the Latin "Mille" for thousand. When people went to the sea the need for a distance measurement of that scale still existed, but ships don't do much pacing so a different standard had to be used. While it's hard for a ship to measure how far it's gone it is much easier to figure out how far north/south it presently is by looking at the sun or stars. Thus, a definition for a roughly mile-length unit came to be--it is 1/60 of a degree along a meridian (north/south line). More modern definitions have evolved from these original definitions, so a modern-day mile is 5,280 feet , while a modern-day nautical mile is 1.150779 miles exactly.
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Can someone explain why the CME occurs on the opposite side of the sun as the comet hits in this image?
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Are the two events actually linked, or just happening to occur on the same day? There is a smaller ejection event before the comet enters the frame.
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> Or does it orbit the sun in exactly the same orbital path as the comet itself? That is exactly correct. Without any significant work done on the dust particles, they have no choice but to occupy the same orbit as the comet. The comet's entire orbit is dusty.
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What does the word "meta" means, as in metagaming, or other good uses of "meta"?
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Meta basically means something that references itself or is recursive in some way. *Example: "So I just saw this film about these people making a movie, and the movie they were making was about the film industry."* The term "metagaming" is used in RPGs (like Dungeons & Dragons) usually to call somebody out on role playing their character based on information that has only been revealed to the players, and not the characters themselves.
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"Meta" is a Greek term that means "Self-referential." Something that talks about itself. For example, a play in which the characters are talking about how they are just characters in a play is called "Metatextual" because the text of the play talks about being a play. Meta is used when posting online to refer to discussions about the forum itself, rather than the topic of the forum. Like if you're in a subreddit about cheese, and there's a discussion about whether it's on-topic to talk about Cheez Whiz there, that would be a meta post, because it's not about cheese, but about talking about cheese. Meta is also sometimes used in gaming discussions, to refer to the current popular strategies and tactics used. Some people use "Most Effective Tactic Available" to try and explain these sorts of discussions, but really it's that talking about the people playing the game rather than the game itself lead to "meta" being applied to those sorts of discussions and then went off on their own.
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How can there be earthquakes, albeit small ones, far from plate fault lines? For example, the UK, which sits a thousand miles from the nearest fault occasionally experiences tremors.
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Geologist here; plate boundaries are not the only areas with faults. Faults are present all over the intraplate area at many different sizes and scales. Plate boundaries are the likely site of very large earthquakes, e.g., Sumatra, Japan, Chile, Alaska. Intraplate earthquakes *generally* are smaller than earthquakes at plate boundaries.
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The earth is like a cracked shell. Each piece of the shell is a plate, and these plates are resting on top of a very thick and hot liquid called magma. There are convection currents in the magma, i.e. parts of the magma is swirling, convention currents make the plates move. Sometimes plates bump into each other, sometime one plate dips underneath another, sometimes the plates separate. This is constantly happening but very very slowly. An earthquake is caused when there is movement between two plates, this releases a lot of energy, and that's an earthquake.
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Why does rewinding a Youtube video undo all the loading it did?
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It has something to do with [DASH](_URL_0_) or Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP. Youtube now uses DASH to send you videos piece by piece instead of all at once. [Here is an article that will teach you how to disable dash](_URL_1_). Edit: the article also gives a better explanation of DASH than I did.
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Because the video has been shared, transfered, compressed so on so fourth. Chances are you aren't watching the original file
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Were large medieval cities culturally diverse or primarily one race?
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Have a read through of this [post I did a few weeks ago about race in the medieval period](_URL_1_), it should help you understand both the problematic nature of your question and also provide some answers. You can also check out this [useful discussion](_URL_0_) by /u/telkanuru . The short answer: notwithstanding one's definition of 'race' - or the applicability of the modern concept of race to the medieval periods - most mediterranean cities, and many northern ones too, would have had representation of a variety of peoples from the most northern reaches of Europe, down to the western Mediterranean and across to the Byzantine lands. Populations would have varied by city.
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Addressed at all participants: how did central cities reflect the diversity that was present in your respective region? Were capital cities home to representatives of various ethnicities, religions, and languages? Or were urban spaces the domain of particular groups?
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After a limb has "woken up" from it's "sleep", why does it feel all fizzy when I try to move it?
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Usually the cause of it going to "sleep" is from compressed nerve pathways. This caused them to stop sending information to your brain, when the cause of the compression is removed, some will not send information right away and others may start sending information erratically. This confuses the brain and causes the "pins and needles" sensation in that part of the body
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This is actually a misconception. The "pins and needles" feeling of a limb "falling asleep" isn't due to lack of bloodflow, but due to the mechanical compression of nerves. In this way, its similar to "hitting your funny bone" (your ulnar nerve), but less acute because the nerves are squished slowly rather than suddenly hit. If you ever hear someone complaining of a "pinched nerve" its a similar phenomenon. With this in mind, its not hard to see how mechanically squashing a nerve might make it fire erratically in a way that feels like sensory static. When your arm/leg "falls asleep" what usually happens is a section of the nerve has gotten squished to the point where signals aren't making it to the brain, (or from the brain to control muscles) and when the pressure is removed they gradually reconnect. As each individual neuron makes that reconnection, it might fire erratically, hence the tingling.
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How does a computer know what a coding language is? How does it know the meaning of the english words you write within the code?
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Your computer has no idea what those words mean, but your compiler does. A compiler is a program that converts your high level language into something that can either directly execute in the computer (e.g. C/C++ compiler direct to an executable), or into an intermediate form - e.g. Java bytecode, that can run in a Java Virtual Machine. The CPU in your PC or laptop has a defined set of operating codes, that look nothing like a high level language. They are memory loads, register operations, stack call frame settings, and hardware interrupts. You can write these codes in the lowest level human-readable language, called Assembly Language, if you want: e.g. have a look for tutorials on MASM.
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A compiler reads the text of your code and converts it into a list of machine instructions that is saved as an executable. The computer runs the executable by starting at the first instruction, executing it, then moving to the next instruction etc etc. Languages like C and C++ compile to binary, where each instruction is a number that is directly run by the CPU as a CPU instruction. Interpreted languages like Java don't directly compile to machine instructions, instead using a virtual machine. To make your own language, you have to write a compiler. The first compilers were written in binary code by hand.
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Why is fresh yellowfin tuna $24.99 lb and canned yellowfin tuna $6 lb?
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The less expensive tuna is prepared at sea in bulk. The more expensive tuna is rushed fresh from the sea to your table.
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Completely different types of tuna. It's almost like saying why is duck so expensive while chicken is so cheap even though they're both poultry. The cheap canned tuna is [albacore](_URL_1_). It is white meat and not really good for steaks, tartare, or sushi. The expensive tuna is [bluefin](_URL_0_). The normal cut of this is the red meat that is you'll see as one of the most common sushi dishes and as steaks in other restaurants. The belly cut of the bluefin, otoro/toro, is the kinda pink and fatty pieces of sushi that are even more expensive.
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Why are almost all products showcased on tv, cheaply made and usually not worth the money?
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> Wouldn't these channels want to show products that are actually worth the money? No. People who choose to watch 30 minute infomercials aren't at a good place in their life. They're frequently dealing with insomnia. People who want to research a product go to amazon, or the store. > Don't these poor products actually hurt the overall reputation of the producers that give them the air time? I think people are happy with their purchases. I think that a huge percentage of the buyers are elderly, or disabled people who don't get out much and who find the experience of learning about a product on TV, talking to a phone rep, and getting it to be fun.
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Because it costs very little to make game shows compared to most other types of shows, so you can have a smaller budget than a normal show and still give away tens of thousands of dollars.
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I read a non-academic book a couple decades ago that claimed that Soviets consumed more of every class of food (grains, dairy, vegetables, fruit, etc), except meat, than Americans. I don't know when it was referring to. Can anyone comment on this?
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Apologies if this does not constitute a full answer, or meet the subreddit's standards, but it seems like OP wants a specific source, and might be referring to [something like this](_URL_1_) CIA document. Of course it's difficult to know specifically what source OP's aforementioned book used, as the CIA produced a fair number of resources on the Soviet diet.
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Price comparison of American and Soviet food by after-rent-taxes monthly income _URL_8_ Comparison of income level of various professions based on percent of average monthly income _URL_8_ Moscow, 1954, on the shelves of Home Appliances _URL_8_ consumer goods of the USSR Exhibition 11.08.1987 _URL_8_ USSR: labels, packaging, advertising Soviet times _URL_8_ Advertising in the Soviet Union Electric shaver _URL_8_ Advertising in the USSR, electric frying pan _URL_8_ Advertising in the Soviet Union, lipstick _URL_8_
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How are hurricane paths predicted?
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Huirricane behaviour is fairly well-understood these days. They move in response to changes in air pressure, so they are repelled by high pressure and attracted by low pressure. In the case of Hurricane Irma there's a low pressure system ("trough") moving over the USA that will pull it northwards. Here's how it's described [here] (_URL_0_): > Hurricane Irma is close to reaching the southwestern edge of the subtropical ridge which has been steering it toward the west-northwest for the past several days. Once it reaches this point, it will move sharply northward into a void created by a mid-level trough moving eastward across the eastern United States.
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Check out [this article from Skeptical Science](_URL_0_) that addresses the issue of hurricane Sandy as it relates to climate change.
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Why do I see faint flashes of light when I roll my eyes around with my eyelids closed?
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Slight pressure against your retina from the intraocular fluid (leading to sensory input as light) caused by the muscles pulling the eye around.
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This phenomenon is called [Phosphene](_URL_0_). Essentially, part of your eye detects light by absorbing it, which stimulates the production of a chemical. This chemical then travels to another detector which, when there is enough chemical there will produce a signal to the brain indicating that there was a flash of light. More light = more stimulation, which tells the brain how bright the light is. (Simplified for ELi5) You can circumvent the requirement of light by applying pressure to the region, causing the chemical to be produced due to a mechanical action. This chemical then activates the receptors which tell the brain that there was some light produced when in fact no light was detected.
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during embryo growth, how do cells physically "arrange themselves" into complex structures like organs, appendages, etc?
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I'm a bit rusty on my developmental biology, but the basics is that cell division is not symetrical, and at each division in the early stages, some material goes with one of the cell, and the rest with the other. This translates into different protein being produced by the cells, or at least different concentration of said protein (For exemples of protein, look up Wnt or Notch). This creates a gradient of proteins in the organism being formed, and because the cell reacts differently depending on the concentration of these proteins, they will develop into something different. There are also pathways in development that are linked to the status of the neighbouring cells. Say, if i'm a developing cell, and the cell beside me is a pre-nose cell, i'm going to develop into a pre-nose cell too. However, there are very very complex interactions going on, and the simulation of everything at once is not yet feasible, and we rely on models, which do not account for everything yet, but better models will come !
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Cells are joined to either other to form tissues such as organs. Cells keep their individual shape using a 'skeleton' called the cyctoskeleton (not actually rigid but stops them being just sacks of fluid). They are joined to each other with different 'junctions', depending on your species are where abouts in the body the cell is e.g. Tight Junctions found in vertebrates. [Wiki page on cell junctions, not the easiest to understand Wiki page but lists the types of cell junctions](_URL_16_)
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Why are we not producing hydrogen with excess energy as a way of storing power?
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We actually don't create much excess power, creating excess power means you need to store it, and storing it is inefficient. The best storage is to not produce it (not burn the coal/oil). I work for a utility and we know with a crazy degree of accuracy how much power will be used over our territory on any given day (including the spike during the super bowl halftime for microwave nachos!), and when we guess too low we can turn on some inefficient power sources (burning gasoline-like stuff). When we're too high we can go into the market and sell the excess power to someone who guessed low on their end. In rare cases when we can't do either we actually use excess power to pump water up at hydro plants, and we later let it fall back down to recover the power.
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Using hydrogen as a fuel source means that it must undergo a combustion reaction in order to release that energy. Hydrogen is not energy in itself but rather is an "energy carrier." The hydrogen H2 must react with oxygen O2 in order to release energy to be used. The product of said reaction is water. 2H2 + O2 -- > 2H2O So, all the hydrogen we extract from water and then use for combustion reactions would form water again.
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Why are girls supposed to shave their legs/armpits, etc?
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Social acceptance. Ever hear an American's take on French women? Society says you look better when you shave your legs, wear tights and high heels! Also, some women do it for hygiene. Everyone sweats a lot from the arm pits, and if you have hair there, it sticks around and creates some BO.
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Most of these "No Shave" things are promotions intended to raise awareness and money for men's health issues - things like prostate and testicular cancer. It's like the ALS Ice Bucket thing - it's just a viral way to spread the message. People see their bearded friends in person, on social media, whatever, and ask about it. Then some of them donate.
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Why don't astroimaging cameras seem to use CMOS very often, if at all?
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My understanding is that CCD sensors tend to have some better performance characteristics, including precision and sensitivity across a wider spectrum. But this could be out of date or plain wrong; I'm not 100% sure. The CMOS in a regular consumer camera, for instance, doesn't see very far into the UV or IR spectrum, and is designed more for taking photos in daylight than accumulating photons for hours at a time. But you can of course still use these for science if you are aware of their characteristics.
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The CMOS sensor. It's a big grid of photodetectors, and the lens is designed to focus incoming light to hit the big grid of sensors. Each spot on the grid translates to one pixel in the final product. CMOS censors vary in how big their grid of sensors are and how many are packed into one space.
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Why the "degree" in Celsius?
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The official reason is that the XIIV General Conference on Weights and Measures (1954) changed the name from ºK(degree kelvin) to "kelvin" (symbol K). The omission of "degree" indicates that it is not relative to an arbitrary reference point like the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, but rather an absolute unit of measure which can be manipulated algebraically. However the other absolute scale (Rankine, ° R) is using the indicator "degrees." Mainly because it is a scale into disuse and the International Conference on Weights and Measures has not found necessary to review it.
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0 degrees Celsius is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of water are at equilibrium (at standard pressure). In other words, at exactly 0 degrees C, the solid and liquid phases coexist at equilibrium. If you increase the energy of the system, you shift the equilibrium towards the liquid phase, and if you decrease it, you shift the equilibrium towards the solid phase.
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Is the expansion of the universe constant in all directions?
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The expansion is, as far as we can tell, uniform in all directions. The Copernican principle - the idea that there's no special place or special direction in the Universe - agrees very well with observations. The acceleration is approaching a constant rate, but it is currently increasing. You can tell this because the expansion of the Universe was initially decelerating, but is now accelerating, so the acceleration must be going up.
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No, due to the universe having a beginning in the big bang, and the fact that the universe is also expanding. See this article on Olbers' paradox: _URL_0_
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Bill Maher's debate with Ben Affleck on Islam(this is pretty old)...
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Yes, he did! But Maher and Harris are both strongly against religion in any form, especially against Islam. They are basically arguing that the core believes of Islam (or religion) leads to violence, intolerance etc. Affleck is arguing against it, saying the violent and intolerant parts in Islam, which are definitely real, are not representative for the "whole" or "core" of Islam. In Afflecks view it's not the core believes of Islam that lead to violence, but it's more about poverty, living in dictatorships, being attacked by drones and not having a future. They are simply disagreeing on the cause of violence and intolerance in many islamic countries.
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It seems like you'd really like Mark Bowden's *Guests of the Ayatollah:The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam*
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Why is water so devastating to electronic devices?
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water is an electic conductor. an electronic device has an circuit layout. if water is applied to the device the electric circuit will not work anymore because the electricity can go everywhere using the water instead of the wires. it will create short circuits and heat up some components to a point where they will break.
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Water getting into an electronic device can cause various problems. One of the biggest is that unless the water is fairly pure/clean, the water can create conductive paths for current flow that are undesirable. If you can seal all of the electronic circuits from this, you can make it fairly water resistant. (There are other reliability issues that can be caused by water, too. But they can also be mitigated by keeping the water away from certain things.) Salt water is not only much more electrically conductive than fresh water, it also has another characteristic...it is fairly corrosive to some metals. Even if its inherent conductivity doesn't create failures, the salt can cause reliability failures at a rate much, much faster than fresh water will. Some forms of salt-water corrosion are also accelerated by the presence of voltage, so this is a particular hazard.
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Why can baryons have a 1/2 spin?
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In a proton, the two up quarks have opposite spin, and in a neutron the down quarks have opposite spin. Thus the total is 1/2 - 1/2 + 1/2 = 1/2. If you have a uud particle where the up quarks have the same spin, it's a [delta^+ baryon](_URL_0_), which does have spin 3/2. There's also a delta^0 baryon, which has udd.
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There are a few differences between nucleons and Δ^(+)/Δ^(0) baryons. Their spins are different (1/2 versus 3/2). As a result, their masses are *very* different, because the strong force is spin-dependent. Another difference is their isospin. The nucleons form an isospin-doublet (T = 1/2) while the deltas form an isospin quartet (T = 3/2).
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Are urban animals (squirrels, pigeons, etc) usually at the carrying capacity for their area, or is there a heightened risk of mortality in urban environments that keeps them below it?
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It depends on what you mean by "heightened risk". There is an inherent risk with being alive, for any animal. Since the carrying capacity is of an environment is determined by the availability of resources that are needed by an organism, and the inherent "risk" of being killed (either by predation, old age, or accident), we could say that yes urban animals in an urban setting are usually at carrying capacity. If they were in the wild they'd have different factors determining the carrying capacity, so you really can't compare urban vs natural. (if that's where you were going).
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The premise it not true. You have forgotten birds and insects among other thing. Many types of birds thrive in urban environments like pigeons. If is a seas side city Gulls of different kinds are common. Waterfowl can have a good place to live if there is the right kind of streams,canals or in parks. Rabbits also often liv in cities as do squirrels Insect like Cockroach can also thrive in a city You can read more about common animal in cities [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) where you can found out that som cities in Africa and Asia have problems with urban Monkeys. African penguins also uses citys for food and shelter You example was tow animals that we consider pests and disturb us. You would notice the what a night active raccoon would to you garage do but not what a shy rabbit would do by eating plants
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Why do young children seem to be natural born sugar fiends?
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[This](_URL_0_) is worth reading. Basically, it says that kids are hardwired to like sweet things from day one. They are extremely calorie dense. Growing is a calorie hungry business. There is also the chance that growing bones secrete a chemical that can signal the brain to want more sugars.
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As far as I'm aware, there have been a few studies on children and how sugar affects them. _URL_0_ There was no evidence found in any of them to the support of the 'sugar high'. The only thing which was confirmed was that parents who knew that their children were given sugar rated their children as being more active than usual.
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How can yeast produce THC?
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Disclosure: I know one of the members of the company profiled, though we've never talked about this work. This is done by introducing biosynthetic enzymes into a yeast. If the pathway that a plant uses to make the compound is known, you can clone the genes, insert them into the yeast, and then make sure they have the appropriate conditions to grow and produce the compound. You need to make sure the metabolic pathway you're using takes take a metabolite that yeast normally have (eg. glucose, amino acids). You also have to go through a lot of steps to optimize the conditions, because the introduction of a new metabolic pathway can be disruptive and make the yeast sick. So sometimes you will also have to figure out ways to compensate for the new metabolic burden you've put on the yeast. This has already been shown to work for the antimalarial [artemisinin](_URL_0_) and some [opiods](_URL_1_), there's no reason to think that THC would be too much different. Edit: grammar
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They've bred the plants in a way that THC content is higher. Why breed a plant that isn't dank? They don't. Thus only the strong strains continue
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I've heard that in Rome, the toga was the equivelent of business attire, so what would the average Roman pleb/patrician wear in their day to day lives?
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The toga was the official dress of the male Roman citizen. Even poor citizens would usually have a rough wool toga that they might wear on official occasions such as voting in Comitia or attending Assemblies. Later sources state that in the royal and Early Republican periods the toga was considered the only proper attire for Roman men in public. For example according to Livy, Cincinnatus was plowing his fields without a toga on when a delegation of the Senate came to inform him, he had been named dictator. Before he received them he asked his wife to bring him his toga. (Livy III:26) Over time Republican mores relaxed and citizens went about day-to-day life wearing tunics and only donning togas for civic occasions.
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The toga was the ubiquitous and universal clothing of the Roman citizen in public. While a Roman citizen would frequently dispense with his stuffy and uncomfortable toga in private or when among friends in a non-official environment, one was expected without exception to be wearing a toga while conducting public business. The primary form of public business was magisterial duties--governors served in promagisterial functions, so during legal or other public duties they would be wearing a toga. Indeed, the toga was associated with magisterial power more than anything else, being derived from an Etruscan garment that appears to have indicated official rank from some very early date
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Can a single neutron undergo double beta decay and change into a Delta++ particle?
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This decay is forbidden because it violates energy conservation: the D baryons is about 25% more massive than the neutron. Possibly for other reasons, but that's the main one.
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The positron has the exact same mass as the electron. A free proton can’t decay into a neutron, because it would violate conservation laws. Beta^(+) decay is only possible for **nuclei** with A > 1. And in this case it’s not any one individual proton decaying, it’s the nucleus as a whole. Because of the nuclear binding forces within nuclei, it can be energetically favorable for the process to occur, even if a free proton has less mass than a free neutron.
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How does letting a cut/wound open to air slow down the healing process?
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> How does letting a cut/wound open to air slow down the healing process? Exposure to air isn't really the issue. Exposure to infection is a big issue though, as well as protecting it from being injured again in its delicate state. Wound coverings can also be helpful in holding a wound together so the flesh can heal depending on the kind of wound.
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There are several variables at play. Certain types of tissue heal faster. Ever bite your tongue and note how quickly it heals? Another big factor is simple circulation. More blood flow to the injured area means it heals quicker. There are also mechanical issues at hand. If the cut is in an area that moves, your movement may cause it to take longer to heal as it reopens.
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How does helium run out
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Go back to where? Helium is lighter than air, so it goes up. You can't collect it when it's up in the air.
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Helium that we produce comes mostly from the decomposition of Uranium-238 in the earth's crust. It accumulates in natural gas deposits and is extracted from the natural gas by freezing out everything else. All the helium that leaks into the atmosphere eventually escapes into space, since it is too light to be held by the Earth's gravity.
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How do different eyesight problems differ to each other? i.e. long sighted, short sighted, astigmatism
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To see, light has to hit our eye, and then reflect back onto the retina. This image is then sent to our brain and then comprehended. If you are short-sighted, the eyeball is either curved wrong, or too long, and instead of hitting the retina directly, the light goes in front of the retina, causing you to not be able to see things far away. Long-sighted is the opposite, with a too-short eyeball causing light to go behind the retina. This means you can focus on things far away, but not too close. Astigmatism is something else entirely. It just means that your cornea or lens ( the visible,curved, clear part of your eye) isn't smooth. This means the light rays again aren't refracted properly. You can have astimgatism and be near-sighted ( I am!) it's just a double whammy of not refracting the light properly.
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The brain can easily correct things for which it has redundant information; for example, blood vessels can be filtered out because they aren't in the same place in both eyes. There is no redundant information for your nearsightedness/astigmatism. (My guess is that if you wore only one lens in your glasses, your brain would adapt to use your corrected eye preferentially over the uncorrected eye.)
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What happens within an ear that causes a loud noise to damage hearing?
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Within the inner ear there is a structure called the Cochlea. It's a spiral-shaped structure that's filled with fluid and lined with these long, hair like proteins called "cilia." When sound vibrations are transferred from the bones of your ear through the fluid, it causes these cilia to vibrate as well, which is transferred into a nerve impulse and sent to your brain to interpret. Damage can be caused when extremely intense vibrations through the fluid damage the cilia and make them either less sensitive to any vibrations after that, or will cause damage to the systems that create nerve pulses from sound, causing you to hear sounds that aren't actually there.
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The inside of your inner ear is filled with tiny hairs, each tuned to a specific frequency. These hairs resonating are what pass audio into your nerves and then brain. Loud noises can damage this system, and so when you're exposed to extremely loud sounds or simply loud environments for sustained periods, hairs will start to lie down to protect you. Usually they stand back up after some recovery time, but after repeated exposure they will begin to die and you'll lose sets of frequencies forever. This is a cause of tinitus, where you lose frequencies and your brain fills in the gap, assuming those frequencies are there permanently. Source: studied audio production for my degree. I am not a doctor!
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What and where is the oldest (still in circulation) usable currency?
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This is a bit of a difficult question to answer due to the way money has evolved over time. The British like to claim that the pound is the oldest currency in the world still in use since the penny was introduced back in the pre-Saxon days, but the Bank of England itself only came into being in the late 17th century, and the modern pound was really created on Decimal Day in the 70s. And a good thing, too. Those pre-decimal pennies are LETHAL. The Russian rouble is the oldest decimal currency still in use (although it has, of course, gone through a few governments,) as it was standardized and decimalized by Peter the Great in 1704. If you want to include non-traditional currencies, cowry shells win hands down. They still serve as currency in some regions of the pacific and may possibly be a legal medium of exchange in Papua New Guinea. I've seen conflicting reports on the matter.
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I want to go out on a limb here and say the US Dollar. The Coinage Act of 1965 establishes that all US currency and coins ever produced by the US are legal tender. So you could take a penny minted in 1789 and if you were stupid enough, still spend it for a cent. _URL_0_ Every other nation I have looked at seem to have changed their monetary systems within the last 150 or earlier years in some form or another, and thus invalidated many issuances of currency.
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Why we feel the need to walk and make hand gestures while talking on the phone
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As for the hand gestures and such, nonverbal communication is a very important part of how we communicate, it's not something people just add for flair. People do it even if the other person cannot see them because it helps you express your emotions, or at least feel like you are.
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When talking to someone on the phone you are incapable of picking up the visual cues you would receive from talking face to face, so your brain tries to compensate for this lack of visual stimulation by pacing or fidgeting with an object. It helps some people better comprehend the person on the other end of the phone. It's more involved than this, but this is the basic premise. EDIT: auto correct is a fickle mistress
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What Exactly Does Declaring Bankruptcy Do? And Can The Effects Ever Be "Undone"?
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if you declare bankruptcy ... you will also have to go through a phase called "liquidation of assets" when your assets are sold/auctioned off and the proceedings are use to pay off part of the debt, in the US, this goes for both persons or companies sorry I'm too lazy to explain it all. I hope others will chime in
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If you *declare,* nothing. But if you go through the entire bankruptcy process (without trying to cheat your creditors or hide money), your credit card company takes a loss on whatever you can't pay (which is usually all or almost all that you owe). An important distinction: Credit card debt is "unsecured" debt - there's no collateral for it. For debt that is "secured" by collateral, like an auto loan or even a mortgage, your creditors can generally foreclose on/repossess the collateral to satisfy their debt, in whole or in part.
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Why do people become "noseblind" to smells they live with?
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To give a slightly more complicated answer than /u/snails-exe, when the same nerve cells become stimulated over and over again they become hyperpolarized. Your nerve cells work by receiving a stimulus, which if strong enough activates channels in the cell to allow in positively charged atoms (ions). The cell is naturally negative, so the ions rush in, creating a positive charge that triggers channels further down the cell, sending a charged impulse until an action by the cell is triggered. If the cell is continually triggered, this might cause the cell to allow negatively charged ions to flow in. This makes it harder to send the positively charged impulse. It requires a greater stimulus. Therefore your brain becomes unaware of the smells because the nerve impulses from your nose to your brain are no longer being sent.
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Like you're five: Your nose has little traffic lights in them. These traffic lights send signals to your brain to tell your brain if the smell is good or bad. When your nose finds new smells the traffic lights turn green, and new smells start to move in. After smelling a smell for awhile your noses traffic lights start to turn yellow to slow down the strength of a smell, then turn red to where you don't really smell it anymore. Of course you still smell the smell your smelling but nowhere as strong as when the traffic lights where green. When you nose finds a new smell the traffic lights turn to green and the smells start coming whether good or bad. Think of people who work with raw sewage or road kill. They smell really stinky stuff constantly but after awhile those traffic lights turn yellow then to red and the stinky stuff no longer really smells stinky and doesn't bother them anymore. :)
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How did they define physical beauty in the Dark Ages and then the Renaissance? Was there a big difference?
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You might want to define your question more specifically and ask it in some other sub-reddits also, such as those related to philosophy and art. For example, do you want to know more about aesthetics as a philosophical question, or more about standards of human physical attractiveness? Regarding the early middle ages, you might begin with Christian aesthetics (example: _URL_1_, or search for something like "medieval christian aesthetics"). Sorry I can't help more, but hope that makes things a little easier.
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They thought the Human body was divine and beautiful. The renaissance just copied them. There are plenty of clothed statues as well.
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What does it mean to "mix" music?
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Generally the parts of a song...drums, guitars, vocals for example, are recorded separately, so that each part can be manipulated individually to create the desired final product. Mixing is the process of adjusting the sound of each track; volume, should it be left, right or centered (panning), whether to add effects like reverb, anything else to create one finished master track.
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When you record an album, generally you record each instrument onto separate audio tracks that play back together; it doesn't matter if you're doing it digitally or on an old analog console, or if you're recording a band live via multitracking or just overdubbing... it's all the same idea. When you're "mixing," you're changing those separate audio tracks in relation to each other. That could be like "turning the guitar up" but also includes effects applied to individual tracks, such as pan, reverbs, eqs, etc. Once it's mixed, all those tracks are condensed to one single "master" track. When you're MASTERING a recording you're putting finishing touches on it by effecting the master track only, as opposed to the instrument tracks which can't be individually altered after mixing (once it's condensed). *words
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Why do anesthiologists ask the patient to answer questions as they are falling asleep?
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Its so they can judge how deeply you are out, and monitor your mental state. It's more information for them to use in deciding how much anesthetic to give you.
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Mammals and birds have REM sleep, and other stages of sleep that humans also experience. We just can't ask them about their objective experience of REM sleep or ask what they dream because, well, we can't really talk Cat or Parrot or Dolphin.
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Cyclohexane boiling and freezing simultaneously
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The cyclohexane is very near its triple point. This means that the pressure and temperature are just right for the substance to be a solid, a liquid, and a gas at the same time. As the temperature and pressureslightly shifts, the cyclohexane changes states.
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That is because usually the pressure isn't exactly right for it to be able to boil and freeze at the same time. [As you can see](_URL_0_), there is only one specific pressure where the boiling and freezing would happen at the same time. At other pressures, it would either go directly from solid to gas (sublimation) or it has different melting and boiling points (where it becomes liquid first).
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What are Wargames/Military simulations and how are they run?
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wargames are practice exercises that the military does internally or with other countries. currently the most famous wargame involves south korea and the US. in this case, US plays the offense and south korea plays the defense. it's also common for them to take turns between offense and defense. the nature of the game could be different things; hide and seek, capture the flag, timed responses. the purpose is essentially to test the countries (south korea, in this case) defenses, reaction times, and other metrics. the US is also known to conduct wargames with friends (UK, israel, france). according to familiar sources, the only way to 'win' at 'global thermonuclear war' is to not play at all.
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What exactly is a war game and how reliable are they for determining how a battle would have unfolded? How can you even say that this particular war game unfolded even remotely close to how a real war would have?
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Why do comets have tails?
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Ice breaks off in small pieces, and these pieces are "blown" away from the sun by the solar wind. Therefore, a comet approaching the sun has a tail trailing behind it, but as the comet moves away from the sun, the tail seems to be ahead of it. This makes sense, because the solar wind is always moving away from the sun.
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The sun. The tail of a comet doesn't indicate where it is going but rather where it is relative to the sun Edit: _URL_0_
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Black people in ancient Rome
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Hi, not to discourage further answers, but there's [a section in our Frequently Asked Questions page](_URL_0_) which deal with the way that black people were treated in Rome and the differences between the current concepts of racism and ancient forms of xenophobia.
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This answer cannot be answered propperly since the Romans did not have the same concept of race as we do. The criteria that are used in our times to call a person black depend very strongly on colonialist concepts developed in the period from the 16th to 19th century. As a result of this, even if there were dark-skinned Roman emperors we would not be able to tell if they were actually black in a modern contest or, for example, of Egyptian origin with a darker-than-average tint.
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What is the purpose of having academically gifted children attend university at an early age?
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Skipping grades and attending college courses can be one of the simplest ways for gifted children to learn material that matches their abilities. However, it's not without problems - mostly the social ones which you mention (_URL_0_). Probably having them attend special classes or schools with other gifted children their age would be better, but it's harder to do that. As to the long term benefits, it's hard to say for sure, although in child prodigies grow up to be relatively normal adults.
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It gives children an opportunity to take something they care about and share it with others by showing them and telling them. It also gives other students an opportunity to listen and hear about other students interests. So basically... learning social interactions.
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How to understand Mathematics if i'm scared of it.
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The math you learn for a degree in computer science or mathematics is very different from the math you learn in your primary and secondary schools. It's more about finding and describing patterns than it is about finding the right answer (after all, once you know how to find the answer, you can have a computer do it for you). So relax and take a deep breath. It doesn't matter if you didn't do too well in calculus because you get a chance to start over. The [graphs](_URL_1_) you look at are networks of connected things, not drawings describing a curve. You'll spend time talking about [formal logic](_URL_0_), not trying to solve an equation.
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One of the biggest challenges in math is it is very incremental. You can probably pass a test on World War II without knowing anything about World War I, but in math, if you don't have a solid foundation, everything built on it crumbles. And by solid, I don't mean remembered just enough to pass a final. I mean true understanding. If you don't have a deep understanding of arithmetic, algebra is going to be very hard. Solving for x gets really hard if you can't remember that subtracting a negative is the same as adding. Similarly, you need to know algebra cold if before you can take a shot at calculus. I once had a math tech tell me that calculus was easy, it is the algebra behind calculus that was hard. And algebra is easy, it is the arithmetic behind algebra that is hard. If you are struggling with all three at once, you are going to have a bad time.
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How can "eyewitnesses" routinely lie in a trial and not be punished?
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Eyewitness reports are notoriously unreliable, but this is not necessarily because the witnesses are lying, per se. Humans just aren't as good at remembering details of specific events as they think they are. So the witness testimony might not conform to the actual events, but the witness is still doing his best to recall the event as best he can. Unfortunately, the gaps left by memory failure are usually filled by prejudice and suggestion, which makes eyewitness testimony a dangerous thing in courts and all but useless in scientific investigation.
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Eye witnesses wouldn't remember anything accurately, evidence could degrade/be contaminated, and why would someone wait 40 years to report a crime?
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What powers the space probe Voyager I?
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A radioisotope thermoelectric generator, RTG. It has plutonium-238 oxide spheres which give off heat, which is converted to power by the Seebeck effect. The probes will continue moving pretty much forever: there is nothing in space there to stop them, unless they run into something, which is astronomically-unlikely. The power for the instruments, however, will probably run out in the 2020s. The cameras have already powered down, and there are only a few instruments left running. Edit: Wikipedia has a table with the instruments listed, actually. _URL_0_
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This is essentially what solar power is. If you mean radioactivity specifically, that is how some spacecraft are powered.
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Why did art decline in the Middle Ages?
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There is no reason to suppose that realism is the measure of quality in art. Just as we don't suppose that art declined from the mid-19th century when the avant-garde pretty systematically turned away from realism. Likewise there is no reason at face to suppose that a turn away from realism in the Middle Ages represents artistic decline. Some recent posts have covered this very nicely. In particular /u/Guckfuchs's excellent [discussion](_URL_0_) on the turn to abstraction in art from late antiquity, as well as [their discussion](_URL_2_) of late Roman imperial portraiture. (I have given a few further examples of realism in medieval sculpture [here](_URL_1_).)
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hi! you may find something interesting in the FAQ * [Why wasn't ancient art realistic?](_URL_1_) particularly this similar question * [Why do people in medieval art look bored or indifferent when being killed? (cross-post from /r/Art)](_URL_0_) if you have followup questions on locked posts, ask them here & include the user's username so they'll be auto-notified
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Why are some sovereign nations not recognized?
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Because other countries (usually big, powerful countries) want to claim their land. For example, Taiwan is not recognized by the U.N. because China claims Taiwan as its own. Kosovo is not recognized because Serbia claims its land. While Serbia is not a very powerful country, Russia, its ally, is. And since Russia can veto decisions made by the U.N, Kosovo cannot join. Note: It could be argued that Taiwan and Kosovo, along with other disputed countries, do not have a legal right to the land, but whether or not they have a legal right to the land does not change whether they are countries.
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For the same reason that the United States competes as a country and you don't see people from New York competing against those from Florida- *sovereignty*. In the United States, each state is, on some level, its own country- it makes its own laws, it taxes its citizens, and so on. However, the Federal government is what's known as *sovereign*- above the authority of the individual states, and supreme in its rule. Similarly, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are each their own countries. However, none of them are *sovereign*- individually, they don't have the final say. Instead, they are a part of the *sovereign* nation called the United Kingdom, which includes all four.
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How do you cast a steel melting pot used as a melting pot for steel?
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My last comment got kicked back to me. I have no idea why, it's a legitimate answer. When a material like this is used for melting other items, it's usually lined with another material, like a ceramic, a brick, etc. Source: I used to work for a steel mill.
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The forge and crucible are made with materials that have way higher melting points than the material to be melted.
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How is 2 not infinitely bigger than 1, if 1 is infinitely bigger than 0?
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You can fit infinite nothings into 1 because no matter how much nothing you add you won't ever have something. But, once you add two 1's together you suddenly have 2.
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There are infinitely many numbers between 0 and 1, but the size of this interval is only 1. Somewhat similarly the universe at the beginning was infinitely dense but compressed down to a singularity. If something is infinitely dense you can expand it out to an infinite size.
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Commercials for live events?
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Many of these events are recurring or there are similar events. So for example if it going to be a sports event, they might use last-years footage to spice up that commercial. If it going to be something new, the commercials usually feature participants or previously taken footage of participants with some generic background content such as applauding masses, cheering fans, generic doode in winner pose (these clips are like the stockphotos of tv commercials). Or they show the actual location, like the concert hall, the stadium, or whatnot.
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Why specify live shows? If you every watched Dan Schneider's shows on Nickelodeon, they go one step further and even create fake parody products, like a Pear phone. When you mention a company, that's advertising, if you weren't paid, that's free advertising. Two issues with this, companies in the future will pay less for product placement because they see that you do it for free, the second is that that company can sue you if you portrayed them negatively.
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How does a wildfire cross a river/body of water? (In regards to massive fire in Alberta)
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Sparks and coals from the fire are drawn up in the heated up draft of the fire and fall in the other side of the river. A constant shower of sparks eventually catches the other side on fire.
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When a home is on fire there are usually large sources of water nearby, like a fire hydrant, or the ability to call for tanker trucks for additional water. Wildfires are not that way, remote often far from roads or too difficult to being large tanker trucks. So wild fires are rarely fought with water except in certain situations. With a wild fire you stop the fire by removing the fuel. Use workers with hand tools, bull dozers and other heavy equipment to clear the grass brush and trees. Once you've created a fire break, and cleared as much brush as possible, a second back fire that's hopefully burning into the wind and not with the wind is set. By burning into the wind it's a smaller slower fire that burns all the fuel that the uncontrollable wildfire would want. So when the wild fire gets there all the fuel is already burnt and the main fire dies out.
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When the US went to build the Panama Canal, why didn't the Railroad Unions try to block it?
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It also wasn't just a civilian project. The US Navy lobbied strongly for it as well so they could operate on both coasts without repeating the voyage of the [Oregon](_URL_0_). You cannot put a large ship on a train. During the SpanAm war she took 66 days to cover the 14000 miles to go around the tip of South America. It was a very punishing voyage closely followed by the public. [Heres some more information.](_URL_1_)
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Ships that navigated that waterway had extremely tall masts and it was feared that a bridge would be a hazard to them. A tunnel avoided that problem, and today such masts aren't an issue.
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Is there a theoretical limit to the melting point of a material?
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Certainly. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a material. Which also means that temperature is a measure of the average available energy for reactions, in the form of molecular kinetic energy. Depending on the structure of a molecule it may be possible that it would take less energy to cause it to break down than it would take to bring it to a hypothetical melting point. There are actually lots of materials like this, especially depending on the ambient environment. For example, cellulose doesn't really melt, it just burns when you get it hot enough. At a more extreme end, there are atomic limits to the melting point of materials. At certain temperatures you gain enough free energy to begin ionizing molecules and atoms, and at that point solid versus liquid becomes somewhat moot. This corresponds to around 46000 Kelvin at the low end.
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Tungsten is the element with the highest melting point -- more information here: _URL_0_
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What's happening in North Korean government following the death of their leader, and how this impacts on South Korea + other affected countries.
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Short Answer: Nothing. The transition seems to have gone smoothly. North Korea is still just a dictatorial, backwards, and dear leader worshiping as ever.
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Imagine you are playing a game called "Crazy Dictator" on your Xbox, and the person playing the game dies for some reason. Someone else then picks up the controller and continues where the previous player left off. Kim Jong-Il is dead, but the game will continue. But North Korea has a mythology that surrounds their "dear leader" much like a comic book, wrestler, etc. has their own made-up backstory. Thus, they will have to let their crazy mythology "absorb" Il's death.
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Do cravings for specific kinds of food mean anything about the nutrients my body needs?
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I think what you're getting at is akin to, does someone with an iron deficiency crave iron-rich foods (for example). As some of the others stated, deficiencies sometimes correlate with cravings, but the foods craved don't necessarily have anything to do with the deficiency. Your satiety hormones don't know that spinach is high in calcium, so they can't be that specific in cravings.
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Humans evolved to crave fats, salt, sugar... this was important to consume for survival 1000's of years ago when food was harder to come by, humans had to hunt and gather their food, there were times of shortages, etc. Now that we have plentiful access to food, the basic cravings remain but the reason for their being is no longer relevant and we tend to overindulge in those things because we can.
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I'm always wondered how did people from 100s of 1,000s of years ago dealt with forest fires
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In medieval times woods and forests were exploited in many ways (gathering dead wood for cooking, gathering berries, mushrooms, roots, pigs grazing, hunting/poaching, charcoal making, wood for houses and ships etc.) and some were private property of nobles and thus guarded. People were more aware of dangers of fires and didn' t permanently dwell in woods or forests. But, if a forest caught fire and threatened their homes they could only flee. Consider also that Europe was not so densely inhabitated as it is today. Sorry for my english, not mother tongue, but historian.
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Nice question. Perhaps it is evolutionary since we have been using fires for 300,000 years.
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Why do so many people enjoy setting things on fire?
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Fire is one of the things that makes humans thrive -- the ability to cook things hugely increases our food supply, and fire is also useful for heat, for defense, and even for making tools. It appears that humans have evolved an instinctive attraction to fire, just as we have for beaches and for high views and for fatty foods. All of these things helped our ancestors to stay alive, so we are here to talk about it.
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Fire is a powerful tool, and is/was one of mans most prized inventions. The dancing of the flames on the wood can be quite serene. The crackling creates a background filter to help you focus. (username kind of relevant)
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Do people who volunteer for studies bias results towards "goodie-goodie" opinions/attributes, because people who don't like volunteering are underrepresented? Is this a recognized bias?
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Students don't really "volunteer" in the traditional sense, they get up paid to be part of it. The biggest issue is most of the participants are going to be from a similar group. Likely to have been raised in the country and state of the school, late teens or early 20's, above average intelligence and wealth etc...
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Volunteers are unreliable. Sometimes they show up, sometimes they don't. Sometimes they promise to do something and they don't. Sometimes they do show up to help and are completely useless or unqualified for what they have signed up for. Money doesn't disappoint. The $100 they get from you is absolutely as good as the $100 they get from the doctor or architect. You can depend on money. Not so much with people.
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Why is it easier to take a nap in the day than sleep at night?
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You only choose to take a nap during the day if you're already tired. But you always go to bed at night, even when you aren't tired.
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Maybe it's because it's warmer during the day what with all the sunlight. Also, naps are usually taken after a hot meal, which makes you hotter.
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Why do some people sneeze multiple times in a row while others only sneeze once?
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If you sneeze multiple times, it's because your first sneeze(s) really just didn't do the job. The purpose of the sneeze is to get the allergen/irritant out of your nose, so if your first sneeze isn't forceful enough to expel it, you'll need another (and for some, another, and another, and another...) So really it just boils down to how powerful of a sneezer you are
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You sneeze usually because something is irritating your nose or nasal cavity. The sneeze is activated by your nerves signalling your brain that you need to sneeze. You throat and eyes are told to close shut briefly. The muscles in your chest contract very quickly and forcefully, and your throat also relaxes. Because of how fast and forceful everything is happening, you sneeze at about 100 mph People who sneeze once have stronger contractions, and thus, send more air, mucus, saliva, and etc. out at once. The average person has enough force in their sneeze to only need it twice. But there are some people who sneeze 7 to 15 times in a row. They have a weaker nervous response, less vigorous contraction, and so to get rid of the irritation they need to sneeze many more times. TLDR: People who sneeze a lot have puny ass sneezes
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All the depictions of Pangea that I've seen show one landmass on one side of the globe. What if anything is on the other side? Or, did the landmass span around the globe and the representation is just for simplicity of illustration?
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It's important to remember that Pangea was not the first supercontinent. The landmasses of Earth drift and clump on a fairly random cyclical basis. If you set a bunch of objects afloat on the surface of a sphere, it's inevitable that they will occasionally form a big clump before breaking up and moving on again. Before Pangea, other 'clumps' were Vaalbara, Ur, Kenorland, Arctica, Atlantica, Nuna, Rodinia, Pannotia, Gondwana and Laurasia, and probably some others we don't know about. If you take a look at a globe (or Google Earth) today you will notice that most of the landmass is still on one side with the Pacific covering most of the other side. The pacific is what's left of the much larger ocean, [Panthalassa](_URL_0_) that surrounded Pangea.
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What i don't get about Pangea is that if the continents were once attached to each other that would mean that the seafloor between them would be geologically younger is that correct? And since the earth is a sphere then one side of it would all be ocean? Yeah?
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why certain surgeries require months of recovery time
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Well, it really depends on the part of the body being operated on. Different types of cells in different areas of the body replicate and replace at different rates. A neuron, for example, can take as long as 7 years to replace itself (which is why brain damage is such a nasty injury). Shoulder muscles can take months to repair themselves. Surgeries are great. They can help speed up the process of repair, and correct for improper repair (such as in the case of broken bones), but they can't actually do the real repairing themselves. They just set all the pieces in place and help the body along in the repair process.
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Because then every fracture would lead to... death? Also, a bone doesn't have to heal perfectly to serve it's purpose. And besides, even without setting the bone back into place, most animals heal fractures much better and faster than humans. You ever seen a cat break its foot? It will be back up and running on its own in 3-4 weeks.
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In the USA, why should I vote in a presidential election if the electoral college chooses the victor?
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Because your vote directs the electoral college. They vote for whom you vote.
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The electoral college members from each state are chosen by the party that gets the votes. While there is no law forcing the electors to vote for their party's candidate, the party tends to select loyal members to ensure it will happen anyway.
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Advantages of Driverless Cars?
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The big advantage? They don't have drivers. People are stupid, careless & reckless behind the wheel. If you get rid of people, the roads would arguably be much safer. I'd rather risk a one in a million software glitch than some 16 year old on his cell phone arguing with his girlfriend.
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More efficient driving. Not more people riding their brakes, no more reckless driving (insane weaving), no more driving way under the speed limit (I drive on a 13-mile 1-lane road almost everyday, so I really hate this), etc.
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Is there any particular reason beer bottles are brown? Or clear? Or green? Or is it purely aesthetic?
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Sunlight causes some beer to get "skunky". Amber and green bottles help protect the beer from light and allow it to be stored longer.
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Dark glass is used to prevent light from affecting the beverage. I don't know of any real reason why brown glass is used for most beers, and green for most wines - and there are many exceptions.
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Why aren't white Americans called European-Americans?
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Because we know which tribal groups we came from in Europe and use the names of those groups when giving ethnic identifiers. Irish-American, German-American, Russian-American, Italian-American, etc are all common. African-American was chosen by the black populace during the civil rights era because they do not know the specific tribes they are from. That information and history was lost during the process of slavery. So they chose a name that was as close as they could get at the time in determining their ethnic roots to gain equal footing in ethnic identity to their white counterparts.
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> I have a second question. Is African-American an ethnicity term? If a black person from another country was visiting America would they be referred to as African-American by the people there? There is a story (possibly apocryphal) about a 1980's British athlete, Kriss Akabusi being interviewed after a race by an American interviewer who asked him: “So, Kriss, what does this mean to you as an African-American?” “I’m not American, I’m British” “Yes, but as a British African-American …” “I’m not African. I’m not American. I’m British.”
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how do "99 cents only" stores cut almost all their items to 99 cents?
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They sell things that cost them less than 99 cents. Enough less than 99 cents that they can still make profit after expenses.
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Two reasons. 1) people don't really pay attention to the cents so if the dollar is lower the price looks significantly lower. 2) cents are used as code in store so x.99=full price, x.98=on sale, x.95 = clearance.
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Why does the tip of the penis float to the surface when you're on the tub?
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Because the penis is not made of muscle but basicly tissue waiting to be filled with blood,it's rather light,and therefore buoyant. An object does not need to have oxygen inside it to float. It just needs to be lighter than water.
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Probably because the skin on the tip of your dick is stuck together.
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What historically made the Middle East so chaotic and unstable?
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The Middle East has only been particularly unstable for the past one hundred years. It was part of the Ottoman Empire, which joined WWI on the side of Germany. When they lost, the allied powers dismantled the Ottoman Empire and divided it into countries that weren't based on cultural lines in the area, but rather on the European countries trying to get their fair share of territory. This meant when the countries became independent, most had minority populations that weren't being represented well by their government, but had a neighboring country whose majority was that group. This is a recipe for tension and hostility.
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1. The era of colonialism fucked the Middle East all up. After the Ottoman Empire collapsed the Euros went in and carved up the territory with little regard for where anyone actually lived. 2. Oil got discovered. Weak nations with precious resources *always* get fucked over when stronger nations start waiding in with armies, spies, and bribes to get that sweet stuff. 3. The entire Cold War. The US and USSR spent 50 years purposely fucking with each other's allies, propping up dictators, and launching coups just to spite each other. 4. This has lead to a situation in the region where governments are weak, people are poor, and arms and funding are hyper-abundant. Not a recipe for stability.
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How is AI 'intelligent' when it is just a bunch of if-then-else algorithms? How does AI 'think' ?
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We haven't made a true AI yet. So we don't know exactly how it would work. But the same could be said about our intelligence, it too is also just electrical signals in our brains. Why would that be fundamentally different than electrical signals in a computer?
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> Why are AI's so difficult to create? Because we currently don't fully understand the nature of consciousness or self-awareness. It's hard to replicate what we don't understand. > Also - has an AI ever asked us a question in order to gain information it needs to solve a problem? No, because we've never created a true AI. All we have are some complex computer programs that kinda-sorta emulate AI in a very clumsy way.
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Heat Sinks and Fans on PC Graphics Cards
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Basically, because the way the face plates and the circuit boards line up, the card only has space for the heat sink/fan assembly on the bottom side of the card. In old horizontal desktop cases, this wasn't an issue, and the need for heat sinks/fans in gfx cards is pretty damn recent in general.
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Correct, in the absence of air radiative heat loss rules. Unfortunately, there wouldn't be enough of it to keep the PC from overheating.
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Why do all (or most) languages capitalize the first letter of a sentence?
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It's a feature particular to languages that use the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets (and a couple of related alphabets). In particular, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, the Indian and Southeast Asian scripts, and Arabic (and Hebrew) do not capitalize. Having tried to learn a language (Bengali) that does not use capitals, I can attest to their use. If you're starting out, how do you tell a name from another noun? Are you talking about chandra (the moon) or Chandra (the common surname)? There are so many cases in every language where common and proper nouns overlap, and having capitalization is very helpful. I'm not too sure why sentences begin with capitals, but it certainly makes English easier to read.
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According to [_URL_0_](http://www._URL_0_/e/whycapitali/) it used to be lowercase. Then, people started writing it a little bigger likely because it looked funny all on its own. Eventually, people started to capitalize it.
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Why can cats fall from great heights and end up unscathed?
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Cats have a (sometimes) non fatal terminal velocity (the highest speed they can reach by falling) and as a result they can survive high falls. To help explain, if you dropped an ant from an aeroplane, it would probably land on the ground unharmed and continue with its business, cats spread out their arms while falling to decrease their terminal velocity (think of a parachute slowing you down while you fall)
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Cats don't always land on their feet. They need a certain amount of distance for them to realise they are falling/adjust themselves accordingly, and land on their feet. One of my ex' had a cat... she lived on the second story of the building and would always let her cat chill on the balcony. That cat did not land on its' feet. Also, don't let your cat chill on your balcony.
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Why do we ask for autographs when we meet famous people?
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To remember the encounter and to prove to people that we really met them. And to an extent, because the autograph might be worth something one day.
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Basically, before photographs were common, people could not have proof to show that they met someone famous. So, people began to use the signatures of these people to prove it, because only they could sign their autograph.
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If I was to dig a hole to the opposite side of the earth and fell in, would I fall right through the earth to the other side, or once I reached the center, would I just float in the middle due to a neutral gravitational point??
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Ignoring heat and other factors and talking only about gravity: You would fall increasingly fast until you got to the center, at which point you would be moving so fast you would fly right past it and start your way out the other side. Now because you have passed the center gravity would be slowing you down, you would ultimately pop out the other side just as your speed canceled out. (Assuming the holes are the same distance from the center)
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So there are a few things you need to add to the hypothetical. If you are assuming there is atmosphere in this hole, you're going to reach terminal velocity pretty quickly. So you're going to fall 6,371 km, but well before you get to the center of gravity, you will reach 195 km/h, the average human terminal velocity. Once you pass the center, you will pass the center at that speed which would be like jumping straight up (with no propulsion) at 195 km/h, 53 m/s. So about 3 seconds after you pass the center, you'll be pulled back to the center. By this time, you won't have enough time to reach terminal velocity again, you'll quickly bounce back and forth until you sit still at the center of gravity.
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Can you know the age of a single atom?
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Nope. Atoms are indistinguishable from one another. Two C-13 atoms look the exact same. Even assuming you know the decay constant exactly, it only means you have a knowledge of the likelihood of decay. Assume you have a single U-238 atom. It has a half life of 4.5 billion years. How would you go about measuring its age? All we know is that a sample will have half of the atoms decay within 4.5 billion years on average. With very small samples dominated by Poisson statistics, who knows. Maybe all will decay before 4.5 billion years, or maybe none will. You cannot tell the age of a single atom.
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Our constituent atoms are billions of years old, their arrangement into a human is not. So I guess it depends in how you look at it.
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How and when does a newborn begin to breath air?
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Breathing is only a PART of a fascinating process that occurs at birth. Consider that an infant's circulatory system has to adapt to oxygenating it's blood from one source (the placenta) to a completely different source (the lungs). Structures in the newborn's heart actually seal up at the time of birth in order to appropriately reroute the flow of unoxygenated blood to the new oxygen source. The reason that a labor and delivery team are so preoccupied with those first breaths and initials cries of the baby is that they're indications that this whole series of processes are occurring appropriately. [Cute Video Explanation](_URL_0_) [More Detailed Video Explanation](_URL_1_)
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A fetus doesn't breathe amniotic fluid, it gets oxygen through the umbilical cord, as in the [illustration on this page](_URL_0_). Or better yet, here is a [good lecture on what happens directly after birth](_URL_1_).
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Nowadays we hand out cups, ribbons, and coins (among other things) as trophies for winning a competition. Is there any evidence that the ancient Greeks handed out anything for winning a competition (Olympics or otherwise)? If so, what kinds of objects would they award?
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At the Olympics the winner of each event was given a palm branch to signify victory, and was draped in ribbons. At the ceremony to honour all winners they were crowned with a wreath made from an olive branch cut from Zues' sacred grove in Olympia. They also had the right to have a statue erected in Olympia. No monetary prizes were given, but often in their home towns they would receive huge benefits. Houses, free food, front row seats for the theatre and even special treatment in gyms. It would be a very easy life, despite the lack of monetary incentive.
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hi! always room for more info on this, but you can get started on this earlier post * [Why are trophies often cups?](_URL_0_) - featuring responses from /u/TheJucheisLoose and /u/ConventionalAlias if you have follow-up questions on this locked post, ask them here & page the relevant user by including their username
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What caused the growing whining sound when old propeller planes went into a nose dive?
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The sound you're thinking of isn't something you hear when every propeller plane dives. It's a iconic sound from German Ju 87's. They had fans attached to the landing gear that acted as sirens during a dive. Basically it was a tactic to make a wider area of enemies fearful of the dive bomber attack. [Full explanation](_URL_4_)
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If you are referring to that classic "WW2" divebomber sound, you might be thinking of the siren the German "Stuka" carried to cause panic and fear among those it was attacking. The siren was mounted to the landing gear spat and would be driven by a small propeller that intensified when the Stuka entered a dive.
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Why do men's testicles move around when completely motionless?
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This is due to temperature correction I believe. Sperm is produced at an optimal temp. and the scrotum can loosen and contract to bring the testes closer or further away from your body, in order to match that temperature as best as possible. - Hot day = saggy balls as they are already warm enough, and dont need your core body temp for additional heat. Cold water = contracted balls, trying to absorb dat core heat. And I guess its just shifting around all the time for this reason.
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I don't know if the testicles disappear after descending, but there are many cases of Undescended testicles. Read the below article. It says > In unique cases, cryptorchidism can develop later in life, often as late as young adulthood. _URL_0_
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How could we get energy out of a fusion reactor?
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The most promising fusion reaction is deuterium+tritium. It produces a neutron with a high energy. As neutral particle it will escape the plasma and end up in the wall. It heats the wall and some cooling liquid behind it. The hot cooling liquid is then used directly or indirectly to drive a turbine which drives a generator. The neutron is also used to produce a new tritium nucleus - that is important as there is no other supply of enough tritium for a large-scale operation. Even if there wouldn't be a neutron emitted: The plasma radiates a lot of x-rays just from its temperature, these heat the walls as well.
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Sure, you can fuse anything with anything. Although only certain fusion reactions are exothermic, and only certain exothermic fusion reactions actually release a decent amount of energy. DD and DT are ideal for power generation.
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How did the vikings move ships from land to sea / river?
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From excavations like the Weymouth mass grave, Viking longships seem to have averaged at a crew of around 50, although ships of over 100 men were not unheard of. Longships are designed to have a shallow draft, to be easily beached and refloated again to facilitate either trading or raiding, and reconstructions at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde have shown that the crew are sufficient to beach, refloat, and even carry the ship.
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hi! as /u/Historyguy81 says, "vikings" were Norse raiders. But the word "viking" is also commonly used to refer to the Norse (aka Northmen) people in general, who lived during the ["Viking Age"](_URL_6_) (10th-11th century). If you have 4.5 hours to spare, /u/isndasnu posted links to a really interesting [3-part lecture series *The Viking Mind*](_URL_7_) by archaeologist [Professor Neil Price](_URL_5_). In part 1, he provides a quick rundown on the various sources of information about the Norse. Then he goes on to tie together the archaeological record with various written sources, including their own [oral history](_URL_4_) (which was, unfortunately, not written down until approx 300 years after the events in question). edit: fixed link
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How does Reddit have thumbnails of albums that have been deleted? Or when Imgur is blocked, how can it still show them?
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Yes, reddit made the thumbnail and saved a copy, so it can still show you the thumbnail after the album is deleted or if you can't access imgur yourself. They're not big and there's no need to store them forever, so they're not going to use a problematic amount of space. Storing a copy will be much more efficient than connecting to imgur, downloading the original image, and creating the thumbnail again every time someone requests it.
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Say you want to view 1 reddit page with 10 thumbnails from imgur on it. To create the thumbnails, you need to load the images from imgur first, then resize/crop accordingly. Reddit can go to imgur every time someone accesses that 1 page. Wait for the 10 imgur links to load, do the cropping process and then show them to you. But that takes a lot of time and mostly depends on imgur and not reddit. Instead, when someone posts the links, Reddit generates its own set of 10 images *once* and then shows you those every time. If the imgur links are deleted, the reddit thumbnails still remain.
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Molten Salt Nuclear Reactors
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Well, no one has answered yet... So I'll try to explain it: To put it simply. An MSR uses salt instead of water to transfer thermal energy. However, instead of having fuel rods like in traditional nuclear reactors, the uranium fuel is mixed in with the salt. This creates an inherently stable reactor, as when the heat increases, the salt expands and pushes into cooling tubes. Even if the reactor gets too hot, it cannot go into meltdown, since the materials are already molten. Edit: Water is still used to generate steam to run turbines, it's just that salt is used to directly extract the heat energy from the uranium fuel. Hopefully someone else who knows more about MSR's will find this post. But this is the basics of what I know about them.
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Basically, in a fast neutron reactor you want high energy neutrons to sustain the nuclear chain reaction (~1 MeV). This means you don't want any neutron moderation (slowing down of neutrons), water is an excellent coolant and it IS used in nuclear reactors, but it also works as a neutron moderator. So water is actually quite useful in a slow neutron reactor, but it reduces the efficiency of a fast neutron reactor. Sodium has a high heat capacity and it doesn't moderate fast neutrons like water does, making it very useful in a fast reactor. Source: Nuclear Energy Physics in my undergrad
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With modern technology, why do pharmacists still exist as a profession?
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Pharmacists are the human check of symptoms against legit prescriptions against frequency of dispensation. Advice of drug interaction between patients and a computer system cannot assess the individual patient's needs. & #x200B; They also provide advice for all customers and potential patients for low-level non-doctor health complaints. & #x200B; Many prescriptions are also written out for non-standard dosages which need to be compounded especially by a pharmacist.
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What a pharmacist can do varies widely from state to state. In some states, a pharmacist can prescribe medications, etc. If you go to the VA, you'll find a lot of medications are managed by pharmacists. Most of the time, states have allowed pharmacists to give most vaccines because it is an important public health issue and the risk is extremely low. Most pharmacists feel they could do a lot more, but the pharmacist lobby is extremely weak and there is opposition from nurse practitioner and physician assistant lobbies, both of which are much more active. Source: am a pharmacist
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What is the white foamy stuff when you put Hydrogen Peroxide on an infection and why does it become foamy?
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There are enzymes in your blood that attack the peroxide and turn it into water and oxygen. The bubbles are what that looks like. As a sidenote, though, you should **not** put peroxide on wounds. It kills germs, but it kills everything else it touches, too, including healthy tissue. And since you have a cut you're letting the peroxide in pretty deep. It'll actually impede the healing. Same goes for alcohol, by the way. Warm water and soap are the best thing for a wound. After that, put some antibiotic lotion on it.
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The foam/bubbles that form actually have nothing to do with the color of the gel. When a bubble forms, it has an outside layer which is a thin layer of liquid, and an inside layer. The outside layer is preventing some of the light from getting through, and it is also reflecting a lot of the natural light in your bathroom. It would be similar to be standing outside a glass door on a hot summer day. From the outside, it would be bright and reflective, but if you go inside, it would be slightly dimmer since the glass is not 100% transparent. So the white foam color comes from the reflection of the natural light.
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