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Although it is not a public holiday , 15 January is marked as the day Croatia won international recognition by Croatian media and politicians . On the day 's 10th anniversary in 2002 , the Croatian National Bank minted a 25 kuna commemorative coin . In the period following the declaration of independence , the war escalated , with the sieges of Vukovar and Dubrovnik , and fighting elsewhere , until a ceasefire of 3 January 1992 led to stabilization and a significant reduction of violence . The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory for Croatia as a result of Operation Storm . Present day borders of Croatia were established when the remaining Serb @-@ held areas of Eastern Slavonia were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995 , with the process concluded in January 1998 .
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= Georgian scripts =
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The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language : Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli . Although the systems differ in appearance , all three are unicase , their letters share the same names and alphabetical order , and are written horizontally following the standard left @-@ to @-@ right direction . Of the three Georgian writing systems , Mkhedruli ( literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " script ) was the civilian royal script of the Georgian Kingdom used for charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli is therefore the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages , whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only in ceremonial religious texts and iconography .
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Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established ; however , in strictly structural terms , their alphabetical order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet , with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds , which are grouped at the end . Originally consisting of 38 letters , Georgian is presently written in a 33 @-@ letter alphabet , as five letters are currently obsolete in that language . The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies . The Mingrelian language uses 36 , 33 of which are current Georgian letters , one obsolete Georgian letter , and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan . That same obsolete letter , plus a letter borrowed from Greek ( making 35 letters total ) , are used in writing the Laz language . The fourth Kartvelian language , Svan , is not commonly written , but when it is , it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian , with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels .
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Georgian scripts hold the national status of cultural heritage in Georgia , and are currently nominated for inclusion in the UNESCO 's list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity .
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= = Preview = =
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= = Origins = =
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The origins of the Georgian script are to this date poorly known , and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation , who designed the script and the main influences on that process .
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The first version of the script attested is Asomtavruli which dates back to at least the 5th century ; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries . Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of Christianisation of a core Georgian @-@ speaking kingdom , that is , Kartli ( or Iberia in Classical sources ) . The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III ( 326 or 337 ) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430 , contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet . It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian , by monks in Georgia and Palestine . Professor Levan Chilashvili 's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions , discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi , in Georgia 's easternmost province of Kakheti , in the 1980s , to the 1st or 2nd century has not been universally accepted .
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A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli ( ca . 800 ) , assigns a much earlier , pre @-@ Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet , and names King Pharnavaz I ( 3rd century BC ) as its inventor . This account is now considered legendary , and is rejected by scholarly consensus , as no archaeological confirmation has been found . Rapp considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to rebut the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots , and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of basic social institutions . Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition , in the pre @-@ Christian use of foreign scripts ( alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet ) to write down Georgian texts .
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A point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process . According to a number of scholars and medieval Armenian sources , Mesrop Mashtots , generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet , also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets . This tradition originates in the works of Koryun , a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots , and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell , but has been criticized by scholars , both Georgian and Western , who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation . Other scholars quote Koryun 's claims without taking a stance on its validity . Many agree , however , that Armenian clerics , if not Mashtots himself , must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script .
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Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet , as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet , or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic . Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems , most notably the order and numeric value of letters . Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre @-@ Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers .
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= = Asomtavruli = =
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Asomtavruli ( Georgian : แแกแแแแแแ แฃแแ ) is the oldest Georgian script . The name Asomtavruli means " capital letters " , from aso ( แแกแ ) " letter " and mtavari ( แแแแแแ แ ) " principal / head " . It is also known as Mrgvlovani ( Georgian : แแ แแแแแแแแ ) " rounded " , from mrgvali ( แแ แแแแแ ) " round " , so named because of its round letter shapes . Despite its name , this " capital " script is unicameral , just like the modern Georgian script , Mkhedruli .
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The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el Qutt and the Bolnisi inscriptions .
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From the 9th century , Nuskhuri script starting becoming dominant , and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced . However , epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script . Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative . In the majority of 9th @-@ century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script , Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters . Although , some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century .
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= = = Form of Asomtavruli letters = = =
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In early Asomtavruli , the letters are of equal height . Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli , like that of Greek , was initially boustrophedon , though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right .
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In most Asomtavruli letters , straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles . The only letter with acute angles is แฟ ( แฏ jani ) . There have been various attempts to explain this exception . Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ , composed of the แจ ( แ ini ) and แต ( แฅ kani ) . According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze , the cross @-@ like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet , and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw ( ) , Greek chi ( ฮง ) , and Latin X , though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician , Greek , or Latin .
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Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script , 1200 โ 1210 AD .
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From the 7th century , the forms of some letters began to change . The equal height of the letters was abandoned , with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders .
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Note : Some fonts show " capitalized " ( tall ) variants of Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli letters rather than Asomtavruli .
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= = = Asomtavruli illumination = = =
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In Nuskhuri manuscripts , Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals . The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text . In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts , Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink . Later , from the 10th century , the letters were illuminated . The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text . For example , in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era , when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia , capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals .
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Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters , แ ( m ) , แ ( n ) and แ ( t ) , 12 โ 13th century .
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From the 11th @-@ century " limb @-@ flowery " , " limb @-@ arrowy " and " limb @-@ spotty " decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed . The first two are found in 11th- and 12th @-@ century monuments , whereas the third one is used until the 18th century .
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Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself .
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Asomtavruli letter แ ( doni ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds .
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The " Curly " decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other , or the smaller letters are written inside other letters . It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books , although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli " Curly " form only .
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The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli " Curly " decorative form .
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= = = Handwriting of Asomtavruli = = =
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The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter :
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= = Nuskhuri = =
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Nuskhuri ( Georgian : แแฃแกแฎแฃแ แ ) is the second Georgian script . The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( แแฃแกแฎแ ) , meaning " inventory " or " schedule " . Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts . The combination is called Khutsuri ( Georgian : แฎแฃแชแฃแ แ , " clerical " , from khutsesi ( แฎแฃแชแแกแ " cleric " ) , and it was principally used in hagiography .
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Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli . The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD . The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD . Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century .
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= = = Form of Nuskhuri letters = = =
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Nuskhuri letters vary in height , with ascenders and descenders , and are slanted to the right . Letters have an angular shape , with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli . This enabled faster writing of manuscripts .
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โ โ Asomtavruli letters แ ( oni ) and แณ ( vie ) . A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri , แฃ uni .
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Note : Without proper font support , you may see question marks , boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters .
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= = = Handwriting of Nuskhuri = = =
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The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter :
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= = Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today = =
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Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals , and exterior design , especially in stone engravings . Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences , as in the Latin script , but it didn 't catch on . Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli . Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts .
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= = Mkhedruli = =
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Mkhedruli ( Georgian : แแฎแแแ แฃแแ ) is the third and current Georgian script . Mkhedruli , literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " , derives from mkhedari ( แแฎแแแแ แ ) meaning " horseman " , " knight " , " warrior " and " cavalier " .
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Like the two other scripts , Mkhedruli is purely unicameral . Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century . The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD . The second oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written text is found in the 11th @-@ century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia . Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli was used for non @-@ religious purposes only and represented the " civil " , " royal " and " secular " script .
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Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts , though Khutsuri ( Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli ) was used until the 19th century . Since the 19th century , with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts , Mkhedruli became universal writing Georgian outside the Church .
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= = = Form of Mkhedruli letters = = =
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Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters . Mkhedruli letters are written in the four @-@ linear system , similar to Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing . It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets , Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops .
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Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century .
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" Gurgen : King : of Kings : great @-@ grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates "
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Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli , 1187 AD .
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= = = Modern Georgian alphabet = = =
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The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters :
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= = = Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet = = =
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The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians , founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879 , discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant :
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แฑ ( he ) , sometimes called " ei " or " e @-@ merve " ( " eighth e " ) , was equivalent to แแฒ ey , as in แฅแ แแกแขแฑ ~ แฅแ แแกแขแแฒ krist 'ey ' Christ ' .
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แฒ ( hie ) , also called iota , appeared instead of แ ( ini ) after a vowel , but came to have the same pronunciation as แ ( ini ) and was replaced by it . Thus แฅแ แแกแขแฑ ~ แฅแ แแกแขแแฒ krist 'ey " Christ " is now written แฅแ แแกแขแแ krist 'ei .
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แณ ( vie ) came to be pronounced the same as แแ vi and was replaced by that sequence , as in แกแฎแณแกแ > แกแฎแแแกแ skhvisi " others ' " .
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แด ( qari , hari ) came to be pronounced the same as แฎ ( khani ) , and was replaced by it. e.g. แดแแแฌแแคแ became แฎแแแแฌแแคแ " sovereign " .
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แต ( hoe ) was used for the interjection hoi ! and is now spelled แฐแแ .
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All but แต ( hoe ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; แฒ ( hie ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well , for the y @-@ sound / j / . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script .
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= = = Letters added to other alphabets = = =
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Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian . Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian , while others required additional letters :
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แถ ( fi " phi " ) is used in Laz and Svan , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian . It derives from the Greek letter ฮฆ ( phi ) .
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แท ( shva " schwa " ) , also called yn , is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian .
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