carlosejimenez/wikitext__wikitext-2-raw-v1

text stringlengths 0 3.86k
ჸ ( elifi " alif " ) is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 ყ 〉 ( q 'ari ) .
ჹ ( turned gani ) was once used for [ ɢ ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages .
ჺ ( aini " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ ʕ ] in Bats . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 ﻋ 〉 ( ‘ ain ) .

= = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = =

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter :
ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller ascender , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter than in print .
Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : ა , თ , ი , ო .
Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : ბ , ზ , მ , ნ , პ , რ , ს , შ , ჩ , ძ , წ , ხ , ჰ
An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , ე , ვ , კ , ლ , ჟ , ტ , უ , ფ , ღ , ყ , ც
Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like þ in Old English : ქ , ჭ , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both ascender and descender in print , and sometimes in handwriting .

= = = = Variation = = = =

There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o 'clock , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of people writing ) . Other common variants :
გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom .
დ ( doni ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , .
კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , tsani , dzili ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( tsani ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side .
ლ ( lasi ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it .
Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , .
რ ( rae ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 .
ტ ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top .
წ ( ts 'ili ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl .
ჭ ( ch 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line .
ჱ ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a conflation of ს and ჰ .
ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X "

= = = = Similar letters = = = =

Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting .
For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line .
For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( uni ) and შ ( shini ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( sani ) and ხ ( khani ) .
For კ ( k 'ani ) and პ ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up .
ძ ( dzili ) is written with a vertical top .

= = Ligatures , abbreviations and calligraphy = =

Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters .
A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia , Ⴂ Ⴌ ( გნ , GN )
A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ ( და , da ) " and "
Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious , abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century .
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი ( romeli ) " which "
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე ( iesu kriste ) " Jesus Christ "
Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory , requiring adhesion to a complex system .
A Mkhedruli ligature of და ( da ) " and "
Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti

= = Type faces = =

Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or italic type .

= = Punctuation = =

In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as dashes , like − ,
= and =
− . In the 10th century , clusters of one ( · ) , two ( : ) , three ( ჻ ) and six ( ჻ ჻ ) dots ( later sometimes small circles ) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text . One dot indicated a " minor stop " ( presumably a simple word break ) , two dots marked or separated " special words " , three dots for a " bigger stop " ( such as the appositive name and title " the sovereign Alexander " , below , or the title of the Gospel of Matthew , above ) , and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence . Starting in the 11th century , marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use . An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word , and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence . From the 12th century on , these were replaced with the semicolon ( the Greek question mark ) . In the 18th century , Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again , with commas , single dots , and double dots used to mark " complete " , " incomplete " , and " final " sentences , respectively . For the most part , Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script .
Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti , with the divider 〈 ჻ 〉
ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე
" The sovereign Alexander "

= = Summary = =

This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns , including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets ( shown with a blue background ) , obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets ( green background ) , or additional letters in languages other than Georgian ( pink background ) . The " national " transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government , whereas " Laz " is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey . The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters .

= = Use for other non @-@ Kartvelian languages = =

Ossetian language during the 1940s .
Abkhaz language during the 1940s .
Ingush language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Chechen language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Avar language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Turkish language and Tatar language . A Turkish Gospel , dictionary , poems , medical book dating from the 18th century .
Persian language . The 18th @-@ century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
Armenian language . In the Armenian community in Tbilisi , the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries , and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
Russian language . In the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries .
Other Northeast Caucasian languages . The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century .
Old Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script .

= = Computing = =


= = = Unicode = = =

The first Georgian script was added to the Unicode Standard in October , 1991 with the release of version 1 @.@ 0 . In creating the Georgian Unicode block , important roles were played by German Jost Gippert , a linguist of Kartvelian studies , and American @-@ Irish linguist and script @-@ encoder Michael Everson , who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems . Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili . ( not the former Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili )
Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia 's internationalized domain name script for ( .გე ) .

= = = = Blocks = = = =

The Unicode block for Georgian is U + 10A0 – U + 10FF . Mkhedruli ( modern Georgian ) occupies the U + 10D0 – U + 10FF range and Asomtavruli occupies the U + 10A0 – U + 10CF range . The Unicode block for Georgian Supplement is U + 2D00 – U + 2D2F and it encodes Nuskhuri .

= = = Keyboard layouts = = =

Below is the standard Georgian @-@ language keyboard layout , the traditional layout of manual typewriters .

= = Gallery = =

Gallery of Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts .

= = = Gallery of Asomtavruli = = =

ჸ ( elifi " alif " ) is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 ყ 〉 ( q 'ari ) .

ჹ ( turned gani ) was once used for [ ɢ ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages .

ჺ ( aini " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ ʕ ] in Bats . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 ﻋ 〉 ( ‘ ain ) .

= = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = =

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter :

ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller ascender , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter than in print .

Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : ა , თ , ი , ო .

Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : ბ , ზ , მ , ნ , პ , რ , ს , შ , ჩ , ძ , წ , ხ , ჰ

An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , ე , ვ , კ , ლ , ჟ , ტ , უ , ფ , ღ , ყ , ც

Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like þ in Old English : ქ , ჭ , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both ascender and descender in print , and sometimes in handwriting .

= = = = Variation = = = =

There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o 'clock , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of people writing ) . Other common variants :

გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom .

დ ( doni ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , .

კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , tsani , dzili ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( tsani ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side .

ლ ( lasi ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it .

Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , .

რ ( rae ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 .

ტ ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top .

წ ( ts 'ili ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl .

ჭ ( ch 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line .

ჱ ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a conflation of ს and ჰ .

ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X "

= = = = Similar letters = = = =

Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting .

For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line .

For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( uni ) and შ ( shini ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( sani ) and ხ ( khani ) .

For კ ( k 'ani ) and პ ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up .

ძ ( dzili ) is written with a vertical top .

= = Ligatures , abbreviations and calligraphy = =

Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters .

A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia , Ⴂ Ⴌ ( გნ , GN )

A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ ( და , da ) " and "

Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious , abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century .

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი ( romeli ) " which "

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე ( iesu kriste ) " Jesus Christ "

Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory , requiring adhesion to a complex system .

A Mkhedruli ligature of და ( da ) " and "

Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti

= = Type faces = =

Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or italic type .

= = Punctuation = =

In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as dashes , like − ,

= and =

− . In the 10th century , clusters of one ( · ) , two ( : ) , three ( ჻ ) and six ( ჻ ჻ ) dots ( later sometimes small circles ) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text . One dot indicated a " minor stop " ( presumably a simple word break ) , two dots marked or separated " special words " , three dots for a " bigger stop " ( such as the appositive name and title " the sovereign Alexander " , below , or the title of the Gospel of Matthew , above ) , and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence . Starting in the 11th century , marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use . An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word , and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence . From the 12th century on , these were replaced with the semicolon ( the Greek question mark ) . In the 18th century , Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again , with commas , single dots , and double dots used to mark " complete " , " incomplete " , and " final " sentences , respectively . For the most part , Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script .

Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti , with the divider 〈 ჻ 〉

ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე

" The sovereign Alexander "

= = Summary = =

This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns , including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets ( shown with a blue background ) , obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets ( green background ) , or additional letters in languages other than Georgian ( pink background ) . The " national " transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government , whereas " Laz " is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey . The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters .

= = Use for other non @-@ Kartvelian languages = =

Ossetian language during the 1940s .

Abkhaz language during the 1940s .

Ingush language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .

Chechen language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .

Avar language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .

Turkish language and Tatar language . A Turkish Gospel , dictionary , poems , medical book dating from the 18th century .

Persian language . The 18th @-@ century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .

Armenian language . In the Armenian community in Tbilisi , the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries , and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .

Russian language . In the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries .

Other Northeast Caucasian languages . The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century .

Old Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script .

= = Computing = =

= = = Unicode = = =

The first Georgian script was added to the Unicode Standard in October , 1991 with the release of version 1 @.@ 0 . In creating the Georgian Unicode block , important roles were played by German Jost Gippert , a linguist of Kartvelian studies , and American @-@ Irish linguist and script @-@ encoder Michael Everson , who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems . Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili . ( not the former Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili )

Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia 's internationalized domain name script for ( .გე ) .

= = = = Blocks = = = =

The Unicode block for Georgian is U + 10A0 – U + 10FF . Mkhedruli ( modern Georgian ) occupies the U + 10D0 – U + 10FF range and Asomtavruli occupies the U + 10A0 – U + 10CF range . The Unicode block for Georgian Supplement is U + 2D00 – U + 2D2F and it encodes Nuskhuri .

= = = Keyboard layouts = = =

Below is the standard Georgian @-@ language keyboard layout , the traditional layout of manual typewriters .

= = Gallery = =

Gallery of Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts .

= = = Gallery of Asomtavruli = = =