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In which city is the HQ of the World Health Organisation?	WHO \| WHO People and offices Vacancies WHO People and offices More than 7000 people from more than 150 countries work for the Organization in 150 WHO offices in countries, territories and areas, six regional offices, at the Global Service Centre in Malaysia and at the headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. In addition to medical doctors, public health specialists, scientists and epidemiologists, WHO staff include people trained to manage administrative, financial, and information systems, as well as experts in the fields of health statistics, economics and emergency relief. Download the corporate brochure below to learn more about WHO priorities, regions, and historic global health landmarks:	Geneva
Which is Britain’s largest native butterfly?	WHO \| WHO People and offices Vacancies WHO People and offices More than 7000 people from more than 150 countries work for the Organization in 150 WHO offices in countries, territories and areas, six regional offices, at the Global Service Centre in Malaysia and at the headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. In addition to medical doctors, public health specialists, scientists and epidemiologists, WHO staff include people trained to manage administrative, financial, and information systems, as well as experts in the fields of health statistics, economics and emergency relief. Download the corporate brochure below to learn more about WHO priorities, regions, and historic global health landmarks:	i don't know
What name is given to the long tongue or feeding tube of a butterfly?	What is a butterfly's tongue called? \| Reference.com What is a butterfly's tongue called? A: Quick Answer A butterfly's tongue is called a proboscis. It is a very complex system that is used to ingest the nourishment that the butterfly needs to be able to mate and lay eggs. Full Answer The proboscis of a butterfly is made up of two parts. Each side has nerves, a trachea and muscles. The two parts fuse together much like a zipper. Once the proboscis is zipped up, it forms a food canal that the butterfly uses to suck up liquids. Some butterflies shoot water from their rears to help dissolve some solids so that they may be sucked up through the proboscis. Others can regurgitate onto food to be dissolved.	Proboscis
Who failed three IQ tests on an LBC radio phone-in?	Insect Mouth Parts PLANTS \| ANIMALS \| ECOLOGY \| GEOLOGY \| GARDENING \| TOOLS One fun thing to do when you encounter any insect is to decide what kind of mouth parts it has. Often this means deciding whether it's a "sucker" or a "chewer." The critter at the right, with its formidable pincer-like mandibles is definitely a "chewer." This is the head of the white grub constituting the larval stage of the June Bug, genus Phyllophaga. June Bug grubs live underground and eat plant roots, especially those of grasses, which the grubs may kill if too many roots are eaten. The picture at the right shows the coiled tube of a "sucker," a Tiger Swallowtail butterfly. When a flower with nectar in it is located, the butterfly inserts its tube (its proboscis) into the flower and sucks up the nectar. At the left you see the head of a mosquito. Of course mosquitoes are famous for being "flying syringes" as they fly about finding animals from whom they suck blood using their specialized mouth parts. In the picture you can clearly see the proboscis, the "needle" part of the "syringe." The antenna and palp help the mosquito feel. Actually, the proboscis is not nearly as simple in construction as a hypodermic needle. As the drawing at the left shows, the proboscis has a groove down its front inside which reside several extremely slender, sharp, saw-toothed stylets. If you ever watch a mosquito "biting" you, try to notice that the entire proboscis does not enter your skin. Instead, as in the drawing, its thick outer part, known as the sheath, bends, or "buckles," as the mosquito inserts its stiff stylets into your body. These stylets hold together in a way that allows blood to be sucked up. The Leaf-footed Bug (family Coreidae) shown at the left also has sucking mouth parts. This picture is neat because it shows the held-together stylets outside the proboscis's sheath. In the picture the stylets are held together so closely that they look like just one. As with the mosquito, as the bug uses its stylets to cut into its victim (a plant in this case), the sheath bends as the stylets go straight into the tissue. A t the right you see a horse fly head, famous for its complex mouth parts that can cut right into a horse's (or human's) hide. Horse fly mouth parts are composed of nine different parts. At the right the dark item pointed downward in the picture's bottom, center is the horsefly's mouthpart. The cylindrical section pointing downward, the labium, wraps around the slender, sharp, swordlike parts that slash into flesh, cutting across blood vessels. When blood flows to the skin's surface, then the oval, spongelike thing at the labium's base sops up the blood and the blood flows upward through the labium. The brown, triangular item between the mouthpart and the antler-like antennae pointing at the picture's right side is one of two maxillary palps, which help the fly feel and possibly smell/taste what the palps touch. MOUTHPARTS OF SELECTED	i don't know
With which part of the body does a stomatologist specialise?	Definitions of Doctor Specialties \| Alta Bates Summit Medical Center \| Berkeley - Oakland - San Francisco East Bay Area Main content Definitions of Doctor Specialties The following physician specialties are listed in alphabetical order and reflect the same specialty options listed on the drop-down menu of our Find A Doctor search tool. Visit our search tool to select an Alta Bates Summit doctor if you don't see the specialty you're looking for in this list. A - E \| F - L \| M - N \| O - P \| R - Z A - E Addiction Medicine: The branch of medicine that concentrates on helping people overcome repetitive behaviors that can range from drug and alcohol dependency to tobacco use and eating disorders. Learn about our chemical dependency services Allergy & Immunology: The study and treatment of the body's reaction to foreign and non-foreign substances. Ailments treated by an immunologist include hay fever, asthma, hives and other abnormal responses to allergens that range from dust and food to animals and chemicals. Find an allergist / immunologist Anesthesiology: An anesthesiologist is a physician who specializes in the administration of anesthesia for pain relief, and the care of patients before, during, and after surgery. The anesthesiologist monitors vital organ functions including heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and blood-oxygen saturation during surgery. Anesthesiologists may also provide diagnosis and treatment of chronic pain. Bariatric (Weight Loss) Surgery: Surgery on the stomach and/or intestines to help a person with extreme obesity lose weight. Back to top F - L Family Medicine: Comprehensive medical care with an emphasis on caring for all members of the family. Family medicine builds upon a core of knowledge derived from other disciplines, primarily pediatrics, internal medicine, OB/GYN, geriatrics, surgery and psychiatry. This specialty was formerly known as Family Practice until the certifying board changed the name in 2006. Find a family medicine doctor Gastroenterology: The study and treatment of conditions of the digestive system. A gastroenterologist diagnoses and treats disorders of the stomach, intestines, bowels and other structures, such as the liver, gall bladder, pancreas and esophagus, and focus on maladies that include ulcers, jaundice, colitis, hepatitis and cancer. Back to top O - P Obstetrics and Gynecology: OB/GYN is the field of medicine devoted to conditions specific to women. Obstetrics is the care of a woman during pregnancy and during and after childbirth. Gynecology is the study and care of the female reproductive system. An OB/GYN specialist combines these two disciplines to provide comprehensive care for women. Find an ob / gyn doctor Ophthalmology: The medical specialty devoted to care of the eye and the treatment of diseases that affect eyes and vision. An ophthalmologist diagnoses and treats abnormalities of the eye and performs surgery on the eye. Ophthalmologists are medical doctors and are different from optometrists (who test vision and prescribe corrective lenses) and opticians (who make or sell corrective eyewear). Find an ophthalmologist Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery: The branch of dentistry that focuses on the diagnosis and surgical treatment of diseases, injuries and deformities of the teeth, mouth and jaw. Specialists in this field are also called dental surgeons. Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery: A physician treating with disease and injury to the jaw and facial bones. Find an orthopedist Orthopedic Surgery: Orthopedic surgery is the branch of surgery concerned with acute, chronic, traumatic, and overuse injuries and other disorders of the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons address most musculoskeletal ailments including arthritis, trauma and congenital deformities using both surgical and non-surgical means. Find an orthopedic surgeon Otolaryngology (Ear, Nose, and Throat): A division of medical science that focuses on the ears, nose and throat (ENT). Otolaryngologists diagnose and treat disorders from the shoulders up, with the exception of the eyes and brain. Conditions they may deal with include hearing loss, tonsillitis and nasal obstructions. Find an otolaryngologist Pain Management: Physicians and other pain experts choose from an extensive series of diagnostic tests to precisely identify the source of a patient's pain. Treatment and management possibilities are wide ranging and include physical therapy, behavioral therapy, biofeedback and pain-relieving devices that are implanted under the skin. Find a physical medicine and rehabilitation doctor Plastic Surgery: The repair, restoration, or reconstruction of different parts of the body. Plastic and reconstructive surgeons not only perform elective cosmetic surgery to improve appearance, they also repair and reconstruct the facial features and bodies of patients with conditions caused by burns, injuries, diseases and congenital deformities. Find a plastic surgeon Podiatry: The study, prevention, and treatment of problems of the foot. A podiatrist may prescribe corrective devices and medication, or recommend physical therapy. Podiatrists attend colleges of podiatric medicine and graduates are doctors of podiatric medicine (DPM). Podiatrists with advanced training also do various types of foot surgery.	Mike Matusow
Low blood sugar is known by which medical term?	Health Professionals Associated With Cancer Care Health Professionals Associated With Cancer Care If you’ve been diagnosed with cancer, chances are you’ll meet many different medical professionals during your cancer treatment. You’ll find that many of them are “specialists” or “specialize” in certain areas of medicine or mental health. This means they’ve had extra training that focuses on a certain type of treatment, body system, or health problem. Don’t be afraid to ask the people caring for you what their role is in your care, what kind of training they’ve had, and what part of your care or treatment they’ll be providing. This short explanation of medical titles can tell you more about some of the health care professionals you may meet. anesthesiologist (AN-es-THEE-zee-AHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in giving drugs or other agents (like gasses) that cause a total loss of feeling or relieve pain, most often during surgery. The drugs may put the patient into a deep sleep so they not aware of procedures or surgery. case manager: the member of the cancer care team who coordinates the patient’s care throughout diagnosis, treatment, and recovery; often a nurse or cancer nurse specialist. The goal of case management is that one person directs or oversees the patient’s care. For example, a case manager may help the patient get through the complexities of the health care system by working with the health insurance company, getting quicker answers to important questions, managing crises, and connecting the patient and family to needed resources. chaplain: a member of the clergy who attends to the spiritual needs of the patient and family. Often a chaplain is trained to care for people of many denominations, faiths, and beliefs. dermatologist (DER-muh-TAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of skin diseases. A dermatological oncologist has specialized training in diagnosing and treating skin cancers. dietitian (DIE-uh-TISH-un) or registered dietitian(RD): an expert in the area of nutrition, food, and diet who has at least a bachelor’s degree and has passed a national board exam. Many RDs specialize in areas like weight management, exercise science, cancer care, or cardiac rehabilitation. See also nutritionist. discharge coordinator: often a nurse or social worker who helps make sure that patients leaving the hospital have what they need to continue their recovery at home, or may help a patient find other places to go after leaving the hospital, such as a nursing home or rehab, where they can continue to get the care they need. doctor of osteopathic (OS-tee-uh-PATH-ick) medicine (DO): a doctor with a licensing and educational background much like that of a medical doctor (MD). They tend to be primary care physicians and are specially trained to use a “whole person” approach to medicine rather than just treating specific symptoms. See also primary care physician. dosimetrist (doe-SIM-uh-trist): a person with special training and certification who calculates and plans the correct radiation dose (the amount, rate, and how the dose is spread out) for cancer treatment and/or other diseases that require radiation treatment. endocrinologist (EN-duh-kruh-NAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diseases related to the glands of the endocrine system, such as the thyroid, pituitary, pancreas, pineal, and adrenal glands. enterostomal therapist (EN-ter-o-STO-mal THER-uh-pist): a health professional, often a nurse, who has been trained in an accredited program in enterostomal therapy to teach people how to care for ostomies (surgically created openings such as a colostomy or urostomy) and wounds. Also called an ostomy nurse or a wound care nurse. gastroenterologist (GAS-tro-EN-ter-AHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diseases of the digestive (gastrointestinal or GI) tract. genetic (juh-NET-ick) counselor: a specially trained health professional who: Helps people decide whether to have genetic testing done Helps people understand the risk of a genetic disorder within a family Provides information about the options available depending on the results of genetic testing Helps the patient consider the screening and preventive measures that are best based on the test results gynecologic oncologist (GUY-nuh-kuh-LA-jik on-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in cancers of the female sex (reproductive) organs. gynecologist (GUY-nuh-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in female health issues, including sexual and reproductive function and the diseases of their reproductive organs, except diseases of the breast that require surgery. hematologist (HE-muh-TAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diseases of the blood and blood-forming tissues. home health nurse: a nurse who provides care in the patient’s home, including giving medicines and certain treatments; teaches patients and families about their care; and checks on the patient to see if medical care is needed. licensed practical nurse (LPN) or licensed vocational nurse (LVN): a nurse who has completed a year or so of technical health training, and passed a licensing test. This nurse can give medicines, help patients with physical hygiene and care, and perform many other health care-related tasks. medical oncologist (on-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating cancer with chemotherapy and other drugs. A medical oncologist is different from a surgical oncologist, who mostly treats cancer with surgery. neonatologist (NEE-o-nay-TAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in the care of newborn babies (until about 6 weeks of age, but often longer for babies who were born prematurely). nephrologist (neh-FRAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in kidney diseases. neurosurgeon (NUR-o-SUR-jun): a doctor who specializes in operations to treat problems involving the brain, spinal cord, or nerves. nurse practitioner (nurs prak-TIH-shun-er): a registered nurse with a master’s or doctoral degree and special certification who has advanced training and clinical experience in a certain area of medical and nursing practice. Licensed and certified nurse practitioners diagnose and manage illness and disease, usually working closely with a doctor. nutritionist (noo-TRIH-shun-ist): a term used sometimes interchangeably with dietitian, but educational requirements for nutritionists vary by state. Programs to certify nutritionists now exist, but requirements vary. See also dietitian. occupational (ok-you-PAY-shun-uhl) therapist (OT): a licensed and specially trained therapist who works with people who have impairments or limitations to help them develop, recover, and improve the skills needed for daily living and working. They also work to prevent disability and maintain health. The practice of occupational therapy includes evaluation, treatment, and consultation. oncologist (on-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating cancer. oncology clinical nurse specialist (on-KAHL-o-jee KLIN-ih-kull nurs SPESH-uh-list) (CNS): a registered nurse with a master’s degree and advanced clinical practice in oncology nursing who specializes in the care of cancer patients. Oncology CNSs have many different roles depending on the setting. They may give direct patient or family care; supervise staff caring for patients and families; do nursing research related to cancer patients; or teach patients, families, and staff about cancer, treatment, and side effects. oncology (on-KAHL-o-jee) social worker: a person with a master’s degree in social work who is an expert in coordinating and providing help with the social and emotional needs of the cancer patient and family. The oncology social worker may do counseling, help patients and families manage financial problems, work on housing or child care issues (such as when treatments are given at a facility away from home), and help people cope with different types of emotional distress. ophthalmologist (OFF-thuhl-MAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in eye diseases. oral and maxillofacial (MAX-ill-o-FAY-shul) surgeon: a surgeon who specializes in surgery of the mouth, jaw, and face. orthopedic (or-thuh-PEE-dik) surgeon: a surgeon who specializes in diseases and injuries of the muscles, joint, and bones (the musculoskeletal system). otolaryngologist (O-toe-LAIR-in-GOL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diseases and injuries of the ear, nose, and throat. Also called an ENT (which stands for ears, nose, and throat) or a head and neck doctor. pain specialists: doctors, nurses, and/or pharmacists who are experts in pain control. In many places there’s a team of health professionals who are available to address pain issues. palliative (PAL-ee-uh-tiv) care specialists: doctors, nurses, and/or pharmacists who help keep a person comfortable by managing bothersome symptoms, such as pain, nausea, or fatigue. They are not trying to cure the disease, but help the person have the best possible quality of life. They can help at any stage of cancer, from diagnosis to the end of life. palliative (PAL-ee-uh-tiv) care team: typically includes a palliative care doctor who leads the team and works with a nurse, social worker, patient navigator, and maybe a person with a spiritual role such as a chaplain or a priest, to treat symptoms but not necessarily the cause of the symptoms. pathologist (path-AHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and classifying diseases by lab tests and by looking at tissue and cells under a microscope. The pathologist determines whether a tumor is cancer, and, if cancer, the exact cell type (where it started) and grade (how fast it likely will grow). patient navigator: the person who guides patients and their families through complex medical systems and helps them work with the rest of the cancer care team to overcome barriers to care that may come up so they can successfully complete their treatment. Navigators can be lay people with special training and experience or health care professionals, like nurses or social workers. pediatric oncologist (PEE-dee-AT-trick on-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in caring for children and teens with cancer (sometimes up to age 21). pediatrician (PEE-dee-uh-TRISH-un): a doctor who specializes in caring for children and teens, including the prevention of illness, primary health care, and the treatment of diseases. physical (FIZ-ick-uhl) therapist (PT): a licensed health professional, who has at least a bachelor’s degree in physical therapy, who helps examine, test, and treat physical problems, and uses exercises, heat, cold, and other methods to restore or maintain the body’s strength, mobility, and f unction. physician assistant (PA): a certified and licensed medical professional with a master’s or doctoral level degree. Physician assistants practice medicine on teams with doctors and other health care professionals, providing a wide range of services. They may specialize in certain diseases or fields of medicine depending on their training and experience. plastic surgeon: a surgeon who specializes in changing the way a body part looks or in rebuilding or replacing removed or injured body parts. In reconstruction (rebuilding body parts), the surgeon may use tissue from the patient or some special material with the right consistency to hold a shape or form over time. Also called a plastic and reconstructive (REE-kon-STRUCK-tiv) surgeon. primary care physician: the doctor a person would normally see first when a medical symptom or problem comes up. A primary care doctor could be a general practitioner, a family practice doctor, a gynecologist, a pediatrician, or an internal medicine doctor (an internist). psychiatric clinical nurse specialist (SY-key-AT-rick KLIN-ih-kull nurs SPESH-uh-list) (CNS): a registered nurse with a master’s degree in psychiatric/mental health nursing who specializes in the mental health of patients. The psychiatric CNS may assess, counsel, or teach patients and/or families. psychiatrist (sy-KY-uh-trist): a medical doctor specializing in the causes, treatment, and prevention of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Psychiatrists provide counseling and can also prescribe medicines or other treatments. psychologist (sy-KOLL-uh-jist): a health professional who has a graduate degree in psychology and training in clinical psychology. This specialist assesses a person’s mental and emotional status and provides testing and counseling services to those who may have an emotional or mental health problem. pulmonologist (PULL-muh-NAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who has specialized experience and knowledge in the diagnosis and treatment of lung (pulmonary) conditions and diseases. radiation oncologist (RAY-dee-A-shun on-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in using radiation to treat cancer. radiation therapist (RAY-dee-A-shun THER-uh-pist): a person with special training to use the equipment that delivers radiation therapy. This expert often helps the patient get into the right position for treatment and then actually gives the treatment. radiation therapy nurse: a registered nurse who is an expert in the radiation therapy care of patients. This nurse may teach the patient about treatment before it starts and help manage any treatment side effects. radiologic technologist (RAY-dee-uh-LAH-jick teck-NAH-luh-jist): a health professional who positions patients for x-rays and other imaging tests, takes the images, and then develops and checks the images for quality. The films taken by the technologist are then sent to a radiologist to be read. radiologist (RAY-dee-AH-luh-jist): a doctor with special training in diagnosing diseases by interpreting (reading) x-rays and other types of imaging studies that make pictures of the inside of the body. registered nurse (RN): a professional nurse who has completed a college program and passed a national examination. RNs may assess, educate, and treat patients, families, or even communities. They may work in almost any health specialty, and can get more education to qualify for advanced practice such as oncology nurse specialist, nurse practitioner, and others. respiratory therapist (RES-per-uh-TOR-ee THAIR-uh-pist): a professional who works with people who have breathing problems. This can include breathing treatments and managing patients on ventilators (breathing machines). A CRTT or certified respiratory therapy technician may also examine the patient, collect information about lung function, and set up and maintain equipment, such as ventilators. sex therapist: a mental health professional such as a licensed psychiatrist, social worker, clinical nurse specialist, nurse practitioner, or psychologist with special training in counseling people about sexual changes, problems, and communication (for example, after treatment for cancer). It’s common for a sex therapist to work with both sexual partners, rather than just one person. social worker: a health professional with special training in dealing with social, emotional, and environmental problems that may come with illness or disability. A social worker may help people find community resources and support services, and provide counseling and guidance to help with issues such as insurance coverage, nursing home placement, and emotional distress. speech therapist: a health professional who is specially trained to work with people who have speech and swallowing problems. Speech therapists help people learn skills to communicate and also make sure that patients can safely eat and drink. Also called a speech pathologist (path-AHL-uh-jist). surgeon: a doctor with special training who treats diseases by cutting or removing parts of the body.. surgical oncologist (on-KAHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in using surgery to treat cancer. thoracic (thuh-RAS-ick) surgeon: a doctor who operates on organs in the chest, including the lungs, ribs, the sternum (breast bone), the diaphragm (the muscle that helps breathing), and other associated muscles. The word thoracic refers to the thorax, another name for the chest. urologist (yur-AHL-uh-jist): a doctor who specializes in treating problems in the urinary tract in men and women, and genital organ problems in men. To learn more More information from your American Cancer Society Here’s more information you might find helpful. You also can order free copies of our documents from our toll-free number, 1-800-227-2345, or read them on our website at www.cancer.org . Dealing with a cancer diagnosis Children Diagnosed With Cancer: Understanding the Health Care System (also in Spanish) National organizations and websites* Along with the American Cancer Society, other sources that can give you information and help you find the best cancer treatment for you include: American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) Toll-free number: 1-866-ASK-ABMS (1-866-275-2267) Website: www.abms.org Keeps a list of all board-certified physicians and can be contacted to find out if a certain doctor is certified by an approved ABMS Board. Searches for certain types of doctors in your region can be done only on the website. American Medical Association (AMA) Website: www.ama-assn.org Website offers information on specific doctors by name, or search for doctors by specialty and geographic location. (Choose “Doctor Finder” on the AMA home page.) American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO)	i don't know
Who is the second-most senior judge in England and Wales after the Lord Chief Justice?	Courts and Tribunals Judiciary \| Biographies of the Court of Appeal judges Courts and Tribunals Judiciary Advice for Litigants in Person Biographies of the Court of Appeal judges Details of the careers to date of the Lord and Lady Justices of Appeal and the Heads of Division who sit in the Court of Appeal. All Judges of the Court of Appeal are made members of the Privy Council. Lady Justice Arden Dame Mary Arden was called to the Bar (Gray’s Inn) in 1971. As Head of International Judicial Relations for England and Wales, she is responsible for liaison with leading courts across the world. She is also a Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague and an ad hoc judge of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. She has held a number of other public appointments, including: Chair of the Law Commission of England and Wales (1996-9), and member of the Steering Group of the Company Law Review established by the Department of Trade and Industry (1998-2001). She wrote the first Chancery Guide and has sat on committees concerned with access to justice by litigants in person. She has written and lectured on a wide range of legal subjects. She was called to the Bar (Gray’s Inn) in 1971 and appointed a High Court judge in 1993, the first woman judge to be assigned to the Chancery Division. She was appointed a Lady Justice of Appeal in 2000. Lord Justice Bean Sir David Bean was called to the Bar (Middle Temple) in 1976. He was appointed an Assistant Recorder in 1992, Recorder in 1996 and Queen’s Counsel in 1997. He was Chairman of the Bar Council in 2002. He was appointed a judge of the High Court (Queen’s Bench Division) in July 2004, served as a Presiding Judge of the South Eastern Circuit from 2007 to 2010, and was a Judicial Appointments Commissioner from October 2010 to March 2014. In August 2015 Lord Justice Bean became Chair of the Law Commission. He was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal in October 2014. Lord Justice Beatson Sir Jack Beatson was called to the Bar (Inner Temple) in 1972, and was appointed an honorary Bencher in 1993. He was a member of the Law Commission of England and Wales between 1989 and 1994 and Rouse Ball Professor of English Law at the University of Cambridge between 1994 and 2003. He was a Recorder from 1994-2003. In 1998 he was appointed as a QC and a Deputy High Court Judge from 2000- 2003. He was a Judge of the High Court of Justice Queen’s Bench Division from 2003-2013. From 2009-2012, he served as the Queen’s Bench Liaison Judge for Midlands and Wales Circuits. He was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2013. Lady Justice Black Dame Jill Black was called to the Bar (inner Temple) in 1976. In 1994 she was appointed as Queen’s Counsel and became a Deputy High Court Judge in 1996. She became a Recorder in 1999. She was appointed to the High Court on 1st October 1999, assigned to the Family Division, she also sat in the Administrative Court. She served as Family Division Liaison Judge on the Northern Circuit from 2000-2004. In 2004 she became the Chairman of the Judicial Studies Board’s Family Committee, until her appointment to the Judicial Appointments Commission in 2008 as a judicial member. She was appointed a Lady Justice of Appeal on 15 June 2010. She is the Head of International Family Justice. Lord Justice Briggs Sir Michael Briggs was called to the Bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1978. He was Junior Counsel to the Crown Chancery from 1988 -1994. He was appointed as a QC in 1994. From 1999 to 2000 he was chairman of the Bar Council’s Law Reform Committee. He was made a Bencher of Lincoln’s Inn in 2001. Later in 2001 he was appointed as the Attorney General to the Duchy of Lancaster; a position he held until 2006. He was a High Court Chancery Judge from 2006-2013, and the Vice Chancellor of the County of Palatine of Lancaster from 2012-2013. He was the Judge in charge of the Chancery Modernisation Review in 2013. Lord Justice Briggs has been the Personal Support Unit liaison judge since 2013. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in April 2013. On 1 January 2016 he was appointed Deputy Head of Civil Justice Lord Justice Burnett Sir Ian Burnett was born on 28 February 1958. He was called to the Bar by Middle Temple in 1980 and elected a Bencher in 2001. He was in practice as a barrister from Temple Garden Chambers between 1982 and 2008 (Head of Chambers, 2003–08). He was Junior Counsel to the Crown, Common Law between 1992 and 98 and became Queen’s Counsel in 1998. He was an Assistant Recorder between 1998 and 2000, a Recorder between 2000 and 2008 and a Deputy High Court Judge in 2008. He was appointed a Judge of the High Court of Justice, Queen’s Bench Division in 2008. He was Deputy Chairman of the Security Vetting Appeals Panel between 2009 and 2014 and Presiding Judge on the Western Circuit from 2011 to 2014. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 6 October 2014 Lord Justice Christopher Clarke Sir Christopher Clarke was called to the Bar in Middle Temple in 1969. He was appointed as a QC in 1984. From 1990-2004 he was a Recorder and a Deputy High Court Judge from 1993-2004. He was a Judge of the Court of Appeal of Jersey and Guernsey from 1998 to 2004. From 2005- 2013, he was a High Court Judge, sitting in the Commercial Court. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2013. Lord Justice David Richards Sir David Richards was called to the Bar in 1974 (Inner Temple). He was in practice at the Bar from 1975 to 2003. He was Junior Counsel to the Department of Trade and Industry (Chancery) 1989 to 1992 and was appointed Queen’s Counsel in 1992. He was appointed a High Court Judge (Chancery Division) in 2003 and a chairman of the Competition Appeal Tribunal in 2004. He was the Chancery Supervising Judge for the Northern and North Eastern Circuits and Vice-Chancellor of the County Palatine of Lancaster from 2008 to 2011. He was chairman of the Insolvency Rules Committee from 2005 to 2015 and is co-chair of the Judicial Committee of the International Insolvency Institute. He was elected a Bencher of Lincoln’s Inn in 2000 and is chairman of its Finance and General Purposes Committee. He is a General Editor of Buckley on the Companies Acts (14th ed.). On 16 November 2015 he was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal. Lord Justice Davis Sir Nigel Anthony Lamert Davis was called to the Bar (Lincoln’s Inn) in 1975. In 1992 he became a Queen’s Counsel. He was appointed an assistant Recorder in 1995 and a Recorder in 1998. He was appointed to the High Court of Justice in 2001, assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division. He served as a Presiding Judge on the Wales (formerly Wales and Chester) Circuit from 2006 to 2009. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2011. Lord Justice Elias Sir Patrick Elias was called to the Bar in 1973 (Inner Temple). He became a Bencher in 1995 and served as Assistant Recorder from 1997 to 1999. He was appointed Deputy High Court Judge in January 1999 and four months later, in May 1999, he was named Judge of the High Court, Queen’s Bench Division. He was President of the Employment Appeal Tribunal from 2006 to 2008. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2009. Sir Terence Etherton, Master of the Rolls Sir Terence Etherton was called to the Bar in 1974 and was in practice at the Chancery Bar between 1975 – 2000. He was sworn in as a QC in 1990. Between 2001- 2008 he was a High Court Judge in the Chancery Division. He was the Chairman of the Law Commission of England and Wales from 2006-2009. From 2009-2012, he was the President of the Councils of the Inns of Court. He was appointed The Master of the Rolls on 3 October 2016. He is chairman of the Trust Law Committee and President of the Property Bar Association. He is a member of the editorial board of the Conveyancing and Property law and a patron of the Birkbeck Law Review. He is a visiting law professor at Birkbeck, London University, and at Kent University. He is an honorary fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge University, and Royal Holloway, London University, and has an honorary LL.D from City University. He was appointed Master of the Rolls on 3 October 2016. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2008. Lord Justice Flaux Sir Julian Flaux was called to the Bar in 1978 and practised at the Commercial Bar from 1979 to 2007 specialising in disputes involving insurance and reinsurance, shipping, international trade and professional negligence. He was appointed a QC in 1994, an Assistant Recorder of the Crown Court in 1997, a Recorder in 2000 and Deputy High Court Judge in 2002. He was appointed a High Court Judge in May 2007. He was Presiding Judge of the Midland Circuit from 2010 to 2013. He was Judge in Charge of the Commercial Court from July 2014 to December 2015 and President of the Special Immigration Appeals Commission from January to December 2016. He was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal in December 2016. Lord Justice Floyd Sir Christopher Floyd was called to the bar at Inner Temple in 1975 and became a Bencher of his inn in 2001. In 1988, he was called to the bar of the Republic of Ireland and in 1992 was appointed a Queen’s Counsel. He was appointed an Assistant Recorder in 1994 and a Recorder in 2000, being authorised as a deputy High Court judge and assigned to the Patents Court in 1998. He served as Deputy Chairman of the Copyright Tribunal from 1995 to 2007. He was appointed a High Court judge in 2007, and assigned to the Chancery Division. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 9 April 2013. Lord Justice Fulford, Senior Presiding Judge Sir Adrian Fulford was made a Recorder of the Crown Court in 1995 (re-appointed in 2001). He became a High Court judge on 21 November 2002. He was appointed to the Queen’s Bench Division. Though he became a judge of the International Criminal Court in 2003, he continued his work at the High Court, presiding over a number of high-profile cases. He was elected to serve as one of the 18 judges of the International Criminal Court in 2003 for a term of nine years, and is assigned to the Trial Division. He was sworn into office on 11 March 2003. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 10 May 2013. Lord Justice Fulford was appointed Deputy Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales, on 1 January 2015. He was appointed Senior Presiding Judge on 1 January 2016. Lady Justice Gloster Dame Elizabeth Gloster was called to the Bar, Inner Temple in 1971 and became a Bencher in 1992. She was appointed as a QC in 1989. From 1993-2004 she was a Judge of the Courts of Appeal of Jersey and Guernsey. She was a Recorder from 1995 until 2004. She was appointed as the Judge in charge of the Commercial Court from 2010-2012. She was appointed as a Lady Justice of Appeal on 9 April 2013. Lord Justice Gross Sir Peter Gross was called to the Bar (Gray’s Inn) in 1977, and became Queen’s Counsel in 1992. He sat as a Recorder from 1995 until 2001, and chaired the London Common Law & Commercial Bar Association from 1995 until 1997. He also chaired the Bar Education & Training Committee (1998 – 2000) and the Bar International Relations Committee (2001). Appointed a Judge of the Queen’s Bench Division in 2001, he was designated a Judge of the Commercial Court in 2002, and was Judge in Charge of Commercial Court from 2009 to 2010. He was Presiding Judge of the South Eastern Circuit (2005 – 2008); and was designated a Judge of the Special Immigration Appeals Commission in 2009. He was appointed Deputy Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales in October 2011 and in January 2013, he became Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2010. Lady Justice Hallett Dame Heather Carol Hallett was called to the Bar in 1972. In 1989 she became a QC and a Recorder of the Crown Court. She became a Bencher of Inner Temple in 1993. She served as Leader of the South Eastern Circuit between 1995 and 1997 and Chairman of the Bar of England and Wales in 1998. She was appointed as a High Court Judge in 1999 and assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division. She became a Presiding Judge of the Western Circuit shortly thereafter. She was a member of the Judicial Appointments Commission from 2006 to 2010 (latterly its Vice Chairman). She was the Chairman of the Judicial College from 2010 to 2014. In 2011 she was appointed Vice-President of the Queen’s Bench Division and served as Treasurer of Inner Temple. In 2013 she was appointed Vice President of the Court of Appeal Criminal Division. Lady Justice Hallett acted as Coroner at the inquest into the deaths of the 52 victims of the July 7th London bombings. She was appointed as a Lady Justice of Appeal in 2005. Lord Justice Hamblen Sir Nicholas Hamblen was called to the Bar (Lincoln’s Inn) in 1981 and practised at the Commercial Bar from 1982-2008. He was appointed Queens Counsel in 1997, an Assistant Recorder in 1999 and a Recorder in 2000. He was appointed to sit as a Justice in the High Court in November 2008 and was a nominated Commercial Court Judge. In February 2016 he was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal. Lord Justice Henderson Sir Launcelot Henderson was called to the Bar (Lincoln’s Inn) in 1977, and was made a Bencher in 2004. He was Standing Junior Counsel to the Inland Revenue from 1992 to 1995, when he became a QC. He was appointed a Deputy High Court Judge in 2001, and became a High Court Judge of the Chancery Division in 2007. He was also appointed a Chairman of the Competition Appeal Tribunal in 2007. He was a member of the Civil Procedure Rules Committee from 2009 to 2012, and chaired the Judges’ Council Standing Committee on Judicial Library Provision from 2008 to 2013. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 3 November 2016. He has been a Distinguished Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, since 2008. Lord Justice Irwin Sir Stephen Irwin was called to the Bar by Gray’s Inn in 1976. He practised in criminal and civil cases, specialising in clinical negligence, enquiries and scientific tort cases. He was a founder member of Doughty Street Chambers. He was appointed QC in 1997, Assistant Recorder in 1999 and Recorder in 2000. He was Chairman of the Bar Council in 2004. He was appointed as a High Court Judge in 2006. Between October 2007 and July 2012 he was a Presiding Judge on the Northern Circuit. He was Chairman of the Special Immigration Appeals Commission from January 2013 until December 2015. He was appointed to the Court of Appeal in October 2016. Lord Justice Jackson He was called to the Bar (Middle Temple) in 1972. He was appointed a Queen’s Counsel in 1987. He was co-author and general editor of Jackson and Powell on Professional Negligence from 1982 to 1999. Since then he has been consultant editor. He has been an editor of the White Book since 2000 and editor-in-chief since 2010. In 1999 he was appointed as a High Court Judge in the Queen’s Bench Division. He was the Judge in Charge of the Technology and Construction Court (TCC) between 2004 and 2007. In January 2009 he was asked by the Master of the Rolls to undertake a comprehensive review of civil litigation costs. He produced a Preliminary Report in May 2009. The Final Report was published in January 2010. Most of the recommendations were implemented in 2013. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2008. Lady Justice King Lady Justice King was called to the Bar at Inner Temple in 1979. She was appointed as a QC in 1999. She was made a Bencher of Inner Temple in 2008. In 2008, Lady Justice King was appointed to the High Court within the Family Division and was the Family Division Liaison Judge, firstly to the Northern Circuit and then the Midland Circuit from 2010 to 2014. In October 2014, she was appointed as a Lady Justice of Appeal. Lord Justice Kitchin Sir David Kitchin was called to the Bar in 1977, appointed a QC in 1994 and elected a Bencher of Gray’s Inn in 2003. He was appointed a Judge of the High Court, Chancery Division in 2005 and Senior Judge of the Patents Court in 2007. He was the Chancery Supervising Judge for the Midland, Wales and Western Circuits from 2009-2011 and during that time he was also a member of the Enlarged Board of Appeal of the European Patent Office. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2011. Sir Brian Leveson, President of the Queen’s Bench Division Sir Brian Leveson was called to the Bar by Middle Temple in 1970. He was appointed Queen’s Counsel in 1986 and a Recorder of the Crown Court in 1988. He was appointed a Judge of the High Court, and assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division, in 2000, and served as a Presiding Judge of the Northern circuit between 2002 and 2005 when he was appointed to the new position of Deputy Senior Presiding Judge. He became a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2006 and was Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales for three years ending in December 2009. In July 2011, he was appointed to chair the Inquiry into the culture, practices and ethics of the Press; his report was published in November 2012. In December 2009 he was appointed as Chairman-designate of the Sentencing Council which had been established under the Coroners and Justice Act 2009. He was chairman until October 2013 when he was appointed President of the Queens Bench Division. Lord Justice Lewison Sir Kim Lewison was called to the Bar (Lincoln’s Inn) in 1975, and was made a Bencher in 1998. He became a Queens Counsel in 1991. He was appointed an Assistant Recorder in 1994 and a Recorder in 1997. He became a Deputy High Court Judge in 2000. He was appointed to the High Court of Justice High Court of Justice, Chancery Division 2003 and, the following year, he was appointed to the Competition Appeal Tribunal. He served as Chancery Supervising Judge from 2007 to 2009. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 3 October 2011. Lord Justice Lindblom The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith John Lindblom was called to the Bar in 1980 and was appointed Queen’s Counsel in 1996, a recorder in 2001 and a deputy High Court judge in 2009. He was appointed as a judge of the High Court in 2010. In January 2013 he was appointed President of the Upper Tribunal Lands Chamber, in April 2014 he was appointed as lead judge of the Planning Court. In November 2015 he was appointed a judge of the Court of Appeal. Lord Justice Lloyd Jones Sir David Lloyd Jones was called to the bar in 1975 (Middle Temple). From 1975 to 1991 he was a Fellow of Downing College, Cambridge. He became a Recorder in 1994 and served as a Junior Crown Counsel (Common Law) from 1997 to 1999. He became a Queen’s Counsel in 1999. He was appointed as a High Court judge in 2005, and was assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division. He served as a Presiding Judge on the Wales Circuit and Chair of the Lord Chancellor’s Standing Committee on the Welsh Language from 2008 to 2011. From August 2012 to August 2015 he was Chair of the Law Commission. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2012. Lord Justice Longmore Sir Andrew Longmore was called to the Bar (Middle Temple) in November 1966. In April 1983 he was appointed as a QC. He was appointed Recorder of Crown Court in April 1992. On October 20th he was appointed a High Court Judge. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 11 January 2001. Lady Justice Macur Dame Julia Macur was called to the Bar in 1979, and was a practicing barrister in the Midland and Oxford Circuit between 1979 and 2005. In 1998 she was appointed Queen’s Counsel, and was Assistant Recorder and then Recorder of the Crown Court between 1995 and 2005, when she was appointed Judge of the High Court of Justice (Family Division). She was Presiding Judge of the Midland Circuit between 1 January 2007 and 31 December 2011. In November 2012, she was appointed by the Secretary of State for Justice and the Secretary of State for Wales to the North Wales Child abuse inquiry. She was appointed as a Lady Justice of Appeal on 31 July 2013. Lady Justice Macur was appointed Deputy Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales, with effect from 1 January 2016. Lord Justice McCombe Sir Richard McCombe was called to the Bar in 1975, Lincoln’s Inn, and was elected a Bencher in 1996. He was the second junior counsel to the Director-General of Fair Trading from 1982- 1987. In 1987 he became first junior counsel, which he served as until 1989, and was also appointed as Queen’s Counsel. He became an Assistant Recorder in 1993 and a Recorder in 1996. In 1998 he was appointed as a Deputy High Court judge. Between 1996-2001, he served as Attorney General to the Duchy of Lancaster. On 11th January 2001, he was appointed to the High Court, Queen’s Bench Division. From 2004-2007, he served as Presiding Judge on the Northern Circuit. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal on 26 October 2012, Lord Justice McFarlane Sir Andrew McFarlane was called to the Bar in 1977 and practiced in chambers in Birmingham until 1993 when he moved to specialist family law chambers in London. He appeared at all levels of court including the House of Lords and the European Court of Human Rights. He was appointed as a QC in 1998. In April 2005 he was appointed to the High Court, Family Division and was for 5 years the Family Division Liaison Judge for the Midland Circuit. He was the legal member of the Government ‘Family Justice Review’ Panel. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in July 2011 and now sits full time in the Court of Appeal in London. Lord Justice Moore-Bick Sir Martin Moore-Bick was called to the Bar in 1969 (Inner Temple) and was elected a bencher in 1992. He became a Queen’s Counsel in 1986 and was appointed a Recorder in 1990. He was appointed to the High Court in 1995; and he was assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division serving in the Commercial Court. He served as Deputy Head of Civil Justice 1 January 2007 to 31 December 2012. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2005. Sir James Munby, President of the Family Division Sir James Munby has been the President of The Family Division since Jan 2013. He was called to the Bar, (Middle Temple) in 1971 and was made a Bencher in 2000. He was appointed as a QC in 1988; a Judge of the High Court of Justice, Family Division from 2000–09, Chairman, Law Commission, 2009-2012 (on secondment). He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2009. Lord Justice Patten Sir Nicholas Patten was born on 7 August 1950 and educated at Tulse Hill School and Christ Church, Oxford where he was an Open Scholar. He was called to the Bar by Lincoln’s Inn in 1974; took silk in 1988; and was Chairman of the Chancery Bar Association from 1997 to 1999. He became a bencher of Lincoln’s Inn in 1997; a Deputy High Court Judge in 1998; and was appointed to the High Court (Chancery Division) in 2000. He served as Vice-Chancellor of the County Palatine of Lancaster and Chairman of the Duchy of Lancaster Benevolent Fund from 2005 to 2008. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2009. Lady Justice Rafferty Dame Anne Judith Rafferty was called to the Bar (Gray’s Inn) in 1973, and became Queen’s Counsel in 1990. She was appointed a Recorder in 1991, a Deputy High Court Judge in 1996, and was made a Bencher of Gray’s Inn in 1998. She was appointed to the High Court (Queen’s Bench Division) in 2000 and was a Presiding Judge of the South Eastern Circuit between 2003 and 2006. She was appointed Chairman of the Board of the Judicial College on 1 July 2014, for a three-year term commencing on 1 August 2014. She was appointed a Lady Justice of Appeal in 2011. Lord Justice Ryder, Senior President of Tribunals Sir Ernest Ryder was called to the Bar in 1981, and was appointed Queen’s Counsel in 1997. He became a Recorder in 2000. He was appointed a High Court judge, and assigned to the Family Division in 2004. He was the judge in charge of the Family Modernisation review in 2012. He succeeded Sir Jeremy Sullivan as Senior President of tribunals in September 2015. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2013. Lord Justice Sales Sir Philip Sales was called to the Bar (Lincoln’s Inn) in 1985. He was appointed First Treasury Junior Counsel (Common Law) in 1997. He became a QC in 2006 and continued to act in the re-named post of First Treasury Counsel (Common Law) until his appointment to the High Court, Chancery Division in 2008. He was an Assistant Recorder, 1999–2001; Recorder, 2001–08; and Deputy High Court Judge, 2004–08. He has been a member of the Competition Appeal Tribunal since 2008 and was appointed as Vice-President of the Investigatory Powers Tribunal in 2014. He was Deputy Chair of the Boundary Commission for England, 2009-2014. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2014. Lady Justice Sharp Dame Victoria Sharp was called to the Bar (Inner Temple) in 1979. She became a Recorder in 1998-2008. She was appointed as a Justice of the High Court in 2009, and was assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division. She was a Presiding Judge on the Western Circuit from 2012 to 2013. She was appointed as a Lady Justice of Appeal in 2013. She was appointed as the Vice-President of the Queen’s Bench Division on 1 January 2016. Lord Justice Simon Sir Peregrine Simon was called to the Bar (Middle Temple) in 1973 and became a Bencher in 1999. He was in practice at the Commercial Bar from 1975 and was appointed Queen’s Counsel in 1991. He became an Assistant Recorder (1993) and Recorder (1998) on the North-Eastern Circuit, and was appointed to sit as a Deputy High Court Judge in 1999. He was appointed a High Court Judge (Queens’ Bench Division) in 2002, authorised to sit in the Commercial Court and SIAC. He was Presiding Judge of the North-Eastern Circuit and served as a member of the Judge’s Council from 2006 to 2008. He was appointed to the Court of Appeal in October 2015. The Right Honourable The Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, Lord Chief Justice Lord Thomas was called to the Bar by Gray’s Inn in 1969 and became a Bencher at the Inn in 1992. He practiced at the Commercial Bar in London from 1971 and became a Queen’s Counsel in 1984. He was appointed a Judge of the High Court of England and Wales in 1996 and was assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division and to the Commercial Court. From 1998-2001 he was one of the Presiding Judges of the Wales and Chester Circuit. He was Judge in Charge of the Commercial Court in London from April 2002 to July 2003, when he was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal. He has been a member of the Judges’ Council since 2002. He was the Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales from 2003 to 2006. From 2008 to October 2011 he was Vice-President of the Queen’s Bench Division and President of the Queen’s Bench Division from October 2011 to October 2013. He was President of the European Network of Councils for the Judiciary from May 2008 to December 2010. He has been Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales since October 2013. He is Past President of the British Insurance Law Association and a Vice-President of the British Maritime Law Association. Lord Justice Tomlinson Sir Stephen Tomlinson was called to the Bar in 1974 (Inner Temple) and became a Queen’s Counsel in 1988. Appointed Recorder in 1995 and a Deputy High Court judge in 1996. In 2000, he was appointed to the High Court of Justice, and was assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division. In 2003/4 he was Judge in charge of the Commercial Court. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2011. Lord Justice Treacy Sir Colman Treacy was called to the Bar, Middle Temple in 1971, and became a Bencher in 1999. He was appointed as a QC in 1990. He was an Assistant Recorder 1988-91; a Recorder 1991-2002. He was Head of Chambers from 1994 to 2000. He was appointed to the High Court (Queen’s Bench Division) in 2002. He was a Presiding Judge of the Midland Circuit, from 2006 until 2010. He has been the Chair of the Sentencing Council for England and Wales since 2013, having been a Member since 2010. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in October 2012. Lord Justice Underhill Sir Nicholas Underhill was called to the bar by Gray’s Inn in 1976. He became a QC in 1992. He was appointed a Recorder in 1994 and authorised to sit as a Deputy High Court Judge in 1998. From 2000 to 2003 he was a part-time Judge of the Employment Appeal Tribunal. He was appointed a High Court Judge in 2006 and assigned to the Queen’s Bench Division. He was re-appointed a Judge of the Employment Appeal Tribunal and was its President from 2009 to 2011. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2013. Lord Justice Vos, Chancellor of the High Court Sir Geoffrey Vos was called to the Bar in 1977, and took silk (QC) in 1993. He was appointed as a Justice of the High Court assigned to the Chancery Division in October 2009. Between 2005 – 2009 he was a Judge of the Courts of Appeal of Jersey and Guernsey, and a Judge of the Court of Appeal of the Cayman Islands between 2008 and 2009. He sat as a Deputy High Court Judge from 1999 until 2009. He was the Chairman of the Bar Council in 2007. He became President of the European Network of Councils for the Judiciary in January 2015. Sir Geoffrey was appointed Chancellor of the High Court of England and Wales with effect from 24 October 2016. He was appointed as a Lord Justice of Appeal in 2013.	Master of the Rolls
The four Inns of Court are Gray’s Inn, Inner Temple, Middle Temple and which other?	Etherton named next Master of the Rolls - Litigation Futures Etherton named next Master of the Rolls Etherton: second most senior judge in England and Wales Sir Terence Etherton – the current Chancellor of the High Court – was today named as the new Master of the Rolls. He will take over on 3 October 2016 following the retirement of Lord Dyson. Sir Terence, who is 65 next month, was called to the Bar in 1974 and became a QC in 1990. He was appointed a High Court judge in 2001 and elevated to the Court of Appeal seven years later. He has been chancellor – head of the Chancery Division – since 2013. Much is likely to be made of the fact that he is openly gay and entered into a same-sex marriage in late 2014. From 2006 to 2009, he was chairman of the Law Commission. He is an honorary fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge University, and of Royal Holloway, London University; a visiting professor of law of Birkbeck, London University and an honorary professor of law of Kent University. He has an honorary doctorate in law from City University. As head of civil justice – and the second most senior judge in England and Wales after the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Terence will assume the chairmanship of the Civil Procedure Rule Committee, the Civil Justice Council, the Advisory Council on National Records and Archives, and the Magna Carta Trust. Sir Terence will also play a key role in the court modernisation programme. In a speech last year, he said that there needed to be investment in the county court to ensure that cases were allocated to the right level of judge and in turn free up time in the higher courts. He also suggested that the financial limits which determine where cases are heard will have to be adjusted. The selection panel was chaired by the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Thomas. The other members were the President of the Supreme Court, Lord Neuberger, and three lay Judicial Appointments Commissioners: Dame Valarie Strachan, Professor Emily Jackson and Professor Noel Lloyd. The Lord Chancellor was “consulted” as part of the selection process, according to a press release issued by Number 10. He was then formally appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Lord Chancellor. Lord Thomas said: “I am delighted to congratulate Sir Terence Etherton on his appointment as Master of the Rolls. Following his excellent work as Chancellor over the last three years, I look forward to continuing to work with him closely in the major reform of our system of justice.”	i don't know
Which Scottish author died in Samoa?	Robert Louis Stevenson Museum - Samoa.travel You are here Home > Things To Do > Robert Louis Stevenson Museum Robert Louis Stevenson Museum Gallery Description The majestic and maginificent Robert Louis Stevenson Museum. A place where this famous Scottish poet and author fell in love. The Museum is perfectly restored back to its glorious day with some of the Author's work and family memorabilias. Robert Louis Stevenson is famous for his many writings including Treasure Island, Kidnapped, and the Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. Originally from Scotland and he was known to the Samoans as the man with great ‘manas’. Due to his many positive interactions with the local community he became very popular and also a well respected figure to the locals that knew him. He passed away December 3, 1894 at the age of 44. His colleagues and people that worked for him buried him on top of Mount Vaea (within Vailima) at a spot overlooking the sea. The museum is well kept and all its facilities are in good condition. The museum also has a gift shop available for the visitors and there is a sign book at the front of gift shop which visitors can use to note where they are from and more significantly feedback of their experiences with the site. For maintenance purpose, guests are not allowed to take shoes or eat inside the museum.	Robert Louis Stevenson
Which Russian author was reprieved from execution at the last minute?	Chronology of Scottish History - 1600 to 1899 Chronology of Scottish History - Part Two (1600 - 1899) Prince Charles Edward Stewart You will find in these chronology pages the precise dates of over 700 historical events which took place over the last 2,000 years of Scottish history. Links are also provided to over 400 related articles where you can obtain more information on the events - and the people - that made Scotland what it is today. Note that where the same individual appears more than once in this chronology, alternative links are often provided to give a broader picture. January 1 1600 First celebration of New Year in Scotland on this date (March 25 till then). November 19 1600 King Charles I born in Dunfermline. February 7 1603 Battle at Glenfruin when the MacGregors slaughtered a number of Colquhouns - the origins of the banning of the MacGregor name. March 24 1603 Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland on the death of Queen Elizabeth I and the succession of King James VI of Scotland. April 5 1603 King James VI leaves Edinburgh to travel to London. July 25 1603 King James VI crowned as King of Great Britain and Ireland at Westminster Abbey, London. February 6 1605 The Trades House of Glasgow was founded to represent the interests of the craftsmen of the city. November 4 1605 Guy Fawkes arrested under the Houses of Parliament with 20 barrels of gunpowder to blow up parliament and the king. Parliament declared 5 November a day of public thanksgiving. April 12 1606 Union flag adopted as the flag of England, Wales and Scotland. May 22 1611 King James VI introduced the title "baronet" for the first time. This is the lowest hereditary titled order. March 21 1613 Lord Maxwell executed for the murder of the head of the Johnstone family (the son of the Johnstone involved in the Battle of Dryfe Sands in December 6, 1593 above). March 10 1615 St John Ogilvie, a Banffshire-born Jesuit priest, was hanged for refusing to renounce the supremacy of the Pope. He was the only Roman Catholic martyr in Scotland and was canonised in 1976. December 10 1616 Ordinance published by the Scottish Privy Council for the establishment of parish schools in Scotland. The same document commended the abolition of Gaelic. April 4 1617 John Napier , inventor of logarithms, died in Edinburgh. June 17 1617 Articles of religion, introducing Anglican principles into Scottish worship, endorsed by Scottish parliament. September 29 1621 Charter granted to Sir William Alexander of Menstrie to colonise the "Baronetcy of Nova Scotia". February 12 1624 George Heriot, goldsmith to King James VI and founder of George Heriot's School , died. August 10 1624 Death of Esther Inglis, calligrapher and minituarist. March 27 1625 King James VI died at Theobalds Park, Hertfordshire and buried at Westminster Abbey. Succeeded by his son, King Charles I . February 2 1626 Charles I crowned at Westminster Abbey. May 29 1630 King Charles II born at St James' Palace, London. April 24 1633 Warrant issued by the Privy Council to Sir John Hepburn to raise a regiment of 1,200 men to fight in the French service. The corps ultimately became the First Regiment of Foot, The Royal Scots. June 19 1633 Coronation of King Charles I at Holyrood. July 10 1633 Sailing ship "Blessing of Burntisland" carrying gold, jewellery and silver plate belonging to King Charles I, sank in the Firth of Forth. October 14 1633 King James VII born at St James' Palace, London. July 23 1637 A new Scottish Prayer Book creates social unrest and disorder. February 28 1638 Second National Covenant signed in Greyfriars Churchyard. May 14 1639 The "Trot of Turriff" in which the Royalists scattered a Covenanting force. June 18 1639 Pacification of Berwick, Charles I forced to withdraw from Scotland and recognize an independent Scottish Parliament. August 27 1640 Scottish army under Alexander Leslie routed Royalist forces of Charles I at Newburn Ford. March 19 1641 Foundation stone of Hutchesons' Grammar School laid by Thomas Hutcheson as a residential school for the poor in Glasgow. March 28 1642 The Scots Guards Regiment was formed when King Charles I issued a commission to the Marquess of Argyll, Chief of Clan Campbell, authorizing him to raise in Scotland a regiment of 1,500 men. The King�s 'Lyfe Guard of Foot' became the Scots Guards. August 22 1642 King Charles I raised his standard at Nottingham, initiating a Civil War in England between the Royalists (also known as Cavaliers) and Parliament (Roundheads). January 19 1644 A Scottish army under the Earl of Leven crossed the river Tweed into England. It remained in England for three years playing an important part in the Civil War. July 2 1644 Scots forces under David Leslie helped in the victory of the Parliamentary forces over the Royalists at the Battle of Marston Moor. September 1 1644 Solemn League and Covenant made with the English parliament to assist in the establishment of a Presbyterian church in England. September 1 1644 Battle of Tippermuir, in which Marquis of Montrose defeated Covenanters . September 13 1644 Battle of Aberdeen, in which the Marquis of Montrose captured the city. October 13 1644 Battle of Aberdeen, James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose , sacked the city. October 18 1644 Marquis of Montrose overcame a Covenanter force at Fyvie. February 2 1645 Battle of Inverlochy, Marquis of Montrose defeated Covenanters , killing 1,300. May 4 1645 Marquis of Montrose victorious at Battle of Auldearn. July 2 1645 Battle of Alford, Marquis of Montrose defeated Lieutenant-General Baillie; Lord Gordon killed. August 15 1645 Battle of Kilsyth where the Marquis of Montrose was again victorious. September 13 1645 Royalist troops under Marquis of Montrose defeated by Covenanters led by David Leslie at Battle of Philiphaugh. May 5 1646 King Charles I surrenders to Lord Leven and was later passed to the Parliamentary forces. December 27 1647 King Charles I, imprisoned at Carisbrooke Castle, reached an agreement with the Scots who offered military aid in exchange for a promise to establish Presbyterianism in England (but only for three years). August 17/19 1648 Battle of Preston in which Duke of Hamilton at the head of an army of 20,000 crossed into England in support of Charles I. Scots defeated by Cromwell, 2,000 killed, 8,000 captured and Hamilton surrendered on 25 August (and beheaded in March 1649). January 30 1649 King Charles I executed at Whitehall. February 4 1649 Charles II proclaimed king in Edinburgh - but not in England. March 9 1649 Execution of James Hamilton, the 1st duke of Hamilton after capture at the Battle of Preston and subsequently trying to escape. His leadership of the Royalist cause in Scotland was poor and did not greatly help King Charles I. April 27 1650 Battle of Carbisdale, Montrose's last battle. May 21 1650 James Graham, Marquess of Montrose, executed at Mercat Cross, Edinburgh. June 23 1650 Charles II sailed into the estuary of the river Spey and signed the Covenant before going ashore. September 3 1650 Cromwell defeated Scots at Battle of Dunbar. November 4 1650 Birth of King William III. December 24 1650 Edinburgh castle surrendered to Oliver Cromwell. January 1 1651 Charles II crowned King of Scots at Scone, the last coronation on Scottish soil. March 31 1652 Scottish Regalia (crown, sceptre and sword) saved from invading army of Oliver Cromwell by James Granger, minister at Kinneff, Aberdeenshire, after they had been smuggled from Dunnottar Castle which was under siege. July 17 1652 Great Fire of Glasgow, destroying nearly one third of the city. December 16 1653 Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. May 4 1658 General George Monk proclaimed the Protectorate at Mercat Cross. January 12 1659 A frisky camel caused a sensation in Edinburgh. May 29 1660 King Charles II returned to England. May 29 is now known as Royal Oak Day. June 19 1660 "Day of Public Thanksgiving" on Restoration of Charles II as king. January 8 1661 The first newspaper in Scotland was published. "Mercurius Caledonius" offered coverage of "the Affairs now in Agitation in Scotland, with a Survey of Foreign Intelligence." It ceased publication on 28 March after only nine issues. April 23 1661 Charles II crowned at Westminster Abbey. December 18 1661 Many Scottish historical records were lost when the ship Elizabeth of Burntisland sank off the English coast. The records had been taken to London by Oliver Cromwell and were being returned to Edinburgh. February 6 1665 Queen Anne , last of the Stuart monarchs, born. November 28 1666 Battle of Rullion Green on the Pentland Hills, south-west of Edinburgh, in which the King's army led by Sir Tam Dalyell defeated the Covenanters. February 26 1672 Philip van der Straten, a Fleming, was granted Scots naturalisation and set up a factory in Kelso, thus starting the Border woollen industry. November 21 1673 King James VII married Mary of Modena. October 1 1677 Battle at Romanno Bridge between two gypsy tribes, Faas and Shaw. August 6 1678 First Glasgow/Edinburgh coach service began from White Horse Inn, Edinburgh. September 23 1678 The Earl of Mar was commissioned to raise a regiment nicknamed "Earl of Mar's Gray Breeks" which later became the Royal Scots Fusiliers. May 29 1679 "Declaration of Rutherglen" in which the Covenanters rode in to Rutherglen to put out the fires celebrating the anniversary of the restoration of King Charles II. June 1 1679 Covenanters defeated John Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog. June 22 1679 Duke of Monmouth subdued Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge. November 25 1681 General Tam Dalyell raises a regiment to suppress Covenanters which later became the Royal Scots Greys. November 29 1681 Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, granted its charter by King Charles II. March 1 1682 The Advocate's Library (known as the National Library of Scotland since 1925) opened by its founder, Sir George Mackenzie, the Lord Advocate. February 6 1685 King Charles II , the "merry monarch" died. His last words to his brother James were "Don't let poor Nellie starve" - a reference to his favourite mistress, Nell Gwynne. April 23 1685 James VII crowned at Westminster Abbey. October 15 1686 Birth of poet Allan Ramsay , father of Allan Ramsay the painter. May 29 1687 Order of the Thistle founded by King James VII. October 19 1687 First sedan chairs available for public hire introduced to Edinburgh. February 17 1688 James Renwick, last Covenanter to be executed. June 10 1688 James Francis Stuart born. In honour of the "Old Pretender", this is known as "White Rose Day" in Jacobite circles. November 5 1688 William of Orange landed in South-West England. December 23 1688 King James VII deposed and fled, dropping the Great Seal into the river Thames. January 22 1689 William of Orange and Mary become joint sovereigns of the UK. March 15 1689 Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh founded Advocates' Library "equipped with works written by lawyers". March 18 1689 Earl of Leven raises a Border regiment to hold Edinburgh against the Jacobites. It later becomes the King's Own Scottish Borderers. April 4 1689 Scottish Parliament declared that James VII had forfeited the Scottish throne. April 19 1689 Earl of Angus forms the Cameronians into a regiment. July 27 1689 Battle of Killiecrankie in which Viscount Dundee (John Graham of Claverhouse) leading a force of Jacobite Highlanders overcame the forces of King William, led by General Hugh Mackay. Viscount Dundee was killed leading the charge. August 21 1689 Battle of Dunkeld when the newly formed Cameronians defended the town against 3,000 Highlanders. May 1 1690 Battle of Cromdale, Jacobites defeated by government troops. June 7 1690 The Scots Parliament ratified the establishment of a Presbyterian religious system, rejecting Episcopacy. July 12 1690 William III defeated James VII in the Battle of the Boyne, Ireland. February 13 1692 Massacre of 38 of the Clan Macdonald by government order at Glencoe . March 15 1693 Hackney cabs (horse-drawn taxis) were authorised for the first time in Glasgow. June 4 1694 The Merchant Maiden Hospital, later known as The Mary Erskine School, was founded by Mary Erskine in the Cowgate, Edinburgh. June 26 1695 Darien Company formed to set up a Scottish colony in Panama. August 5 1695 The Scottish Parliament established a General Post Office. November 1 1695 Bank of Scotland founded by an Act of the Scottish Parliament. July 12 1698 Darien expedition left Leith for Panama. November 3 1698 The Darien Expedition landed at "Caledonia" in Panama. April 11 1700 Scottish settlement in Darien, Panama, abandoned. September 11 1700 James Thomson , Scots author of "Rule Britannia", born. May 8 1701 Scottish-born pirate "Captain" William Kidd tried for piracy at London's Old Bailey. He was hanged on 23 May. September 6 1701 Deposed King James VII died at Château de Saint Germain-en-Laye, near Paris. March 8 1702 King William III died and Queen Anne acceded to the throne at the age of 37. She was the daughter of King James VII. April 21 1703 Edinburgh Fire Brigade, one of the first in Scotland, formed. November 27 1703 The greatest storm on record hit Britain with the loss of 8,000 people in 24 hours. August 5 1704 Act of Security passed by the Scottish Parliament. This allowed Scotland to choose a successor to Queen Anne, other than the one elected by the English Parliament, if Scottish conditions were not met. This precipitated the demands in London for an Act of Union of the two parliaments. October 3 1706 Last Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh before the Union with Westminster. January 8 1707 Earl of Stair, held responsible for the massacre of Glencoe, died. January 16 1707 Treaty of Union of Scottish and Westminster Parliaments ratified. March 25 1707 Last meeting of the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh - until 1999. May 1 1707 Treaty of Union of English and Scottish parliaments proclaimed. October 23 1707 First meeting of the Parliament of Great Britain. February 1 1708 Alexander Selkirk, a sailor from Lower Largo, Fife, rescued after four years on the island of Juan Fernandez, 400 miles off the coast of Chile; his story inspired Daniel Defoe to write "Robinson Crusoe". April 15 1710 Birth of William Cullen. He held the first independent university lectureship in chemistry (as distinct from chemistry and medicine) in the British Isles at Glasgow University. He published the first modern Pharmacopia in 1776 and remained an important member of Edinburgh society during the Enlightenment period. Joseph Black, perhaps the greatest chemist of that age, was one of Cullen's pupils. April 26 1711 John Stuart, Earl of Bute, Britain's first Scottish Prime Minister, born. October 13 1713 Birth of Allan Ramsay , painter and son of Allan Ramsay the poet. August 1 1714 Death of Queen Anne; George I, Elector of Hanover becomes king. September 6 1715 The Earl of Mar unfurled the standard of the "Old Pretender" at the start of the first Jacobite Uprising. November 13 1715 Battle of Sheriffmuir in which a force of Jacobites led by John, 6th Earl of Mar, fought an inconclusive battle against a Hanoverian force led by John, 2nd Duke of Argyll. November 15 1715 The "Glasgow Courant", the city's first newspaper, appeared for the first time. December 22 1715 James Stuart, the Old Pretender, arrived at Peterhead. He stayed for only a few weeks. February 4 1716 Prince James Francis Stuart, the Old Pretender, left Scotland after a stay of only three weeks, effectively bringing the first Jacobite Uprising to an end. June 10 1719 Battle of Glenshiel, Jacobites with Spanish assistance, and government forces clashed. September 1 1719 Marriage ceremony of Prince James Francis Edward Stewart (the Old Pretender ) and Princess Maria Clementina Sobieska. The Polish Princess had been kidnapped on her way to the original wedding, escaped and had married James by proxy earlier in 1719. December 31 1720 Charles Edward Stewart born in Rome. March 19 1721 Novelist Tobias Smollett born. Books included "The Adventures of Roderick Random" and "The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker". September 21 1722 Minister, historian, playwright and tutor to the Prince of Wales, John Home born. After the first performance of his play "Douglas", people asked "Whaur's yer Wully Shakespeare noo?" February 5 1723 John Witherspoon , clergyman, writer, President of Princeton University 1768-94, signatory to American Declaration of Independence 1776, born in Gifford, East Lothian. June 5 1723 Adam Smith , author of "The Wealth of Nations" born Kirkcaldy. June 20 1723 Adam Ferguson , philosopher, historian, "Father of Sociology" born Logierait, Perthshire. June 8 1724 Birth of John Smeaton, civil engineer and lighthouse builder. December 24 1724 General George Wade was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British army in Scotland after he had reported on the need for military roads in the country. May 12 1725 The Black Watch regiment was commissioned under General Wade to police the Highlands. June 22 1725 Malt Riots, Glasgow - against higher taxes imposed on Scottish malt. May 25 1726 First circulating library opened in Edinburgh. June 3 1726 James Hutton , founder of modern geology, born. March 22 1727 Neil Gow , first of a famous family of Fiddle players and composers, born at Inver, near Dunkeld, Perthshire. May 31 1727 The Royal Bank of Scotland was formed from a company of debenture holders. June 10 1727 Death of King George I and accession of George II. April 30 1728 Royal Bank invents first overdraft, Wm Hogg overdraws by �1,000 (�66,000 at today's money). July 3 1728 James Cook, circum-navigator of the globe, born to Scottish parents in Yorkshire. January 8 1729 Two women arrested in Edinburgh for wearing men's clothing. March 20 1729 John Law, financier and founder of New Orleans, died aged about 57. December 28 1734 January 19 1736 Birth of James Watt , mathematical instrument maker, developed the steam engine, invented the condensor and copying machine. April 14 1736 "Porteous Riots" in Edinburgh take place after the hanging of a smuggler by the City Guard led by Captain Porteous. The Guard killed several people in the ensuing riot. September 7 1736 A mob broke into the Tolbooth jail and removed Captain Porteous, reprieved for the killing of Edinburgh citizens during a riot on April 14. He was then hanged from a dyer's pole. November 8 1736 First regular public theatre in Scotland opened in Carrubber's Close, Edinburgh. October 29 1740 James Boswell, biographer of Dr Johnston, born at Blair's Land, Parliament Square, Edinburgh. August 28 1741 Earl of Wintoun died, aged 100. April 28 1742 Henry Dundas, powerful politician, known as "Uncrowned King of Scotland, born. March 7 1744 The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers founded. The oldest golf club in the world, it produced thirteen "Rules of Golf" for its first competition which was played for the "Silver Club". (The first winner of the trophy only just escaped beheading for becoming Bonnie Prince Charlie's personal surgeon during the Jacobite Uprising the following year. The club played on the 5 holes at Leith Links for nearly a century. July 23 1745 Charles Edward Stuart lands on Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides at the start of the Jacobite Uprising. August 19 1745 Charles Edward Stuart, raises his standard at Glenfinnan, at the start of the '45 uprising. September 3 1745 Prince Charles Edward Stuart proclaimed his father as King James VIII of Scotland at Perth. September 14 1745 Bonnie Prince Charlie, Charles Edward Stuart, occupied Edinburgh. September 17 1745 Prince Charles Edward Stuart took up residence at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. September 21 1745 Charles Edward Stuart victorious at Battle of Prestonpans. The Jacobite army of just over 3,000 under Bonnie Prince Charlie heavily defeated the English Royal forces led by Sir John Cope. December 6 1745 Charles Edward Stewart's entry into Derby. January 16 1746 Retreating Jacobite army defeated Hanoverian forces at Battle of Falkirk . February 16 1746 An attempt to capture Prince Charles Edward Stewart at Moy Hall was unsuccessful and the government forces were surprised and routed by a handful of Jacobites. Duncan Bam MacCrimmon, Hereditory Piper to the MacLeods of Dunvegan, fighting on the Hanoverian side, was the only fatality in the skirmish. March 17 1746 Lord George Murray and Cluny Macpherson (chief of the clan) fell upon the Campbell militia posts in the Braes of Atholl, at the head of Strathtay, and wiped them out. A brilliant feat of arms, it aroused a blaze of Jacobite optimism. April 16 1746 Charles Edward Stewart defeated at Battle of Culloden . April 21 1746 City of Glasgow held a cake-and-wine banquet to celebrate the defeat of the Jacobites and offer the Duke of Cumberland the freedom of the city. June 18 1746 Flora MacDonald met Prince Charles Edward Stuart and persuaded him to wear women's clothes as part of the escape plan from the Outer Hebrides to Skye. July 5 1746 British Linen Company (later Bank) received its Charter. September 20 1746 Prince Charles Edward Stuart escaped capture by sailing to France aborad the French ship "L'Heureux." April 9 1747 Lord Lovat beheaded on Tower Hill for high treason. He was the last person in Britain to be beheaded. May 20 1747 James Lind began a controlled experiment which demonstrated that citrus fruits could prevent scurvy, a disease contracted by sailors on long voyages. The lime juice which eventually became standard issue to British sailors gave rise to the term "limey" as a name for British overseas. July 6 1747 John Paul Jones , hero of the US Navy, born Kirkbean, Dumfries. August 1 1747 Proscription Act introduced, banning tartan and the carrying of weapons. March 10 1748 John Playfair, clergyman, geologist, mathematician, born in Edinburgh. September 5 1750 Poet Robert Fergusson born in Edinburgh. May 14 1752 Colin Campbell of Glenure, known as the "Red Fox", and a notorious presecutor of Jacobites after Culloden, was shot in Appin. Alan Breck (later made famous in Robert Louis Stevenson's "Kidnapped" and "Catriona") was accused (though no evidence was ever put forward) and fled to France. James Stewart (a friend of Red Fox) was arrested and was found guilty, despite a lack evidence, by a jury in Inveraray, presided over by the Duke of Argyll. September 3 1752 With the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, September 3 1752 became 14 September. Crowds flocked the streets demanding "Give us back our 11 days." November 1 1753 Tremors from an earthquake in Lisbon are felt in Scotland. May 14 1754 St Andrews Society of Golfers constituted. In 1834 it became the Royal and Ancient Golf Club. August 21 1754 Birth of William Murdoch who pioneered the use of coal-gas lighting in 1792 in partnership with James Watt and Mathew Boulton. March 4 1756 Sir Henry Raeburn , reknowned for painting the portraits of many of the citizens of Edinburgh, born. September 21 1756 Road builder John McAdam born in Ayr. August 9 1757 Civil engineer Thomas Telford born. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. May 5 1758 James Taylor who developed the steamboat was born. September 9 1758 Birth of painter Alexander Naysmyth in Edinburgh. January 25 1759 Robert Burns born Alloway. January 1 1760 Carron Ironworks near Falkirk begun by Roebuck and Garbett from Birmingham and William Cadell from Cockenzie, East Lothian July 27 1760 The Scottish School of Design was founded in Edinburgh. It later became the Royal Institution and finally the Royal Scottish Academy. October 26 1760 George III crowned, beginning a 60 year reign, one of the longest in British history. January 31 1761 Lachlan MacQuarie , "Father of Australia" born Ulva. May 16 1763 Biographer James Boswell met Samuel Johnson for the first time. October 1 1763 Contract to construct the North Bridge, Edinburgh, signed. January 1 1766 James Stewart the "Old Pretender" died. April 17 1766 James Craig's winning entry for development of Edinburgh New Town was approved. August 16 1766 Birth of Carolina Oliphant (Lady Nairne), poet and author of many Jacobite songs, including "Charlie is my Darling". Her songs are second only in popularity to Burns. December 29 1766 Charles Macintosh , who patented waterproof fabric, born. June 10 1768 Construction of the Forth and Clyde canal started. It was to take 22 years to complete. December 1 1768 The first volume of Encyclopedia Britannica was published in Edinburgh, edited by William Smellie. March 9 1770 Haggis was served on board Captain James Cook's ship "Endeavour", anchored off New Zealand, in celebration of the birthday of a Scottish officer who was on board. (Captain Cook was born in Yorkshire of Scottish parents). November 14 1770 James Bruce discovered the source of the Blue Nile, Lake Tana in north-west Ethiopia. May 14 1771 Industrialist and social reformer Robert Owen born. August 15 1771 Novelist and poet Sir Walter Scott born. September 10 1771 Birth of Mungo Park at Foulshiels, near Selkirk. He became an explorer and doctor who charted the course of the River Niger. September 17 1771 Death of novelist Tobias Smollett whose novels included Roderick Random. June 8 1772 Robert Stevenson, engineer, who constructed 18 lighthouses around Scotland, born Glasgow. September 15 1773 The "Hector" from Loch Broom, near Ullapool, arrives at Pictou, Nova Scotia, carrying emigrants escaping from the "Clearances". October 23 1773 Birth of Francis Jeffrey, first editor of the "Edinburgh Review". June 3 1774 Poet Robert Tannahill born in Paisley. October 8 1774 Rev Henry Duncan , founder of the first savings bank, born in the Manse at Lochrutton. October 16 1774 David Brewster , inventor of the kaleidoscope born. January 18 1782 Death of Sir John Pringle, President of the Royal Society from 1772-1778 and physician to King George III. Sometimes called the "father of modern military medicine", the Scottish-born physician focused on the need to adopt a clean medical environment for the treatment of wounded soldiers. He also coined the term "influenza". February 2 1782 Birth of James Chalmers in Arbroath - he devised the adhesive postage stamp. July 1 1782 Proscription Act Repealed, thus allowing again the wearing of tartan and the carrying of weapons (banned as a result of the 1745 Uprising in support of Bonnie Prince Charlie). October 7 1782 Birth of Charles McLaren, one of the founders of the "Scotsman" newspaper. January 1 1783 Glasgow Chamber of Commerce incorporated. January 27 1783 Glasgow Herald newspaper first published. It is the longest continuously published daily newspaper in Britain. March 29 1783 The Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated by charter. August 27 1784 First balloon ascent in Britain by James Tytler , Edinburgh. October 5 1785 Balloon flight by Italian aeronaut Vincenzo Lunardi from Heriot's School, Edinburgh to Ceres in Fife. November 18 1785 Sir David Wilkie who later became a well-known painter of historical and religious works as well as portraits, was born near Pitlessie, Fife. July 31 1786 "Kilmarnock Edition" of the poems of Robert Burns "Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect" first published. March 5 1787 Deacon William Brodie executed for theft - on a grand scale. September 3 1787 Glasgow weavers riot after their wages are cut. Bricks were thrown at magistrates and soldiers who then opened fire on the rioters, resulting in six being killed. December 1 1787 First lighthouse in Scotland opened (at Kinnaird Head, Fraserburgh). It was built by Thomas Smith and Robert Stevenson. January 22 1788 Poet George Gordon Byron (later Lord Byron ) born. He moved to Aberdeen at the age of four and attended Aberdeen Grammar School. The title was inherited from an uncle. January 31 1788 Charles Edward Stewart, "Bonnie Prince Charlie" died. October 14 1788 First steamboat tested on Dalswinton Loch by Patrick Miller and William Symington. June 14 1789 Whisky distilled from maize was first produced - by a clergyman, the Rev Elijah Craig. He called the new liquor "bourbon" because he lived in Bourbon County, Kentucky. October 30 1789 Writer Michael Scott who wrote novels for Blackwood's Magazine, was born in Glasgow. March 5 1790 Flora Macdonald, who helped to save Prince Charles Edward Stewart during his flight after the defeat at the Battle of Culloden, died in Kingsburgh, Skye (in the same bed in which Bonnie Prince Charlie had slept during his escape). July 8 1790 Forth and Clyde Canal between the rivers Forth and Clyde, 22 years in the making, completed. At the official opening on 27 July a hogshead of water from the River Forth in the east was transported along the canal and poured into the river Clyde at Bowling. May 16 1791 James Boswell's "Life of Johnson" published. June 21 1791 Robert Napier , regarded as the "father of Clyde shipbuilding" was born. January 2 1792 Thomas Muir, lawyer and political activist, arrested and charged with sedition. March 3 1792 Robert Adam, architect, died. July 18 1792 John Paul Jones, naval hero of the American Revolution, died; he was born in Kircudbrightshire in 1747. 20 October 1792 Colin McIver, better known as Colin Campbell, was born in Glasgow. He fought in the Napoleonic Wars, the Opium Wars in China, the Crimean War (winning the Battle of Alma and holding the "thin red line" at Balaclava) and suppressed the Indian Mutiny at Lucknow, rising to be Field Marshall in 1862. February 10 1794 The 4th Duke of Gordon was authorised to raise the Gordon Highlanders. April 27 1794 James Bruce , explorer and author of "Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile" died. October 28 1794 Birth of Robert Liston in Linlithgow who was to carry out the first operation in Britain with the aid of an anaesthetic. January 17 1795 Duddingston Curling Society became formally organised, one of the earliest in the history of curling - though Kilsyth lays claim to a date of 1716. May 19 1795 Death in Auchinleck of James Boswell , biographer of Dr Johnston. December 4 1795 Essayist and historian Thomas Carlyle , best known for his "French Revolution" born in Ecclefechan. January 13 1796 John Anderson, founder of "Andersonian Institute" (now Strathclyde University ) died. June 21 1796 Scottish explorer Mungo Park reached the source of the river Niger in Africa. 21 July 1796 Robert Burns dies in Dumfries. October 24 1796 Artist David Roberts born in Edinburgh. August 29 1797 "Battle of Tranent" in which a demonstration against conscription under the Militia Act was broken up by the Cinque Ports Dragoons and East Lothian Yeomanry with the death of 12 participants. October 11 1797 The British fleet, under the command of Admiral Adam Duncan (born in Forfar in 1731), defeated the Dutch off the village of Camperdown, Holland July 14 1798 United States' Consulate first opened in Edinburgh. January 9 1799 Income tax introduced for the first time. April 15 1799 Prof Joseph Black chemist, researcher, teacher, first to identify carbon dioxide, died. June 25 1799 David Douglas, explorer and botanist, born at Scone, Perthshire. In addition to the Douglas Fir, he brought back to Europe lupins, phlox, penstemmon, sunflowers, clarkia, Californian poppy, mimulus, flowering currant and mahonia. January 1 1800 New Lanark Twist Company founded, with Robert Owen as manager. February 11 1800 William H Fox Talbot , pioneering photographer, born. May 15 1800 King George III escaped two assassination attempts in one day. In Hyde Park, London, a bullet intended for him hit a man standing alongside. Later, at the Drury Lane Theatre, two bullets missed him and hit the wooden panel behind him. His assailant was found to be insane. October 10 1802 Writer and geologist Hugh Miller born on the Black Isle, Cromarty. October 10 1802 The Edinburgh Review first published "to erect a higher standard of merit, and secure a bolder and purer taste in literature, and to apply philosophical principles and the maxims of truth and humanity to politics". March 17 1806 Death of businessman and philanthropist David Dale who established the cotton mills at New Lanark, in partnership with Arkwright, the inventor of the "Spinning Jenny." January 16 1809 General Sir John Moore died at the Battle of Corunna in Spain. April 20 1809 James David Forbes, physicist who devised first form of seismograph, born. May 10 1809 Andrew Bell, co-founder of Encyclopaedia Britannica with Colin MacFarquhar, died. December 29 1809 William Ewart Gladstone , UK Prime Minister on four occasions, born 1809 March 25 1810 The Commercial Bank of Scotland was founded in Edinburgh by John Pitcairn, Lord Cockburn and others. May 10 1810 Rev Henry Duncan opened the world's first savings bank in Ruthwell, near Dumfries. January 9 1811 The first women's golf tournament took place in scotland at Musselburgh. June 7 1811 Sir James Young Simpson , pioneer of anaesthetics and chloroform, born. December 23 1812 Samuel Smiles, writer and author of "Self Help" and "Lives of Engineers", born. March 19 1813 David Livingstone, missionary and explorer, born Blantyre. September 30 1813 Birth in Orkney of John Rae, explorer and surveyor of Canada's northern coastline. March 20 1814 Birth of Dr John Goodsir in Anstruther, Fife, who showed in 1842 that bacteria was the cause of disease and that it could be eliminated with selective poisons - 18 years before Louis Pasteur, who is usually credited with the discovery. July 7 1814 First publication of Walter Scott's Waverley Novels (See Project Gutenberg under "Scott"). January 11 1815 Ensign Ewart captured the French Ensign at the Battle of Waterloo. July 1 1815 Architect Alexander "Greek Thomson" born in Balfron, Stirlingshire. January 25 1817 First edition of the Edinburgh-based "Scotsman" newspaper, published by its founders, Charles MacLaren, William Ritchie and John MacDiarmid. February 4 1818 Honours of Scotland put on display in Edinburgh Castle after being rediscovered by Sir Walter Scott. September 18 1818 Theatre Royal, Glasgow, became the first theatre in Britain to be lit by gas. May 24 1819 The future Queen Victoria was born. June 13 1819 The Strathnaver Clearances began on the Sutherland estates - families were given 30 minutes to remove their belongings before their cottages were set on fire. August 25 1819 James Watt , developer of steam power, died. August 25 1819 Birth in Glasgow of Alan Pinkerton , founder of the Chicago-based detective agency which bears his name. March 11 1820 Death of Sir Alexander Mackenzie (of Dunkeld), explorer of North America and in 1793 became the first white person north of Mexico to reach the Pacific by crossing overland. August 6 1820 Donald Alexander Smith - later Lord Strathcona - born in Forres. A pioneer of the Hudson Bay Company in the North-West, he later championed the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway across Canada and drove the last spike at Craigellachie, British Columbia. October 4 1821 Death of John Rennie, engineer who constructed the Crinan Canal. July 8 1822 Henry Raeburn , portrait painter, died. August 17 1822 Visit of George IV to Edinburgh began, orchestrated by Sir Walter Scott . October 30 1822 Charles Macintosh patented the waterproof cloth he was using to make raincoats. June 23 1823 George and Robert Stephenson open their locomotive foundry in Newcastle upon Tyne. July 1 1824 Lachlan Macquarrie, "Father of Australia" died in London. November 15 1824 Edinburgh's Great Fire began - and lasted until 17th November. It destroyed the High Street, Parliament Square and the Tron Kirk. December 10 1824 Novelist and poet George MacDonald, born. April 19 1825 Poet Robert Byron (later Lord Byron) died at Missolinghi, Greece. April 24 1825 Novelist R M Ballantyne, who wrote 90 books, the best known of which was "The Coral Island," was born in Edinburgh. August 27 1825 African explorer William Blake born. April 26 1826 Robert Adamson , who collaborated with D O Hill to produce early portrait photography, born. August 13 1826 Explorer Alexander Gordon Laing became the first Christian to reach Timbuctu, Africa. August 14 1827 Foundation laid of George IV Bridge, Edinburgh. It was not completed until 1836 due to lack of funds. January 28 1829 William Burke, murderer and body snatcher of "Burke and Hare" fame, executed. April 5 1830 Birth at Lesmahagow of composer Alexander Muir, creator of "Maple Leaf Forever". June 26 1830 King George IV died, aged 67 (and William IV ascended the throne). George IV is reckoned to be Britain's fattest king. His favourite breakfast was two roast pigeons, three beefsteaks, a bottle of white wine, a glass of champagne, two of port and one brandy. June 13 1831 Birth of James Clerk Maxwell , first Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge University, he created electromagnetic theory of light. September 27 1831 Scotland's first passenger railway opened (between Glasgow and Garnkirk). December 23 1831 Major outbreak of cholera in Scotland. June 4 1832 Great Reform Bill, which disenfranchised rotten burghs, came into force. July 16 1832 31 Shetland boats (known as "sixerns") sank in a storm with the loss of 105 crewmen. The event is still recalled as "The Bad Day". September 21 1832 Novelist (notably "Ivanhoe" and "Talisman") and poet Sir Walter Scott died aged 61. July 13 1834 Botanist and explorer David Douglas died in Hawaii. September 2 1834 Death of engineer, road, bridge and canal builder Thomas Telford . October 9 1834 First shipment of tea direct from India arrived at the Broomielaw Docks in Glasgow. November 21 1835 Poet James Hogg, the Ettrick shepherd, died in Ettrick. November 25 1835 Steel magnate and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie born in Dunfermline. July 1 1836 North of Scotland Bank founded in Aberdeen. It is now part of the Clydesdale Bank. November 26 1836 John McAdam, inventor of "tar macadam" road surface, died, 1836. March 2 1838 Clydesdale Bank founded in Glasgow. April 21 1838 John Muir , pioneering conservationist and founder of Yosemite National Park, born in Dunbar. April 22 1838 The 703-ton Sirius, built in Leith and carrying 90 passengers, reached New York, the first ship to cross the Atlantic entirely under steam. Shortage of fuel resulted in spars and furniture being burned towards the end of the 18-day voyage. Brunel's steamship, Great western, arrived a day later. June 6 1838 Thomas Blake Glover , founding father of Japan's industrialisation (including Mitsubishi) and Japanese Navy, born Fraserburgh. June 28 1838 Queen Victoria crowned at Westminster Abbey. April 11 1839 John Galt , author, traveller, founder of Guelph, Ontario, died. August 15 1840 Foundation stone for the Monument to Sir Walter Scott laid in Princes Street Gardens. May 28 1841 Seven church ministers of the Presbytery of Strathbogie were removed from their posts by the General assembly of the Church of Scotland for obeying civil rather than ecclesiastical law. June 1 1841 Poet and songwriter Robert Allan (born in Kilbarchan in 1774) died in New York, six days after sailing there from Scotland to join his son. He had believed that his poetry would be better appreciated in North America. November 9 1841 Edward VII, eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert was born. February 21 1842 Intercity railway between Glasgow and Edinburgh opened by Queen Victoria. September 7 1842 Queen Victoria's first visit to Edinburgh . September 20 1842 Sir James Dewar, inventor of the vacuum flask, born in Kincardine-on-Forth. May 18 1843 Break up of Church of Scotland and formation of Free Church of Scotland . June 1 1843 Dr Henry Faulds, who established the uniqueness of fingerprints, born in Beith, Ayrshire. October 26 1845 Lady Caroline Nairne, songwriter and poet, died at Gask. February 5 1846 John Boyd Dunlop , who patented the first practical pneumatic tyre, born Ayrshire. February 12 1846 Rev Henry Duncan , founder of the world-wide savings bank movement, died near Ruthwell. December 21 1846 Robert Liston, who was born in Linlithgow in 1794, performed the first operation in a British hospital using anaesthetic (ether). March 3 1847 Alexander Graham Bell born Edinburgh. April 17 1847 The Educational Institute of Scotland was founded "to promote sound learning and advance the interests of education in Scotland". May 30 1847 Death of Thomas Chalmers , first Moderator of the Free Church of Scotland. July 5 1847 Final run of the Edinburgh to London mail coach (trains had taken over). August 22 1847 Birth of Sir Alexander Campbell MacKenzie, musician and composer. November 9 1847 In Edinburgh, Dr James Young Simpson delivered Wilhelmina Carstairs while chloroform was administered to the mother, the first child to be born with the aid of anaesthesia. November 12 1847 Sir James Young Simpson first used chloroform as an anaesthetic. November 23 1847 Historian Walter Biggar Blaikie born. January 1 1848 Riots by Irish navvies in Stonehaven. January 29 1848 Greenwich Mean Time adopted by Scotland. February 15 1848 The Caledonian Railway company opened. March 23 1848 First Scottish settlers arrive Dunedin , New Zealand. December 2 1848 Mary Slessor , missionary to West Africa, born in Aberdeen. September 12 1848 Death of William McNab, curator of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh . He was responsible for "greening" Scotland in the 19th century. He moved 4,000 plant species, including trees from a site on Leith Walk, to the present garden at Inverleith. August 13 1849 Queen Victoria visited Glasgow, the first monarch to visit the city since James VI in the 16th century. Having visited the "second city of the Empire" she is reputed to have said that she did not wish to repeat the experience... May 10 1850 Sir Thomas Lipton, founder of the Lipton's grocery chain who was a millionaire by the age of 30, was born in Glasgow. October 17 1850 James "Paraffin" Young obtained a patent for the extraction of paraffin from shale, starting the chemical industry in West Lothian. November 13 1850 Novelist and poet Robert Louis Stevenson born Edinburgh. March 12 1852 Last salmon was caught in the River Kelvin due to the rise of industrial pollution in the area. After a major investment, salmon returned to spawn in the river in 1999. May 24 1852 Robert Cunningham Graham born. Son of a Scottish laird, he organised the Scottish Labour Party with Kier Hardie, wrote over 30 travel books and was elected first president of the Scottish National Party. October 2 1852 Birth of Sir William Ramsay , Scottish chemist who discovered helium, xenon, neon, argon, radon and krypton. November 25 1853 John Gibson Lockhart, biographer and critic, editor Blackwood's magazine, died. He married Sir Walter Scott's daughter and wrote a 7 volume biography of Scott. Buried Dryburgh Abbey, at the feet of Sir Walter Scott. September 17 1854 David Dunbar Buick was born at 26 Green Street, Arbroath. He emigrated to the USA with his parents at the age of two. Although he founded the Buick Manufacturing Company which later became General Motors, it was William C. Durant who grew the company. September 19 1854 The Great North of Scotland Railway opened, running from Aberdeen to Huntly. October 2 1854 Patrick Geddes , "father of town planning" born in Ballater. October 27 1854 William Smith, founder of the Boys' Brigade , born. November 25 1854 Death of John Gibson Lockhart, Sir Walter Scott's biographer. Lockhart is buried at the foot of Sir Walter's grave in Dryburgh Abbey. November 17 1855 David Livingstone reached Victoria Falls in Africa. August 15 1856 Birth at Holytown of John Keir Hardie, coal miner and founder of the Labour Party. December 24 1856 Writer and geologist Hugh Miller died. March 18 1857 William Henry Playfair, architect, died. June 30 1857 Start of trial for murder of Madeleine Smith who was eventually found "Not Proven" July 9 1857 Madeleine Smith acquitted of murder and "not proven" on another charge of attempted poisoning after a notorious trial. November 17 1858 Robert Owen , Welsh-Scottish industrialist and social reformer, founder of New Lanark community, died. March 8 1859 Kenneth Grahame, author of "The Wind in the Willows" born in Edinburgh. March 21 1859 National Gallery of Scotland opened in Edinburgh. May 22 1859 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , author of Sherlock Holmes, born of Irish parents in Edinburgh. September 16 1859 David Livingstone discovered Lake Nyasa. October 14 1859 Queen Victoria opened the water supply from Loch Katrine allowing it to flow 17 miles to Milngavie reservoir and then to Glasgow. May 9 1860 J M Barrie, author of "Peter Pan" born September 26 1860 First Open Golf Championship held at Prestwick. There were eight entrants and the championship was won by Willie Park of Musselburgh. January 26 1861 "One o'clock gun" fired for the first time from Edinburgh Castle. June 19 1861 Earl Haig , Commander in Chief of British forces 1915-18, founder of British Legion, born. October 22 1861 Foundation stones of main Post Office and National Museum of Scotland laid by Prince Albert in his last public engagement before his death. June 3 1863 Writer Neil Munro born Inveraray. November 20 1863 Death of James Bruce (8th Lord Elgin) who had served as Governor-General of Canada (1847-54) and India (1862-63). As a special envoy to China he burned downthe emperor's Summer Palace in Beijing, destroying countless works of art, in order to induce the emperor to sign a treaty. February 1 1865 Highland Railway formed from the amalgamation of Inverness and Perth Junction and the Inverness and Aberdeen Junction Railways. October 12 1866 Ramsay MacDonald , first Labour Prime Minister of UK, born. October 25 1866 Revised Glasgow coat of arms approved by the Lord Lyon - "Let Glasgow Flourish". May 23 1867 Queen's Park Football Club, first senior football (soccer) club in Scotland formed. February 10 1868 David Brewster , scientist, inventor (including the kaleidoscope) died. March 22 1868 Last fully public hanging in Scotland - that of Joseph Bell at Perth. December 10 1868 Artist, architect and designer Charles Rennie Mackintosh born. June 5 1868 James Connolly , Irish revolutionary, born in Edinburgh. July 13 1868 Scottish Reform Act passed giving the vote to all male householders. April 22 1869 Rev Patrick Bell , inventor of mechanical reaper, died. November 12 1869 Edinburgh University became the first in Britain to allow women to study medicine (though not graduate). But a woman, masquerading as Dr James Barry, actually took a medical degree at Edinburgh University in 1812 and became an army surgeon. November 22 1869 Cutty Sark launched at Dumbarton on the Clyde to be the fastest ship in the race to bring home the first of the new season's tea from China. She later brought back wool from Australia. May 6 1870 Sir James Young Simpson advocate of chloroform, died. May 17 1870 David Octavius Hill, painter and pioneer photographer, died. August 4 1870 Birth of the entertainer Sir Harry Lauder . August 30 1870 Birth of golf course designer Dr Alister Mackenzie; he was responsible for Augusta National and Cypress Point, among others. December 18 1870 Birth of Hector Munro. He wrote short stories under the pseudonym "Saki". March 27 1871 First Scotland/England rugby international, 20 a side, played at Raeburn Place. (Scotland won). November 10 1871 Journalist Henry M Stanley found the missing Scottish missionary David Livingstone with the classic "Dr Livingstone, I presume?" January 14 1872 Greyfriars Bobby died after staying by his master's grave for 14 years. July 18 1872 Voting by secret ballot was introduced for the first time. August 10 1872 Education (Scotland) Act passed, providing elementary education for all children. August 20 1872 Death of the poet William Miller whose collection of nursery songs included "Wee Willie Winkie". November 30 1872 World's first international football (soccer) match, Scotland V England at West of Scotland Cricket Ground. Result was 0-0. March 3 1873 "Scottish Football Union" formed - the precursor of the Scottish Rugby Union. March 13 1873 Scottish Football Association founded. The initial clubs were Queen's Park, Clydesdale, Vale of Leven, Dumbreck, Third Lanark, Eastern, Granville and Kilmarnock. May 1 1873 Missionary and explorer David Livingstone died. November 15 1873 Statue to Greyfriar's Bobby , who stayed by his master's grave for 14 years was unveiled. April 18 1874 Remains of David Livingstone interred in Westminster Abbey. July 6 1875 Institute of Bankers in Scotland formed, the first professional association of bankers in the world. August 26 1875 Novelist and statesman John Buchan born in Perth. September 25 1875 John Hughes Bennett, pioneer microscopist, died. February 14 1876 Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone (Patent 174461). Two hours after it was lodged, his rival, Elisha Gray, applied for a similar patent. Bell's was granted. March 25 1876 First Scotland v Wales football international. Scotland won 4-0. June 23 1876 Robert Napier , regarded as the "father of Clyde shipbuilding" died. June 25 1876 Seven Scots, including John Stuart Forbes, were in the US 7th Cavalry with General Custer at theBattle of the Little Big Horn. October 22 1877 A firedamp explosion at Blantyre Colliery killed 207 miners. November 5 1877 Opening of the original Mitchell Library, Glasgow, now the largest public reference library in Europe. January 14 1876 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his telephone to Queen Victoria. She made the first call in the British Isles from her residence on the Isle of Wight. January 26 1878 Kirkpatrick McMillan , inventor of the bicycle, died. June 1 1878 First Tay rail bridge opens. It was to collapse 18 months later in the Tay Bridge Disaster. October 2 1878 City of Glasgow Bank closed its doors and went into liquidation. November 5 1879 Death of Edinburgh-born mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell. December 28 1879 Dr Marie Stopes , founder of first modern birth control clinic, born Edinburgh. October 28 1880 Dr Henry Faulds, a Scots medical missionary working in Japan, published a letter in "Nature" which gave the first evidence that fingerprints could be used as proof of guilt or innocence in legal cases. February 5 1881 Writer and historian Thomas Carlyle died in London. August 6 1881 Birth of Sir Alexander Fleming , discoverer of penicillin. October 14 1881 Eyemouth Fishing Disaster, nearly 20 boats and 129 men (1 in 3 of the town's male population) lost their lives in a storm. November 2 1881 Tom Johnston, one of Scotland's best know Secretaries of State, born. April 11 1882 Battle of the Braes in which crofters in Skye fought 50 policemen during a dispute over land rights. January 17 1883 Author Compton Mackenzie (Whisky Galore etc) born. July 3 1883 124 people drowned when Steamer "Daphne" sank during its launch on river Clyde. October 4 1883 Boys' Brigade founded in Glasgow. March 15 1886 Low-level platforms at Glasgow's Queen Street Station opened. June 24 1886 Crofters' Holding Act passed providing limited security of tenure. July 23 1886 Birth in Glasgow of Arthur Whitten Brown (later Sir Arthur), companion of Alcock on the first west to east aircraft crossing of the Atlantic. May 15 1887 Poet and critic Edwin Muir born. May 28 1887 73 miners were killed in a firedamp explosion at Udston Colliery, Lanarkshire. June 20 1887 New Tay rail bridge opened. June 25 1887 Wallace statue unveiled at the Wallace National Monument , Stirling. November 6 1887 Celtic Football Club formally constituted in Calton, Glasgow, to alleviate poverty in Glasgow's East End parishes. January 3 1888 O H Mavor (James Bridie) physician and prolific playwright, born in Glasgow. August 13 1888 Birth of John Logie Baird , developer of television. August 22 1888 Queen Victoria opened the Glasgow City Chambers. October 31 1888 Pneumatic bicycle tyres were patented by inventor John Boyd Dunlop from Ayrshire. July 15 1889 National Portrait Gallery for Scotland opened in Edinburgh. July 20 1889 Lord Reith, governor of BBC, born in Stonehaven. January 24 1890 First train over Forth Bridge. March 4 1890 Forth Rail Bridge officially opened by Prince of Wales. May 7 1890 James Naysmith, engineer and inventor of steam hammer, died April 30 1891 An Comunn Gaidhealach was formally instituted as a vehicle for the preservation and development of the Gaelic language. June 25 1891 The first Sherlock Holmes story by Edinburgh-born author Arthur Conan Doyle was published in the "Strand" magazine, triggering the success of the stories - earlier publication of "A Study in Scarlet" in Beeton's Christmas Annual in 1887 had attracted little public interest. November 8 1891 Author Neil M Gunn born in Caithness. Best known for "Highland River" (1937) and "Silver Darlings" (1951). November 16 1891 Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show opened in the East End Exhibition Buildings, Duke Street, Glasgow. July 4 1892 Lanarkshire-born James Keir Hardie became the first socialist to win a seat in the UK Parliament. August 11 1892 Author and poet C M Grieve (Hugh MacDiarmid) born at Langholm, Dumfriesshire. January 13 1893 Keir Hardie of Legbrannock, Lanarkshire, founded Independent Labour Party. August 2 1894 Death duties introduced for the first time in Britain. December 3 1894 Robert Louis Stevenson died in Samoa. February 11 1895 Coldest temperature ever recorded in Scotland, -27.2C at Braemar. March 9 1895 Soprano Dame Isabella Baillie , opera star, born in Hawick. July 17 1895 The east coast express train from London to Aberdeen set a record time of 10 hours and 21 minutes for the 540 miles. November 14 1896 Speed limit for horseless carriages was raised from 4mph (2mph in towns) to 14mph. December 14 1896 Glasgow District Underground opened, powered by electricity. March 25 1897 Formation of the Scottish Trades Union Congress. August 20 1897 Ronald Ross, the first Scot to win a Nobel prize (in 1902) dissected a mosquito and established the link with malaria. September 10 1897 HRH Duke of York opened the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum in Glasgow. November 1 1897 Novelist and politician Naomi Mitchison born in Edinburgh. Her best known novels are "The Conquered" (1923), "When the Bough Breaks" (1924) and "Cloud Cuckoo Land". January 22 1898 People's Palace on Glasgow Green opens. April 28 1898 Poet William Soutar born in Perth. January 5 1899 An experiment using electricity to drive Glasgow's tram cars was successful, sounding the end for the 3,000 horses used by the city on its 150 miles of track. March 8 1899 Novelist Eric Linklater, son of an Orkney master mariner, born in Wales. October 31 1899 Steam Ship Sir Walter Scott launched by William Denny at Dumbarton. The ship is still sailing on Loch Katrine in Perthshire, 100 years later. December 30 1899 Albion Motor Company established to build lorries. December 30 1899 Rangers' first match at their new Ibrox stadium. It was a 3-1 victory over Hearts in the Inter-City League. Other Sections of the Timeline You can now go directly to the other sections of the chronological sequence or the events which have occured in particular calendar months - "This Day in January" etc. Chronology	i don't know
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Who is the female presenter of the UK TV programme ‘Most Haunted’?	Pan \| Define Pan at Dictionary.com Pan noun 1. the ancient Greek god of forests, pastures, flocks, and shepherds, represented with the head, chest, and arms of a man and the legs and sometimes the horns and ears of a goat. pan-pan noun 1. an international distress signal used by shore stations to inform a ship, aircraft, etc., of something vital to its safety or to the safety of one of its passengers. Origin reduplication and alteration of French panne ‘breakdown, failure’ Pan. pan- 1. a combining form meaning “all,” occurring originally in loanwords from Greek (panacea; panoply), but now used freely as a general formative (panleukopenia; panorama; pantelegraph; pantheism; pantonality), and especially in terms, formed at will, implying the union of all branches of a group (Pan-Christian; Panhellenic; Pan-Slavism). The hyphen and the second capital tend with longer use to be lost, unless they are retained in order to set off clearly the component parts. Expand < Greek pan- combining form of pâs (neuter pân) all, every, pân everything Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for pan Expand Contemporary Examples Fry the florets till they turn golden, then remove from the pan and set aside and let them chill. Who Was Shain Gandee, the MTV ‘Buckwild’ Star Found Dead? Anna Klassen April 1, 2013 The blue notes are drowned out by sounds of gyozas frying on a pan—Koreeda loves to film food. Bad News for Fliers Clive Irving April 29, 2010 Historical Examples The cock was down, the pan and muzzle were black with the smoke; it had been that instant fired. Waverley Sir Walter Scott British Dictionary definitions for pan Expand a wide metal vessel used in cooking (in combination): saucepan Also called panful. the amount such a vessel will hold 3. any of various similar vessels used esp in industry, as for boiling liquids 4. a dish used by prospectors, esp gold prospectors, for separating a valuable mineral from the gravel or earth containing it by washing and agitating 5. either of the two dishlike receptacles on a balance 6. (Brit) Also called lavatory pan. the bowl of a lavatory 7. a natural or artificial depression in the ground where salt can be obtained by the evaporation of brine a natural depression containing water or mud 8. (Caribbean) the indented top from an oil drum used as the treble drum in a steel band 9. a slang word for face (sense 1a) 12. a small cavity containing priming powder in the locks of old guns 13. a hard substratum of soil 14. verb pans, panning, panned 15. when tr, often foll by off or out. to wash (gravel) in a pan to separate particles of (valuable minerals) from it 16. (intransitive) often foll by out. (of gravel) to yield valuable minerals by this process 17. Old English panne; related to Old Saxon, Old Norse panna, Old High German pfanna pan2 verb pans, panning, panned 1. to move (a film camera) or (of a film camera) to be moved so as to follow a moving object or obtain a panoramic effect noun (as modifier): a pan shot Word Origin the leaf of the betel tree 2. a preparation of this leaf which is chewed, together with betel nuts and lime, in India and the East Indies Word Origin C17: from Hindi, from Sanskrit parna feather, wing, leaf Pan noun 1. (Greek myth) the god of fields, woods, shepherds, and flocks, represented as a man with a goat's legs, horns, and ears related adjectives Pandean Panic pan- including or relating to all parts or members: Pan-African, pantheistic Word Origin from Greek pan, neuter of pas all Pan. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for pan Expand n. Old English panne, earlier ponne (Mercian) "pan," from West Germanic panna "pan" (cf. Old Norse panna, Old Frisian panne, Middle Dutch panne, Dutch pan, Old Low German panna, Old High German phanna, German pfanne), probably an early borrowing (4c. or 5c.) from Vulgar Latin patna, from Latin patina "shallow pan, dish, stewpan," from Greek patane "plate, dish," from PIE pet-ano-, from root pete- "to spread" (see pace (n.)). Irish panna probably is from English, and Lithuanian pana is from German. Used of pan-shaped parts of mechanical apparatus from c.1590; hence flash in the pan, a figurative use from early firearms, where a pan held the priming (and the gunpowder might "flash," but no shot ensue). To go out of the (frying) pan into the fire is first found in Spenser (1596). v. "to wash gravel or sand in a pan in search of gold," 1839, from pan (n.); thus to pan out "turn out, succeed" (1868) is a figurative use of this (literal sense from 1849). The meaning "criticize severely" is from 1911, probably from the notion in contemporary slang expressions such as on the pan "under reprimand or criticism" (1923). Related: Panned; panning. "follow with a camera," 1913 shortening of panoramic in panoramic camera (1878). Meaning "to swing from one object to another in a scene" is from 1931. Related: Panned; panning. Pan Arcadian shepherd god with upper body of a man and horns and lower part like a goat, late 14c., a god of the woods and fields, from Latin, from Greek Pan. Klein says perhaps cognate with Sanskrit pusan, a Vedic god, guardian and multiplier of cattle and other human possessions, literally "nourisher." Similarity to pan "all" (see pan- ) led to his being regarded as a personification of nature. Pan-pipe, upon which he supposedly played, is attested from 1820. pan- word-forming element meaning "all, every, whole, all-inclusive," from Greek pan-, combining form of pas (neuter pan, masculine and neuter genitive pantos) "all," from PIE *pant- "all" (with derivatives found only in Greek and Tocharian). Commonly used as a prefix in Greek, in modern times often with nationality names, the first example of which seems to have been Panslavism (1846). Also panislamic (1881), pan-American (1889), pan-German (1892), pan-African (1900), pan-European (1901), pan-Arabism (1930). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper The American Heritage® Abbreviations Dictionary, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. pan in the Bible Expand a vessel of metal or earthenware used in culinary operations; a cooking-pan or frying-pan frequently referred to in the Old Testament (Lev. 2:5; 6:21; Num. 11:8; 1 Sam. 2:14, etc.). The "ash-pans" mentioned in Ex. 27:3 were made of copper, and were used in connection with the altar of burnt-offering. The "iron pan" mentioned in Ezek. 4:3 (marg., "flat plate " or "slice") was probably a mere plate of iron used for baking. The "fire-pans" of Ex. 27:3 were fire-shovels used for taking up coals. The same Hebrew word is rendered "snuff-dishes" (25:38; 37:23) and "censers" (Lev. 10:1; 16:12; Num. 4:14, etc.). These were probably simply metal vessels employed for carrying burning embers from the brazen altar to the altar of incense. The "frying-pan" mentioned in Lev. 2:7; 7:9 was a pot for boiling. Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary Idioms and Phrases with pan Expand	i don't know
In which sport is an attacking shot called a ‘spike’?	The Game The Game - Volleyball About the sport Volleyball is a complex game of simple skills. The ball is spiked from up to 60 cm above the height of a basketball hoop (about 3.65 metres) and takes fractions of a second to travel from the spiker to the receiver. That means the receiver must assess incoming angle, decide where to pass the ball and then control their pass in the blink of an eye. A purely rebound sport (you can't hold the ball), Volleyball is a game of constant motion. A team can touch the ball three times on its side of the net. The usual pattern is a dig (an underarm pass made with the forearms), a set (an overhead pass made with the hands) and a spike (the overhead attacking shot). The ball is served into play. Teams can also try to block the opponent's spike as it crosses the net. A block into your own court counts as one of your three touches in Beach Volleyball, but not in Volleyball. Power and height have become vital components of international teams, but the ability of teams and coaches to devise new strategies, tactics and skills has been crucial for continued success. There are six players on court in a Volleyball team, who each must rotate one position clockwise every time their team wins back service from the opposition. Only the three players at the net positions can jump and spike or block near the net. The backcourt players can only hit the ball over the net if they jump from behind the attack line, also known as the three-metre line, which separates the front and back part of the court. Volleyball has developed into a very specialised sport. Most teams will include in their starting line-up a setter, two centre blockers, two receiver-hitters and a universal spiker. Only certain players will be involved with service reception. Players will also have specialist positions for attack and defence. Substitutions are allowed during the game. From 1998, Volleyball used a new scoring system. Teams scored a point on every rally (rally point system), regardless of which team served. Formerly, a team could only win a point if it served the ball. Winning the serve back from the opposition was known as a side-out. Matches are played best of five sets. The first four sets are played to 25 points, with the final set being played to 15 points. A team must win a set by two points. There is no ceiling, so a set continues until one of the teams gains a two-point advantage. Previously, all sets were to 15 points, with the first four sets having a ceiling of 17 and the final set requiring at least a two-point winning advantage. From 1996, the FIVB introduced a new specialist role: the libero. This player wears a different coloured uniform from the rest of the team and can be substituted in backcourt for any player on the team. The libero cannot serve, spike the ball over the net or rotate into the front-line positions, but plays a vital role for the team in serve reception and backcourt defence. There must be at least one point played between a libero substituting off for a player and going back on the court for another player – hence he/she cannot be on the court for the whole game. The libero has added an extra dimension to backcourt defence, improving the reception of teams, lengthening the rallies and giving a vital role to shorter players. Service A serve begins each rally. A player must hit the ball with his or her hand over the net to land inside the lines of the court. Players may serve underarm or overarm (hardly anyone at elite level would offer an underarm serve). A popular serve is the "jump" or "spike" serve: the player jumps and serves the ball while airborne. Each player gets only one chance to serve. The serve can touch the net and continue into the opponent's court. Before this rule was introduced, a net touch on service ended the rally and the point was awarded to the receiving team. When the serving team loses a rally, it loses the right to serve. The receiving team then rotates one position on the court. Dig The "dig" is a forearm pass that is used to control the ball and pass it to the setter at the net. It is usually the first contact by the team and an effective shot to use in defence, such as when receiving a spike. The "libero" handles much of the team's serve reception and is pivotal in backcourt defence. Set The "set" is an overhead pass used to change the direction of the dig and put the ball in a good position for the spiker. It is usually the team's second contact. Setting is the tactical centre of Volleyball. A setter must be good enough to keep the big blockers from dominating the net. The setter must feed his or her best hitters while also looking for opponent's blocking weaknesses (such as a short player on the front line or a slow centre blocker). Spike The "spike" is when the ball is hit or smashed across the net. It is the most powerful shot in Volleyball – and the most effective way to win a rally. Block This is the first line of defence in Volleyball. The objective of the "block" is to stop the spiked ball from crossing the net or to channel the spike to defenders. The three front-court players share blocking. Teams usually opt for a "read and react" block (whereby they try to react to the ball leaving the setter's hands) or for a "commit" block (whereby they decide before the point whether to jump on the quick middle balls). The key to good blocking is penetration – the best blockers reach well over the net and into the opponent's court rather than reaching straight up, when the block can be easily penetrated by quality hitters. The Ball After testing many colours, the FIVB introduced a ball with yellow, blue and white panels at the World Championships in Japan in 1998. It replaced the traditional all-white ball. The Rally Point System In 1998 the FIVB also tried some different scoring systems. At its World Congress in October 1998, the FIVB ratified the "rally point system." Every rally would now earn a point. The first four sets are played to 25, but the winning team must be ahead by at least two points. The fifth set is played to 15 – and again the winner must have a two-point margin. The system was designed to make the scoring system easier to follow and games faster and more exciting. The Libero The FIVB introduced a new specialised defensive player, the "libero," in 1996. The libero can perform only as a backcourt player and may not play an attacking shot (when the ball is hit back across the net), serve or block. If the libero makes an overhead set of the ball in front of the 3-metre attack line, the ball may not be spiked over by the team. If the libero makes the same action behind the front zone, the ball may be freely attacked. The libero must wear a jersey with a different colour or design than those of other team members. Rotation Each of the six players on an indoor team rotates a position after winning back service from the opponent. This is the key to the tactics of indoor Volleyball – you cannot simply keep your best blockers and spikers at the net or your best defenders in backcourt. After serving from position one, players rotate to position six (middle back), then position five (left back), position four (left front), position three (middle front) and position two (right front) before returning to serve. A team must be in correct rotation order before the serve is put into play. Once the ball is served, the players can move positions but backcourt players cannot move to the net to block or spike. They must make all attacking actions from behind the attack line (hence the advent of the backcourt attack to have great spikers participating in all six rotations). The rotation rule explains why a setter often appears to be "hiding" behind his or her players before a point. The setter must be in proper rotation order before sprinting to the net or a point is given to the opposition.	Volleyball
The island of Zanzibar is part of which African country?	Training Aids Training Aids Training Aids for recreational and competitive Volleyball use. Filter: Compare Catch It and Bask It The skills of passing, setting, serving and spiking need constant perfecting. For this reason we developed the CATCH IT and BASK IT. The CATCH IT is an adjustable target that collects balls for more efficient use in drills. The CATCH IT's multiple adjustm $659.00 $625.00 Details Choose Options Attack It The Attack It allows coaches to drill their hitters on attacking game-like blocking situations. This unique offensive tool, with two fully adjustable surfaces, imitates the look of a "real" block. Simply slide the surface to any location on the rail, lock $349.00 $305.00 Details Add to Cart Block It The BLOCK IT is designed for teams to drill on defending the blocked spike. 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Who translated the Bible in 1380?	English Bible History: Timeline of how we got the English Bible English Bible History The fascinating story of how we got the Bible in its present form actually starts thousands of years ago, as briefly outlined in our Timeline of Bible Translation History . As a background study, we recommend that you first review our discussion of the Pre-Reformation History of the Bible from 1,400 B.C. to 1,400 A.D. , which covers the transmission of the scripture through the original languages of Hebrew and Greek, and the 1,000 years of the Dark & Middle Ages when the Word was trapped in only Latin. Our starting point in this discussion of Bible history, however, is the advent of the scripture in the English language with the “Morning Star of the Reformation”, John Wycliffe. John Wycliffe The first hand-written English language Bible manuscripts were produced in the 1380's AD by John Wycliffe , an Oxford professor, scholar, and theologian. Wycliffe, (also spelled “Wycliff” & “Wyclif”), was well-known throughout Europe for his opposition to the teaching of the organized Church, which he believed to be contrary to the Bible. With the help of his followers, called the Lollards, and his assistant Purvey, and many other faithful scribes, Wycliffe produced dozens of English language manuscript copies of the scriptures. They were translated out of the Latin Vulgate, which was the only source text available to Wycliffe. The Pope was so infuriated by his teachings and his translation of the Bible into English, that 44 years after Wycliffe had died, he ordered the bones to be dug-up, crushed, and scattered in the river! John Hus One of Wycliffe’s followers, John Hus , actively promoted Wycliffe’s ideas: that people should be permitted to read the Bible in their own language, and they should oppose the tyranny of the Roman church that threatened anyone possessing a non-Latin Bible with execution. Hus was burned at the stake in 1415, with Wycliffe’s manuscript Bibles used as kindling for the fire. The last words of John Hus were that, “in 100 years, God will raise up a man whose calls for reform cannot be suppressed.” Almost exactly 100 years later, in 1517, Martin Luther nailed his famous 95 Theses of Contention (a list of 95 issues of heretical theology and crimes of the Roman Catholic Church) into the church door at Wittenberg. The prophecy of Hus had come true! Martin Luther went on to be the first person to translate and publish the Bible in the commonly-spoken dialect of the German people; a translation more appealing than previous German Biblical translations. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs records that in that same year, 1517, seven people were burned at the stake by the Roman Catholic Church for the crime of teaching their children to say the Lord’s Prayer in English rather than Latin. Johann Gutenberg Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press in the 1450's, and the first book to ever be printed was a Latin language Bible, printed in Mainz, Germany. Gutenberg’s Bibles were surprisingly beautiful, as each leaf Gutenberg printed was later colorfully hand-illuminated. Born as “Johann Gensfleisch” (John Gooseflesh), he preferred to be known as “Johann Gutenberg” (John Beautiful Mountain). Ironically, though he had created what many believe to be the most important invention in history, Gutenberg was a victim of unscrupulous business associates who took control of his business and left him in poverty. Nevertheless, the invention of the movable-type printing press meant that Bibles and books could finally be effectively produced in large quantities in a short period of time. This was essential to the success of the Reformation. Thomas Linacre In the 1490’s another Oxford professor, and the personal physician to King Henry the 7th and 8th, Thomas Linacre , decided to learn Greek. After reading the Gospels in Greek, and comparing it to the Latin Vulgate, he wrote in his diary, “Either this (the original Greek) is not the Gospel… or we are not Christians.” The Latin had become so corrupt that it no longer even preserved the message of the Gospel… yet the Church still threatened to kill anyone who read the scripture in any language other than Latin… though Latin was not an original language of the scriptures. John Colet In 1496, John Colet , another Oxford professor and the son of the Mayor of London, started reading the New Testament in Greek and translating it into English for his students at Oxford, and later for the public at Saint Paul’s Cathedral in London. The people were so hungry to hear the Word of God in a language they could understand, that within six months there were 20,000 people packed in the church and at least that many outside trying to get in! (Sadly, while the enormous and beautiful Saint Paul’s Cathedral remains the main church in London today, as of 2003, typical Sunday morning worship attendance is only around 200 people… and most of them are tourists). Fortunately for Colet, he was a powerful man with friends in high places, so he amazingly managed to avoid execution. Erasmus In considering the experiences of Linacre and Colet, the great scholar Erasmus was so moved to correct the corrupt Latin Vulgate, that in 1516, with the help of printer John Froben, he published a Greek-Latin Parallel New Testament. The Latin part was not the corrupt Vulgate, but his own fresh rendering of the text from the more accurate and reliable Greek, which he had managed to collate from a half-dozen partial old Greek New Testament manuscripts he had acquired. This milestone was the first non-Latin Vulgate text of the scripture to be produced in a millennium… and the first ever to come off a printing press. The 1516 Greek-Latin New Testament of Erasmus further focused attention on just how corrupt and inaccurate the Latin Vulgate had become, and how important it was to go back and use the original Greek (New Testament) and original Hebrew (Old Testament) languages to maintain accuracy… and to translate them faithfully into the languages of the common people, whether that be English, German, or any other tongue. No sympathy for this “illegal activity” was to be found from Rome, with the curious exception of the famous 1522 Complutensian Polyglot Bible , even as the words of Pope Leo X's declaration that "the fable of Christ was quite profitable to him" continued through the years to infuriate the people of God. William Tyndale William Tyndale was the Captain of the Army of Reformers, and was their spiritual leader. Tyndale holds the distinction of being the first man to ever print the New Testament in the English language. Tyndale was a true scholar and a genius, so fluent in eight languages that it was said one would think any one of them to be his native tongue. He is frequently referred to as the “Architect of the English Language”, (even more so than William Shakespeare) as so many of the phrases Tyndale coined are still in our language today. Martin Luther Martin Luther had a small head-start on Tyndale, as Luther declared his intolerance for the Roman Church’s corruption on Halloween in 1517, by nailing his 95 Theses of Contention to the Wittenberg Church door. Luther, who would be exiled in the months following the Diet of Worms Council in 1521 that was designed to martyr him, would translate the New Testament into German for the first time from the 1516 Greek-Latin New Testament of Erasmus, and publish it in September of 1522. Luther also published a German Pentateuch in 1523 , and another edition of the German New Testament in 1529 . In the 1530’s he would go on to publish the entire Bible in German. William Tyndale wanted to use the same 1516 Erasmus text as a source to translate and print the New Testament in English for the first time in history. Tyndale showed up on Luther's doorstep in Germany in 1525, and by year's end had translated the New Testament into English. Tyndale had been forced to flee England, because of the wide-spread rumor that his English New Testament project was underway, causing inquisitors and bounty hunters to be constantly on Tyndale's trail to arrest him and prevent his project. God foiled their plans, and in 1525-1526 the Tyndale New Testament became the first printed edition of the scripture in the English language. Subsequent printings of the Tyndale New Testament in the 1530's were often elaborately illustrated. They were burned as soon as the Bishop could confiscate them, but copies trickled through and actually ended up in the bedroom of King Henry VIII. The more the King and Bishop resisted its distribution, the more fascinated the public at large became. The church declared it contained thousands of errors as they torched hundreds of New Testaments confiscated by the clergy, while in fact, they burned them because they could find no errors at all. One risked death by burning if caught in mere possession of Tyndale's forbidden books. Having God's Word available to the public in the language of the common man, English, would have meant disaster to the church. No longer would they control access to the scriptures. If people were able to read the Bible in their own tongue, the church's income and power would crumble. They could not possibly continue to get away with selling indulgences (the forgiveness of sins) or selling the release of loved ones from a church-manufactured "Purgatory". People would begin to challenge the church's authority if the church were exposed as frauds and thieves. The contradictions between what God's Word said, and what the priests taught, would open the public's eyes and the truth would set them free from the grip of fear that the institutional church held. Salvation through faith, not works or donations, would be understood. The need for priests would vanish through the priesthood of all believers. The veneration of church-canonized Saints and Mary would be called into question. The availability of the scriptures in English was the biggest threat imaginable to the wicked church. Neither side would give up without a fight. Today, there are only two known copies left of Tyndale’s 1525-26 First Edition. Any copies printed prior to 1570 are extremely valuable. Tyndale's flight was an inspiration to freedom-loving Englishmen who drew courage from the 11 years that he was hunted. Books and Bibles flowed into England in bales of cotton and sacks of flour. Ironically, Tyndale’s biggest customer was the King’s men, who would buy up every copy available to burn them… and Tyndale used their money to print even more! In the end, Tyndale was caught: betrayed by an Englishman that he had befriended. Tyndale was incarcerated for 500 days before he was strangled and burned at the stake in 1536. Tyndale’s last words were, "Oh Lord, open the King of England’s eyes". This prayer would be answered just three years later in 1539, when King Henry VIII finally allowed, and even funded, the printing of an English Bible known as the “Great Bible”. But before that could happen… Myles Coverdale Myles Coverdale and John “Thomas Matthew” Rogers had remained loyal disciples the last six years of Tyndale's life, and they carried the English Bible project forward and even accelerated it. Coverdale finished translating the Old Testament, and in 1535 he printed the first complete Bible in the English language , making use of Luther's German text and the Latin as sources. Thus, the first complete English Bible was printed on October 4, 1535, and is known as the Coverdale Bible. John Rogers John Rogers went on to print the second complete English Bible in 1537. It was, however, the first English Bible translated from the original Biblical languages of Hebrew & Greek. He printed it under the pseudonym "Thomas Matthew", (an assumed name that had actually been used by Tyndale at one time) as a considerable part of this Bible was the translation of Tyndale, whose writings had been condemned by the English authorities. It is a composite made up of Tyndale's Pentateuch and New Testament (1534-1535 edition) and Coverdale's Bible and some of Roger's own translation of the text. It remains known most commonly as the Matthew-Tyndale Bible . It went through a nearly identical second-edition printing in 1549 . Thomas Cranmer In 1539, Thomas Cranmer , the Archbishop of Canterbury, hired Myles Coverdale at the bequest of King Henry VIII to publish the "Great Bible". It became the first English Bible authorized for public use, as it was distributed to every church, chained to the pulpit, and a reader was even provided so that the illiterate could hear the Word of God in plain English. It would seem that William Tyndale's last wish had been granted...just three years after his martyrdom. Cranmer's Bible, published by Coverdale, was known as the Great Bible due to its great size: a large pulpit folio measuring over 14 inches tall. Seven editions of this version were printed between April of 1539 and December of 1541. King Henry VIII It was not that King Henry VIII had a change of conscience regarding publishing the Bible in English. His motives were more sinister… but the Lord sometimes uses the evil intentions of men to bring about His glory. King Henry VIII had in fact, requested that the Pope permit him to divorce his wife and marry his mistress. The Pope refused. King Henry responded by marrying his mistress anyway, (later having two of his many wives executed), and thumbing his nose at the Pope by renouncing Roman Catholicism, taking England out from under Rome’s religious control, and declaring himself as the reigning head of State to also be the new head of the Church. This new branch of the Christian Church, neither Roman Catholic nor truly Protestant, became known as the Anglican Church or the Church of England. King Henry acted essentially as its “Pope”. His first act was to further defy the wishes of Rome by funding the printing of the scriptures in English… the first legal English Bible… just for spite. Queen Mary The ebb and flow of freedom continued through the 1540's...and into the 1550's. After King Henry VIII, King Edward VI took the throne, and after his death, the reign of Queen “Bloody” Mary was the next obstacle to the printing of the Bible in English. She was possessed in her quest to return England to the Roman Church. In 1555, John "Thomas Matthew" Rogers and Thomas Cranmer were both burned at the stake. Mary went on to burn reformers at the stake by the hundreds for the "crime" of being a Protestant. This era was known as the Marian Exile, and the refugees fled from England with little hope of ever seeing their home or friends again. John Foxe In the 1550's, the Church at Geneva, Switzerland, was very sympathetic to the reformer refugees and was one of only a few safe havens for a desperate people. Many of them met in Geneva, led by Myles Coverdale and John Foxe (publisher of the famous Foxe's Book of Martyrs , which is to this day the only exhaustive reference work on the persecution and martyrdom of Early Christians and Protestants from the first century up to the mid-16th century), as well as Thomas Sampson and William Whittingham. There, with the protection of the great theologian John Calvin (author of the most famous theological book ever published, Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion)and John Knox , the great Reformer of the Scottish Church, the Church of Geneva determined to produce a Bible that would educate their families while they continued in exile. John Calvin The New Testament was completed in 1557, and the complete Bible was first published in 1560. It became known as the Geneva Bible . Due to a passage in Genesis describing the clothing that God fashioned for Adam and Eve upon expulsion from the Garden of Eden as "Breeches" (an antiquated form of "Britches"), some people referred to the Geneva Bible as the Breeches Bible. John Knox The Geneva Bible was the first Bible to add numbered verses to the chapters, so that referencing specific passages would be easier. Every chapter was also accompanied by extensive marginal notes and references so thorough and complete that the Geneva Bible is also considered the first English "Study Bible". William Shakespeare quotes hundreds of times in his plays from the Geneva translation of the Bible. The Geneva Bible became the Bible of choice for over 100 years of English speaking Christians. Between 1560 and 1644 at least 144 editions of this Bible were published. Examination of the 1611 King James Bible shows clearly that its translators were influenced much more by the Geneva Bible, than by any other source. The Geneva Bible itself retains over 90% of William Tyndale's original English translation. The Geneva in fact, remained more popular than the King James Version until decades after its original release in 1611! The Geneva holds the honor of being the first Bible taken to America, and the Bible of the Puritans and Pilgrims. It is truly the “Bible of the Protestant Reformation.” Strangely, the famous Geneva Bible has been out-of-print since 1644, so the only way to obtain one is to either purchase an original printing of the Geneva Bible , or a less costly facsimile reproduction of the original 1560 Geneva Bible . With the end of Queen Mary's bloody reign, the reformers could safely return to England. The Anglican Church, now under Queen Elizabeth I, reluctantly tolerated the printing and distribution of Geneva version Bibles in England. The marginal notes, which were vehemently against the institutional Church of the day, did not rest well with the rulers of the day. Another version, one with a less inflammatory tone was desired, and the copies of the Great Bible were getting to be decades old. In 1568, a revision of the Great Bible known as the Bishop's Bible was introduced. Despite 19 editions being printed between 1568 and 1606, this Bible, referred to as the “rough draft of the King James Version”, never gained much of a foothold of popularity among the people. The Geneva may have simply been too much to compete with. By the 1580's, the Roman Catholic Church saw that it had lost the battle to suppress the will of God: that His Holy Word be available in the English language. In 1582, the Church of Rome surrendered their fight for "Latin only" and decided that if the Bible was to be available in English, they would at least have an official Roman Catholic English translation. And so, using the corrupt and inaccurate Latin Vulgate as the only source text, they went on to publish an English Bible with all the distortions and corruptions that Erasmus had revealed and warned of 75 years earlier. Because it was translated at the Roman Catholic College in the city of Rheims, it was known as the Rheims New Testament (also spelled Rhemes). The Douay Old Testament was translated by the Church of Rome in 1609 at the College in the city of Douay (also spelled Doway & Douai). The combined product is commonly referred to as the "Doway/Rheims" Version. In 1589, Dr. William Fulke of Cambridge published the "Fulke's Refutation", in which he printed in parallel columns the Bishops Version along side the Rheims Version, attempting to show the error and distortion of the Roman Church's corrupt compromise of an English version of the Bible. King James I With the death of Queen Elizabeth I, Prince James VI of Scotland became King James I of England . The Protestant clergy approached the new King in 1604 and announced their desire for a new translation to replace the Bishop's Bible first printed in 1568. They knew that the Geneva Version had won the hearts of the people because of its excellent scholarship, accuracy, and exhaustive commentary. However, they did not want the controversial marginal notes (proclaiming the Pope an Anti-Christ, etc.) Essentially, the leaders of the church desired a Bible for the people, with scriptural references only for word clarification or cross-references. This "translation to end all translations" (for a while at least) was the result of the combined effort of about fifty scholars. They took into consideration: The Tyndale New Testament, The Coverdale Bible, The Matthews Bible, The Great Bible, The Geneva Bible, and even the Rheims New Testament. The great revision of the Bishop's Bible had begun. From 1605 to 1606 the scholars engaged in private research. From 1607 to 1609 the work was assembled. In 1610 the work went to press, and in 1611 the first of the huge (16 inch tall) pulpit folios known today as "The 1611 King James Bible" came off the printing press. A typographical discrepancy in Ruth 3:15 rendered a pronoun "He" instead of "She" in that verse in some printings. This caused some of the 1611 First Editions to be known by collectors as "He" Bibles, and others as "She" Bibles. Starting just one year after the huge 1611 pulpit-size King James Bibles were printed and chained to every church pulpit in England; printing then began on the earliest normal-size printings of the King James Bible . These were produced so individuals could have their own personal copy of the Bible. John Bunyan The Anglican Church’s King James Bible took decades to overcome the more popular Protestant Church’s Geneva Bible. One of the greatest ironies of history, is that many Protestant Christian churches today embrace the King James Bible exclusively as the “only” legitimate English language translation… yet it is not even a Protestant translation! It was printed to compete with the Protestant Geneva Bible, by authorities who throughout most of history were hostile to Protestants… and killed them. While many Protestants are quick to assign the full blame of persecution to the Roman Catholic Church, it should be noted that even after England broke from Roman Catholicism in the 1500’s, the Church of England (The Anglican Church) continued to persecute Protestants throughout the 1600’s. One famous example of this is John Bunyan , who while in prison for the crime of preaching the Gospel, wrote one of Christian history’s greatest books, Pilgrim’s Progress. Throughout the 1600’s, as the Puritans and the Pilgrims fled the religious persecution of England to cross the Atlantic and start a new free nation in America, they took with them their precious Geneva Bible, and rejected the King’s Bible. America was founded upon the Geneva Bible, not the King James Bible. Protestants today are largely unaware of their own history, and unaware of the Geneva Bible (which is textually 95% the same as the King James Version, but 50 years older than the King James Version, and not influenced by the Roman Catholic Rheims New Testament that the King James translators admittedly took into consideration). Nevertheless, the King James Bible turned out to be an excellent and accurate translation, and it became the most printed book in the history of the world, and the only book with one billion copies in print. In fact, for over 250 years...until the appearance of the English Revised Version of 1881-1885...the King James Version reigned without much of a rival. One little-known fact, is that for the past 200 years, all King James Bibles published in America are actually the 1769 Baskerville spelling and wording revision of the 1611. The original “1611” preface is deceivingly included by the publishers, and no mention of the fact that it is really the 1769 version is to be found, because that might hurt sales. The only way to obtain a true, unaltered, 1611 version is to either purchase an original pre-1769 printing of the King James Bible , or a less costly facsimile reproduction of the original 1611 King James Bible . John Eliot Although the first Bible printed in America was done in the native Algonquin Indian Language by John Eliot in 1663; the first English language Bible to be printed in America by Robert Aitken in 1782 was a King James Version. Robert Aitken’s 1782 Bible was also the only Bible ever authorized by the United States Congress. He was commended by President George Washington for providing Americans with Bibles during the embargo of imported English goods due to the Revolutionary War. In 1808, Robert’s daughter, Jane Aitken, would become the first woman to ever print a Bible… and to do so in America, of course. In 1791, Isaac Collins vastly improved upon the quality and size of the typesetting of American Bibles and produced the first "Family Bible" printed in America ... also a King James Version. Also in 1791, Isaiah Thomas published the first Illustrated Bible printed in America...in the King James Version. For more information on the earliest Bibles printed in America from the 1600’s through the early 1800’s, you may wish to review our more detailed discussion of The Bibles of Colonial America . Noah Webster While Noah Webster , just a few years after producing his famous Dictionary of the English Language, would produce his own modern translation of the English Bible in 1833; the public remained too loyal to the King James Version for Webster’s version to have much impact. It was not really until the 1880’s that England’s own planned replacement for their King James Bible, the English Revised Version(E.R.V.) would become the first English language Bible to gain popular acceptance as a post-King James Version modern-English Bible. The widespread popularity of this modern-English translation brought with it another curious characteristic: the absence of the 14 Apocryphal books. Up until the 1880’s every Protestant Bible (not just Catholic Bibles) had 80 books, not 66! The inter-testamental books written hundreds of years before Christ called “The Apocrypha” were part of virtually every printing of the Tyndale-Matthews Bible, the Great Bible, the Bishops Bible, the Protestant Geneva Bible, and the King James Bible until their removal in the 1880’s! The original 1611 King James contained the Apocrypha, and King James threatened anyone who dared to print the Bible without the Apocrypha with heavy fines and a year in jail. Only for the last 120 years has the Protestant Church rejected these books, and removed them from their Bibles. This has left most modern-day Christians believing the popular myth that there is something “Roman Catholic” about the Apocrypha. There is, however, no truth in that myth, and no widely-accepted reason for the removal of the Apocrypha in the 1880’s has ever been officially issued by a mainline Protestant denomination. The Americans responded to England’s E.R.V. Bible by publishing the nearly-identical American Standard Version (A.S.V.) in 1901. It was also widely-accepted and embraced by churches throughout America for many decades as the leading modern-English version of the Bible. In the 1971, it was again revised and called New American Standard Version Bible (often referred to as the N.A.S.V. or N.A.S.B. or N.A.S.). This New American Standard Bible is considered by nearly all evangelical Christian scholars and translators today, to be the most accurate, word-for-word translation of the original Greek and Hebrew scriptures into the modern English language that has ever been produced. It remains the most popular version among theologians, professors, scholars, and seminary students today. Some, however, have taken issue with it because it is so direct and literal a translation (focused on accuracy), that it does not flow as easily in conversational English. For this reason, in 1973, the New International Version (N.I.V.) was produced, which was offered as a “dynamic equivalent” translation into modern English. The N.I.V. was designed not for “word-for-word” accuracy, but rather, for “phrase-for-phrase” accuracy, and ease of reading even at a Junior High-School reading level. It was meant to appeal to a broader (and in some instances less-educated) cross-section of the general public. Critics of the N.I.V. often jokingly refer to it as the “Nearly Inspired Version”, but that has not stopped it from becoming the best-selling modern-English translation of the Bible ever published. In 1982, Thomas Nelson Publishers produced what they called the “New King James Version”. Their original intent was to keep the basic wording of the King James to appeal to King James Version loyalists, while only changing the most obscure words and the Elizabethan “thee, thy, thou” pronouns. This was an interesting marketing ploy, however, upon discovering that this was not enough of a change for them to be able to legally copyright the result, they had to make more significant revisions, which defeated their purpose in the first place. It was never taken seriously by scholars, but it has enjoyed some degree of public acceptance, simply because of its clever “New King James Version” marketing name. In 2002, a major attempt was made to bridge the gap between the simple readability of the N.I.V., and the extremely precise accuracy of the N.A.S.B. This translation is called the English Standard Version (E.S.V.) and is rapidly gaining popularity for its readability and accuracy. The 21st Century will certainly continue to bring new translations of God’s Word in the modern English language. As Christians, we must be very careful to make intelligent and informed decisions about what translations of the Bible we choose to read. On the liberal extreme, we have people who would give us heretical new translations that attempt to change God’s Word to make it politically correct. One example of this, which has made headlines recently is the Today’s New International Version (T.N.I.V.) which seeks to remove all gender-specific references in the Bible whenever possible! Not all new translations are good… and some are very bad. But equally dangerous, is the other extreme… of blindly rejecting ANY English translation that was produced in the four centuries that have come after the 1611 King James. We must remember that the main purpose of the Protestant Reformation was to get the Bible out of the chains of being trapped in an ancient language that few could understand, and into the modern, spoken, conversational language of the present day. William Tyndale fought and died for the right to print the Bible in the common, spoken, modern English tongue of his day… as he boldly told one official who criticized his efforts, “If God spare my life, I will see to it that the boy who drives the plowshare knows more of the scripture than you, Sir!” Will we now go backwards, and seek to imprison God’s Word once again exclusively in ancient translations? Clearly it is not God’s will that we over-react to SOME of the bad modern translations, by rejecting ALL new translations and “throwing the baby out with the bathwater”. The Word of God is unchanging from generation to generation, but language is a dynamic and ever-changing form of communication. We therefore have a responsibility before God as Christians to make sure that each generation has a modern translation that they can easily understand, yet that does not sacrifice accuracy in any way. Let’s be ever mindful that we are not called to worship the Bible. That is called idolatry. We are called to worship the God who gave us the Bible, and who preserved it through the centuries of people who sought to destroy it. We are also called to preserve the ancient, original English translations of the Bible… and that is what we do here at WWW.GREATSITE.COM Consider the following textual comparison of the earliest English translations of John 3:16, as shown in the English Hexapla Parallel New Testament : 1st Ed. King James (1611): "For God so loued the world, that he gaue his only begotten Sonne: that whosoeuer beleeueth in him, should not perish, but haue euerlasting life." Rheims (1582): "For so God loued the vvorld, that he gaue his only-begotten sonne: that euery one that beleeueth in him, perish not, but may haue life euerlasting" Geneva (1560): "For God so loueth the world, that he hath geuen his only begotten Sonne: that none that beleue in him, should peryshe, but haue euerlasting lyfe." Great Bible (1539): "For God so loued the worlde, that he gaue his only begotten sonne, that whosoeuer beleueth in him, shulde not perisshe, but haue euerlasting lyfe." Tyndale (1534): "For God so loveth the worlde, that he hath geven his only sonne, that none that beleve in him, shuld perisshe: but shuld have everlastinge lyfe." Wycliff (1380): "for god loued so the world; that he gaf his oon bigetun sone, that eche man that bileueth in him perisch not: but haue euerlastynge liif," Anglo-Saxon Proto-English Manuscripts (995 AD): “God lufode middan-eard swa, dat he seade his an-cennedan sunu, dat nan ne forweorde de on hine gely ac habbe dat ece lif." Timeline of Bible Translation History 1,400 BC: The first written Word of God: The Ten Commandments delivered to Moses. 500 BC: Completion of All Original Hebrew Manuscripts which make up The 39 Books of the Old Testament. 200 BC: Completion of the Septuagint Greek Manuscripts which contain The 39 Old Testament Books AND 14 Apocrypha Books. 1st Century AD: Completion of All Original Greek Manuscripts which make up The 27 Books of the New Testament. 315 AD: Athenasius, the Bishop of Alexandria, identifies the 27 books of the New Testament which are today recognized as the canon of scripture. 382 AD: Jerome's Latin Vulgate Manuscripts Produced which contain All 80 Books (39 Old Test. + 14 Apocrypha + 27 New Test). 500 AD: Scriptures have been Translated into Over 500 Languages. 600 AD: LATIN was the Only Language Allowed for Scripture. 995 AD: Anglo-Saxon (Early Roots of English Language) Translations of The New Testament Produced. 1384 AD: Wycliffe is the First Person to Produce a (Hand-Written) manuscript Copy of the Complete Bible; All 80 Books. 1455 AD: Gutenberg Invents the Printing Press; Books May Now be mass-Produced Instead of Individually Hand-Written. The First Book Ever Printed is Gutenberg's Bible in Latin. 1516 AD: Erasmus Produces a Greek/Latin Parallel New Testament. 1522 AD: Martin Luther's German New Testament. 1526 AD: William Tyndale's New Testament; The First New Testament printed in the English Language. 1535 AD: Myles Coverdale's Bible; The First Complete Bible printed in the English Language (80 Books: O.T. & N.T. & Apocrypha). 1537 AD: Tyndale-Matthews Bible; The Second Complete Bible printed in English. Done by John "Thomas Matthew" Rogers (80 Books). 1539 AD: The "Great Bible" Printed; The First English Language Bible Authorized for Public Use (80 Books). 1560 AD: The Geneva Bible Printed; The First English Language Bible to add Numbered Verses to Each Chapter (80 Books). 1568 AD: The Bishops Bible Printed; The Bible of which the King James was a Revision (80 Books). 1609 AD: The Douay Old Testament is added to the Rheims New Testament (of 1582) Making the First Complete English Catholic Bible; Translated from the Latin Vulgate (80 Books). 1611 AD: The King James Bible Printed; Originally with All 80 Books. The Apocrypha was Officially Removed in 1885 Leaving Only 66 Books. 1782 AD: Robert Aitken's Bible; The First English Language Bible (KJV) Printed in America. 1791 AD: Isaac Collins and Isaiah Thomas Respectively Produce the First Family Bible and First Illustrated Bible Printed in America. Both were King James Versions, with All 80 Books. 1808 AD: Jane Aitken's Bible (Daughter of Robert Aitken); The First Bible to be Printed by a Woman. 1833 AD: Noah Webster's Bible; After Producing his Famous Dictionary, Webster Printed his Own Revision of the King James Bible. 1841 AD: English Hexapla New Testament; an Early Textual Comparison showing the Greek and 6 Famous English Translations in Parallel Columns. 1846 AD: The Illuminated Bible; The Most Lavishly Illustrated Bible printed in America. A King James Version, with All 80 Books. 1863 AD: Robert Young's "Literal" Translation; often criticized for being so literal that it sometimes obscures the contextual English meaning. 1885 AD: The "English Revised Version" Bible; The First Major English Revision of the KJV. 1901 AD: The "American Standard Version"; The First Major American Revision of the KJV. 1952 AD: The "Revised Standard Version" (RSV); said to be a Revision of the 1901 American Standard Version, though more highly criticized. 1971 AD: The "New American Standard Bible" (NASB) is Published as a "Modern and Accurate Word for Word English Translation" of the Bible. 1973 AD: The "New International Version" (NIV) is Published as a "Modern and Accurate Phrase for Phrase English Translation" of the Bible. 1982 AD: The "New King James Version" (NKJV) is Published as a "Modern English Version Maintaining the Original Style of the King James." 1990 AD: The "New Revised Standard Version" (NRSV); further revision of 1952 RSV, (itself a revision of 1901 ASV), criticized for "gender inclusiveness". 2002 AD: The English Standard Version (ESV) is Published as a translation to bridge the gap between the accuracy of the NASB and the readability of the NIV. This English Bible History Article & Timeline is ©2013 by author & editor: John L. Jeffcoat III. Special thanks is also given to Dr. Craig H. Lampe for his valuable contributions to the text. This page may be freely reproduced or quoted, in whole or in part, in print or electronically, under the one condition that prominent credit must be given to “WWW.GREATSITE.COM” as the source. Follow Us on Social Media...	John Wycliffe
What reached England from Europe in 1348?	12. How was the English Bible created? The History of the English Bible 12. How was the English Bible created? Introduction to the English Bible Translation The translation of the Bible from its original languages (Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek), is a complex story. The process of translation for each language is story in itself. As the Gospel spread to other lands, the books of the Bible, both Old and New Testaments were also translated, some earlier then others. The English translation compared to other translations is a relatively late translation. The story of the English Bible in many ways is similar to the other translation stories. To under the translation process, the student needs to be familiar with history and source documents behind the translation. Most readers of the English Bible today, are not aware of the dramatic story behind the book they hold in their hand. How a collection of books written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek changed Europe and especially England is taken for granted by many Christians. By using the story of the English Bible, we can see how religion, politics and intrigue each played their part. Although each translation story is unique, each story involves a process, how a group of people received Godï¿½s Word in their own tongue. Other Translations Syriac Versions The Syriac translation is the Aramaic translation of the New Testament. The Gospel has an early history in this region of the world; Antioch and Jerusalem were the first centers of Christianity. From Syria, according to Eusebius, an early an early missionary named Pantaenus in about A.D. 180, took the Gospel to India and found one of the apostles, Bartholomew had preceded him, leaving the Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew or Aramaic letters (Eusebius HE 5.10.2-3). Prior to the New Testament, the Old Testament had already been translated into Aramaic in the Jewish Targums. One of earlier known translations to Syriac is Tatianï¿½s work called the Diatessaron, meaning through four. Tatianï¿½s translation was a harmony of the four Gospels. Tatian founded a group of ascetics in Mesopotamia called the Encratites who were vegetarians, did not marry and did not drink alcohol. His views caused his translation, the Diatessaron to be tainted, for example, John the Baptist ate milk and honey as opposed to Locust. The marriage of Joseph and Mary is not mentioned in Matthew 1:18-19. In the fifth century, the Bishop of Edessa, Rabbula (411-435) established the Syriac Peshitta. Theodoreus, bishop of Cyrrhus near the Euphrates (423-457) collected and removed Tatianï¿½s harmony, Diatessaron, and replaced it with four separated Gospels. Coptic Versions The Coptic language is the language of Egypt, as opposed to Greek, which was introduced by the armies of Alexander the Great (333-323 B.C.) and Arabic which the armies of Islam introduced in the 7th century. There are two main dialects of Egyptian Sahidic (Upper Egypt) and Bohairic (Lower Egypt). The Coptic script is based on the demotic script, which was derived from the hieroglyphic script. The Old Testament translation is based on the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament. The New Testament is based on a translation from the Alexandrian text. Armenian Version Next to the Latin Vulgate, the Armenian translation of the Bible has the greatest number of manuscripts, 1,244 numbered completely or in part. The Armenian version was produced in the 5th century an Armenian priest, Mesrop Mashtotz (361-439) who developed the thirty-six letter Armenian alphabet. Prior to this, all the books written were in either Greek or Syriac (Aramaic). The source of the Armenian Bibleï¿½s translation is the Septuagint for the Old Testament and the Syriac Peshitta. Old Latin Before St. Jeromeï¿½s translation, the Latin Vulgate, the Bible in Latin was termed Old Latin. By A.D. 250, Latin was the language of the Christian scribes and clerics, creating a need for a Latin Bible. The translation of the Bible into Old Latin varied among the different versions. These variations caused Pope Damasus I (345-420) to ask St. Jerome, a Latin and Greek scholar to revise the Latin translation of the Bible. Latin Vulgate [1] Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise and standardize the Old Latin version. His translation became known as the Latin Vulgate, which became the standard of the Catholic Church for 1000-years after its completion. By A.D. 383, Jerome completed his translation of the four Gospels based on the Old Latin, but compared to the Greek text. Jerome later translated the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew, this was completed in 405; his basis of translation was sense-for-sense rather then word-for-word. Jerome received a great deal of criticism because he translated from the Hebrew Old Testament rather then from the Septuagint. Rome conquers the British Isles The history of the King James Bible starts with the history of England. The first written record of England begins with the Roman conquest dating back to the time of Julius Caesar in 55 BC, recorded in his ï¿½Gallic War commentariesï¿½. He describes his conquest of England with more then 800 ships. The Celts made peace with Caesar, this allowed him to leave and manage Gaul (France). This peace between England and Rome lasted until the reign of the Emperor Claudius. Rome invaded with 40,000 soldiers and established its control over the British Isles in A.D. 43. England became part of the Roman Empire. Today, Hadrianï¿½s Wall (117-138) marks the northern boundary of Roman territory. Christianity in England With the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire, Christianity became the faith of England by the 3rd century, as missionaries brought the Gospel to the outer parts of the Empire. The church in England was well enough established by the 4th century to send three British bishopsï¿½of Londinium (London), Eboracum (York), and Colonia Linum (Lincoln)ï¿½to the Council of Arles (in modern France) in 314. However, there is no record of the Bibleï¿½s translation into the English language at this point. Latin was the language of Rome and its various outposts, including England. The Romans withdrew from England in the 5th century to save the capital, Rome, from invading Germans tribes. German tribes also invaded the British Isles, two tribes, the Angles and Saxons swarmed from Germany, in the process Christianity almost vanished from the Isles. The Angles and Saxons, German tribes from Saxony; eventually merged with the Celts and became known as the English. For the next 1000 years until the time of Henry VIII (1491-1547), England was part of the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church dominated both the political and religious spheres of nations. During this period portions of scripture were translated in by various people, Caedmon (A.D. 678) a cowherder turned scripture into Old English poems, allowing people to memorize and sing scripture. Aldhelm ( A.D. 709) the bishop of Sherborne, translated a portion of the Psalms from the Vulgate into Anglo-Saxon. Bede, the father of English history, (A.D. 675-735) translated the Gospel of John into English on his deathbed. No portion of this translation remains. Alfred the Great (A.D. 849-901) was a literate king of Wessex from 871, he encouraged Christianity in his reign. He introduced the law code, with translations from the Ten Commandments, Exodus 21-23 and the book of Acts 15:23-29 . For the majority of the people, the Bible was a book only understood by the educated clergy. Several factors caused a growing interest in the Bible, one factor was the schism of the Catholic Church in 1378-1417, known as the Great Schism, causing there to be two popes, one based in Rome and the other in Avignon, challenging Papal authority, demonstrated Papal fallibility. Another factor was the Black Death, the Bubonic plague that caused the death of 30 to 40% of urban populations. The plague resurfaced several times in 1360, 1369, 1374 causing the populations to be devastated. Life expectancy in England dropped to seventeen years of age in 1376 from twenty-five in 1348. All this caused people to look for answers, causing a revival in religious interest among the laity. This growing interest in eternal matters was hindered by the lack of resources. One of the main issues was the role of the laity and clergy. The Roman language, Latin, became the language of the clergy. Most of the laity could not read or understand Latin. The Bible, the Latin Vulgate, first translated in the 4th century by Jerome from the Septuagint and then later from the Hebrew was inaccessible to English speaking people. John Wycliffe To remedy the problem of accessibility, John Wycliffe (1320-84) an oxford scholar, began to translate parts of the Bible into English. Wycliffe also challenged Roman doctrines, such as transubstantiation [2] and the role of the church in national politics. His students would carry his views to the rest of England, traveling preachers known as the Lollards (derived from lowlanders, used in the sense of heretics) He completed the translation of the New Testament in 1380. Four years after his death the Old Testament translation was completed by John Purvey (1354-1428), Wycliffeï¿½s secretary. The basis Wycliffeï¿½s translation was the Latin Vulgate. Purveyï¿½s edition became the dominant English translation for almost 200-years. The Catholic Church was so opposed to Wycliffe translating the Bible into the English language that in the year 1415, the Council of Constance ordered his bones exhumed and burned, and his ashes to be scattered in the river Swift. People caught reading the Bible were liable to loose their land, cattle , life and goods. In 1408, a synod at Oxford decreed it as unlawful to read Wycliffeï¿½s Bible, declaring, It is a dangerous thingï¿½.as witnesseth blessed St. Jerome, to translate the text of the holy Scripture out of one tongue into another; for in the translation the same sense is not always easily kept, as the same St. Jerome confesseth, that although he were inspired...yet oftentimes in this he erred; we therefore decree and ordain that no man hereafter by his own authorityï¿½ translate any text of the Scripture into English or any other tongue, by way of a book, pamphlet, or treatise; and that no man read any such book, pamphlet or treatise, now lately composed in the time of John Wycliffe or since or hereafter to be set forth in part or in whole, publicly or privately, upon pain of greater excommunication, until the said translation be approved by the ordinary of the place or, if the case so require, by the council provincial. He that shall do contrary to this shall likewise be punished as a favourer of heresy and error. [3] Still people paid to borrow the Wycliffe bible, with the price being recorded as a load of hay, to read the Bible an hour a day over a period [4] . In 1455, Johannes Gutenberg invented a printing press using movable type. Gutenbergï¿½s first work was the printing of the Bible, the Latin Vulgate. Gutenbergï¿½s printing became known as the Forty-Two-line Bible, because of 42-lines in a column. Gutenbergï¿½s invention solved a major problem for scripture transmission. With the printing press, human error in text copying was virtually eliminated. In addition, copies could be made much quicker and less expensive than hand copies, making books and Bibles available to the masses. William Tyndale (1494-1536) Tyndale Translation William Tyndale, a Catholic priest, (1492-1536) born in Gloucestershire, went to Oxford at the age of sixteen. After receiving his Master of Arts degree, he taught at Oxford for a year and then at Cambridge. During this period, he became aware of the lack of scripture knowledge amongst the priests and laity. In a debate with an English priest, Tyndale showed his early desire to make scripture available to all, Not long after, Tindall happened to be in the company of a certain divine, recounted for a learned man, and in disputing with him drave him to that issue, that the great doctor burst out into these blasphemous words: ï¿½We are better to be without Godï¿½s law than the Popeï¿½s. Master Tindall, replied, ï¿½I defy the Pope and all his laws,ï¿½ and added that if God spared him life, ere many years he would cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of Scripture than he did.ï¿½ [5] He took on the task of establishing an English translation of the Bible based on the Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek text. The first Hebrew Bible was published in 1488, along with the Hebrew Lexicon in 1506. Tyndale planned to use these for an English translation of the scripture. Martin Luther published his German translation in 1522, but Tyndale needed permission of the church to translate the Bible. The Church of Rome opposed his plans his plans to translate the Bible into English. Tyndale left for Cologne in 1525, but the church prevented the printer from completing the job, Tyndale rescued 6000 copies of Matthew chapters 1-22 already printed and fled to Worms, in Germany. In Worms, he completed two editions and had them smuggled to England (1525). The Bishop of London, Cuthbert Tunstall purchased as many copies as possible and had them burned. Of the 18,000 copies smuggled only two remain. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor considered Tyndale a heretic and had him kidnapped in Antwerp, Belgium and imprisoned. Later found guilty of heresy, Tyndale removed from his priestly office, was handed over to secular powers for execution in August 1536. Burning at the stake, Tyndale cried, ï¿½Lord, open the King of Englandï¿½s eyesï¿½. This statement would seem prophetic as Tyndaleï¿½s version of the New Testament provided the basis for all successive versions between his day and ours. The King James Version is practically a fifth revision of Tyndaleï¿½s revision. The basis of Tyndaleï¿½s New Testament was the Erasmus 2nd or 3rd edition of the Greek New Testament printed in 1519 and 1522. Tyndale used the Hebrew Bible and Lexicon to translate portions of the Old Testament. Miles Coverdale would complete and edit portions of the Old Testament, after Tyndaleï¿½s death. This became known as the Coverdale translation (1535). Another of Tyndaleï¿½s disciples John Rogers, was the force behind the Matthewï¿½s Bible (1537), Henry the VIII allowed the Bible to be distributed throughout England. This free flow of scriptures caused many theologians concern. Edward Foxe, complained ï¿½The lay people do now know the holy scripture better than many of us; and the Germans have made the text of the Bible so plain and easy by the Hebrew and Greek tongue that now many things may be better understood without any glosses at all than by all the commentaries of the doctorsï¿½ [6] William Coverdale (1488-1569), The Great Bible The atmosphere changed in England as Rome and Henry the VIII came into conflict. Henry the VII wanted to divorce his Catholic wife, Katherine of Aragon, the Catholic Church refused. When the Pope refused, Henry VII renounced the Catholic Church and appointed himself head of the Church of England. To spite the Catholic Church and unify his kingdom, he ordered the Bible printed and translated into English, and placed in all the churches, the translation they placed in the churches was the Great Bible. Miles Coverdale was the editor behind the Great Bible, which used the Matthewï¿½s Bible as its basis. The size of the Bible, 16 ï¿½ inches by 11 inches was the reason it was called the Great Bible. The Geneva Bible (1560) When Mary Tudor (1553-1558) (Daughter of Henry VIII) became Queen of England, she tried to restore Catholicism Protestants were persecuted and killed. Many fled to John Calvinï¿½s Geneva, where another translation of the English Bible was prepared, the Geneva Bible. The Geneva Bible translation (1557, 1560) was done under the direction of William Coverdale and John Knox and influenced by John Calvin. This Bible became popular in England after Mary Tudorï¿½s execution and Protestant persecution stopped. An act of the Scottish Parliament required it compulsory for every householder who had an income above a certain amount, to buy a copy of the Geneva Bible. The popularity of the Geneva Bible with Protestants caused the Great Bibleï¿½s revision. This revised edition later became known as the Bishopï¿½s Bible (1568). The marginal notes of the Geneva Bible had a Calvinist theology, which caused concern for the Church of England. To counter this concern, Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, who recognized the superior quality of the Geneva translation, published the Bishopï¿½s Bible in 1568 to counter its theology. The Douay-Rheims Bible (New Testament 1582, Old Testament 1609-10) With the popularity of the Geneva Bible and its marginal notes, the Catholic Church was forced to respond with their own English translation. William Allen an Oxford fellow and strict Catholic, fled to Europe, when Elizabeth I came to the throne. He established and English College in Douay, France 1568. The college was later forced to move to Rheims in 1578, where the New Testament was published. The college returned to Douay, France in 1593 where the Old Testament was published, hence the name Douay-Rheims. The source text used in the translation was the Latin Vulgate. The translators made their aims clear in the preface, ï¿½To meet the Protestant challenge, priests must be ready to quote Scripture in the vulgar tongue since their adversaries have every favorable passage at their fingersï¿½ ends; they must know the passages correctly used by Catholics in support of our faith, or impiously misused by heretics in opposition to the Churchï¿½s faithï¿½ [7] The apocryphal books are interspersed among the canon as in the Latin Vulgate. The King James Bible ( KJV 1611) In 1604, the Puritan Party made a petition to King James I (1603-1625) called the Millenary Petition [8] , about grievances between the Puritans and the English Church. John Reynolds, the Puritan president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford raised the question of having an authorized version of the English Bible that would be acceptable to all parties. This Bible was to replace both the Bishopï¿½s Bible and the Geneva Bible as the English translation. The purpose of this new translation was to have a Bible, that could be read in church services and at home. Six companies of men totaling 54 were assigned with only 47 actually working on the revision of the Bible. Each committee had a set of instructions. All other English translations were to be consulted as well as the Hebrew and Greek Texts but the Bishops Bible was to be used as the base in translation. Their finished work is known as the King James Authorized Bible. The Hebrew Text used was second edition of the Rabbinic Bible prepared by Jacob ben Chayim published by Bromberg (1524-1525). The New Testament consulted the work commonly known as Textus Receptus or the ï¿½Received Textï¿½. Bezaï¿½s Greek New Testament of 1565 was the underlying text of the New Testament used in the King James Bible, which became known as Textus Receptus. The King James 1611 translation also became known by the name Textus Receptus or received text. King James established the principles for the translation of the Authorized Version, hence the name authorized. 1. The 1602 version of the Bishopï¿½s Bible was to be used as the basis of the translation, but the original Greek and Hebrew were to be examined. Other translations were also to be consulted to determine the best reading of the Hebrew and Greek. 2. So the translation did not become too stilted a variety of words were to be used for the same Greek and Hebrew words. 3. Words necessary in English but not in Hebrew or Greek were to be set in Italics. 4. Names of biblical characters were to correspond as closely as possible to those in common use; however names were not standardized. Example Jesus and Joshua. 5. Old Ecclesiastical words were to be maintained, congregation and washing in the Tyndaleï¿½s translation became ï¿½Churchï¿½ and ï¿½Baptismï¿½ in the Authorized Version. 6. No marginal notes were to appear other then to explain the Hebrew and Greek words. 7. Existing chapter and verse divisions were to be retained, but new headings would be supplied. [9] [1] Vulgate is Latin for the word translation [2] The belief the bread and the wine become the actual physical body and blood of Christ as opposed to symbolic body and blood. [3] Paul Wagner, The Journey from Text to Translation, Baker Book House 1999, Pg. 283.	i don't know
Here lies one whose name was writ in water?	'Here lies one whose name was writ in water' - the meaning and origin of this phrase Famous Last Words Browse phrases beginning with: Here lies one whose name was writ in water more like this... Fame, and indeed life, is fleeting. Origin A version of the words originate from Beaumont and Fletcher's play Philaster, 1611: "All your better deeds Shall be in water writ, but this in Marble." In the better known form 'writ in water' they appeared in Keat's Poetic Works, 1821. 'Here lies one...'. The 'here' in question is Rome. Keats travelled to Rome and died there, aged just 25, in February, 1821. He told his friend Joseph Severn that he didn't want his name to appear on his tombstone, but merely this line: "Here lies one whose name was writ in water." Severn honoured that wish, as the gravestone shows - Keats is commemorated just as 'A young English poet'. Keats's Grave - New Protestant Cemetery, Rome THIS GRAVE CONTAINS	John Keats
Murdered by a traitor and a coward whose name is not worthy to appear here?	Here lies one whose name was writ in water - phrase meaning and origin Here lies one whose name was writ in water Posted by ESC on February 11, 2003 In Reply to: John keats posted by norm on February 11, 2003 : what does this mean "here lies a man whose name was writ in water." please email me the awnser I believe it must mean that a person will be soon forgotten. Here's what I found online: In 1820 appeared the second volume of Keats poems. It gained a huge critical success. However, Keats was suffering from tuberculosis and his poems were marked with sadness partly because he was too poor to marry Fanny Brawne, the woman he loved. In a letter from 1819 he wrote. "I love you more in that I believe you have liked me for my own sake and nothing else. I have met with women whom I relay think would like to be married to a Poem and given away by a Novel." When his condition gradually worsened, he sailed for Italy with his friend, the painter Joseph Severn, to escape England's cold winter. Declining Shelley's invitation to join him at Pisa, Keats went to Rome, where he died at the age of 25, on February 23, 1821. Keats did not invent his own epitaph, but remembered words from the play Philaster, or Love Lies-Ableeding, written by Beaumont and Fletcher in 1611. "All your better deeds / Shall be in water writ," one of the characters says. Keats told his friend Joseph Severn that he wanted on his grave just the line, "Here lies one whose name was writ in water." From The Literature Network at http://www.online-literature.com/keats/ A picture of the tombstone and the following text is at http://www.geocities.com/bymasako/index02.html THIS GRAVE CONTAINS ALL THAT WAS MORTAL OF A YOUNG ENGLISH POET WHO ON HIS DEATH-BED IN THE BITTERNESS OF HIS HEART at the malicious power of his enemies desired these words to be engraved on his tomstone "HERE LIES ONE WHOSE NAME WAS WRIT IN WATER"	i don't know
Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons make up what duo?	Interview: Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons' chemical attraction \| The Independent Features Interview: Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons' chemical attraction As their latest album, We Are The Night, tops the charts the duo reveal the secret to their long-lasting music career and friendship. Thursday 18 October 2007 23:00 BST Click to follow Interview: Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons' chemical attraction 1/3 Still block-rocking after all these years: Ed Simons (left) and Tom Rowlands 3/3 What with Klaxons winning the Mercury Prize last month, and young pretenders such as New Young Pony Club, Shitdisco and Hadouken! all storming the charts, it seems that dance music is not as dead as everyone had thought it was. The Chemical Brothers don't seem much bothered either way. Earlier this month they won the award for Best Electronic Artist or DJ at the BT Digital Music Awards and their latest album, We Are the Night, recently topped the chart – the fifth time in a row they have accomplished the feat. And with a nice touch of scene-making serendipity, Jamie Reynolds and James Righton of Klaxons are among the many guest acts featured on the album, lending a touch of spiky nu-rave dynamics to the track "All Rights Reversed". "Whether it is a time of boom or famine for dance music has never made any difference to us," says Tom Rowlands. "We never saw ourselves responsible for a scene or anything. For us it was always all about making a record that would excite people and show them that we had something interesting to offer." Thanks in part to this philosophy, the duo now find themselves cast in the not-altogether-welcome role of last men standing. None of their contemporaries from the 1990s is still in quite such rude health either creatively or commercially as the Chemical Brothers. But Ed Simons doesn't feel that longevity for the sake of it is a particularly worthy aim. "Some people would see it more as a curse," he says. "We didn't set out to last a long time. It's more about making music that's exciting, particularly on stage, where we're playing these festivals all round the world and people seem to be excited when we come on. It's gratifying." Rowlands and Simons are sitting in the bar of The Social, a club in the West End of London. This is not the same Social where the pair famously enjoyed a DJ residency in 1994 when they were still known as The Dust Brothers, an engagement that resulted in the album Live at the Social Volume 1 (eventually released in 1996). "That was the Sunday Social in the Albany at the top of Great Portland Street," Simons says. "It only ran for about 14 weeks and then they had to find somewhere else." Rowlands picks up a copy of the Live at the Social CD, which I have brought along to jog a few memories. "I haven't even got a copy of this myself," he says, looking at the picture of his younger self, long blond hair dangling all over the decks. "That's all gone," he says, ruefully. "It does feel a long time ago. But it's all part of the same thing, really." Maybe so. But a Sunday-night residency mixing and matching a string of obscure tracks to a bunch of James Brown beats in front of 150 people seems a long way removed from the kind of shows that Rowlands and Simons have been playing this year. These have included festival headlining appearances at Creamfields, Glastonbury and the Electric Picnic in Ireland, and a special one-off spectacular in Trafalgar Square. They have more shows coming up all over Eastern and Western Europe, South America, Australasia and a tour of the UK, including a three-night stand at Brixton Academy, the venue where they hold the record for the most gigs played in a single year ("we've got a special plaque for it, somewhere"). It is, perhaps, ironic that a 1990s dance act should have become such a huge and respected live attraction in the 21st century. Neither of them sings or plays an instrument on stage (Rowlands can play keyboards and "bad guitar"; Simons doesn't play an instrument at all). So what exactly do they do when they "play live"? "We always think we should maybe put on a little film before we start, to explain the process of what is happening," Rowlands says before embarking on a lengthy explanation of how it is all about manipulating an electronic brain to determine exactly which combination of musical information stored on synthesisers, sequencers and samplers is deployed at any given moment of the performance. "A very early cliché established that electronic music was just two guys twiddling knobs on stage," Simons says. "We never found that intrinsically boring, but when we play live, we've always carried around our huge speakers and the visuals. We want people to experience the music in a really exciting environment, and the visuals are part of that, to absorb people in it so that you get disorientated, you get completely intoxicated by the music. That's always been the point of making it an experience. That goes back to Pink Floyd, and the Velvet Underground... "It might be unfashionable to say, but that's the kind of experience that we've been trying to create when we've played from pretty much day one." So are they happy for people to remember their light-show, but not them? "Yes. That's fine," Rowlands insists. "Neither of us started making music out of a desire to have a foot up on the monitor at the front of the stage telling you, 'this is how it's gonna be'. I like to see people do that as well. But it's not what we want to do." The man responsible for the stunning visuals at the Chemical Brothers shows is Adam Smith, who used to run a company called Vegetable Vision. "Adam was doing the visuals at the very first gig we did, at Andy Weatherall's club," Rowlands says. "And we're still together. When we're writing music we play it to him. As we're making the album, he's getting ideas and stuff. We may have a specific idea for a song, but generally we just let him run riot." Is he the third Chemical Brother? "Definitely," Rowlands admits. "Especially when we play live." "We have three or four very longstanding collaborators," Simons says. "Our engineer, Steve Dub, for example. If there is one secret to our success it could be that when we find someone we enjoy working with, we keep working with that person. That's my advice." While keeping an unusually stable team of core personnel in the background, the Chemicals have maintained a contrastingly rapid, revolving-door policy when it comes to their featured collaborators. In the past these have included Noel Gallagher, Bernard Sumner, Bobby Gillespie, Richard Ashcroft and Beth Orton. The guest performers on We Are the Night are a typically motley crew, including the folk singer Willy Mason, the rapper Fat Lip, from the Pharcyde, and Tim Smith, the singer with the up and coming Texan indie-rock band Midlake. So are the Chemical Brothers an A&R team as much as a pair of DJs and producers? "Hopefully not," says Rowlands, clearly not very impressed with this suggestion. "Obviously we gravitate towards things that we like. We hear something in their voice that connects with something we're doing. But it always comes out of us writing music. That's the first thing that we do. Then we start imagining a voice. We've never tried to do it the other way round." "Before we made music together, when we were students in Manchester, our friendship was based on playing each other music," Simons says. "We used to go to clubs together. We used to go record-shopping together. So finding people to work with is really an extension of that. We have endless discussions about who we might work with." Rowlands adds: "It's usually the most traumatic part of making records." Meeting the Brothers for an hour or so, you get a sense of the tremendous rapport that has bound them together for so many years. But relationships change, and the two of them now lead widely divergent lives away from their work. Rowlands, 36, is married with three kids and lives in Lewes in the rural south of England, while Simons, 35, remains single, and lives in Notting Hill, West London. "The 1990s was spent in each other's pockets and in the studio the whole time," Simons says. "We were either on tour or we used to go on holiday together and that resulted in certain records and a certain working relationship, but now we have a different arrangement. But I actually think the music we've made in the last five years is the best we've made." "The key is that we're still friends," Rowlands adds. "Sometimes it's fraught, as it was when we were students in a house together, arguing about what to watch on telly." At the end of the interview, Simons nips out for a cigarette, while Rowlands, a confirmed non-smoker, hangs around chatting in the bar. He looks wistfully once again at my copy of the Live at the Social CD. "I'll have to go on eBay and get myself a copy of this album," he says. "It's always the ones that you play at a party that disappear. I've been through about five copies of this already." The Chemical Brothers play Koko, London NW1 (www.koko.uk.com) on 25 October; their UK tour runs from 6 to 15 December (www.thechemicalbrothers.com)	The Chemical Brothers
Which writer’s name means ‘jackdaw’ in Czech?	A Flamenco-Playing Sitar and an Asymmetrical Groove - The New York Times The New York Times Music \|A Flamenco-Playing Sitar and an Asymmetrical Groove Search Tom Rowlands, left, and Ed Simons of the Chemical Brothers. Credit Hamish Brown Anoushka Shankar The blood bond between flamenco and Indian music has received due acknowledgment over the years, usually in the form of either a mongrel insurgency, as in the Barcelona band Ojos de Brujo, or an enlightened spectacle, as in the guitarist Pepe Habichuela with the Bollywood Strings. “Traveller” (Deutsche Grammophon), a vividly realized new album by the sitarist Anoushka Shankar, fits the second category best, though its hybridism feels as natural as conversation. Working with the astute Spanish producer Javier Limón, Ms. Shankar has fashioned a program of original songs in chamberlike settings, blending traditions at every turn. Sometimes she works alongside a flamenco singer, like Duquende or Concha Buika; sometimes her sitar fulfills that role, with lines that slide expressively around a modal scale. There are moments of cultural frisson, like “Bulería con Ricardo,” featuring the pianist Pedro Ricardo Miño, and “Boy Meets Girl,” a duologue with Mr. Habichuela. And there’s at least one song that evokes Ms. Shankar’s birthright: “Krishna,” with lyrics left to her by her father, Ravi Shankar, and sung by Shubha Mudgal. Fittingly, Ms. Shankar has taken “Traveller” on tour; her gypsy caravan will stop at City Winery from April 6 to 8. Photo Anoushka Shankar Credit Harper Smith/Deutsche Grammophon Steve Lehman Trio The alto saxophonist and composer Steve Lehman has earned a reputation for sure-footed futurism, notably with his sleek but audacious octet. “Dialect Fluorescent,” a trio effort due out on Pi on Tuesday, feels like an attempt to re-establish his grounding in the post-bop tradition, without backpedaling. The album features the bassist Matt Brewer and the drummer Damion Reid, and along with some smartly stuttering original pieces — including “Alloy,” repurposed from the octet playbook, in a starker, drier reading — it includes several tunes from the jazz repertory, presented without major reconstruction. The best-known of these is John Coltrane’s “Moment’s Notice,” outfitted with an asymmetrical groove. “Jeannine,” by Duke Pearson, and “Mr. E,” by Mr. Lehman’s former mentor, Jackie McLean, adhere even closer to the source material, which serves as a springboard, sending the trio off in a swift trajectory, slicing through the air. Photo From left, Steve Lehman, Damion Reid and Matt Brewer. Credit Willie Davis Grégoire Maret A Swiss-born harmonica virtuoso and a serenely expressive melodist, Grégoire Maret is best known for sweetening the output of some of jazz’s biggest stars, like Cassandra Wilson, Pat Metheny and Herbie Hancock. His self-titled debut on eOne Music, is the sort of softly burnished, global pop-inflected effort you’d expect from him, with cameos by Ms. Wilson and the bassist Marcus Miller (another of his employers), and a tune from the repertory of the Pat Metheny Group. The album has a bit too much sheen, but its vision is strong: together with the pianist Federico Gonzalez Peña, his fellow producer-arranger, Mr. Maret lays out an accessible but ambitious jazz cosmopolitanism , with a group featuring James Genus on bass and either Jeff (Tain) Watts or Clarence Penn on drums. And there’s an implicit claim of harmonica inheritance in the decision to cover Stevie Wonder (“The Secret Life of Plants”) and play a duet with Toots Thielemans (“O Amor e o Meu Pais”). Photo Daniel Rossen Credit Amelia Bauer Daniel Rossen The wry, doubt-clouded songs of Daniel Rossen have helped sustain a pair of Brooklyn indie bands, Grizzly Bear and Department of Eagles. He has five new ones on “Silent Hour/Golden Mile” (Warp), an EP recorded with minimal outside contribution. Their style — rhapsodic but cloistered, with acoustic guitars and muffled drums bathed in cavernous reverb — will ring familiar if you know his previous work. But there’s a unity of presence here that justifies the stand-alone release. Mr. Rossen’s lyrics, though cryptic, involve a lot of losing and finding, leaving and returning, and his calmly arresting singing carries the weight of a secret meant to be held close, even if its meaning is hazy. Chemical Brothers Last month this powerhouse British electronic duo released a concert film, “The Chemical Brothers: Don’t Think,” to movie theaters in 25 cities worldwide. Directed by Adam Smith, the artist behind the group’s neo-psychedelic live visuals, it documents a performance at the Fuji Rock festival in Japan. The point of view stutters and swirls among the crowd, capturing young faces in thrall to the moment, euphoric or pumped or panicked. Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons, who make up the Chemical Brothers, are seen in silhouette, at a fair distance, dwarfed by spectacle. You see them as you would from the field, in a sea of human movement. It’s no wonder “Don’t Think” was released to theaters, where its sensory overload could meet with a communal experience. But even a solitary viewing of the DVD or Blu-ray, due out on Astralwerks on Monday, imparts a teeming feeling. A version of this article appears in print on March 25, 2012, on Page AR20 of the New York edition with the headline: A Flamenco-Playing Sitar And an Asymmetrical Groove. Order Reprints \| Today's Paper \| Subscribe	i don't know
Which country withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in 1968?	What are the Warsaw Pact countries? - Quora Quora All of the Eastern European countries between the USSR and East Germany, namely: Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria and of course USSR and East Germany. For a short while Albania was a member as well and withdrew in 1968. The pact stopped to exist on July 1st, 1991 Since then Czechoslovakia has since split in 2 different countries: Czech Republic and Slovakia while the USSR has imploded in 15 different countries: Latvia (European Union & NATO member) Lithuania (EU & NATO member) Andrew Hamada , marketing @ Sears, iStock, Amazon, et al How Richard Branson started Virgin Atlantic. In 1979, while on vacation with his fiancee in The British Virgin Islands, he was catching a flight to Puerto Rico which ended up cancelled. Richard decided to phone up some charter companies and chartered a plane for $2,000. After splitting the cost between the available seats, he grabbed a blackboard and wrote: VIRGIN AIRWAYS: $39 for a single ... Written Dec 9, 2015 Aitzaz Hasan Shaheed. It was an ordinary January morning in Hangu district and around 2000 students were attending morning assembly in Ibrahimzai High School, Hangu, Pakistan when a blast occurred outside the school. But luckily everyone was saved by the courage of a 17 year old boy Aitzaz Hasan. According to the sources he was on his way to school along with his two other class fellows when he s... My best friend of 11 years and I have been sending each other letters. Today I received in the mail the handwritten lyrics of a Hamilton song and a short note. I Snapchatted her to let her know I’d gotten it. We’re sending letters even though we text and Skype and talk on a daily basis. It’s our way of being a little closer. Friendships after high school require effort. Now that I’m in college, I do...	Albania
Which animal was once thought to sweat blood?	BBC ON THIS DAY \| 14 \| 1955: Communist states sign Warsaw Pact About This Site \| Text Only 1955: Communist states sign Warsaw Pact The Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies have signed a security pact in the Polish capital, Warsaw, after a three-day conference. Announcements in Warsaw and Moscow said the Soviet Prime Minister, Marshal Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bulganin, and leaders of seven other countries approved the draft of a new mutual aid agreement called the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance. It is designed, among other things, to ensure close integration of military, economic and cultural policy between eight Communist nations. Signatories to the treaty - the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania - have agreed to unify their forces under one command although at this stage it is not known who will take this post. Fear of West German army Yugoslavia, the only European Communist state not included in the pact, was expelled in 1948 from Cominform, the Communist information agency for refusing to acknowledge Soviet supremacy. The treaty, signed at the Warsaw Palace, comes in the wake of news that West Germany has been accepted by western nations into Nato (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) following talks earlier this month in Paris. In a speech at the beginning of the Warsaw talks, Marshal Bulganin warned that the USA, Britain and France were turning West Germany into "the principal hotbed of the danger of war in Europe" by allowing it to re-arm. He said allowing West Germany into Nato was "the major obstacle" to reunification of Germany. Existing bilateral agreements between nations of the Eastern Bloc, he stated, were no longer sufficient to ensure their security and this Warsaw Pact would supersede all of those. He added that Nato was also encouraging countries in the Near and Middle East to form military blocs to plan attacks on the Soviet Union and its allies. In his concluding speech today, Marshal Bulganin emphasised the pact was inspired by the Leninist principle of peaceful co-existence between democratic nations and said they wanted to abide by the United Nations Charter. However the Times newspaper editorial today points out that unifying the armies of all eight countries will also allow the USSR to base its own troops in member states and "would certainly help to keep the satellites in order".	i don't know
What is the nickname of Richard Rogers’ new Leadenhall building in London?	Rogers Stirk Harbour new studio inside Leadenhall Building 4 comments Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners has revealed its new home inside the so-called Cheesegrater tower , featuring brightly coloured furnishings, exposed steelwork and a big central meeting space (+ slideshow). Intended to foster a more collaborative working style, the London studio brings together the studio's 200 staff on one floor of the Leadenhall Building , completed by the Richard Rogers-led firm at the end of 2014 . Photograph by Paul Raftery The layout is left as open as possible, eschewing individual offices in favour of a plan where everyone sits together. This allows plenty of daylight to pass through the space, but also promotes the "democratic philosophy" of the firm . "We have worked hard to preserve the practice's ethos," said Richard Rogers, who runs the firm with 12 other partners. "Our new studio embodies the teamwork, flexibility and sustainable working practices that characterise our architecture." Photograph by Paul Raftery For over 30 years, the architects were based in a riverside building at Thames Wharf, west London, with the River Cafe restaurant founded by Richard Rogers' wife Ruth acting as a de facto staff canteen. But they were forced to move when the lease expired and the freeholder decided to redevelop the site. The partners saw this as an opportunity to bring together staff who previously had been spread out across five floors. They chose to take a floor in the Leadenhall, not just because they designed it, but also because they saw it as the best fit for their needs. It puts them in the heart of the City of London, right next to Rogers' career-defining Lloyds building . "Thirty-six years after winning the competition for Lloyds of London, we are delighted to have moved across the road," said Rogers. "Offices have changed immeasurably in that time, and this move from Thames Wharf Studios reflects that." Photograph by Mark Gorton "The riverside location was unique but on a daily basis it was hard to get together as a single studio," added senior partner Ivan Harbour. "Our collaborative spirit was ultimately challenged by our workplace." Related story Legorreta and Rogers team up to complete Mexico City bank headquarters "We are now all in one studio, in the very heart of the City," he continued. "Our clients experience our architecture firsthand and how we use it. Our legacy frames both sides of the street." Photograph by Paul Raftery The new office takes up all of the building's 14th floor. Desks are arranged in three groups beside the windows on the west, south and east walls, offering staff views of St Paul's Cathedral, Canary Wharf and the Lloyd's building. Each bank of desks is fronted by a brightly-toned metal cabinet, while HÅG Capisco office chairs are provided in bright blue, red, orange and green. Photograph by Paul Raftery These workspaces wrap around a central presentation space, which has glazed walls so staff can see what's going on inside. It can host up to 200 people for lectures, but can also be subdivided into several meeting areas. The entrance is located at the northern end of the building, along with facilities including toilets, a kitchen and a model-making workshop. The pieces made in this workshop, along with archive models, are displayed on a large shelving unit nearby. Photograph by Paul Raftery There are also quiet areas in the corners of the building surrounded by plants, where staff can take time out from their work. True to the firm's architecture, which typically leaves services exposed, the ventilation ducts and electrical cables running across the ceiling are left uncovered, revealing the full height of the space. Photograph by Mark Gorton "My thoughts were very much ones of how the possibilities of office space, which by its very nature tends to be neutral, could become more expressive of the building's architectural intent," said senior partner Graham Stirk. "This led to our decision to reveal the muscular steelwork, services and all of the components that make a modern office space function, and celebrate them in a clear and legible manner. It has become a well-coordinated New York loft where the backdrop is neutral but offset by fantastic splashes of colour and activity." Photograph by Tobi Frenzen A custom lighting system was developed with engineer and Arup and lighting consultants Speirs + Major , consisting of circular LED fittings arranged in a grid that lines up with the building's exposed structure. These lights change in tone across the day, to suit the level of daylight outside. Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners completed work on the Leadenhall Building in late 2014. Photograph courtesy of British Land Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners was formerly known as the Richard Rogers Partnership, but changed its name in 2007 to reflect the roles of its other partners. The firm's portfolio includes the Stirling Prize-winning Maggie's Centre in London and the Bodegas Protos winery in Spain. With a height of 224 metres, the office block is the tallest building in the City of London. Photograph courtesy of British Land The firm completed work on the Leadenhall Building in 2014. With a height of 224 metres, the office block is the tallest building in the City of London. The building is often referred to as the Cheesegrater in reference to its tapered profile, designed to respect views of St Paul's Cathedral. Photography is by the architects, apart from where otherwise indicated. Project credits: Architect: Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners Structural engineer: Arup	122 Leadenhall Street
An armoire is a large ornate ……..what?	The Leadenhall Building A behind the scenes tour of One of the tallest office buildings in London The Leadenhall Building All images: The Leadenhall Building. © Gerald McLean / RIBA Library Photographs Collection Image: The Leadenhall Building The latest addition to London’s skyline, The Leadenhall Building will soon be home to the offices of several thousand City workers in some of the highest offices in Britain. With the building rising to 224.5 metres they’ll enjoy spectacular views looking down on the Gherkin, Lloyd’s building , St Paul’s Cathedral and much farther afield. Designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, The Leadenhall Building is already more widely known as the ‘Cheesegrater’ due to its distinctive wedge-shaped profile, a response to the need to maintain the view of St Paul’s from Fleet Street. ...widely known as the ‘Cheesegrater’ due to its distinctive wedge-shaped profile... The 18,000 tonne triangular steel megaframe was engineered by Arup . Like Richard Rogers Partnership’s Grade 1 listed Lloyd’s building opposite which it dwarfs, the building services are separated from the main office spaces, in this case by a separate service tower on the north side of the building. Characterised by bright yellow steelwork the service area also contains the circulation areas and high-speed glazed lifts which depending on one’s disposition to vertigo provide either one of the most exciting or scary views of the City! Thus the simple rectangular floorplates, which progressively decrease by 750mm with each storey towards the apex, are unencumbered with services or a structural core maximizing office space. In addition to the offices there is a seven-storey high public space complete with shops, bars and landscaping. Article by Jonathan Makepeace Imaging Services Manager, British Architectural Library, RIBA Find out more These images form part of a set of over 120 images on RIBApix of the Leadenhall Building taken by Gerald McLean and for any enquiries about reproducing these images please contact [email protected] . Jonathan Makepeace would like to thank Gerald for so generously supporting RIBApix and Angelo Christo of the Leadenhall Building for allowing a full behind the scenes tour of the building.	i don't know
Brewster, spoonback and fauteuil are all types of what?	521-S / 521-A – Lester Furniture Mfg COM: 2.5 yards Leather: 35 sq feet / 1 hide Option to add contrasting welt: .5 yards for contrasting fabric or 6 yards of decorative cord with lip Fun Fact: Brewster, spoonback and fauteuil are all types of chairs. The “Brewster Chair” was named after Willam Brewster, one of the Pilgrim fathers who landed in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. In 1830 the Brewster family of Duxbury donated Elder Brewster’s original chair to Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth, where it remains today. His chair was created in New England between 1630 and 1660 of American white ash. These chairs of great style were referred to as “Fauteuil”, which means “armchair” in French (pronounced foe-toy). In terms of antique furniture, “Fauteuil” specifically refers to an armchair with open sides. Also described as a “wide and deep chair with upholstered back and seat with open arms” with a padded top. The “fauteuil à la reine” refers to a “Queen’s armchair” with a square, high back. Reviews	Chair
Mount Toubkal is the highest peak in which range of mountains?	Chairs \| Chatsworth Fine Furniture Chairs Wing Back Chair Timeless and modern, dramatic and refined, elegant and majestic – the wingback chair has stood strong on its cabriole legs for hundreds of years. Wingback chairs were first seen in front of fireplaces during the 1600s in England and then across Europe in the 1700s. They are named for the part of the frame that extends from the arm and joins the back at a 90-degree or wider angle. The resulting wing shape was used to shield the body from the heat of the open fire, This is said to help protect a woman’s complexion.	i don't know
Off which country is the Gulf of Carpenteria?	Gulf of Carpentaria \| gulf, Australia \| Britannica.com Gulf of Carpentaria Norman River Gulf of Carpentaria, shallow rectangular inlet of the Arafura Sea (part of the Pacific Ocean ), indenting the northern coast of Australia . Neglected for centuries, the gulf became internationally significant in the late 20th and early 21st centuries with the exploitation of its bauxite , manganese , and prawn (shrimp) resources. The gulf has an area of 120,000 square miles (310,000 square km) and a maximum depth of 230 feet (70 metres). It is a rare modern example of an epicontinental sea (a shallow sea on top of a continent), a feature much commoner at earlier times in the Earth’s geologic history. Gulf of Carpentaria. Explore the area around Burketown, Queensland, Australia, including the salt pans at the southern … © Fun Travel TV (A Britannica Publishing Partner) The Gulf of Carpentaria is enclosed on the west by Arnhem Land and on the east by the Cape York Peninsula . The gulf floor is the continental shelf common to Australia and New Guinea . A ridge extends across Torres Strait , separating the floor of the gulf from the Coral Sea to the east. Another ridge extends northward from the Wessel Islands to separate the floor of the gulf from that of the Banda Basin of the Arafura Sea to the northwest. The gulf-floor gradient is very low; the great western plains of Queensland slope north or northwestward into the gulf in a very gentle fall of only one foot per mile. As the plains approach the sea, they merge into a belt of salt flats, which are widest just west of the Flinders River . More than 20 rivers drain into the Gulf of Carpentaria; they wind profusely in their lower courses and have extensive deltas. The eastern side of the gulf was first explored by the Dutch between 1605 and 1628, and the southern and western coasts were discovered by the explorer Abel Tasman in 1644. The gulf was named for Pieter Carpenter, who visited the area in 1628. Similar Topics	Australia
Islam. What is the name of the festival which immediately follows the end of Ramadan?	The Gulf [ ? ]Subscribe To This Site The Gulf The Gulf of Carpentaria track between Roper Bar in the Northern Territory and Karumba in Queensland forms part of the Savannah Way ( Broome to Carins route) and is becoming increasingly popular with travelling fishermen and tourists in general looking for a piece of outback action. Remote river systems joining the Gulf seas, such as the Roper, Limmen, McArthur, Bynoe and Norman are drawing more numbers each year seeking the elusive Barramundi . The Roper Highway begins just 7km south of Mataranka off the Stuart Highway. This 180km stretch of unsealed road to Roper Bar does have some corrugation but could be attempted by two-wheel drive vehicles at the right time of the dry season when rains haven’t created flooded crossings. Roper Bar consists of a store, camp ground and most importantly the Roper River. The Roper Bar Store sells grocery items, fishing tackle, ice, hot food, cold drinks and both diesel and unleaded fuels. Camping fees of $10 per person per night are payable at the store which is located just 2km from the camp ground. The camp ground is close to the river and boat ramp, is reasonably shady, provides toilet and shower facilities and dogs are permitted. The Roper River is of course the attraction here. Land based fishing can be done from the bar (crossing) which is a popular spot or anywhere along the river banks. Note the bar is quite slippery and Saltwater Crocodiles inhabit the area, so proceed with caution. Flicking a lure around the bar is great fun in the picturesque surroundings of pandanus and melaluca trees. Boating is undoubtedly the ideal way to fish from this river in order to fish the holes and snags. Many fishermen were catching Barramundi during our Gulf visit and one lucky angler managed to pull in a one metre specimen, fishing as the tide was coming in. Cherebin are also plentiful in this river and the size of them is impressive. Using opera-house nets and baiting them with chook pellets (secured in pantyhose) not far from the crossing caught us some beauties. Note the tide can recede a fair way from the bank so the nets need some length in their rope and be thrown out at least 5 metres. Roper Bar is a great spot to set up camp for a while and fish until your heart’s content. Cheap camping fees, pleasant surroundings and the chance to catch a Barramundi are enticing enough reasons to check it out. If you are continuing along Savannah Way to explore the Gulf note Roper Bar is the last fuel stop for 360km until Borroloola. The Gulf track (Savannah Way) via Nathan River Road continues south of Roper Bar and from here on in four-wheel drive vehicles are recommended. About 43km along is Tomato Island which has a huge bush camping ground by the Roper River and is extremely popular. This cheap camping area has an ablution block, running water, grass area with barbeques and a boat ramp. Boating is the only way to fish this section of the river as the dense mangroves along the bank restrict access to the water. Further on from Tomato Island the river is accessible at various spots for secluded free camping and a four-wheel drive vehicle is a necessity. The road condition declines gradually and is heavily corrugated in sections with dips, washouts, creek crossings and sharp rocks. The general condition of the road will depend on the time of year you travel the Gulf and whether or not a grader has been through recently. If the road condition slows you down then the wildflowers will hold you up even further. We found ourselves pulling over frequently to photograph and admire the brilliant array of colours and species along the roadside. It’s amazing what you can find out in the middle of nowhere. About 74km from Tomato Island is Towns River which has a small camp ground with toilet facilities. The river banks allow good land based fishing with rocky outcrops above the water’s edge. A further 40km along the track is the turnoff to Limmen Bight and the Limmen River Fishing Camp. 12km in is Maria Lagoon which is a roadside billabong with water lilies just visible through surrounding bushland. The Limmen River Fishing Camp is 21km in from the main track and is ideal for fishermen travelling with boats. Land based fishing is the other option, inquire at the office for suitable spots. The camp itself is situated by the Limmen River which runs into Gulf waters. Camping fees are $10 per vehicle per night which includes power, running water and use of a pit toilet and cold bush-style shower. Fishing shacks are also available for hire and dogs are permitted here. Butterfly Springs is 41km from the Limmen River turnoff and only a further 2km off the main track. This oasis in the middle of Gulf country should not be bypassed. This beautiful waterhole stays wet well into the dry season and even through to the following wet season if the annual rainfall reaches the average 800mm. Water accumulates in the rocky crevices above the pool during the wet and slowly trickles into the pool during the dry. Swimming in the clear sandy bottomed pool is fabulous and sun baking is just as good on the bank under the paperbark trees. A small camp area with toilets is located here and the pool is only a 50m walk away. Continuing 29km further is Southern Lost City which is 4km in. This unusual collection of sandstone pillars and spires are very unique and interesting. A 2.5km walking trail takes you through these amazing structures and up over the escarpment for some rewarding views. This attraction is definitely one for the itinerary. Another 7km along the main track is the turnoff to Lorella Springs. A 29km drive in finds the heart of this outback cattle station and wilderness park. The homestead and camping area sit on the green grassy banks of hot thermal springs and the setting is delightful. Facilities include licensed bar and bistro, safari tent accommodation by the springs, ablutions, swimming pool (in the springs), barbeques and best of all they are pet friendly. There are many attractions to explore by four-wheel drive on the large property. Our favourite was the “Waterslide”. About 14km from the camp ground through some reasonably rocky country and slow four-wheel driving is this fantastic waterfall descending down a series of pools to a flat slippery rock surface entering the lower pool. As the name suggests it is a natural waterslide and great fun for “little” and “big” kids (as pictured). The 1km walk to the falls and slide involves plenty of rock hopping and sturdy shoes are advised. There are many other swimming holes, gorges and billabongs to explore at Lorella and a detailed map is available upon arrival. We also swam at Wildfire Gorge and Emerald Pool, admired many stunning wildflowers in bloom and were in awe over a massive eagle’s nest. You could spend days exploring the area, it just depends how much time you have on your hands! For the keen fishermen access to the Gulf coast and Rosie Creek Fishing Camp is an 80km drive from Lorella Springs on a slow going four-wheel drive track. Back on the Gulf track, 133km reaches the remote town of Borroloola, best known for its McArthur River and fishing opportunities. Try your luck for a Barramundi on the McArthur, live bait seems to do well here. Note due to the remote location of this town grocery items are very expensive so stock up before you arrive! Another popular fishing location 44km northeast of Borroloola, via 21km of unsealed road, is King Ash Bay. Located on the MacArthur River is a popular and very reasonably priced camp ground. Facilities include boat ramp, toilets, showers and unpowered camp sites by the river. Powered sites are available in a designated area close to the fishing club. Camping areas are shady and dogs are permitted. Bing Bong is 57km north of King Ash Bay and is basically a loading facility on the Gulf however fishing is permitted here and there is a boat ramp. Mule Creek is a top spot to drop in some crab nets as we caught some nice sized mud crabs here. Heading east of Borroloola back on the Gulf track (Carpentaria Highway) finds more river crossings, some requiring more attention than others. The Calvert River, approximately 170km southeast of Borroloola, is one to be noted as the crossing is particularly rough with plenty of boulders and deep in the centre. We can’t emphasize enough to get out of your vehicle and investigate the best route to take. The sides of the crossing are generally the best pathway as visibility is better and the water is shallower and easier to walk through prior to attempting it in your vehicle. Take it easy on these deep, rocky crossings as you definitely don’t want your vehicle anchored in the river or severely damaged. Wollogorang Station is about 80km further on and just 5km west of the NT/QLD border. The station once offered camping and supplies, however take note it has ceased trading. Hell’s Gate Roadhouse is 59km over the NT/QLD border. Accommodation and camping is available here. Facilities include licensed bar, food and fuel. Veering off the Gulf track to explore Boodjamulla (Lawn Hill) National Park is an option and well worth it. There are 2 access roads off Savannah Way, 51km east of Hells Gate via Kingfisher Camp (178km) and 88km east of Hells Gate via Domadgee (124km). Both tracks are four-wheel drive only and are corrugated with patches of bulldust and numerous creek crossings. It is not recommended attempting these tracks with conventional vehicles or towing caravans. The park boasts some magnificent falls, stunning views, picturesque walks and brilliant wildflowers. If you do decide to venture off the Gulf track and explore Lawn Hill then continue 96km east of the park to Gregory Downs before proceeding back to the Savannah Way towards Burketown. This popular free camp on the banks of the Gregory River is an absolutely beautiful location to set up camp and relax. The clear fresh water is suitable for swimming in and you can float downstream with the current which is great fun. No facilities are provided at this camp however fuel and basic supplies are available across the river in the small township. Burketown is 119km north of Gregory Downs and back on the Gulf track or 177km east of Hells Gate if you bypass Lawn Hill National Park and Gregory Downs. This small outback town prides itself on its fishing potential, being nicknamed “Barra Capital of Australia”. At the end of the main street (Beames Street) is access to the coast and the Albert River via unsealed road. Coastal access is over tidal flats on low tide so extreme caution must be taken and local advice should be sought. Burketown Caravan Park can supply mud maps to suit your needs and is very knowledgeable about the area and tidal activity. The Albert River boat ramp and jetty are about 6km from town and the perfect spot to chase Barramundi, Mangrove Jack and Salmon. Boat hire and charters are available in town, inquiries to be made at the pub. Leichhardt Falls is 77km from Burketown and it is definitely worth pulling over and taking a short walk to see if they are running. At the Leichhardt River stop at the rocky banks and walk in a northerly direction about 200 metres and you’ll find the main falls. Continuing past the main falls along the eastern side is another series of falls and rapids. Swimming is not advisable at Leichhardt due to Saltwater Crocodiles inhabiting the river which feeds the falls. Free camping is permitted by the river. Normanton is a further 153km along the Savannah Way and the roads are suddenly bitumen again (after a few sections around Burketown and beyond). Normanton is home to the historical Gulflander Train, the Purple Pub, the Big Barramundi and life-size replica of “Krys the Savannah King” – the largest recorded Saltwater Crocodile shot by crocodile hunters in the world. Karumba is 70km northwest of Normanton and finds the Gulf Track complete. Recreational fishing for Barramundi is the main activity here and the small town is flooded with tourists during the dry season (May to September). There are 3 caravan parks in the area and most sites are booked well in advance as many tourists travel here annually and stay for long periods, so try and book ahead if possible. Due to the significant number of fishermen visiting the area and catching Barramundi a barramundi hatchery has been established to restock the Gulf waterways. The Barramundi Discovery Centre in Karumba is very informative, interesting and worth visiting to learn about these elusive fish so adored in the north. Exploring the Gulf of Carpentaria region is an exciting and varying experience perfect for the four-wheel drive enthusiast and outback adventurer. If you enjoy fishing and crabbing rivers and creeks, exploring springs, gorges and waterfalls and of course being on a Barramundi high, then this track will not disappoint…just make sure you catch at least one Barra! The Gulf - Destinations Distance (Km) West to East Distance (Km) East to West Mataranka	i don't know
Which ancient religion is followed by Parsees or Parsi?	BBC - Religions - Zoroastrian: The Parsis The Parsis This page provides a brief overview of the history of the Parsis. On this page The Parsis The beginning In the 10th century a group of Iranians fled Iran as refugees in search of somewhere to practise their religion freely. The Iranshah Atash Behram at Udwada - the most scared fire temple in India, which houses the flame brought by the Parsis on their flight from Iran © They finally ended up on the shores of Gujarat and were granted leave to stay there, thus founding the Indian Parsi community (Parsi being Gujarati for Persian). The following centuries and modern Zoroastrians Over the next centuries, Zoroastrianism survived with just a few minor cultural differences creeping in both in India and Iran. It wasn't until the systematic doctrinal attacks of the 19th century by Christian missionaries in India that Zoroastrianism had to seriously re-examine itself in order to survive. The confused response of the Parsi priesthood to these early campaigns marked the beginning of an era of re-interpretation of the Avesta, the effects of which soon began to filter back to Iran. The Parsis begin to introduce deliberate religious reforms The Zoroastrian response to the increasing urbanisation and cultural diversity of the 20th century was one of flexibility and integrity that reflected the three core values of good thoughts, good words and good deeds Respect for Zoroastrianism grew through its generous and healthy contributions to the societies it encountered, and its reputation for the honesty of its businessmen The decline of the priesthood and the global dispersion of the sparse population of remaining Zoroastrians has become a serious issue for the survival of the Zoroastrian faith. However, the same readiness to defy adversity and insistence on remaining true to the values of Zoroastrianism prevails. These are the same qualities which have ensured its survival for the last 3000 years.	Zoroastrianism
What is the highest caste in Hinduism?	Parsi Food...And Why it is Truly Unique - Peri's Spice Ladle Peri's Spice Ladle Parsi Food…And Why it is Truly Unique February 10, 2012 By Peri's Spice Ladle 33 Comments During my college years, I believed there was a conspiracy among my friends. Some of them were friendly with me just so that they could get invited to a Parsi event. Unlike most Indian weddings which have gained a reputation for never-seen opulence and pomp, Parsi events are in demand for one delicious reason…the Parsi food. Sev-Dahi, a Parsi Celebratory Serving of Roasted Vermicelli, Dried Fruits and Nuts, Topped with Cardamom Vanilla Yogurt Recently, a dear friend who loves Indian food, especially Parsi food gave me this article idea after reading my post on Mouthwatering Memories from India . Her question- ‘what really distinguishes Parsi food from regular Indian food?’ So for her and all who have this question…here are my thoughts on what makes my native cuisine so unique and delicious. When and how? We (by which I mean my ancestors) came to India from Persia around the 8th Century CE. Parsi Zoroastrians follow the teachings of Prophet Zarathustra/Zoroaster and his ancient religion of Zoroastrianism. ( Wikipedia offers detailed information on Parsis in India .) Most settled on the west coast of India and adopted Indian food habits and culture. Over the past 1300 years thanks to our love for food, Parsi cuisine has grown into a unique west coast Indian cuisine which still retains some food flavors and techniques from ancient Persia. It’s like a slice of history on your plate…and here’s why: Vinegar and Sugar Many Parsi dishes use this unique balance of acid and sweetness called ‘khattu mithu.’ A popular Parsi tomato-based curry is the ‘Patio’ ; made using this method. The turkey mince (Kheemo) in this recipe is another example of how these two elements work together in a dish. Parsi Lagan (Wedding) nu Stew, with Tangy Spiced Vegetables Predominance of Seafood There are some very distinctive dried seafood pickles (like Sukha Boomla Achar) in our cuisine which are made using seafood and the ‘khattu mithu’ principle mentioned above. Growing up, the prawn pickle was a staple at home. Seafood, in general is seen often in Parsi dishes due to our coastal location in India. Unique and popular fish dishes include a green-chutney fish cooked in banana leaf ( Patra ni Macchi ) and an egg and vinegar based white fish curry ( Saas ni Macchi .) ‘Saas ni Macchi’ White Parsi Fish Curry Eggs on Vegetables, Frittata-style Growing up, my mum put eggs on everything. I mean it when I say everything; even most of our Parsi traditions require the cracking of raw eggs…but that’s another story for another day. Frothy well-beaten eggs form a delicious layer over many vegetables like okra, tomatoes, potatoes…and a kiddy favorite, eggs on chips. This Parsi-style Omelet recipe is comfort food at its best; bringing back childhood memories. Our Family Favorite: Potato and Pea Frittata…The Parsi ‘Papeta Per Endu’ Balance of Dried fruits, Fresh Fruits and Nuts Dried fruit like apricots and raisins, nuts like pistachio and almond appears commonly in Parsi dishes. And it is not uncommon to find fresh fruits like pomegranate and bananas in the food. A boneless lamb preparation using apricots ( Jardaloo Sali Boti ) is one of my favorites even today. Tangy-n-Spicy Apricot-flavored Jardaloo Salli Boti made with Lamb or Mutton is a Unique Parsi Cuisine Classic Bringing Together Meat and Vegetables in One Dish Our most popular dish, Dhansak is made using lentils, meat and vegetables. Served with caramelized spiced rice, this dish truly shows a blend of Indian flavors and Persian technique. Lentil Vegetable and Meat Parsi Dhansak with Traditional Accompaniments of Caramelized Basmati Rice and Kachumber salad Kachumber This simple salad of chopped onions, cucumber, tomatoes, green chilies and cilantro leaves with a dressing of salt and cider vinegar or lemon is served with Parsi rice dishes. Use of Rice or Bread with Food Unlike most Indian homes which use chapatti/Indian flatbread, many Parsi families use regular bread or rice preparations with their food. The Parsi Pulao is one such popular rice dish, similar to the Indian rice-and-meat preparation, Biryani. Custards and Puddings One of our popular wedding desserts is Lagan nu Custard (wedding custard) which is our version of the Crème Brulee. Puddings and custards are a staple in Parsi homes; my granny always had a good stock of ‘pudding’ (made in the pressure cooker because she didn’t have an oven) and ‘jelly’ as a ready treat in her fridge. Years later in hospitality school, I realized my favorite childhood pudding uses all the ingredients of a Crème Anglaise. I guess that speaks for the British influence on Parsi food. Mamaiji’s Caramel Pudding Prophet Zarathustra gave his Zoroastrian followers a simple philosophy to help lead a pure and happy life; ‘Good Thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds’…I’d say, the Parsis have created ‘Good Food’ to achieve this credo. Read my article ‘Shining the Spotlight on Parsi Food ‘ in Live Encounters Magazine. Subscribe to Blog via Email Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Email Address	i don't know
A simian person would resemble which creatures?	Simian - definition of simian by The Free Dictionary Simian - definition of simian by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/simian (sĭm′ē-ən) adj. 1. Relating to, characteristic of, or resembling a monkey or an ape: humans and other simian primates. 2. Relating to, characteristic of, or resembling a monkey or a nonhuman ape: caricatures of politicians with simian features. n. 1. A monkey or an ape. 2. A monkey or a nonhuman ape. [From Latin sīmia, ape, ultimately (probably via the Greek personal name Sīmiās, originally a nickname for a snub-nosed man, perhaps also given to pet apes in reference to their appearance) from Greek sīmos, snub-nosed and of unknown origin.] simian (Animals) of, relating to, or resembling a monkey or ape. Also (rare): simious n (Animals) a monkey or ape [C17: from Latin sīmia an ape, probably from sīmus flat-nosed, from Greek sīmos] sim•i•an 1. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of an ape or monkey. n. 2. an ape or monkey. [1600–10; < Latin sīmi(a) an ape (probably derivative of sīmus flat-nosed < Greek sīmós) + -an 1] sim·i·an 1. simian - an ape or monkey primate - any placental mammal of the order Primates; has good eyesight and flexible hands and feet Adj. simian - relating to or resembling an ape; "simian features" Translations simian [ˈsɪmɪən] adj → scimmiesco/a Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: View in context He appears to me less human than simian, and whenever I hear him talk I seem to myself to have paused in the street to listen to the shrill clatter of a hand-organ, to which the gambols of a hairy homunculus form an accompaniment. View in context Notwithstanding that both Clayton and his wife kept a sharp lookout they saw nothing of larger animals, though on two occasions they had seen their little simian neighbors come screaming and chattering from the near-by ridge, casting frightened glances back over their little shoulders, and evincing as plainly as though by speech that they were fleeing some terrible thing which lay concealed there.	Ape
What do we call a number that divides exactly into another?	Simian dictionary definition \| simian defined of or like an ape or monkey Origin of simian ; from Classical Latin simia, an ape, probably ; from simus, flat-nosed ; from Classical Greek simos ; from uncertain or unknown; perhaps Indo-European base an unverified form swei-, to bend an ape or monkey	i don't know
Where in the body is the Sartorius muscle?	Sartorius Muscle - Anatomy Pictures and Information Home > Muscular System > Muscles of the Leg and Foot > Sartorius Muscle Sartorius Muscle The sartorius muscle is the longest muscle in the entire human body. It is a long, thin, band-like muscle found in the anterior region of the thigh. The sartorius functions as an important flexor and rotator of the thigh at the hip joint. The sartorius muscle arises from the anterior superior iliac spine on the lateral edge of the hip bone. From the lateral hip, it descends obliquely across the hip joint and thigh, running medially and inferiorly toward the medial edge of the knee. At the knee, the sartorius turns more laterally as it descends to insert on the medial side of the tibia in the lower leg.... Move up/down/left/right: Click compass arrows Rotate image: Click and drag in any direction, anywhere in the frame Identify objects: Click on them in the image 2D Interactive 3D Rotate & Zoom Change Anatomical System Full Sartorius Muscle Description [Continued from above] . . . The sartorius muscle is so long that it crosses and acts upon both the hip and knee joints. Acting on the hip joint, the sartorius works as a flexor, abductor, and lateral rotator of the thigh with the assistance of the other major muscles of the hip. At the knee joint the sartorius helps to flex the leg. Combining all of these functions into one movement, the sartorius pulls the foot and ankle toward knee of the opposite leg. The action of the sartorius is used in many situations, such as crossing the legs so that the ankle rests on the knee of the opposite leg; sitting cross-legged; or looking at the sole of one’s foot. In fact, the name sartorius (from the Latin word for “tailor”) and its nickname, the “tailor’s muscle,” are derived from the common motion of tailors crossing their legs to sit while working. Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor	Leg
Where is the body is the Trapezius muscle?	Featured Muscle: Sartorius \| Core Balance + Wellness Core Balance + Wellness 404.964.6754 • 1145 Zonolite Road, Suite 10, Atlanta, GA 30306 → get directions Secondary menu Featured Muscle: Sartorius Featured Muscle: Sartorius The sartorius is the body’s most “fashionable” muscle. It is known as the “tailor’s muscle.” The word sartorius comes from the Latin term “sartor” meaning “tailor.” It received its name because it is especially useful in assuming the cross-legged position that ancient tailors used in their work. The sartorius is the longest muscle in the body. It is a long, narrow, ribbon-shaped muscle located in the thigh. It originates at the hip (anterior illiac spine of the pelvis), crosses the front of the thigh, and inserts at the medial knee (the inside of the knee). A number of vital structures depend on the sartorius. The large vessels of the thigh pass through the femoral triangle (also referred to as “Scarpa’s Triangle”), which is created by the sartorius, adductor longus, and the linguinal ligament. The sartorius serves as a main entry point when surgically accessing the femoral nerve. The sartorius muscle is a biarticulate muscle, which means it crosses two joints – the hip and the knee joints. It has the unique ability to move both joints: Hip Movement The sartorius is involved in the flexion and abduction (outward rotation) of the hip joint. Knee Movement Converse to the hip joint, the sartorius is involved in flexion and adduction (inward rotation) of the knee joint. Put these two movements together – hip up and upper leg pointing outward, along with knee bent and lower leg pointing inward – and you’d be sitting in a cross-legged position… just as tailors used to do! Dysfunctions of the Sartorius Muscle If the sartorius becomes tight and in a constant state of spasm, it will have a far reaching impact on your body. It will pull on the pelvis, creating an anterior tilt that will result in a higher risk of lower back pain and issues with digestion. The tilt and pull from the muscle anatomically will put more pressure on the intestines and pelvic area. It also increases the potential for stress in the spine and possible impingement of the spinal nerves L4-L5. A tight sartorius can result in numbness in the front and outer thigh due to impingement as well. As we work down the leg, a tight sartorius will inwardly rotate the knees bringing them into a knock-kneed position. This results in pressure on the attachment site, which over time can result in a bursitis. Symptoms of Sartorius Dysfunction Burning, stinging pain under the skin starting at the bottom of the outside of the hip traveling down over the thigh to the inside of the knee Inside of knees may be painful or hypersensitive Potential Causes of Sartorius Dysfunction Sitting with legs up and crossed for long periods of time Slipping or a misstep Sports that require planting one foot and making a sharp turn (such as basketball or football) Walking with an extended long stride If you have questions about mysterious knee pain or unexplainable lumbar discomfort, please give me a call (404-964-6754). One of the great pleasures of my work is the process of discovering the reasons for pain and creating plans that facilitate for the best possible outcomes when treating those issues.	i don't know
Who composed The Harmonious Blacksmith?	The Harmonious Blacksmith Norwegian The Harmonious Blacksmith The ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras (ca. 580 - 500 B.C.) is generally credited with having discovered that musical intervals which are recognized as concordant are related by small integer ratios. Prior to Pythagoras, musicians appreciated that particular notes when sounded together created a pleasant effect, and tuned their lyres so that plucking two strings would generate such a harmony. However, the early musicians had no understanding of why particular notes were harmonious and had no objective system for tuning their instruments. Instead they tuned their lyres purely by ear until a state of harmony was established--a process that Plato called torturing the tuning pegs. Iamblichus, the fourth-century scholar who wrote nine books about the Pythagorean sect, describes how Pythagoras came to discover the underlying principles of musical harmony: "Once he was engrossed in the thought of whether he could devise a mechanical aid for the sense of hearing which would prove both certain and ingenious. Such an aid would be similar to the compasses, rules and optical instruments designed for the sense of sight. Likewise the sense of touch had scales and the concepts of weights and measures. By some divine stroke of luck he happened to walk past the forge of a blacksmith and listened to the hammers pounding iron and producing a variegated harmony of reverberations between them, except for one combination of sounds." According to Iamblichus, Pythagoras immediately ran into the forge to investigate the harmony of the hammers. He noticed that most of the hammers could be struck simultaneously to generate a harmonious sound, whereas any combination containing one particular hammer always generated an unpleasant noise. He analyzed the hammers and realized that those that were harmonious with each other had a simple mathematical relationship--their masses were simple ratios or fractions of each other. That is to say that hammers half, two- thirds, or three-quarters the weight of a particular hammer would all generate harmonious sounds. On the other hand, the hammer that was generating disharmony when struck along with any of the other hammers had a weight that bore no simple relationship to the other weights. Here is Händels theme for the Harmonious Blacksmith , from his fifth suite for harpsichord. Frontispiece to Theorica Musice, Franchino Gafurio, 1492 The upper left illustration depicts Jubal, the biblical father of music, and six blacksmiths with differing size hammers striking an anvil. This relates to the story that the young Pythagoras was first moved to investigate musical intervals on hearing the notes produced by different size hammers at a blacksmith's shop. The upper right illustration depicts Pythagoras testing the interval of an octave between bells of size 16 and 8 and between glasses filled in the proportion 16 and 8. The lower left illustration shows Pythagoras testing intervals on a stringed instrument and the lower right illustration shows Pythagoras and his pupil Philolaus testing intervals by means of flutes.	George Frideric Handel
What is a female ferret called?	Harmonious Blacksmith - Classical Guitar Classical Guitar Respect Copyrights : Any messages offering illegal material or links to sites that provide unauthorized, copyrighted material will be removed by the moderators. Forum rules Respect Copyrights : Any messages offering illegal material or links to sites that provide unauthorized, copyrighted material will be removed by the moderators. Quote Post by pacifica » Thursday 07 December 2006, 07:10 am Does anyone know where i might be able to find/purchase a copy of John William's arrangement for Handel's "The Harmonious Blacksmith"? Top Google AdSense Want to avoid ads? Register on the forum! It's free, you'll be able to join in and get access to thousands of free scores and recordings, and we'll be pleased to welcome you. Google AdSense Post by MickeyD » Thursday 07 December 2006, 14:47 pm I don't know about John Williams but here's a link to a public domain version From the Website, In their statement of purpose they state as follows: FREE SHEET MUSIC TO DOWNLOAD We are proud to participate to the transmission of free sheet music. Our project is to distribute for free the most important choice of domain public free scores. So I hope it's o.k. to post the link Quote Post by MickeyD » Thursday 07 December 2006, 14:52 pm Well I guess it wasn't o.k. to post the link. How do we know if a link is boycotted? Post by Brock » Thursday 07 December 2006, 17:17 pm MickeyD wrote: Well I guess it wasn't o.k. to post the link. How do we know if a link is boycotted? Only the site administartor keeps a list of boycotted links. You know a link is boycotted when you type in a URL and it's automatically changed to read * boycotted link * or similar. Quote Post by pacifica » Thursday 07 December 2006, 17:23 pm I already have a version of the Harmonious Blacksmith from one of Frederick Noad's books, and there is also an arrangement on this forum. I really like the arrangement by John Williams, it is in a different key and sounds much more challenging to play - and I like a challenge Post by MickeyD » Thursday 07 December 2006, 18:07 pm Dear pacifica: After a little hunting, I found the following. On his website offering free lessons based on his own personal transcriptions, classical guitarist Harry George Pellegrin writes of the piece played by John Williams: "Mauro Giuliani wrote the little gem from Handel's 'Harmonious Blacksmith' that spawned this tiny variation. "This is a fairly simple piece that can and is (usually) played in a student's third year with the instrument. "I know a few recitalists who still play this piece, not because of its razzle-dazzle factor, but for its musicality. Listen to John Williams' rendition on his Virtuoso Variations recording for Columbia Records." Pellegrin´s transcription of the piece by Giuliani and Handel is offered by Mr. Pellegrin at the following link. I hope it is allowed. I hope this is satisfactory. MD Post by bones » Thursday 07 December 2006, 18:37 pm MickeyD wrote: Dear pacifica: After a little hunting, I found the following. On his website offering free lessons based on his own personal transcriptions, classical guitarist Harry George Pellegrin writes of the piece played by John Williams: "Mauro Giuliani wrote the little gem from Handel's 'Harmonious Blacksmith' that spawned this tiny variation. "This is a fairly simple piece that can and is (usually) played in a student's third year with the instrument. "I know a few recitalists who still play this piece, not because of its razzle-dazzle factor, but for its musicality. Listen to John Williams' rendition on his Virtuoso Variations recording for Columbia Records." Pellegrin´s transcription of the piece by Giuliani and Handel is offered by Mr. Pellegrin at the following link. I hope it is allowed. I hope this is satisfactory. MD This Tune is a little gem one of the finest tunes Handel wrote and the Guiliani Variations are fun to play and only a little challenging, if you are going to learn this splendid work listen to a harpisichord recording and get a taste of the original piece, it may help your thoughts on the interpretation once you've mastered the dots. Quote Post by pacifica » Thursday 07 December 2006, 19:41 pm Thanks MickeyD for the information. I have to say though that John Williams version & his variations are quite different than the music that i have for this piece. I guess, as the arrangement that I am listening to is by John Williams , I should expect it to be more challenging. Bones, I will take your advice in trying to get a harpsichord recording. Post by bones » Thursday 07 December 2006, 20:50 pm pacifica wrote: Thanks MickeyD for the information. I have to say though that John Williams version & his variations are quite different than the music that i have for this piece. I guess, as the arrangement that I am listening to is by John Williams , I should expect it to be more challenging. Bones, I will take your advice in trying to get a harpsichord recording. I've never heard the Williams recording, what CD/Vinyl is it on? I made my own version of the theme based on the original score, a little bit more difficult than Guiliani or Noad, I've yet to write any variations. Quote Post by Brock » Friday 08 December 2006, 00:18 am Do check you guys are listening to the same JW recording. He recorded Giuliani's Variations on a Theme by Handel on a 60s LP and it was re-issued on a CD Guitar Recital along with some Paganini, Scarlatti and Villa-Lobos. He recorded Handel's Harmonious Blacksmith (multi-tracking himself), with I guess some of his own variations and not Handel's, on an LP/CD called Echoes of London, re-issued on the Englsh Guitar Music CD. The music on Pellegrin's site is from the Giulinai variations, the 4th variation. Last edited by Brock on Friday 08 December 2006, 00:19 am, edited 1 time in total. Post by alter Ton » Friday 08 December 2006, 00:19 am bones wrote: pacifica wrote: Thanks MickeyD for the information. I have to say though that John Williams version & his variations are quite different than the music that i have for this piece. I guess, as the arrangement that I am listening to is by John Williams , I should expect it to be more challenging. Bones, I will take your advice in trying to get a harpsichord recording. I've never heard the Williams recording, what CD/Vinyl is it on? I made my own version of the theme based on the original score, a little bit more difficult than Guiliani or Noad, I've yet to write any variations. Handel's variations appear on the "Echoes of London" CD. Pacifica, Williams has recorded both the original Handel variations and Giuliani's variations on the same theme. It is possible that the you have the music to the Giuliani but have the recording of the Handel or vice versa. Post by alter Ton » Wednesday 13 December 2006, 00:55 am Brock wrote: MickeyD wrote: So you can check the score against John Williams. If Brock says he cooked up his own variations, that's good enough for me. Brock seems to do his homework. Thanks for the vote of confidence. The Wiliams recording of the Giuliani variations is I think pretty much what Giuliani wrote. It's the later recording that Williams calls Handel's Harmonious Blacksmith which sounds like the vaiations are more JW than handel - I've never heard Handel's original variations, but what Williams recorded then doesn't sound very Handelian to me. Actually, his rendition is pretty faithful to Handel's original, which is why he does it with two guitars. The only major difference is the repetition of the theme at the end which isn't part of the original.	i don't know
In French cuisine, of what are lardons small pieces?	What are Lardons? (with pictures) What are Lardons? Last Modified Date: 16 December 2016 Copyright Protected: 10 most extreme places on Earth Lardons are small pieces of fat, typically pork fat, that are used extensively in French cooking, as well as in some cooking from other regions. They add a distinctly rich, salty flavor to food which some consumers find quite enjoyable. The term “ lardon ” is also used to refer to the strips of fat that are used to lard meat; in larding, strips of fat are threaded into a roast of meat to help keep it moist while it cooks. Some recipes call for lardons in the early stages; many French soups and stews, for example, use them to provide a starting layer of fat for browning meats and vegetables. The fat pieces can also be cooked until they are crispy to add texture and flavor; crisped lardons may be sprinkled onto salads, roasts, and other dishes. They may also be added to quiches, omelettes, and an assortment of other foods. In some regions, lardons can be found for sale, prechopped, in sealed packaging. In other cases, cooks may purchase a piece of fatback and slice it to the right size. Fatback in a fatty cut of pork from the back of a pig that is also used to make bacon. In areas where lardons or fatback are not available, some cooks improvise with fatty strips of bacon cut into small pieces. The pork used to produce lardons is typically cured so that it acquires a salty, slightly smoky flavor and so that it will keep for an extended period of time. Salt curing can also integrate other spices such as pepper and bay leaves, so it is possible to find the fat with a wide range of seasonings. Some cooks like to cure their own fatback, if they have access to fresh pork; this allows them to control the salt and spicing. Lardons should not be confused with rendered lard, pig fat which is processed to make it uniformly smooth and creamy. Although the thought of adding small chunks of pure fat to food might seem odd to some people, lardons really do add a distinctive flavor without making food feel greasy or oily. Pork fat is also a great frying medium, which is why it is used to brown and cook vegetables and meats. When crispy, lardons have a rich, salty flavor that could be likened to potato chips and other fat-rich, salty, crispy foods. When used as the base of a soup or stew, the the fat itself is almost undetectable, but the rich flavor is certainly noticeable. Ad	Bacon
Of which mollusc are the acorn and goose the two varieties found on British shorelines?	Cookbook:Boeuf Bourguignon - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Cookbook:Boeuf Bourguignon 3 hours Difficulty Boeuf bourguignon ( French for Burgundy beef) is a well known, traditional French stew prepared with beef braised in red wine (originally Burgundy wine ) and beef broth, flavored with garlic, onions, carrots, a bouquet garni and garnished with mushrooms. [1] Formerly, chefs larded the meat with lardons , but modern beef is so tender and well marbled that this time-consuming technique is rarely necessary. Julia Child included a recipe for Sauté de Boeuf à la Bourguignonne in Mastering the Art of French Cooking , her famous first book. Child recommends serving this dish "in a casserole, or on a platter surrounded with steamed rice, risotto, or potato balls sautéed in butter", and also states that "buttered green peas or beans could accompany it, and a good red Bordeaux wine". [2] She also points out that this is a dish that benefits from a day in the refrigerator. “ Fortunately you can prepare it competely ahead, even a day in advance, and it only gains in flavor when reheated. ” Preparation[ edit ] Remove bacon rind and cut into lardons (sticks one quarter-inch thick and one and a half inches long). Simmer rind and lardons for ten minutes in one and a half quarts water. Drain and dry. Preheat oven to 450 degrees F (230C). Sauté lardons in one tablespoon of the olive oil in a flameproof casserole pan over moderate heat for two to three minutes to brown lightly. Remove to a side dish with a slotted spoon. Dry beef in paper towels; it will not brown if it is damp. Heat fat in casserole until almost smoking. Add beef, a few pieces at a time, and sauté until nicely browned on all sides. Add it to the lardons. In the same fat, brown the sliced vegetables. Pour out the excess fat. Return the beef and bacon to the casserole and toss with one half teaspoon of salt and one quarter teaspoon of pepper. Then sprinkle on the flour and toss again to coat the beef lightly. Set casserole uncovered in middle position of preheated oven for four minutes. Toss the meat again and return to oven for four minutes (this browns the flour and covers the meat with a light crust). Remove casserole and turn oven down to 325 degrees F (160C). Stir in wine and two to three cups stock, just enough so that the meat is barely covered. Add the tomato paste, garlic, herbs and bacon rind. Bring to a simmer on top of the stove. Cover casserole and set in lower third of oven. Regulate heat so that liquid simmers very slowly for three to four hours. The meat is done when a fork pierces it easily. While the beef is cooking, prepare the onions and mushrooms. Heat one and a half tablespoons butter with one and one-half tablespoons of the oil until bubbling in a skillet. Add onions and sauté over moderate heat for about ten minutes, rolling them so they will brown as evenly as possible. Be careful not to break their skins. You cannot expect them to brown uniformly. Add one half cup of the stock, salt and pepper to taste and the herb bouquet. Cover and simmer slowly for 40 to 50 minutes until the onions are perfectly tender but hold their shape, and the liquid has evaporated. Remove herb bouquet and set onions aside. Wipe out skillet and heat remaining oil and butter over high heat. As soon as you see butter has begun to subside, indicating it is hot enough, add mushrooms. Toss and shake pan for four to five minutes. As soon as they have begun to brown lightly, remove from heat. When the meat is tender, pour the contents of the casserole into a sieve set over a saucepan. Wash out the casserole and return the beef and lardons to it. Distribute the cooked onions and mushrooms on top. Skim fat off sauce in saucepan. Simmer sauce for a minute or two, skimming off additional fat as it rises. You should have about two and a half cups of sauce thick enough to coat a spoon lightly. If too thin, boil it down rapidly. If too thick, mix in a few tablespoons stock. Taste carefully for seasoning. Pour sauce over meat and vegetables. Cover and simmer two to three minutes, basting the meat and vegetables with the sauce several times. Serve in casserole, or arrange stew on a platter surrounded with potatoes, noodles or rice, and decorated with parsley. Recipe without lardons (serves four)[ edit ] Preparation[ edit ] Cut beef into large, five-centimeter chunks. Season with salt, pepper and olive oil. Cook beef a small amount at a time in a dutch oven or large saucepan until it's golden brown on the outside. Remove each portion as it's done and set aside. Add three large onions and garlic to the same pot and cook till golden brown. Sprinkle with two tablespoons of flour. Cook a few minutes longer. Add one to two cups of red wine. Bring wine to a boil then simmer for five minutes. Add beef, carrots, herbs and mushrooms. Add another couple of cups of red wine and water; enough to cover the meat and vegetables. Cook for 2-3 hours, stirring occasionally. Remove surface scum as required. Use leftovers to make meat pies or puff pastries . Add a small amount of dried Trompettes de la mort ( Craterellus cornucopioides ). For a dish serving 4, 4 trompettes can be used depending on taste. Cut off parts that may contain sand, rinse, cut in small pieces, soak for 5 minutes in warm water and add to the dish after adding the wine. Can be used instead of garlic.	i don't know
Who was the Roman counterpart of the Greek goddess Demeter?	Demeter *** Demeter (Roman Counterpart was Ceres) When the Roman Empire conquered the Greeks in 146BC, the Romans assimilated various elements from other cultures and civilisations, including the gods and goddesses that were worshipped by the Ancient Greeks. Many of the Greek gods and goddesses, such as Demeter, were therefore adopted by the Romans but were given Latin names. The Roman counterpart of Demeter was Ceres. Picture of the goddess Demeter mourning the loss of Persephone Demeter and the Earth Goddesses In ancient Greek mythology there are three great earth-goddesses Gaia, Rhea, and Demeter. Gaia represented the earth as a whole, with its subterranean forces Rhea represented the productive power that caused vegetation to grow, sustaining men and animals Demeter, by presiding over agriculture, directed and utilized Rhea's productive powers Demeter, however, by introducing a knowledge of agriculture, put an end to the primitive nomadic lifestyles which led men to live a settled and civilised way of life. Facts about Demeter The following facts and profile provides a fast overview of Demeter: Demeter Profile & Fact File Personality: Kind, peaceful, patient Appearance: Abundant, golden hair, attractive Role & Function: The function of Demeter is described as being the earth goddess and the goddess of fertility. She was also the goddess of agriculture, nature and the seasons Status: A Major goddess and one of the Twelve Olympians Symbols of Demeter: Torch, wheat, poppy and swine Gender: Female Roman Counterpart: The Roman name for this goddess was Ceres Name of Husband: Unmarried Picture of Arion on a sea horse The Family of Demeter, The Earth Goddess According to Greek legends and myths the family of Demeter were as follows: Father: Cronus Brothers: Zeus, Hades and Poseidon Sisters: Hestia and Hera Husband: Unmarried Children of Demeter: Daughter by Zeus - Persephone. Despoina and Arion (by Poseidon) Plutus and Philomelus (by Iasion) Demeter and Mount Olympus In Greek Mythology the principle Greek gods, that included Demeter, were referred to as the Twelve Olympians and lived on the summit of Mount Olympus which was protected by a special layer of clouds. The gods and goddesses who lived on Mount Olympus attended sumptuous banquets in the council-chamber of the gods and feasted on ambrosia (the food of the gods) and nectar (the drink of the gods). The names of the other Olympian gods were Zeus, Hera, Athena, Hestia or Dionysus, Apollo, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon, Demeter, Artemis, Hephaestus and Hermes. The Greek Gods Family Tree and Genealogy The genealogy of these ancient deities can be established via the Greek gods family tree which also provides an overview of the relationship of Demeter to the other Greek gods and deities. The Greek gods family tree and genealogy provides an overview of her relationship to the other Greek gods and deities. The Symbols of Demeter In the sculptures, vases, mosaics and paintings of Greek Art the goddess Demeter was often illustrated with images representing her symbols - the torch, wheat, poppy and pig. Iconography include pictures of the Grain Sheaf, Winged Serpent, Lotus Staff, Torch, Cornucopia. Symbols of Demeter The symbols of Demeter were: The Torch The symbol of the torch represents the pair of flaming torches she carried in her search for her daughter, Persephone Wheat The symbol of a sheaf of wheat and the cornucopia, horn of plenty reflects her role as the goddess of agriculture The Pig The symbol of the pig relates to the blood sacrifices of this animal ensuring the fertility of the earth Statue of Demeter (Ceres) by Rubins The Poppy The symbol of the poppy refers to wild poppies which grew in the grain fields. A poppy was worn by the priestesses who served Demeter. Winged Serpents A pair of winged-serpents (dragons) drew her chariot Lotus Staff The symbolism of the Lotus staff is not clear, however, the fruit of the lotus plant induced apathy, a dreamy forgetfulness and an unwillingness to leave, hence the term 'Lotus Eaters'. It is possible that the use of this might relate to Demeter's wish to keep her daughter Persephone with her Picture of Demeter and the return of Persephone from the Underworld Myths and Legends about Demeter in Greek Mythology The most famous myths and legends relating to Demeter (Ceres) are: The abduction of Persephone by Hades The punishment of Erysichthon	Ceres
Who was the only driver to win a F1 World Championship in a car of his own design?	Demeter - Ancient History Encyclopedia Demeter by Mark Cartwright published on 27 August 2012 One of the oldest Greek gods, Demeter ( Roman name: Ceres) guaranteed the fertility of the earth and protected farming and vegetation. This close connection with the earth was inherited from her mother Rhea, and doubtless she was a reincarnation of local mother-Earth goddesses, commonly worshipped in rural communities. Demeter's Family Daughter of Kronos and Rhea, sister of Zeus , Poseidon , Hades , Hera , and Hestia, Demeter was the mother of Persephone and Iacchus (both with Zeus) and Pluto, the god of wealth (with Iasion, who was subsequently killed by a thunderbolt from a jealous Zeus). She also adopted Triptolemus, the Eleusinian prince, who gave the human race the gifts of the plough and knowledge of agriculture. Demeter was also pursued by Poseidon and to escape his attentions, she changed into a mare; however, Poseidon too changed into a horse and their resulting offspring was Arion, the winged horse ridden by Hercules . Remove Ads Advertisement Homer in The Iliad describes the goddess as ‘golden-haired’, and Hesiod in his Theogony and Works & Days, describes her as ‘bounteous Demeter’, ‘well-garlanded’, ‘hallowed’, and ‘reverend’. Demeter and Persephone were the subject of a major cult in the ancient Greek world. Demeter & Persephone Demeter and Persephone (also known as Kore in Greek and Proserpina by the Romans) were the subject of a major cult in the ancient Greek world. According to mythology , Hades, god of the underworld, fell in love with Persephone as soon as he saw her and carried her off in his chariot to live with him in Hades. In some accounts Zeus had given his consent to the abduction, the location of the crime being traditionally placed in either Sicily (famed for its fertility) or Asia. Demeter searched the earth for her lost daughter and though Helios (or Hermes ) told her of her daughter’s fate, she, nevertheless, continued her wanderings until she finally arrived at Eleusis . It was here, disguised as an old woman, that the goddess cared for Demophon (or Triptolemus), the only son of Metaneira, the wife of Keleos, king of Eleusis. To reward the family for their kindness, Demeter set about making Demophon immortal by placing him on a fire every night. However, when Metaneira saw this she raised an alarm. In response, Demeter revealed her true identity and demanded a temple be built in her honour. This was the beginning of the celebrated sanctuary of Eleusis. Once the temple was completed, Demeter withdrew from the world and lived inside it; at the same time she created a great drought to convince the other gods to release Persephone from Hades. As the drought claimed ever more victims, Zeus finally persuaded Hades to release his ill-gotten bride. Before giving her up though, the wily Hades put a pomegranate kernel in the girl’s mouth, knowing its divine taste would compel her to return to him. In other versions of the myth, Persephone could have been released if she had not eaten anything in the underworld during her captivity, but at the last moment, Hades gave her a pomegranate seed. Finally, as a compromise, it was decided that Persephone would be released but that she would have to return to Hades for one third of the year (or in other accounts one half). Remove Ads Advertisement The story of Demeter and Persephone was perhaps symbolic of the changing seasons and the perennial change from life to death, to life once more, or in other words, the changes from summer to winter and the return of life in spring. The cycle became one of the rituals of the sacred Eleusinian mysteries; indeed the symbols of the cult were ears of corn and a torch - symbolic of Demeter’s search for Persephone and a reminder that the rituals were carried out at night. As all initiates were bound by a sacred oath not to reveal the details of the mysteries, they have to this day remained just that, a mystery. The most important sanctuary to Demeter, then, was at Eleusis in Attica which had religious origins and monuments dating back to the Mycenaean civilization of the 15th century BCE. Eleusis became a truly pan - Hellenic site under the dictator Peisistratus and continued to be visited in Roman times. From the 8th century BCE there was also a sanctuary and temple to Demeter on Naxos , in the 4th century BCE a temple was constructed in her honour at Dion, and Homer mentions that the goddess had a precinct named after her at Pyrasos. Demeter in Art Demeter rarely appears in art before the 6th century BCE and then she is usually shown with Persephone; often both wear crowns and hold a torch, sceptre or stalks of grain. Demeter is also sometimes present in scenes depicting the birth of Athena .	i don't know
Who or what are The Warrior, The Plank and The Downward Dog?	Yoga for Beginners Slideshow: Downward Dog, Cobra, and More Poses 10 Yoga Poses for Instant Energy Feel the Power of Warrior Pose Yoga gives you the energy buzz and stress relief of exercise in simple moves like the warrior pose. Yoga may even help you conquer your homework -- because it makes it easier to focus your thoughts. To warrior: Step one foot forward and bend your front knee. Turn your back foot to a 90-degree angle. Stretch your arms in front and behind you, palms down, and face forward. Reach High in Triangle Pose Straighten your front leg and bend at the hip, resting your hand on your shin. Now reach your other arm high to the sky … and gently turn your head to gaze at it. You'll feel a stretch in your legs and hips. Repeat triangle pose on the other side to stretch your other leg. Move carefully when you begin a new exercise. Don't overdo it -- yoga shouldn't hurt. Find Your Balance in Tree Pose Yoga keeps you grounded: happy, calm, and confident. And tree pose is one move that can help you de-stress and develop balance -- mental and physical. Start with your feet together, rooted to the ground, and slowly raise one foot. Rest it on your calf or thigh (not your knee). Your hands go from prayer position, straight up, and above your shoulders. Trees sway and so will you -- but you'll get stronger with practice. Repeat on the other leg. Stand Tall in Mountain Pose Do you hunch up your shoulders all day at school? Yoga makes you aware of bad posture and helps you release stress and tension. Start mountain pose by dropping your shoulders down and back, arms at your sides -- and relax! Now press your hands together as if you were praying. Stretch your hands to the sky, slightly arch your back, and look upward. Practice this pose anytime just by standing tall with a straight back and taking a deep breath. Get Relief With Cat Pose If your back is achy from a heavy backpack or hunching over a screen, arching like a cat can make you feel better. Get on your hands and knees and make your back flat. Take a deep breath in, then breathe out to release stress and curl your back up high. You'll look like a hissing cat, except your head will hang down. Repeat several times. Stretch Yourself With Downward Dog Downward dog will stretch your legs, tone your arms, and make you more flexible. Start on your hands and knees (like you started cat pose). Move your hands slightly forward with your fingers spread apart. Curl your toes under and lift your knees off the floor to create an upside-down "V." Your feet should be hip-width apart, knees slightly bent. Using a yoga mat will help you feel more stable. Work Your Core With Plank Pose Plank pose tones your abs. Move into a push-up position, with your hands shoulder-width apart and your legs straight. Don't let your tummy sag down. Keep your abs, butt, and thigh muscles tight as you hold this pose for about 30 seconds. It's harder than it looks! Line it up: Your body will look straight as a board when you get this position right. Breathe Deep With Cobra Yoga stretches muscles that you don't normally think about. The cobra pose opens your chest to let your lungs take in more air. Deep breathing can help you relax. To Cobra: Lie face down, legs straight, with the tops of your feet on the floor. Lift your chest, keeping your hands under your shoulders and your shoulders relaxed down (not scrunched up by your ears). Straighten your arms, if you can do it easily, but always keep your hips on the floor. Toning bonus: Stronger abs and spine. Calm Your Nerves With Seated Twist Sit on the floor -- both legs straight out in front. Cross your right leg over your left thigh, so your foot touches the floor. Slowly bend the other leg so that this foot nearly touches your butt. Put your right hand on the floor behind you and your left elbow on your right knee. Feel like a pretzel yet? Sit up tall, breathe out, and twist your body and head gently to the right. Repeat on the other side. Desk Yoga? You can do a simple twist in your desk at school. Gently turn your upper body to face backward. Hold your chair for support. Relax Into Child's Pose Whenever you want to feel calm and relaxed, try slipping into child's pose. Kneel with your toes flat on the floor and sit back on your heels. Move your knees about hip distance apart. Lay your upper body forward with your arms stretching out in front of you. Rest your forehead on the floor and breathe deeply. Yoga Teaches You to Breathe Breathing just comes naturally, right? Yoga breathing takes you deeper and can give you a calm energy. Try the conqueror breath, which sounds like ocean waves. To prepare, sit tall and inhale until your body fills with air -- belly first, then chest. Breathe out slowly and fully. Now inhale through your nose, then let the air out through your mouth, making a “ha” sound. Can you make the sound even when you close your mouth and breathe out through your nose? Yoga Before a Test A few quick yoga moves might help you relax and focus at test time. And no one needs to know! Just raise your shoulders and circle them backward -- a shoulder roll. Switch and do it forward. Gently bend your head toward one shoulder, then the other to stretch your neck. Fold for Focus: In your chair, fold forward with your head and arms hanging loose. You can pretend you dropped a pencil. Take a few deep breaths. Namaste: Yoga Lifts Your Mood Yoga classes always end with the hands in prayer position and the word, “namaste” (na-ma-stay). This suggests that you feel grateful for your life and your world. The mental part of yoga calms your thoughts, while the poses strengthen your body. Try this whole yoga routine, or sneak in a move or two anytime you're feeling stressed and need to relax and re-energize naturally. Namaste! IMAGES PROVIDED BY: Steve Pomberg / WebMD SOURCES: Marti Yura, Vista Yoga, Atlanta, GA. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: "Tips to Prevention Yoga Injuries." Fitness Magazine: "Yoga 101: Poses for Beginners." Himalayan Institute: "Diaphragmatic Breathing." Prevention: "Flatten Your Abs With Yoga." TeensHealth: "Yoga Slideshow," "Yoga For Stress Relief," Yoga: Getting Started." Yoga Alliance: "Reasons to Try Yoga." Yoga Journal: "Cat Post," "Child's Pose," "Cobra Pose," "Conqueror Breath," "Extended Triangle Pose," "Downward Facing Dog," "Easy Pose," "The Meaning of Namaste," "Plank Pose." This tool does not provide medical advice. See additional information THIS TOOL DOES NOT PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICE. It is intended for general informational purposes only and does not address individual circumstances. It is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment and should not be relied on to make decisions about your health. Never ignore professional medical advice in seeking treatment because of something you have read on the WebMD Site. If you think you may have a medical emergency, immediately call your doctor or dial 911. © 2015 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.	yoga poses
Where might you go to visit the big gun called Mons Meg?	Downward Dog, Down the Shore: Yoga Poses to Try at the Beach Home / Blog / Fitness / Downward Dog, Down the Shore: Yoga Poses to Try at the Beach Downward Dog, Down the Shore: Yoga Poses to Try at the Beach Published: Friday, July 3rd 2015 by Spafinder Wellness 365 by Jessica Remitz Whether you’re a newbie or seasoned yogi, taking your yoga practice outdoors can be a wonderful way to challenge yourself, try something new, and enjoy the beautiful summer weather while it lasts. We’ve rounded up some expert-approved poses to try at the beach, along with some tips for practicing outside the classroom. Practicing Yoga Beyond the Mat Yoga helps to strengthen your core and in turn, improves your balance and posture. You’ll use your abs, back, and obliques in poses anywhere you practice, but moving to an uneven surface, like the beach, can be a great way to fire up your core and stabilizing muscles and create more of a challenge in the poses, said Kati Rae Cowardin, a Yoga Alliance Certified instructor who teaches at CLAY Health Club + Spa , New York Health and Racquet Club , Harvard Club , and privately. “Your balance is challenged on the beach, so you really have to engage your core more than you would on a flat surface,” she said. “It’s not only a physical challenge but a mental challenge, as you must practice patience and deep breathing. Coupled with the sounds of the waves, the beach can be a fun challenge for your practice.” Because you’ll experience more of a challenge at the beach, be sure to take it easy and listen to your body, Cowardin said. Don’t be afraid to fall, but make sure not to push yourself past your limits. Poses to Try at the Beach Try the following routine for an invigorating and challenging afternoon the next time you’re at the beach, designed by Cowardin: Downward facing dog: place your hands shoulder distance apart and your feet hips distance apart (about two fists). Bend your knees as much as you need to. With every inhale, lift your hips high and with every exhale press your heels to the floor. With your hands in the sand, see if you can press into the entire hand, and not just through the wrist. High lunge: from downward facing dog, step your right foot forward with all ten toes facing forward and your left heel off the mat or sand. Keep your feet hips width distance, to will help with stability and begin with your hands in prayer position. Once you’ve established your balance, sweep your arms slowly overhead, shoulder distance apart, palms facing each other. Prayer twist lunge: from high lunge, bring your palms to heart center and twist to the right, bringing your left elbow to the outside of your right knee. Move slowly and practice engaging your legs more. Practicing this pose on an uneven surface will really force you to press your left heel back and lift your back hamstring toward the sky, Cowardin said. Take 5 deep breaths and return to high lunge with arms in prayer position. Warrior three: Slowly shift the weight forward into the right foot and start to hinge forward from the hips, lifting your left leg up and back with hands by your sides, palms facing down. “Notice the balancing act as you lower your torso more and lift your left leg higher, working toward creating an upper case ‘T’ shape with your body,” she said. Slowly lower your left foot back into high lunge, then slowly hinge forward from the hips, lower your hands to the sand and step your right foot back into downward dog. From downward dog, bring your shoulders over your wrists to hold a plank position for 30 to 60 seconds, then go back into downward facing dog (or move through a flow first). Repeat high lunge, prayer twist lunge and warrior three on the other side. Side plank: from downward facing dog, move into a plank position with your knees in the sand and roll to your right side. As you roll, reach your left arm towards the sky and root your left foot into the floor, straightening your left leg. Stack your hips on top of each other. Hold for 30 to 60 seconds and repeat on the other side. Dancer’s Pose: from downward facing dog, step or jump into a forward fold and roll up slowly to a standing position. Bring your right hand to your side with your palm facing out. Lift your right foot off the ground and grab the inside of the foot with your right hand. Your elbow crease should be facing out. Reach your left arm up overhead. Kick your right foot into your hand to lift your leg and let the kicking motion be what lifts your leg and hinge slightly forward from the hips. Keep your standing leg straight and take five deep breaths. Lower the leg slowly and repeat on the other side.	i don't know
For achievement in what field is the Fields Medal awarded?	International Mathematical Union (IMU): Details About the photos The Fields Medal is awarded every four years on the occasion of the International Congress of Mathematicians to recognize outstanding mathematical achievement for existing work and for the promise of future achievement. The Fields Medal Committee is chosen by the Executive Committee of the International Mathematical Union and is normally chaired by the IMU President. It is asked to choose at least two, with a strong preference for four, Fields Medallists, and to have regard in its choice to representing a diversity of mathematical fields. A candidate's 40th birthday must not occur before January 1st of the year of the Congress at which the Fields Medals are awarded. The name of the Chair of the Committee is made public, but the names of other members of the Committee remain anonymous until the award of the prize at the Congress. If a former student (Ph.D. thesis only) of a Committee member is seriously considered, such a member shall not continue to serve on the Committee for its final decision. Detailed Information Physical Medals and Cash Values Nomination Nominations for this award have to be submitted to the Prize Committee Chair. IMU requests that the Nomination Guidelines are observed. History of the Fields Medal At the 1924 International Congress of Mathematicians in Toronto, a resolution was adopted that at each ICM, two gold medals should be awarded to recognize outstanding mathematical achievement. Professor J. C. Fields, a Canadian mathematician who was Secretary of the 1924 Congress, later donated funds establishing the medals, which were named in his honor. In 1966 it was agreed that, in light of the great expansion of mathematical research, up to four medals could be awarded at each Congress. The Fields Institute, Toronto, Canada, organizes the Fields Medal Symposium . The goals of the program for the Fields Medal Symposium are to present the work of a Fields Medalist and its impact, to explore the potential for future directions and areas of its influence, to provide inspiration to the next generations of mathematicians and scientists, as well as to present the Medalist to a broader public. The following text by Eberhard Knobloch describes the design of the medal. The head represents Archimedes facing right. (1) In the field is the word in Greek capitals and (2) the artist's monogram and date RTM, MCNXXXIII. (3) The inscription reads: TRANSIRE SUUM PECTUS MUNDOQUE POTIRI. The inscriptions mean: (1) "of Archimedes", namely the face of Archimedes. (2) R(obert) T(ait) M(cKenzie), that is the name of the Canadian sculptor who designed the medal. The correct date would read: "MCMXXXIII" or 1933. The second letter M has to be substituted for the false N. (3) "To transcend one's spirit and to take hold of (to master) the world". Reverse: The inscription on the tablet reads: CONGREGATI	Mathematics
What was the country of birth of the Gilbert half of Gilbert and George?	International Mathematical Union (IMU): Prizes Home \| Contact \| Search \| Media Platform \| Sitemap IMU Awards, Prizes, and Special Lectures The five IMU prizes of 2014 have been awarded on August 13, 2014 during the Opening Ceremony of ICM 2014 in Seoul, Republic of Korea by Park Geun-hye, the Honorable President of Korea. Information about the 2014 winners can be found HERE . The scientific prizes of the International Mathematical Union of the year 2010 were awarded during the Opening Ceremony of ICM 2010 in Hyderabad, India on August 19, 2010. Shrimati Pratibha Patil, the Honourable President of India, has given away the awards (a medal and a cheque for each of the prize winners). Information about the 2010 winners can be found here . The slides ( PowerPoint & PDF ) contain the citations as well as the names of the members of the various Prize Committees. A video of the Opening Ceremony can be found at the ICM 2010 online streaming archive . About two years in advance of an award, the IMU Executive Committee appoints, for each of its Prizes, a Selection Committee along the lines of the Prize Statutes and the IMU By-Laws. This includes specifications about the criteria of selection and instructions on how to act in a conflict of interest . The names of the Selection Committee members remain confidential until the ICM, only the names of the Chairs are made public. The Prize Committees for ICM 2018 began their work in 2016, a call for nominations for all IMU awards has been issued, see also the nomination guidelines . The International Mathematical Union grants four Prizes for mathematical achievement:	i don't know
Who, with his colleague Picasso, was credited with originating Cubism?	Cubism \| Essay \| Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History \| The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art Works of Art (11) Essay Cubism was one of the most influential visual art styles of the early twentieth century. It was created by Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881–1973) and Georges Braque (French, 1882–1963) in Paris between 1907 and 1914. The French art critic Louis Vauxcelles coined the term Cubism after seeing the landscapes Braque had painted in 1908 at L’Estaque in emulation of Cézanne . Vauxcelles called the geometric forms in the highly abstracted works “cubes.” Other influences on early Cubism have been linked to Primitivism and non-Western sources. The stylization and distortion of Picasso’s ground-breaking Les Demoiselles d’Avignon ( Museum of Modern Art, New York ), painted in 1907, came from African art. Picasso had first seen African art when, in May or June 1907, he visited the ethnographic museum in the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris. The Cubist painters rejected the inherited concept that art should copy nature, or that they should adopt the traditional techniques of perspective, modeling, and foreshortening. They wanted instead to emphasize the two-dimensionality of the canvas. So they reduced and fractured objects into geometric forms, and then realigned these within a shallow, relieflike space. They also used multiple or contrasting vantage points. In Cubist work up to 1910, the subject of a picture was usually discernible. Although figures and objects were dissected or “analyzed” into a multitude of small facets, these were then reassembled, after a fashion, to evoke those same figures or objects. During “high” Analytic Cubism (1910–12), also called “hermetic,” Picasso and Braque so abstracted their works that they were reduced to just a series of overlapping planes and facets mostly in near-monochromatic browns, grays, or blacks. In their work from this period, Picasso and Braque frequently combined representational motifs with letters ( 1999.363.63 ; 1999.363.11 ). Their favorite motifs were still lifes with musical instruments, bottles, pitchers, glasses, newspapers, playing cards ( 1997.149.12 ), and the human face and figure. Landscapes were rare. During the winter of 1912–13, Picasso executed a great number of papiers collés ( 1999.363.64 ). With this new technique of pasting colored or printed pieces of paper in their compositions, Picasso and Braque swept away the last vestiges of three-dimensional space (illusionism) that still remained in their “high” Analytic work. Whereas, in Analytic Cubism, the small facets of a dissected or “analyzed” object are reassembled to evoke that same object, in the shallow space of Synthetic Cubism—initiated by the papiers collés–large pieces of neutral or colored paper themselves allude to a particular object, either because they are often cut out in the desired shape or else sometimes bear a graphic element that clarifies the association. While Picasso and Braque are credited with creating this new visual language, it was adopted and further developed by many painters, including Fernand Léger ( 1999.363.35 ), Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Juan Gris ( 1996.403.14 ), Roger de la Fresnaye ( 1991.397 ), Marcel Duchamp , Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger ( 59.86 ), and even Diego Rivera ( 49.70.51 ). Though primarily associated with painting, Cubism also exerted a profound influence on twentieth-century sculpture and architecture. The major Cubist sculptors were Alexander Archipenko, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, and Jacques Lipchitz. The liberating formal concepts initiated by Cubism also had far-reaching consequences for Dada and Surrealism , as well as for all artists pursuing abstraction in Germany, Holland, Italy, England, America, and Russia. Sabine Rewald Department of Modern and Contemporary Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art October 2004 Citation Rewald, Sabine. “Cubism.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cube/hd_cube.htm (October 2004) Further Reading Cooper, Douglas, and Gary Tinterow. The Essential Cubism, 1907–1920: Braque, Picasso & Their Friends. Exhibition catalogue. London: Tate Gallery, 1983. Rubin, William, ed. Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective. Exhibition catalogue. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1980. Additional Essays by Sabine Rewald Rewald, Sabine. “ Fauvism .” (October 2004) Rewald, Sabine. “ Paul Klee (1879–1940) .” (October 2004) Related	Georges Braque
Which mammal is alternatively known as the glutton?	Picasso Archives - BOOK OF DAYS TALES BOOK OF DAYS TALES May 132015 Today is the birthday (1882) of Georges Braque, a major 20th-century French painter, collagist, draughtsman, printmaker and sculptor — one of my all-time favorites. His most important contributions to the history of art were in his alliance with Fauvism from 1906, and the role he played in the development of Cubism. Braque’s work between 1908 and 1912 is closely associated with that of his colleague Pablo Picasso. Their respective Cubist works were in some cases indistinguishable. Braque was born in Argenteuil, Val-d’Oise. He grew up in Le Havre and trained to be a house painter and decorator like his father and grandfather. However, he also studied artistic painting during evenings at the École des Beaux-Arts, in Le Havre, from about 1897 to 1899. In Paris, he apprenticed with a decorator and was awarded his certificate in 1902. The next year, he attended the Académie Humbert, also in Paris, and painted there until 1904. It was here that he met Marie Laurencin and Francis Picabia. Braque’s earliest works were impressionistic, but after seeing the work exhibited by the artistic group known as the “Fauves” in 1905, he adopted a Fauvist style. The Fauves, a group that included Henri Matisse and André Derain among others, used brilliant colors to represent emotions. Braque worked most closely with the artists Raoul Dufy and Othon Friesz, who shared Braque’s hometown of Le Havre, to develop a somewhat more subdued Fauvist style. In 1906, Braque traveled with Friesz to L’Estaque, to Antwerp, and then home to Le Havre to paint. In May 1907, he successfully exhibited works of the Fauve style in the Salon des Indépendants. The same year, Braque’s style began a slow evolution as he became influenced by Paul Cézanne who had died in 1906 and whose works were exhibited in Paris for the first time in a large-scale, museum-like retrospective in September 1907. The 1907 Cézanne retrospective at the Salon d’Automne greatly affected the avant-garde artists of Paris, resulting in the advent of Cubism. Braque’s paintings of 1908–1913 reflected his new interest in geometry and simultaneous perspective. He conducted an intense study of the effects of light and perspective and the technical means that painters use to represent these effects, seeming to question the most standard of artistic conventions. In his village scenes, for example, Braque frequently reduced an architectural structure to a geometric form approximating a cube, yet rendered its shading so that it looked both flat and three-dimensional by fragmenting the image. Beginning in 1909, Braque began to work closely with Picasso who had been developing a similar proto-Cubist style of painting. At the time, he was influenced by Gauguin, Cézanne, African masks, and Iberian sculpture while Braque was interested mainly in developing Cézanne’s ideas of multiple perspectives. The invention of Cubism was a joint effort between Picasso and Braque, then residents of Montmartre in Paris. These artists were the style’s main innovators. After meeting in October or November 1907, Braque and Picasso, in particular, began working on the development of Cubism in 1908. Both artists produced paintings of monochromatic color and complex patterns of faceted form, now termed Analytic Cubism. A decisive time of its development occurred during the summer of 1911, when Braque and Picasso painted side by side in Céret in the French Pyrenees, each artist producing paintings that are difficult—sometimes virtually impossible—to distinguish from those of the other. In 1912, they began to experiment with collage and Braque invented the papier collé technique. French art critic Louis Vauxcelles used the terms “bizarre cubiques” in 1908 after seeing a picture by Braque. He described it as ‘full of little cubes’. The term ‘Cubism’, first used in 1911 with reference to artists exhibiting at the Salon des Indépendants, quickly gained wide use but Picasso and Braque did not adopt it initially. Art historian Ernst Gombrich described Cubism as “the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture—that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas.” The Cubist style spread quickly throughout Paris and then Europe. The two artists’ productive collaboration continued and they worked closely together until the beginning of World War I in 1914, when Braque enlisted with the French Army. In May 1915, Braque received a severe head injury in battle at Carency and suffered temporary blindness. He was trepanned, and required a long period of recuperation. Braque resumed painting in late 1916. Working alone, he began to moderate the harsh abstraction of cubism. He developed a more personal style characterized by brilliant color, textured surfaces, and—after his relocation to the Normandy seacoast—the reappearance of the human figure. He painted many still life subjects during this time, maintaining his emphasis on structure. One example of this is his 1943 work Blue Guitar. During his recovery he became a close friend of the cubist artist Juan Gris. He continued to work during the remainder of his life, producing a considerable number of paintings, graphics, and sculptures. Braque, along with Matisse, is credited for introducing Picasso to Fernand Mourlot, and most of the lithographs and book illustrations he himself created during the 1940s and ’50s were produced at the Mourlot Studios. In 1962 Braque worked with master printmaker Aldo Crommelynck to create his series of etchings and aquatints titled “L’Ordre des Oiseaux” (“The Order of Birds”), which was accompanied by the poet Saint-John Perse’s text. Braque died on 31 August 1963 in Paris. He is buried in the cemetery of the Church of St. Valery in Varengeville-sur-Mer, Normandy whose windows he designed. Braque’s hometown, Le Havre, is a well-known fishing town in Normandy as these images attest (including a number of impressionist paintings by Monet who was a resident): I did find a recipe for scallops Le Havre but could not discover what made them unique to Le Havre. Besides it was not particularly interesting. So, I have settled for a Normandy fish stew that I like. It’s a simple but creamy bouillabaisse. Normandy Fish Stew 2 leeks, cleaned and sliced 100g baby button mushrooms halved 150ml crème fraîche 4 fillets skin-on white fish small bunch flat-leaf parsley, chopped Instructions Scrub and de-beard the mussels. Discard any that do not close when tapped. Put the mussels and cider into a saucepan. Bring to a boil and cover. Cook for about 3 minutes or until the mussels have opened. Discard any that do not. Drain the mussels by using a sieve lined with muslin over a bowl to strain out any sand. Clean and dry the pan and place it on medium high heat. Melt the butter and sweat the leeks until soft. Add the mushrooms and cook 1-2 minutes longer. Add the mussel broth and crème fraîche and simmer to reduce by half. Add the fish and parsley, cover, and cook until the fish is just cooked through (time depends on the thickness of the fillets). Return the mussels to heat. Serve in the pot at the table, with crusty French bread. The Christmas Truce The Christmas Truce was a series of widespread, unofficial ceasefires that took place along the Western Front around Christmas 1914, during World War I. Through the week leading up to Christmas, parties of German and British soldiers began to exchange seasonal greetings and songs between their trenches; on occasion, the tension was reduced to the […] Édith Piaf Today is the birthday (1915) of Édith Piaf, famed French singer who became a national icon in France, and still has an ardent following worldwide (myself included). I decided to start the post with a recording of one her most famous songs, rather than the usual portrait or icon, so that you could see her […] Wright Brothers Today is the anniversary (1903) of the the Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight. From 1905 to 1907, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft. Although not […] William Tell Supposedly on this date in 1307 William Tell shot an arrow into an apple on his son’s head. The legend as told by Tschudi (ca. 1570) reports that William Tell, who originally came from Bürglen, was known as a strong man, mountain climber, and an expert shot with the crossbow. In his time, the Habsburg […] Bodleian Library On this date in 1602 the Bodleian Library, Oxford University’s main library, opened for use. It has been in continuous service ever since, growing considerably over the years (now holding an estimated 11 million books). It was where I studied and did research as an undergraduate, and I still occasionally visit when I need to […] St Francis of Assisi Today is the feast day of St Francis of Assisi, without doubt one of the best known and best loved saints of all time. He is probably most frequently remembered as a lover of animals, and because he is the patron saint of animals, his feast day was chosen in 1931 as World Animal Day, […] Michaelmas Today is Michaelmas, or, more formally, the Feast of St Michael and All Angels. In times past it was a very important day in the calendar marking the beginning of autumn (in the northern hemisphere), the end of the summer harvests, and, therefore a time for reckoning up – farm laborers got paid, as did […] Johnny Appleseed Today is the birthday (1774) of John Chapman, generally known as Johnny Appleseed, Swedenborgian Christian missionary, early conservationist, and folk hero. Chapman was known as Johnny Appleseed because of his large number of fruit tree plantings. He is regarded informally as the patron saint of orchardists in the U.S.A., and today is commonly celebrated as […] Darwin and the Galápagos Islands On this date in 1835, HMS Beagle, with Charles Darwin aboard, reached the Galápagos Islands. The ship landed at Chatham, or San Cristobal, the easternmost island of the archipelago. His visit to the Galápagos Islands is justly famous because of the observations he made there that helped him develop the general principles of natural selection. […] International Chocolate Day Today is International Chocolate Day. Well, actually, there are several dates that lay claim to this distinction, but I have chosen this one because it’s a slow day in the anniversary world. I could give you a whole song and dance about the history of chocolate, but I’m not going to. Instead I am going […] Roger Penrose Today is the birthday (1931) of Roger Penrose, mathematician, philosopher, and artist. I am a big fan. Some of you who read this blog regularly may wonder why I admire so many mathematicians; maybe this post will solve that puzzle. Penrose was born in Colchester on the east coast of England, and is the brother […] Prometheus Cut Down On this date in 1964 the oldest known unitary organism, Prometheus, a Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pinus longaeva) tree growing near the tree line on Wheeler Peak in eastern Nevada was cut down by a graduate student and United States Forest Service personnel for research purposes. The tree was at least 4862 years old […] Juliet’s Birthday In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet there is this line: “Come Lammas-eve at night shall she be fourteen” (Act 1 sc iii) Lammas is August 1, so today (Lammas Eve) is Juliet’s birthday. Romeo and Juliet was one of Shakespeare’s earliest plays (written some time between 1591 and 1595). It was a popular audience pleaser throughout […] Independence Day, Vanuatu Today is Independence Day in Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu (Ripablik blong Vanuatu), an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. Vanuatu was first inhabited by Melanesian people. The first Europeans to visit the islands were the members of a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese navigator Fernandes de Queirós, who arrived in 1605. […] Martha of Bethany Today is the feast day of Martha of Bethany, as well as of her brother Lazarus of Bethany. I am going to focus on Martha today. Next year on this date, Deo volente, I’ll give you the story of Lazarus. Martha appears in three well known stories, one in Luke’s gospel and two in John’s. […] Hiram Bingham and Machu Picchu Today is the anniversary of the day in 1911 that a local farmer’s son took Hiram Bingham to the ruins of Machu Picchu, eventually launching a massive project to free the city from the dense jungle that had overgrown it, and turning it into one of the most visited historic sites in the world. Bingham […] Rembrandt Today is the birthday (1606) of Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn. I don’t feel the need to give you an art history lesson here. I’m assuming you all know what a Rembrandt looks like and that he painted Biblical stories, stories from Classical myths, and portraits (including lots of self portraits – some of […] Salvador Dalí Today is the birthday (1904) of Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, 1st Marqués de Dalí de Pubol usually known simply as Salvador Dalí, surrealist master and moustache specialist. Although he is best known for his paintings he had a hand in a great many fields – cinema, theater set design, fashion, photography, and […]	i don't know
What is the one-word alternative name for the spiny anteater?	What does spiny anteater mean? This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word spiny anteater Princeton's WordNet(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: echidna, spiny anteater, anteater(noun) a burrowing monotreme mammal covered with spines and having a long snout and claws for hunting ants and termites; native to New Guinea echidna, spiny anteater, anteater(noun) a burrowing monotreme mammal covered with spines and having a long snout and claws for hunting ants and termites; native to Australia Wiktionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: spiny anteater(Noun) A common name for echidna. Numerology The numerical value of spiny anteater in Chaldean Numerology is: 9 Pythagorean Numerology	Echidna
Which Renaissance artist fled Rome after a fatal brawl, possibly over a game of tennis?	Spiny anteater - Crossword Clue Answer \| Crossword Heaven USA Today - March 26, 2007 Washington Post - March 17, 2005 New York Times - October 04, 1998 Found an answer for the clue Spiny anteater that we don't have? Then please submit it to us so we can make the clue database even better!	i don't know
As what is the barely navigable sea route from Baffin Bay to the Beaufort Sea known?	Arctic sea ice plummeting toward 3rd or 4th-lowest extent on record Arctic sea ice plummeting toward 3rd or 4th-lowest extent on record 895 Share What's This? Sea ice is leading to more areas of open ocean throughout the Arctic, from the Chukchi Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Image: David Cheskin/PA Wire /Associated Press By Andrew Freedman 2015-09-04 15:59:48 UTC Arctic sea ice extent is nearing its seasonal minimum, and based on recent trends it is likely to rank as the 3rd or 4th-lowest extent on record since satellite records began in 1979, the National Snow and Ice Date Center (NSIDC) said Wednesday. There is also a chance that the 2015 minimum sea ice extent — which measures the area covered by at least 15% of sea ice — will end up even lower, at the second or third-lowest ice extent on record, assuming recent, more rapid ice loss rates continue. The four lowest sea ice minimums have all occurred since 2007, including the record lowest year of 2012, the NSIDC reported on its website . Arctic sea ice extent of 2015 so far, compared to previous years and the long-term average. Image: NSIDC While the NSIDC's data only goes back to 1979, other records extend scientists' understanding of sea ice trends all the way back to the 1800s and beyond. The longer-term data shows that the sea ice loss seen in recent decades is likely unprecedented in modern times, and possibly since at least the last interglacial period about 130,000 years ago. Scientific studies have shown that the rapid loss of the planet's northern refrigerator is largely the result of manmade global warming plus, to a lesser extent, influences from natural climate variability. Arctic sea ice loss is one of the most visible signs of rapid Arctic climate change, a phenomenon that President Obama put in the spotlight during his trip to Alaska this week . With sea ice melting earlier in the year, iconic marine mammals like polar bears and walruses are having a harder time finding food, while Arctic communities are becoming more vulnerable to erosion due to storms that pound the shoreline with high waves. Ice used to serve as protection against such storm surges, but without the ice cover, villages and towns like Barrow and Kotzebue, Alaska, are far more vulnerable to erosion and coastal flooding. Air Force One, carrying President Barack Obama, flies over the island village of Kivalina, an Alaska Native community of 400 people already receding into the ocean as a result of melting sea ice, Wednesday, Sept. 2, 2015. The small village of Kivalina, Alaska, which Obama flew over in Air Force One on Wednesday, will have to be moved, at a cost of up to $100 million, due to severe erosion. In addition, sea ice melt is altering the way of life for native inhabitants of the Arctic, such as the Inuit, who have depended on ice-based hunting for food and are facing the prospect of food insecurity. According to the NSIDC, average sea ice extent at the end of August was 2.16 million square miles, which was the 4th-lowest August extent in the satellite record. This was 621,000 square miles below the 1981 to 2010 average for the month. During August, the Arctic lost an average of 29,000 square miles of sea ice per day, compared to the long-term average of 22,100 square miles. Sea ice extent at the end of August was below average in every part of the Arctic, except for Baffin Bay and Hudson Bay, where some ice persisted. Nearly the entire Beaufort Sea, which is typically partially ice-covered at the end of the summer, was free of ice at the end of August. Arctic weather patterns during the next few weeks will help determine how low sea ice will go, since winds play a major role in pushing sea ice around, and helping to break up thin sea ice cover and export ice from the Arctic Ocean out into the Atlantic through the funnel of Fram Strait, between Canada and Greenland. Both Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route stayed open One of the major consequences of losing the planet's northern refrigerator, is that long-sought shipping routes are now becoming viable for tourism and marine transport of everything from lumber to oil. The southerly route through the Northwest Passage is open, according to NSIDC. This route was first discovered during the 1903 to 1906 period by Roald Amundsen, who first traveled through this area from Baffin Bay to the Beaufort Sea. Animation showing sea ice cover loss in the Northwest Passage, Canada during August. "The broader and deeper passage through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, between Lancaster Sound, Parry Channel, and McClure Strait, is still obstructed by ice, but at the end of August ice blocked only a short portion near Victoria Island," NSIDC stated on its website. It's not clear if the famed Northwest Passage is open enough to be navigable, but most sea ice forecasts show that it will be increasingly accessible for shipping in coming decades. In fact, Crystal Cruises plans to start operating a vessel in that area within the next few summers. The Northern Sea Route, which traverses a path across northern Russia, has been largely free of sea ice for the past month, and is a viable shipping route with more coastal infrastructure to support such activities, compared to the Northwest Passage. Worrisome feedbacks The melting sea ice is not just a problem for the Arctic. When the sea ice melts, it exposes open ocean waters to solar radiation, which warms the water, melting even more sea ice. This is what's known as a positive climate feedback, or a climate change accelerant. By changing Arctic ocean temperatures, climate change is also helping to increase summer and fall Arctic air temperatures, which alters the temperature balance between the equator and the North Pole. It's this difference in air masses that helps power the all-important jet stream, which is an atmospheric superhighway that helps create and transport storm systems. Emerging research suggests, but has not yet completely established , that melting Arctic ice and the warming of the climate in that region is producing more extreme weather in the northern midlatitudes, including the U.S. and Europe. This has led to a mantra that was repeated frequently by scientists and activists during President Obama's visit to Alaska this week — "what happens in the Arctic does not stay in the Arctic."	Northwest Passage
Under what stage name did rock’n’roller Richard Penniman perform?	Arctic Animals \| Article about Arctic Animals by The Free Dictionary Arctic Animals \| Article about Arctic Animals by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Arctic+Animals Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Wikipedia . Arctic Ocean, the smallest ocean, c.5,400,000 sq mi (13,986,000 sq km), located entirely within the Arctic Circle and occupying the region around the North Pole. Oceanography and Environment Nearly landlocked, the Arctic Ocean is bordered by Greenland, Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Norway. The Bering Strait connects it with the Pacific Ocean and the Greenland Sea is the chief link with the Atlantic Ocean. The principal arms of the Arctic Ocean are the Beaufort Beaufort Sea , part of the Arctic Ocean, N of Alaska and Canada, between Point Barrow, Alaska, and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The Mackenzie River flows into the sea, which is always covered with pack ice. It was first explored by the Canadian Vilhjalmur Stefansson in 1914. ..... Click the link for more information. , Chukchi Chukchi Sea , part of the Arctic Ocean N of the Bering Strait, between Siberia and Alaska, Wrangell Island lies to the west and the Beaufort Sea lies to the east. The sea has an approximate area of 200,000 sq mi (518,000 sq km) and is only navigable about four months of the year. ..... Click the link for more information. , East Siberian East Siberian Sea, Rus. Vostochno-Sibirskoye More, part of the Arctic Ocean N of NE Siberia, Russia, bounded on the W by the New Siberian Islands and on the E by Wrangel Island. The Indigirka, Kolyma, Chaun, and other rivers flow into the sea. ..... Click the link for more information. , Laptev Laptev Sea , section of the Arctic Ocean, c.250,900 sq mi (649,800 sq km), N Siberian Russia, between the Taymyr Peninsula and the New Siberian Islands. It is shallow sea and is frozen for most of the year. ..... Click the link for more information. , Kara Kara Sea , Rus. Karskoye More, shallow section of the Arctic Ocean, off N Russia, between Severnaya Zemlya and Novaya Zemlya. It has an average depth of 420 ft (128 m). ..... Click the link for more information. , Barents Barents Sea, arm of the Arctic Ocean, N of Norway and European Russia, partially enclosed by Franz Josef Land on the north, Novaya Zemlya on the east, and Svalbard on the west. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Greenland Greenland Sea, arm of the Arctic Ocean, off the northeast coast of Greenland between Svalbard and Jan Mayen Island. It is the main outlet of the Arctic Ocean to the Atlantic. Because of drifting arctic ice, the northern part is rarely open to navigation. ..... Click the link for more information. seas. The floor of the Arctic Ocean is divided by three submarine ridges—Alpha Ridge, Lomonosov Ridge, and the Arctic Mid-Oceanic Ridge; other submarine ridges, such as the Faeroe-Icelandic Ridge, act to separate the Arctic Ocean from the Atlantic. The Arctic Ocean has the widest continental shelf of all the oceans; it extends c.750 mi (1,210 km) seaward from Siberia. From the shelf rise numerous islands, including the Arctic Archipelago Arctic Archipelago , group of more than 50 large islands, Northwest Territories and Nunavut, N Canada, in the Arctic Ocean. The southernmost members of the group include Baffin (the archipelago's largest island), Victoria, Banks, Prince of Wales, and Somerset islands; N of ..... Click the link for more information. , Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya , archipelago, c.35,000 sq mi (90,650 sq km), in the Arctic Ocean between the Barents and Kara seas, NW Russia. It consists of two main islands (separated by Matochkin Strait) and many smaller ones. The mountains, rising to c. ..... Click the link for more information. , the New Siberian Islands New Siberian Islands, Rus. Novosibirskiye Ostrova, archipelago, c.10,900 sq mi (28,200 sq km), N Siberian Russia, in the Arctic Ocean between the Laptev and East Siberian seas, part of the Sakha Republic. The archipelago is separated into two groups by the Sannikov Strait. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Wrangel Island Wrangel Island or Wrangell Island , Rus. Ostrov Vrangelya, island, 1,740 sq mi (4,507 sq km), in the Arctic Ocean, between the East Siberian Sea and the Chukchi Sea, off NE Russia. It is separated from the mainland by Long Strait. ..... Click the link for more information. . The continental shelf encloses a deep oval basin (average depth 12,000 ft/3,658 m) that stretches between Svalbard and Alaska; E of Greenland the ring of the continental shelf is broken by the Greenland Sea. The greatest depth (17,850 ft/5,441 m) in the Arctic Ocean is found just N of the Chukchi Sea. Since the Arctic's connection with the Pacific Ocean is narrow and very shallow, its principal exchange of water is with the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. Even there, though surface waters communicate freely and a strong subsurface current brings warm water from the Atlantic into the Arctic basin, exchange of deeper waters is barred by submarine ridges. Thus a near stagnant pool of very cold water is found at the bottom of the Arctic basin. Because several major rivers in Siberia (Lena, Yenisei, Ob) and Canada (Mackenzie) bring in much water, and because evaporation is only slight, the outflow through the Greenland Sea is important. It creates the cold East Greenland Current, which flows south along the coast of E Greenland. A weaker current goes through Smith Sound and Baffin Bay and is known as the Labrador Current. Another weak current flows out of Bering Strait. The water that does not flow out by the Greenland Sea seems to be deflected by N Greenland and forms the current that gives rise to a circular current in the Arctic basin itself. This circular current causes the relatively light ice of the Siberian seas, which contrasts with the heavy-pressure ice phenomenon off Greenland and Ellesmere Island (in the Arctic Archipelago). The drift of ice southward and westward has been noted and utilized by explorers. Once called the Frozen Ocean, the Arctic Ocean is covered with ice (2–14 ft/.6–4 m thick) throughout the year in most of its central and western portions, though since the 1980s the extent of the summer ice has been significantly reduced. Some of the ice pack remains in the Arctic basin, and some, carried out by the East Greenland Current, melts before going far enough south to reach the regular Atlantic shipping lanes; the icebergs that harass ships are generally brought from the fjords of W Greenland by the Labrador Current. It was long thought that no non-oceanic life could exist in the Arctic; however, despite drifting ice, ice packs, vast ice floes, and winter temperatures to −60&degF; (−51&degC;), hares, polar bears, seals, gulls, and guillemots have been found as far north as 88°. The cold Arctic currents give the shores of NE North America and NE Asia a much colder climate than the northwest shores of Europe and North America, which are warmed by the North Atlantic Drift and the Japan Current. The Arctic currents are also less saline and lighter than these warmer currents, and therefore the Arctic water is at the surface and the Atlantic current beneath, where they are exchanged in the Greenland Sea. Exploration and Scientific Research The Arctic basin was almost wholly unexplored until the Amundsen-Ellsworth flight over it in 1926. Arctic research was stimulated when it was recognized that the shortest air routes between the great cities of the Northern Hemisphere cross the Arctic Ocean. Improved technology has also facilitated research, with the development of aerial and satellite photography and photogrammetry for precise mapping, the sonic echo sounder for measuring ocean depths, and radio to maintain contact with the rest of the world. Detailed knowledge of drifts and ice floes, water depths, and the ocean floor has vastly increased. Soviet polar scientists investigated (1948–49) the Lomonosov Ridge, an undersea mountain range that influences the pattern of ice drift and the circulation and exchange of water in the Arctic Ocean. American scientists in 1959 discovered the existence of a submarine plateau rising 8,100 ft (2,469 m) from the ocean floor. In 1995 the U.S. navy agreed to lend its force of nuclear attack submarines for a series of civilian expeditions to the Arctic. One fact of great potential importance is now being studied—the Arctic Ocean is warming. Recorded temperatures, glacial regressions, and the appearance of observed species of fish in larger numbers, at higher latitudes, at earlier seasons, and for long periods prove that over the decades a "climatic improvement" has taken place. Similar changes have been reported in sub-Arctic latitudes. Whether this warming is a phase in a cycle or a permanent development has long been a question, but most scientists now believe that it is due to global warming global warming, the gradual increase of the temperature of the earth's lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in greenhouse gases since the Industrial Revolution. Global warming and its effects, such as more intense summer and winter storms, are also referred to as climate ..... Click the link for more information. . The warming may be affecting wind patterns above the region, amplifying the depletion of the ozone layer ozone layer or ozonosphere, region of the stratosphere containing relatively high concentrations of ozone, located at altitudes of 12–30 mi (19–48 km) above the earth's surface. ..... Click the link for more information. and possibly increasing precipitation. The area of the Arctic Ocean covered by year-round ice has decreased considerably since the late 1970s, and an increased amount of fresh water is entering the ocean from bordering rivers. Most researchers expect that, due to global warming, the ocean will become ice-free during the summer sometime between 2030 and 2070. Such expectations have increased interest in the region's ocean resouces, and led the nations bordering the ocean to make territorial claims on vast sections of seabed. For an account of exploration and for bibliography, see Arctic, the Arctic, the northernmost area of the earth, centered on the North Pole. The arctic regions are not coextensive with the area enclosed by the Arctic Circle (lat. 66°30'N) but are usually defined by the irregular and shifting 50&degF; (10&degC;) July isotherm that closely ..... Click the link for more information. . Arctic Ocean (also North Polar Sea; in Russian, Northern Ice Ocean), the smallest of the earth’s oceans, constituting 2.8 percent of the area of the world ocean. The Arctic Ocean has an area of 13.1 million sq km and a volume of roughly 17 million cu km (14.7 million sq km and 17.6 million cu km, respectively, according to some sources). Lying between Eurasia and North America, the Arctic Ocean is connected with the Atlantic through the Davis, Denmark, Faeroe-Iceland, and Faeroe-Shetland straits and with the Pacific through the Bering Strait. It was first identified as a separate ocean in 1650 by the Dutch geographer B. Varenius, who called it the Hyperboreal Ocean. In 1845 the London Geographical Society named it the Northern Ice Ocean. This name was officially adopted in the USSR by a decree of the Central Executive Committee on June 27, 1935. Physical geography. In terms of its physical characteristics and the geological structure of its floor, the Arctic Ocean is divided into three parts: the North European Basin (Greenland, Norwegian, Barents, and White seas), the Arctic Basin, and the seas located within continental shelves (Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas and Baffin and Hudson bays). ISLANDS . The Arctic Ocean ranks second after the Pacific in number of islands. With a few exceptions, the islands are found on the continental shelf and have continental origins. The largest islands and archipelagoes are Greenland, Iceland (on the boundary between the Arctic and Atlantic), the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaia Zemlia, Severnaia Zemlia, the Novosibirskie Islands, and Vrangel’ Island. The islands have a total area of about 4 million sq km. COASTLINE . The Arctic Ocean has a varied coastline. Most of the coast of Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland is high and cut by fjords. In places the White, Barents, and Kara seas have an abrasion coastline broken by inlets; elsewhere the coast is low-lying and straight, with occasional deltas. Along the Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi, and Beaufort seacoasts there are deltas or lagoons in places. The coastline of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago is for the most part low and even. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE OCEAN FLOOR . The Arctic Ocean differs from other oceans in its lesser depths (average, 1,130 m; maximum, 5,449 m in the Nansen Basin) and in its extensively developed continental shelf, extending for 1,300 km in the Barents Sea. The North European Basin is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a chain of rises (the Wyville Thompson, Faeroe-Iceland, and Greenland-Iceland sills) on which the Shetland and Faeroe islands and Iceland are situated. The eastern part of the basin floor is occupied by the shelves of the Barents and White Seas. The floor structure of the deep Norwegian and Greenland seas is characterized by a system of underwater ridges (Iceland, Mohn, and Knipovich). Together with the Gakkel’ Ridge in the Arctic Basin, these ridges constitute the northernmost segment of the world-encircling mid-oceanic ridge. The minimum depth of the ridge summits is 900–1,000 m. The North European Basin is connected with the Arctic Basin by the Fram Strait (between Greenland and Spitsbergen), reaching a maximum depth of 3,900 m in the Lena Trough. A system of underwater ridges—Gakkel’, Lomonosov, and Mendeleev (with the Alpha Rise)—divides the Arctic Basin into several deep basins. The Lomonosov and Mendeleev ridges and the Alpha Rise differ from the volcanic Gakkel’ Ridge by their continental geostructure, formed by Early and Middle Mesozoic folds covered by a sedimentary mantle. (Some oceanographers regard these ridges as positive structures of the earth’s oceanic crust.) The ridges drop off steeply (as much as 22°) to the adjacent basins. Beneath the marginal arctic seas is a relatively flat shelf dissected in many places by troughs, the chief channels for the removal of suspended material. SEDIMENT . Bottom sediments differ in thickness and accumulate at a rapid rate. Typical of the continental shelf are terrigenous sediments varying greatly in texture. The ridges and deep basins are covered with clayey terrigenous sediments—dark brown and brown pelitic silts with a paucity of microfauna. In addition, there are sandy silts with foraminifers on the continental slopes. The thickness of the sedimentary layer in the deep basins reaches 1.5–2.5 km according to seismological findings, and the rate of sediment accumulation may be as much as 4–6 cm per 1,000 years in places. On the continental slope the rate of sediment accumulation declines to a maximum of 2–3 cm per 1,000 years, and sediments are up to 1.5 km thick. The ridges and their slopes have a discontinuous sedimentary cover 400–600 m thick. Large fragmented material (boulders, pebbles, and gravel) dispersed by drifting ice or formed by the destruction of bedrock on the steep slopes and peaks of the underwater ridges is present in all types of Arctic Basin sediments. At great depths in the North European Basin the sediment is globigerina ooze. CLIMATE . The characteristic features of the climate of the Arctic Ocean are determined by the ocean’s high latitude, which causes radiation cooling to exceed heat gain from the sun. The warm North Atlantic and Pacific currents also play an important part in forming the climate; the heat that they bring into the Arctic Ocean constitutes 60 percent of the heat transfer in the atmosphere, according to M. I. Budyko’s data. In the winter months (January to April) the arctic anticyclone is above the Arctic Basin. Cyclones from the Atlantic move northward through Baffin Bay and the Greenland Sea and eastward through the Norwegian, Barents, and Kara seas, frequently reaching the polar region. During the summer stable, but less powerful, anticyclones are observed over the Arctic Basin north of Alaska and the Chukchi Sea and over Greenland. Cyclonic activity develops primarily over northern Canada and northern Siberia and spreads to adjacent parts of the Arctic Ocean. The trough of the Icelandic low prevails over the North European Basin throughout the year, and a maximum of atmospheric pressure occurs over Greenland. Therefore, northerly and northwesterly winds prevail above the western part of the basin, causing a severe arctic climate. Winds are primarily southerly and southwesterly in the eastern part of the basin. Because of these winds and the influence of the warm Norwegian Current the climate here is milder. A large number of deep cyclones pass through the North European Basin, producing abrupt changes in the weather and abundant precipitation and fog. During the autumn and, especially, winter the strong turbulence, high humidity, and low air temperatures often cause ships to become covered with ice, hindering navigation. The wind of the North European Basin is unstable (with average velocities of 4–6 m per sec), but winds of more than 15 m per sec seldom occur. In the coastal regions there is a marked seasonal (monsoon) pattern in the wind direction, and the wind velocity, as well as the number of days with storm winds, increases significantly, especially in winter. The mean winter air temperature in different parts of the Arctic Ocean varies from – 2° to – 40°C; in summer the range is 0° to 6°C. The frequency of cloudy days may be as much as 90 percent in summer and 50 percent in winter. Atmospheric precipitation falls in the form of snow; rain, usually mixed with snow, occurs only rarely. Precipitation in the Arctic Basin does not exceed 150 mm a year; in the North European Basin it totals 250–300 mm a year. The snow cover is not thick and has an extremely uneven distribution. In summer the snow pack melts almost everywhere. HYDROLOGICAL REGIME . The water and heat exchange between the Arctic Ocean and the adjacent oceans is largely governed by its positive freshwater balance. The large rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean, among them the Severnaia Dvina, Ob’, Enisei, Khatanga, Lena, Kolyma, and Mackenzie, discharge about 5,000 cu km of fresh water a year into the ocean. Such a quantity of water could form a layer about 40 cm high in the Arctic Ocean—three times the height of the average layer that would be formed on the world ocean. Freshened by continental runoff to a salinity of less than 32‰, the cold surface water (below – 1 °C) and ice of the Arctic Ocean are carried into the Atlantic by the strong East Greenland and Labrador currents. The total transport volume of these currents is roughly 250,000 cu km a year. The outflow is compensated for by the inflow of warm (up to 10°C) and highly saline (34.9–35.2‰) water from the Atlantic and Pacific. Water from the Atlantic is transported by two branches of the North Atlantic Current— the Norwegian (135,000 cu km) and Irminger currents; the Bering Sea Current brings only about 30,000 cu km of water annually from the Pacific. The principal water masses of the Arctic Ocean are surface, intermediate, abyssal, and bottom waters. Unlike the Arctic Basin, 95 percent of whose volume is occupied by relatively unchanged intermediate Pacific water, warm abyssal Atlantic water, and warm bottom water from the Norwegian Sea, more than 80 percent of the volume of the North European Basin is occupied by water of local origin—cold intermediate and bottom water. The bottom water in the North European Basin is the coldest (to – 1.3°C) and densest bottom water in the world ocean. The warm Atlantic water of the Norwegian Current and its branches, the West Spitsbergen and North Cape currents, occupies not more than 8 percent of the volume of the North European Basin. One of the chief characteristics of the hydrological regime of the Arctic Ocean is the thick ice sheet that covers 11.4 million sq km in March and 7 million sq km in September. Only the Norwegian Sea and a small part of the Greenland and Barents seas are kept ice-free throughout the year by warm currents. The parts of the Arctic Ocean that are ice-free in summer are covered in winter with annual ice varying in thickness from 0.8 m to 2 m and with ice hummocks. The height of the above-water parts of the hummocks averages 2–3.5 m, sometimes reaching 5 m. The remainder of the Arctic Ocean, chiefly the Arctic Basin, is covered by drifting perennial ice with a maximum thickness of 4.5 m. The volume of ice in the Arctic Ocean totals about 26,000 cu km. Icebergs, encountered in many parts of the ocean, are especially numerous in Baffin Bay. The “ice islands” formed from the shelf ice of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago may drift for six years or more in the Arctic Basin. Because of their thickness (as much as 30–35 m) drifting stations, such as the North Pole–6 Station, have been established on the ice islands. Ice conditions hinder navigation on the Northern Sea Route and the Northwest Passage, where ships may travel only two or three months out of the year, usually escorted by icebreakers. The circulation of surface water and ice in the Arctic Ocean is determined primarily by wind action, which also has a significant effect on the ocean’s water exchange with the Atlantic and Pacific. In the Arctic Basin, the water and ice move in a clockwise direction at an average velocity of 2–5 cm per sec; in the North European Basin the circulation is counterclockwise, and the velocity increases to 10–20 cm per sec. The circulation of surface water and ice in the Arctic Ocean is governed by the Transarctic Current, which crosses the Arctic Basin from the Chukchi Sea to Fram Strait, by the eastern anticyclonic gyre north of Alaska, by the cold East Greenland Current moving south along the east coast of Greenland, and by the warm Norwegian Current and its branches. Tides, primarily semidiurnal, average not more than 1 m in the North European Basin and 0.5–0.6 m in the Arctic Basin. The maximum tidal fluctuations in the sea level (up to 6 m) are observed in inlets, for example, Iokanga Bay in the Barents Sea. PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE . The richness and diversity of the Arctic Ocean’s plant and animal life varies greatly depending on the temperature of the water. Bottom algae, including those of commercial importance (Laminaria, Fucus), are found in large numbers in areas influenced by warm waters along the coast of Iceland, Norway, and the Kola Peninsula and in the White Sea. The flora is much poorer in the cold waters of the Arctic Basin because the ice prevents the development of life in the littoral zone. However, phytoplankton, primarily diatomaceous, flourishes throughout the Arctic Ocean, including the ice-covered central region. Animal life is more diverse in the North European Basin, inhabited by more than 2,000 species, including rorquals, the almost extinct Greenland whale, and such commercially important fish as herring, cod, sea perch, and haddock. Cryophiles such as the polar bear, walrus, seal, narwhal, and white whale are the predominant mammals in the Arctic Basin. Among the few fish species in the Arctic Basin are the Arctic pollack (Boreogadus), navaga, and Arctic cod (Arctogadus), as well as the freshwater fishes at river mouths. The overall density of the biomass decreases 5 to 10 times between the Atlantic and the pole. Economic geography. The seas of the North European Basin and Baffin Bay are traditional areas for fishing and the hunting of marine mammals. Each year more than 12 million tons of herring, cod, halibut, sea perch, and other fish are caught in the Barents Sea, along the coast of Iceland, and in Baffin Bay. The hunting of marine mammals continues to be the primary source of livelihood of the indigenous coastal population of the northern parts of Greenland, Canada, and Alaska. The importance of the Arctic Ocean for transportation, already great, is steadily growing. Shipping is carried on by the USSR along the Northern Sea Route and by the USA and Canada along the Northwest Passage. Navigation to Greenland, Iceland, northern Scandinavia, and Spitsbergen generally does not depend on ice conditions during the summer. The most important arctic ports of the USSR are the year-around ice-free port at Murmansk (Barents Sea), Kandalaksha, Belomorsk, Arkhangel’sk (White Sea), Dikson (Kara Sea), Tiksi (Laptev Sea), and Pevek (East Siberian Sea). The major foreign ports are Tromsø and Trondheim on the Norwegian Sea and Churchill on Hudson Bay. The air space above the Arctic Ocean is crossed by air routes from Western Europe to the west coast of the USA (over Greenland and Canada) and to Japan (across Alaska). REFERENCES Sovetskaia Arktika: Moria i ostrova Severnogo Ledovitogo okeana. Moscow, 1970. Belov, N. A., and V. D. Dibner. “Rezul’taty geologogeomorfologicheskikh issledovanii Arkticheskogo basseina.” Problemy Arktiki i Antarktiki, 1968, fasc. 28. Korotkevich, E. S. Poliarnye pustyni. Leningrad, 1972. Gorbatskii, G. V. Fiziko-geograficheskoe raionirovanie Arktiki, part 3: Arkticheskiibassein. [Leningrad] 1973. Gordienko, P. A. Severnyi Ledovityi okean. Leningrad, 1973. Budyko, M. I. “Poliarnye l’dy i klimat.” Izv. AN SSSR: Ser. geograficheskaia, 1962, no. 6. Smirnov, V. I. Ledovye usloviiaplavaniiasudov v vodakh Kanadsko-Aliaskinskoi Arktiki. Leningrad, 1974. Mirovoi vodnyi balans i vodnye resursy Zemli. Leningrad, 1974. Agranat, G. A. Zarubezhnyi sever: opyt osvoeniia. Moscow, 1970. E. G. N	i don't know
Which fleet was famously defeated and scattered at the Battle of Gravelines?	Why did the Spanish Armada fail? \| SGS Student Blog Why did the Spanish Armada fail? Posted on by sgslgriffiths It’s not every day that an essay like this lands on a teacher’s desk! Dr Jones was blown away when a Year 8 student, Matthew Murray, produced this stunning essay about the Spanish Armada for a homework assignment. Complete with additional research and a bibliography, his argument would not be out of place in an A Level assessment. If you want to know why the Spanish Armada failed, read on. Well done Matthew on a stunning piece of work! In the summer of 1588, Catholic Philip II of Spain sent his Armada to remove Elizabeth I from the English throne. Philip, who had been the husband of ‘Bloody Mary,’ had many reasons for doing this, most of them religious ones: revenge for the execution of the Roman Catholic, Mary Queen of Scots in 1587; to restore the Pope as Head of the Church of England and to depose the ‘heretic’ Elizabeth as all assassination attempts had failed. But an important non-religious reason was the ‘piracy’ of the English ‘sea dogs’ particularly Sir Francis Drake. He relentlessly attacked Spanish ports and Spanish galleons, stealing their treasure. The final straw was in 1587, when Sir Francis Drake is said to have ‘Singed the King of Spain’s beard’. Four English vessels entered the harbour of Cadiz and fired on the Spanish fleet, sinking thirty ships and damaging many more. Philip was so angry that he decided to attack England once and for all. The attack was a spectacular failure and his decision proved to be expensive and disastrous. So, why did the Spanish Armada fail? In this essay, I will explore four reasons for its failure. But in order to answer this question, we must first take a look at the events leading up to and during the battle of the seas. Under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the Armada set sail on May 20th 1588 but immediately ran into bad weather. The ships had to return to port for repair and re-supply. They eventually left Corunna Harbour on the 12th July and it wasn’t until the 19th July that it passed Plymouth. The plan was for the Armada to sail up the Atlantic coast of Europe and then to Spanish-controlled Netherlands where 30,000 soldiers waited to board under the leadership of the Duke of Parma. But bad weather kept the Spanish fleet adrift for a few weeks giving England a warning of their imminent arrival. From 20th to 27th July, the English fleet attacked the Armada as it sailed up the English Channel but without much success. On 27th July, the Armada anchored in open seas off Calais, waiting to take on board the extra troops from the Duke of Parma. But the English sent in fire ships, so the Armada cut their anchors to escape. On 29 July, the English attacked the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Gravelines. The Spanish fleet fled north, chased by the English fleet. It had to return home by sailing round the north of Scotland and the west coast of Ireland, where many ships were sunk by storms. Only 67 ships out of 130 returned to Spain with the loss of over 20,000 Spanish sailors and soldiers. England, by comparison, lost no ships and suffered minimal casualties. One reason for the failure of the Armada was leadership. Firstly, the leadership of the two monarchs and secondly, the naval leadership. The great Spanish admiral Santa Cruz estimated that to have any chance of success, between 50,000 and 90,000 thousand troops and 200 ships would be needed. But Philip showed poor leadership and stripped down the size and effort, until he virtually guaranteed its disaster. Elizabeth, on the other hand, was determined to lead her own troops in person and was a formidable leader at this time. For example, on the 9th August, she delivered her famous speech at Tilbury aimed at rallying her troops in case of an attack by Parma. In this speech, she reminded her troops that she was the daughter of the warrior king, Henry VIII, “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king!” The second leadership problem was naval leadership. Spain’s Lord High Admiral was the famous Santa Cruz. He was a respected and successful admiral. Unfortunately, he died in 1586. His death left the Armada under the command of very inexperienced seaman called Duke of Medina Sidonia. Though a good general, Medina Sidonia had never been to sea before and when he did get on board his ship, he got seasick. He didn’t even want the job. In comparison, the English leaders were men of great skill and experience in naval matters. One of the famous sea captains for the English side was Sir Francis Drake. In the years leading up to the launch of the Armada, Drake and other so-called “sea dogs” had declared open-sea war on Spanish ships. Another important reason for the failure of the Spanish Armada was the geography and the weather. Whilst the weather did have a negative impact on the English at various times, it had a disastrous effect on the Spanish. For example, the Spanish were dogged with poor weather from the start, when it had to return to port for repair and re-supply in May. Even when they set sail again in July 1588, poor weather kept the fleet adrift, allowing English scouts to spot them and light beacons along the coast from Cornwall, alerting Drake of their imminent arrival. The geography of the English Channel affected the Spanish badly when the Armada had to stop to pick up Parma’s troops. Medina Sidonia discovered that there was no port deep enough near to where the Spanish troops were for him to stop his fleet. The best he could do was to harbour at Gravelines near modern day Calais on July 27th 1588, and then wait for the troops to arrive. But the winds had halted the troop transport and the Spanish ships could not get close enough into the shallow waters to take the soldiers aboard. Whilst the Armada was waiting, Drake sent out eight fire ships into the heart of the Spanish fleet. The Spanish panicked, cut their anchors and scattered, breaking formation. After the Battle of Gravelines the remaining Spanish were forced to sail up the east coast of England and then around the north of Scotland. From here the Armada could sail past the western Irish coast and back to Spain. However, the weather struck the Spanish Armada again and whilst it sailed round the North-west of Scotland, it hit a one of the worst storms in history which damaged many of the ships. A further reason for the defeat of the Spanish Armada was tactic and battle plans. The tactics used by the Spanish were outdated. Basically, the Spanish wanted to board the English ships and capture them and the English wanted to sink the Spanish galleons! The Spanish aimed to run alongside the English ships, pull the two ships together using grappling irons and then board the ships with large numbers of soldiers. In comparison, the English relied on the use of long-range guns. Therefore, they never allowed the Spanish to get close enough to board them which meant that despite having one and a half times more firepower than the English, they could not utilise it because the English ships were too far away. One successful tactic of Sir Francis Drake was to attack the Armada from behind. He waited for them to pass Plymouth, famously completing his game of bowls! He then followed the Armada along the channel. The Spanish leader, Medina Sedona used a successful tactic of having the Armada in a crescent formation. This made the Armada almost impervious to attack. But part of his plan was to stop and pick up men which was a mistake. Whilst the galleons were on the move and in a crescent formation they were protected. Once the ships stopped it broke formation, making it easier for the English to attack which is exactly what happened. Drake’s tactic of sending in eight fire ships during the night was a key point in the battle. The Spaniards panicked and cut their anchors before the crews were back on deck! The galleons drifted about and collided and under persistent bombardment by Drake, the Armada was scattered and had no choice but to sail all the way round the British Isles to get home. My final reason for the failure of the Spanish Armada was the different ship designs, which favoured the English. The Spanish fleet was built mainly for transporting and not fighting whereas the English ships were smaller, faster and more manoeuvrable. This manoeuvrability was a great advantage. Also, the size of the Spanish ships made them easy targets for the English making them easier to attack. The English battery guns could fire long distances whereas the Spanish ships were built for close range combat. Another difference was that the English gunners could fire quicker and more accurately and load more easily. The Spanish Ships had many of their guns on the lower decks. They could not use them in the Channel as water entered the ship as the ship rolled. Most of the Spanish soldiers aboard could not fire a cannon and sometimes the priests had to fire them as well! The Spanish Armada was a huge attack force of ships and men from Spain launched against England in 1588. This essay has shown that a series of events, including freak storms, geography, creative English battle tactics, leadership and ship design resulted in the defeat of the Armada. On balance, I believe that the most important reason for its failure was weather and geography. At every step, the weather and geography decided the outcome of the battle. For example, when the Armada first set off May, it hit bad weather and was forced to return to the port to resupply. This seemed like a bad omen and when it set sail for again, it was adrift for several days because of bad weather, which allowed Drake to know of the threat immediately and whilst adrift, it used up vital supplies. More bad luck from the weather and geography came when Parma’s troops were halted by the wind and Medina Sedona couldn’t get close enough, because of the shallow water, to collect troops. The raging storms throughout Scotland and Ireland finally defeated the Spanish Armada. Many in Spain blamed Medina Sidonia for the failure of the Amada, but King Philip II did not. He blamed its failure on the weather saying “I sent you out to war with men, not with the wind and waves.” To some extent the English agreed as a medal was made to honour the victory. On it were the words “God blew and they were scattered.” By Matthew Murray The Tudors and Stuarts by Roy Burrell A History of Britain by Simon Scharma BBC Bitesize The Spanish Armada – History learning site The Grand failure of the Spanish Armada – Social studies for kids. The British Library – Elizabeth’s Tilbury speech Share this:	Spanish Armada
In which British city did gangs in the 1980s fight a turf war dubbed the “Ice Cream Wars”?	Armada by Charlotte Lore Yesterday, 427 years ago, the fleet sent by Philip II of Spain, the Spanish Armada, was defeated by the English at the Battle of Gravelines. Elizabeth I and the Spanish Armada; the Apothecaries painting, sometimes attributed to Nicholas Hilliard. A stylised depiction of key elements of the Armada story: the alarm beacons, Queen Elizabeth at Tilbury, and the sea battle at Gravelines. The first rumours of the Spanish Armada had reached England in late 1585 but it was not until two years later that rumour changed to certitude. In the autumn of 1587, Elizabeth prepared herself to defend her realm. The Armada was more a troop convoy than a battle fleet. The 130 ships were carrying over 30,000 men of whom only about 8000 were seamen. The bulk – 19,000 – were soldiers, and there were also around 3000 galley slaves. Philip had set Sidonia the task of fighting his way up the Channel against an English fleet of 197 ships and around 18,000 seamen. True, most of these were not fighting ships, yet it was still a formidable force. But it was not tonnage that was to prove decisive. The Spaniards were bringing heavy, slow, high-castled ships of low speed and manoeuvrability. Against these the English would mount low, fast and highly manoeuvrable vessels – an advantage that would manifest itself from the very first day. The other crucial English advantage lay in guns. Ever since the first gun had been mounted in a ship, the tradition had been to fire from the forecastle. This was becoming impracticable as guns became heavier and required deck mounting. In turn, deck mounting required broadside firing, which was only possible if a ship could turn through 90-degrees first. Such a turn demanded manoeuvrable ships. All this the English understood. The Spanish did not. Dawn on 29 July saw the Armada scattered along the French coast and drifting towards Dunkirk. There was no hope of regrouping nor any prospect of a link-up with Parma. Drake led the attack on the main part of Sidonia’s fleet as it attempted to escape. This time, perhaps because he knew that the final hours of a ten-day fight had arrived, Drake moved Revenge in dangerously close as he attacked the San Martin. Other commanders followed suit with Lord Henry Seymour fighting ‘within less than musket shot’ and Sir William Wynter (under Seymour) driving right into the Spanish fleet. By now the Spanish ships were crashing into each other and becoming hopelessly entangled. As the men sought to free their ships with axes, the English fire poured relentlessly into the Spanish hulls and across their decks. Never had there been a battle like it and it left survivors struggling for superlatives to describe it. The Spanish Armada and English ships in August 1588, by unknown painter (English School, 16th century) For all the damage inflicted by the English, Gravelines was a thin victory. The Armada could have fought again and had certainly proved itself a redoubtable foe. But they did. Instead the Spanish chose to escape with the possibility of regrouping and returning another year, but the rough seas or Scotland and Ireland further wrecked the already damaged ships. Eventually, the Armada limped back to Spain having lost around 20,000 men to battle, storms, starvation and disease. Whether or not this battle was indeed Britain’s greatest naval victory is difficult to establish. As with many encounters at sea it was as much to do with the weather as it was to do with English firepower. But nonetheless 1588 certainly was tremendous victory and allowed England to emerge from the shadows of its continental neighbours and develop a colonial empire of its own.	i don't know
Which month traditionally sees the start of the Isle of Man TT races?	Isle of Man TT Official Website Official Partners Of The Isle Of Man TT Races: Fuelled By Monster Energy Isle of Man TT 2017 27 May - 09 June 2017	May
Limestone is essentially made up of which chemical compound?	Tickets : Isle of Man TT - Official Shop MGP Tickets The Isle of Man TT is all about being close to the action and you can’t get closer than the iconic TT Grandstands The Main Grandstand really is the heart of the TT races and gives spectators a great view of the course, the famous scoreboard operated by the Isle of Man's Scouts, the warm-up area and pit lane as well as being convenient for the Island’s capital of Douglas. Another big advantage of watching from the Grandstand is that you're right in the heart of the paddock area including all the team tents, the various food outlets, the merchandise stalls and the beer tent. There's parking on hand and there's always something going on to keep you entertained. What's not to like? There are also special temporary grandstands located at Nobles Park (North and South) and the world-famous Creg-ny-Baa giving you the option to watch from a different spot each race day. Our temporary grandstands take the concept of watching from the hedge to the next level - literally. Erected with the best possible views in mind, the stands lift you over the foliage without removing the sensation of speed that makes the TT such a vivid and enthralling prospect. No longer do you have to arrive at the crack of dawn to secure a prized patch of roadside shrubbery - just arrive in good time, park in the spaces on hand (some sites may charge), show your ticket and take your seat. As a bonus there are toilet facilities on hand so there's no more crossed legs or embarrassing moments behind a hedge... If you fancy getting even closer to a TT legend you should take advantage of one of the exclusive VIP Hospitality packages . Not only do you get access to the Hospitality Suite at the Grandstand but you’ll be sharing the complimentary bar, breakfast and buffet with heroes from the TT, the world of Grand Prix racing, motorsports, film, TV and music.	i don't know
In which Irish county is the extensive area of limestone pavement known as The Burren?	Visit Ireland - About Ireland: County Guide Interactive Map West The West stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the banks of the River Shannon, embracing Counties Galway, Mayo, and Roscommon. It is a rugged terrain of rock and stone, inlets and coves along the coastline, and many golden beaches. There are mountain ranges and woodlands of rowan, beech, sycamore, and wild rhododendrons. The Lough's (lakes) Corrib, Mask, and Conn divide the counties. Throughout the region there are prehistoric sties, monasteries, fortifications, and castles. Each county offers a variety of attractions, accommodations, sport activities, and a variety of entertainment and festivals, especially in the summer. COUNTY GALWAY County Galway, The City of Tribes, (in Irish Gaillimh). In ancient times there were fourteen families who controlled Galway. They were known as the Tribes of Galway. Galway is situated on the River Corrib. It was a thriving Anglo-Norman city because of the trade with Europe, especially France and Spain. The Spanish influence dominated the tribes, which was evident in the architecture, as with the Spanish Arch built in 1584. Today Galway City is a growing and thriving university city, complemented by a high technology industry. The city offers the arts in theatre, museums, churches, and there is music everywhere from buskers in the streets to music in the pubs. A short five-minute drive from the city is the Galway Irish Crystal Heritage Centre. In the Hall of Tribes you learn of the merchants, seafarers, and artists who made up the original 14 tribes. You will learn about Claddagh Village and the famous claddagh ring, you also learn the story of the glass craft, showing the craftspeople at work. There is a showroom and restaurant available. The western part of Galway is a 'An Ghaeltacht', the Gaeltacht areas, meaning the first language is Irish. The people speak, work, and think in a language that has unbroken links with pre-conquest Gaelic Ireland and further back in time. You will miss so much if you just pass through these areas. Take the coast road through Bearna to Carna, through An Spideal (Spiddal), An Cheathru Rua (Carraroe) and Sraith Salach (Recess). There are hidden islands linked by bridges and causeways, Leitir Moir (Lettermore), Leitir Meallain (Lettermullen) and Garumna (Gorumna). West of Galway City lies the wild and beautiful Connemara (in Irish Croi an chultuir) area, bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and Lough Corrib on the east. Many of the ancient Irish traditions and customs are preserved and savored with the Gaelic-speaking people. The most dominant feature of Connemara is the cluster of the Twelve Bens Mountain Range, also called the Twelve Pins Mountain Range with Benbaun, Bencullagh, Benbrack and Muckanaght. The mountain range offers spectacular high-level walking, overlooking hundreds of small lakes, wild bogs, and a rugged coastline. Gorgeous scenery is available at Connemara National Park, covering 2000 hectares of mountains, bogs and heaths, and grasslands. Glanmore (large glen) forms the centre of the park and 10,000 years are displayed at the visitor center, with 3D models and displays. Much of the present park lands formed part of the Kylemore Abbey Estate and the Letterfrack Industrial School. Many remains of human presence can be seen in the park. The oldest are megalithic court tombs, some 4000 years old. Ruined houses and old walls are remains of a population of times past. Kylemore Abbey, built in 1868, is home to the Irish Benedictine Nuns and a secondary school. Some activities available in Connemara are regattas at coastal villages with the Hookers and Curraghs, and other water sports. Galway's traditional fishing vessel is known as The Hooker. The Curragh is a long, narrow canoe like boat, sometimes made of oiled animal skins, over a wooden frame. Throughout the county of Galway there is deep sea fishing, coarse and pike fishing, cruising, other water sports, horse racing, horse riding, golfing on championship courses and less challenging courses, motor sports, greyhound racing, cycling and a ferry trip to the Aran Islands, or watching the sun go down on Galway Bay. THE ISLANDS The Aran Islands lie at the mouth of Galway Bay, a barren landscape of exposed limestone terraces ending in the shear three hundred foot Atlantic Cliffs. The Celtic cliff-edge fortress of Dun Aengus is of world importance. The cliffs and seas are home to gannets, choughs, otters, dolphins, and whales. The rocky crag provides a rich habitat for over 400 wild plants and flowers. The Aran Islands consist of three islands, Inis Oirr, Inis Meain, and Inis Moir. Inis Moir, also known as Inishmore, means Big Island. With a population of around 900 people, it is eight miles long and two miles wide. Ancient forts include Dun Aengus, the most famous, built on the edge of a sheer southern cliff. It has a defense forest of sharp stone spikes. Two smaller forts are Dun Eochla and Dun Duchathair. There are many ruins of stone churches on the island. Inis Meain is also known as Inishmaan, and means Middle Island. The island is three miles by two miles, with fields bordered by high dry stonewalls and marked by vast sheets of limestone rock. The island peaks at 300 feet and a series of giant terraces slope down to Galway Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. This is a Gaelic speaking population. The people make a living from farming and fishing. On the island's highest point is Dun Chunchuir, a fort built without mortar and with intricate stone patterns. It is thought to have been built between the 1st and 6th Centuries AD. A smaller stone fort is at Dun Fearbhai, above the boat slip and old pier at Baile an Mhothair. An Aran sweater factory, museum, guesthouses, and a pub are all on the island. Inis Oirr is also known as Inisheer, meaning Little Island. It is 27 miles from Galway, covers 1,400 acres, and has a population of about 300. This island is an outcrop of the Burren landscape, consisting of bare limestone that is used for the many cottages, stonewalls, roads, and pathways around the island. The Gaelic-speaking Island is a haven for birdwatchers and those interested in fauna and flora. The main attractions are An Loch Mor, a lake covering 16 acres with wildfowl. Dun Formna and O'Brien's Castle date from the 14th Century. There is also a holy well, Tobar E'inne. Inishbofin is one of the last bastions of civilization before America. It is a 40-minute ferry ride from the shores of Galway, and is five miles long by two miles wide. Noted for its splendid scenery and traditional music, there are only 180 people living on the island. There are bed & breakfast and hotel accommodations available. Enjoy good sessions in the pub, around the fireplace with a good pint. COUNTY MAYO County Mayo has a natural unspoiled environment where the native folk have enjoyed their harmony in nature for over 5,000 years. The county spans more than 5,300 kilometers. It stretches from Lough Corrib, and the long fjord of Killary Harbor in the south, to Killala Bay and Erris in the north. Continuing from Achill Island, Clew Bay, and the Mullet Peninsula, in the west, to the counties of Sligo and Roscommon in the east. The landscape of Mayo is bewitchingly beautiful. It is flat terrain in the east. There are island lakes, Lough Conn, Cullin, Carra, and Mask, and quartzite peaks along the Atlantic coast. The rugged cliffs are interspersed with flat sandy beaches. The bogs in the north contrast with the mountains in the south. Special places of historical interest include Knock Marian Shrine and Pilgrimage Centre, where the Blessed Mother appeared over 150 years ago. Croagh Patrick is the mountain where St. Patrick prayed and fasted for the 40 days of Lent. It is a place of pilgrimage. On the last Sunday in July many people climb the mountain in bare feet as a means of sacrifice. At the foot of Croagh Patrick is the National Famine Memorial. Ceide Fields is an extensive Stone Age enclosed farmland site covering 24 square miles. It has a visitor centre located in North Mayo. The Ceide Fields are older than the Egyptian Pyramids. The Granuaile Centre explores the legends and history of Grace O'Malley, the Pirate Queen of Mayo, and a fiery and passionate woman whose goal was to rid her country of the invaders. There are quite a few heritage and visitors centres throughout the county. Visiting them is an excellent way to learn Mayo's history. Ballina, in the Moy Valley, is the largest city in Mayo and has one of the oldest histories with numerous megalithic tombs to visit. For a fisherman, the River Moy is ideal for its abundance of salmon and trout. There are a myriad of activities available throughout Mayo including game and sea fishing, diving, sailing, horse riding, and 18-hole and 9-hole championship golf courses. There are walking trails and adventure centres. Westport is situated on the shores of Clew Bay. The heritage town is the largest coastal town in Mayo. Many excellent beaches and water sports are located here. Sailing and yachting are available. Westport offers locally made knitwear and pottery, and sponsors an arts festival each September. THE ISLANDS Achill Island is joined to the mainland by a causeway. The island has splendid cliff scenery, drives and walks, very good beaches, and sea and shore fishing. The mountains around the coast provide vantage points to enjoy the sea and landscape. This island has a thriving community, and offers a variety of accommodations, attractions, gorgeous scenery, and entertainment, or solitude, if you choose. Clare Island is a part of Clew Bay. The 17th Century Grace O'Malley resided here and ruled the lands around Clew Bay. Good diving is available here, as well as excellent sea fishing. There are various archaeological sites and superb cliff scenery. Other Islands include Inishturk and Inishbiggle. COUNTY ROSCOMMON County Roscommon is an inland county in the west of Ireland, with fertile woodlands, ecclesiastical ruins, lakes and rivers, lovely villages, and lively market towns. The chief towns are Roscommon, Strokestown, Boyle, Elphin, Loughlynn, Ballaghadereen, Castlerea, and Knockcroghery. The county offers many game, coarse, and pike fishing centres, and cruising on Carrick-on-Shannon. Several towns offer horse riding, walking trails, bird watching, and golfing. Roscommon, the town, is home to 13th Century Roscommon Castle that had seen many owners until it was destroyed at the Battle of Aughrim in the 17th Century, now a ruin. Strokestown is most noted for the Famine Museum at Strokestown Park House. It tells the story of the consecutive English laws enacted to suppress and destroy Irish trade and manufacturing. When the Great Hunger occurred from 1845 to 1850, there was nothing left for the Irish except death or emigration. Castlerea is the ancestral land of the O'Connor Clan, who gave 11 high kings to Ireland. , With over 10,000 manuscripts, the family history is archived at Clonalis House starting from 75AD. Athlone is situated on the River Shannon in the Centre of Ireland and one of the fastest growing towns. It is estimated that because of its unprecedented growth rate, it will become Ireland's next City. Visit the Athlone Central Information Services . COUNTY CLARE County Clare is a year round destination offering many natural wonders within the county. It is an ideal walking and fishing area, with hundreds of small lakes and streams with brown trout and coarse fish, and numerous water sports. This is an area with a wealth of traditional music, dance, and drama. In North Clare is the Burren, a lunar landscape of terraced glaciated limestone, covering over 200 miles. In Ballyvaughan is the Alwee Caves, caverns of stalactites, stalagmites, and a waterfall. Located in Clare are the famous Cliffs of Moher, 700 feet above the sea, with a spectacular view of the Atlantic Ocean. O'Brien's Tower was constructed in the 19th Century as a viewing point for the cliffs. There is Knappogue Castle, built in 1467 by Sean MacNamara, which offers a medieval banquet and features 'Women in Irish History'. The town of Doolin boasts the magic of the music. From here you can take a short ferry trip to the Aran Islands. Lisdoonvarna hosts the Matchmaking Festival each September. Mid Clare offers Bunratty Folk Park, a 19th Century village with a living museum and a teashop. The village people are dressed in period costume and a Ceili (Kay Lee) which is a gathering of people for music, fun and dance, takes place each evening. Bunratty Castle, built in the 15th Century, offers a Medieval Banquet, with traditional music and dance as the featured entertainment. Tour the Craggaunowen Bronze Age Project, a prehistoric park depicting ancient Celtic life. Ennis, the capital of Clare, is another wonderful town for traditional music. There are numerous sites to explore.	County Clare
Which is the only club in the League of Ireland from outside the Republic of Ireland?	Ireland2012 - Doolin and Galway Ireland2012 Galway - Ireland's cultural heart Galway, Ireland Located on the west coast of Ireland, the city of Galway is the third largest in the state, with a population of approximately 76,000. Rising from a small settlement surrounding a fort in the mid-1100's, the city was captured during the Norman invasion in 1230. The local tribes, merchants by trade, eventually gained control of the city and were granted mayoral status by the English crown in 1484. During the Middle Ages, the city was ruled by 14 tribes and thrived on international trade, as the principal Irish port for trade with Spain and France. The wars of the 16th and 17th century resulted in sieges and conquests of the walled city of Galway, which remained loyal to the British crown. Unfortunately, the potato famines of the mid-1800’s ruined the great families of the area. Galway is known as Ireland’s cultural heart and is a major center for traditional Irish language, music, and dance. Nearly 10% of the city’s population speak the Irish language. Galway is home to an Irish language theatre, an Irish language television station and radio station. The National University of Ireland, initially known as Queen's College, is located in the center of Galway city. The institution opened in 1849 as Queen's College with 63 students. Today, with 17,000 students, the National University of Ireland Galway houses five colleges: College of Arts, Social Sciences and Celtic Studies, College of Business, Public Policy and Law, College of Engineering and Informatics, College of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, and College of Science. The university is a bilingual institution with the Irish language central to its mission and workings. In addition, Irish is taught, from beginning to advanced, in a dedicated Irish language learning building. The campus also houses an Irish language institute "dedicated to pioneering third level education through Irish medium." National University of Ireland, Galway Galway is also a county in Ireland and home to 250,500 people, 34,000 of whom speak Irish. County Galway is the location of the largest Gaeltacht, or Irish-speaking region. This region extends west from Galway city to Connemara and within this area all schools teach in the Irish language. Economically, County Galway is primarily an agricultural region, but tourism and software manufacturing have increased in recent years. The county is also home to Galway Irish Crystal which crafts traditional Irish crystal. The county is dotted with castles and the remains of monasteries as well as heritage centers for the exploration of local history and tourist information. Leenane, County Galway Leenane is a possible overnight stay during our time in Ireland. This village in County Galway is situated on the northern end of Connemara, on a coastal harbor, Killary Harbour, which is one of three glacial fjords in Ireland. Killary Harbour, Leenane, County Galway Westport is also mentioned in our itinerary as the overnight location during our visit to County Galway. Although it is located in a neighboring county, it is near enough to our route to be our resting stop. Of particular interest is the incorporation of the river into the town. Westport, County Mayo Doolin - Capital of Irish traditional music, June 21-23, 2012 Doolin is a small village in County Clare, on the west coast (Atlantic) of Ireland. Doolin was traditionally a fishing village which made a name for itself when a historian, Seamus Delargy, went there in 1929 to record North Clare folklore. Soon after, it became a destination for the bohemian set including artists and writers (George Bernard Shaw being one). Although many locals still fish the Atlantic, tourism is now a major "industry." Doolin is known as Ireland’s cradle of traditional Irish music, attracting travelers from all over. Most any night, travelers can visit its three pubs, McDermott's, McGann's (the one we’ll visit) and O'Connor's to hear impromptu jam sessions of traditional music by locals and visitors. Traditional Irish music gained fans around the 1970’s, fueled by the fame of the Russell brothers (see video clip of Micho Russell). Population: small. Approx. 500	i don't know
Which is the only club from outside France to play in the French Ligue 1?	Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players To Watch Out For \| Outside of the Boot Home / Talent Radar / Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players To Watch Out For Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players To Watch Out For By Outside of the Boot on August 12, 2013 @OOTB_football This website has gained a reputation as one of the best sources for reading on the young talents of World Football. Attracting readers with our extensive Scout Reports on some of the best young & rising football stars, we have decided to continue our focus on the next generation. We were instrumental with our comprehensive reporting on the hugely popular U21 European Championship this summer, with our Tactical Player Reports . Keeping in tune with this focus, we are dedicated to educating readers on the best young talents to watch out for with our latest feature. The French have taken a back seat at the top of World football as the more popular German, English, Spanish & Italian leagues dominate. A rush of financial muscle has seen the footballing world take notice. OOTB’s attraction towards the Western European country remains its young talents, and there are plenty. Here is a list of the Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players you need to watch out for. 10 Best Young Players in the 2014/15 Ligue 1 Season \| Part One \| Part Two \| Please note that to maintain standardisation, this list includes players who are 21 and below, and will remain so until August 31st, 2013 (hence why the likes of James Rodriguez & Alexandre Lacazette don’t make it). Also, like much of our content, we are avoiding the ‘mainstream’ attraction and providing readers a list of players that are not as established as some of the others in their age category. Marco Verratti, Lucas Moura etc, although young, are established in the footballing world, and are players you will probably watch out for anyway, without us telling you. 10. Neal Maupay Nationality: French Position: Striker The French U-17 international will only turn 17 later this month but has already notched up 3 professional goals in his career since his debut in 2012. OGC Nice, along with Lyon & Rennes, have the youngest average squad in the 2013-14 Ligue 1. Having gained a lot of experience with the second side the last campaign, manager Claude Puel will definitely have plans for the young attacker this season. 9. Yannick Ferreira Carrasco Nationality: Belgian Position: Winger Despite the millions pumped into AS Monaco, Claudio Ranieri has a whole host of young talents to give opportunities too. Yannick Carrasco who arrived at the French club from famed Belgian academy, Genk, much before the millions from Russia did is one such footballer who could have an instrumental season. The Belgium U-21 international was given his break in the first team last campaign, with Monaco in the second division, scoring 6 goals as he helped his side into Ligue 1. 8. Samuel Umtiti Nationality: French Position: Centre Back After years of success at the top, Lyon is going through a transition phase with plenty of focus on blooding the youth. An average squad age of 23.7 is a testament to their youthful policy, with 19-yr-old Samuel Umtiti at the height of it. The Cameroonian born central defender has established himself at the heart of Lyon’s defence, and will continue to be given opportunities this new campaign. Nationality: French Position: Centre Back Despite his young age, Nicolas Isimat-Mirin has loads of experience at professional level making over 80 first team appearances at his previous club, Valenciennes. The 21-year-old has been linked with some top European clubs, Liverpool most notably. As Monaco’s big money revolution took seed this summer, Isimat-Mirin was a rare young signing made (along with Anthony Martial) as Monaco look to add to their young talents. Manager Ranieri, would have identified the defenders obvious talents, and one can expect much from the Frenchman. 6. Jordan Ayew Nationality: Ghanaian Position: Striker Jordan Ayew is from a rich football background, with nearly his entire family involved in football professionally. The 21-year-old has been around for quite sometime but is often ignored by the football fraternity. He has already notched up over a 100 appearances for both club & country. Still living in the shadows of his brother Andre in the Marsellie squad, the Ghanaian will be hoping Elie Baup gives him a more regular role in the first-team squad. 5. Kurt Zouma Nationality: French Position: Centre Back Kurt Zouma has been one of the most sought after Ligue 1 players in 2013, with clubs like Manchester United being linked with the 18-year-old. He however has (so far) stayed in France, having already cemented his place in the Saint Etienne first team. A move, however, to a bigger European side is imminent. It’s set to be an intriguing campaign for Les Verts having lost their main man Aubameyang in the summer. Needless to say, Zouma is set to play an important role as Saint Etienne look to maintain their challenge for European spots. Nationality: Brazilian Position: Centre Back Marquinhos’ career has erupted over the last one year. After securing a move to the Serie A from Corinthians, stellar performances made top European sides take notice. The mighty Barcelona, among others, were tracking the career of the Brazilian. PSG finally won the race, adding one of the most sought after youngsters to their growing list of talents. One can only hope that the 19-year-old is given regular first-team football as he looks to enhance his career. A tough ask, given PSG’s existing squad list and expectations for the campaign. 3. Lucas Digne Nationality: French Position: Left-Back Second PSG player to feature on the list, is also the second big money young signing the French champions made this summer. Digne is thought to be one of the brightest French talents of the current generation. With plenty of experience at former club, Lille, Digne will not be shy to push for a place this coming campaign. The 20-year-old was being tracked by many clubs, but chose to stay in France and join the revolution. Only time will tell if this is a mutually beneficial move. The future, though, is extremely bright for Digne. 2. Lucas Ocampos Nationality: Argentine Position: Winger Another Monaco talent features as the returning club look to make their mark on French and World football. Ocampos was at the 2004 Champions League runners-up before the likes of Falcao made it. The Argentine was a crucial part of the side that gained promotion from Ligue 2, having signed from South American giants, River Plate. The youngster turned 19 only this summer and has his best years ahead of him. A scary thought for the rest of the French league. Despite the star names, Ocampos will continue to be an integral part of Ranieri’s plans; one can expect much from this wonderkid. 1. Florian Thauvin Nationality: French Position: Attacking Midfielder Lille’s new signing makes it at the top of our list. Florian Thauvin is an exciting French talent who will be plying his trade in France’s top division. The ex-Bastia man was signed way back in January and loaned back to his original club as a show of goodwill & to get some game time. A move which proved to be beneficial for the 20-year-old. Lille have always been known for possessing talented individuals, assisting them in challenging for European spots. Thauvin will play a vital role in the 13-14 campaign if Lille are to get back to where they want to be. Click here to read a detailed Scout Report on Florian Thauvin Special Mentions It’s always difficult to narrow down a list to just the Top 10. The above talents are the ones (in our opinion) that should be paid attention to. There are however, a couple of others who unfortunately didn’t make the list, but possess the talent nevertheless. Yassine Benzia from Lyon’s young side is one that could have an important season ahead of him, along with Rachid Ghezzal. Adrien Rabiot is one name coming through from PSG that looks to possess some talent; opportunities however may be hard to come by. Kurzawa and Fabinho are two names among Monaco’s elite that are looking to make a name for themselves, while 17-year-old Anthony Martial has also joined the cash-rich club. Bordeaux’s Uruguayan youngster, Diego Rolan, almost made the list while Rennes’ full-back, Dimitri Foulquier also deserves a mention. Nice, as mentioned, are a club with a lot of young talent; Valentin Eysseric has a crucial role to play in the side. Lorient’s new signing, Vincent Aboubakar, has established himself in the Cameroonian national team and looks to make his mark in the French league as well. Ligue 2’s ‘Best Player’ award winner, Gilbert Imbula, joined Marsellie as he looks to play a crucial role in their campaign. PSG’s Jean-Christophe Bahebeck will be out on loan for Valenciennes in 13-14, while Serge Aurier is a bright spark in Toulouse team of youngsters. And finally, Jordan Veretout from Nantes looks like a solid midfielder as well. Stay tuned for more young talents as we look to cover other leagues as well in our quest to follow the development of the best young talents in World football.	AS Monaco FC
Which composer’s “Minute Waltz” is used as theme music for ”Just a Minute”?	Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players To Watch Out For \| Outside of the Boot Home / Talent Radar / Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players To Watch Out For Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players To Watch Out For By Outside of the Boot on August 12, 2013 @OOTB_football This website has gained a reputation as one of the best sources for reading on the young talents of World Football. Attracting readers with our extensive Scout Reports on some of the best young & rising football stars, we have decided to continue our focus on the next generation. We were instrumental with our comprehensive reporting on the hugely popular U21 European Championship this summer, with our Tactical Player Reports . Keeping in tune with this focus, we are dedicated to educating readers on the best young talents to watch out for with our latest feature. The French have taken a back seat at the top of World football as the more popular German, English, Spanish & Italian leagues dominate. A rush of financial muscle has seen the footballing world take notice. OOTB’s attraction towards the Western European country remains its young talents, and there are plenty. Here is a list of the Top 10 Young Ligue 1 Players you need to watch out for. 10 Best Young Players in the 2014/15 Ligue 1 Season \| Part One \| Part Two \| Please note that to maintain standardisation, this list includes players who are 21 and below, and will remain so until August 31st, 2013 (hence why the likes of James Rodriguez & Alexandre Lacazette don’t make it). Also, like much of our content, we are avoiding the ‘mainstream’ attraction and providing readers a list of players that are not as established as some of the others in their age category. Marco Verratti, Lucas Moura etc, although young, are established in the footballing world, and are players you will probably watch out for anyway, without us telling you. 10. Neal Maupay Nationality: French Position: Striker The French U-17 international will only turn 17 later this month but has already notched up 3 professional goals in his career since his debut in 2012. OGC Nice, along with Lyon & Rennes, have the youngest average squad in the 2013-14 Ligue 1. Having gained a lot of experience with the second side the last campaign, manager Claude Puel will definitely have plans for the young attacker this season. 9. Yannick Ferreira Carrasco Nationality: Belgian Position: Winger Despite the millions pumped into AS Monaco, Claudio Ranieri has a whole host of young talents to give opportunities too. Yannick Carrasco who arrived at the French club from famed Belgian academy, Genk, much before the millions from Russia did is one such footballer who could have an instrumental season. The Belgium U-21 international was given his break in the first team last campaign, with Monaco in the second division, scoring 6 goals as he helped his side into Ligue 1. 8. Samuel Umtiti Nationality: French Position: Centre Back After years of success at the top, Lyon is going through a transition phase with plenty of focus on blooding the youth. An average squad age of 23.7 is a testament to their youthful policy, with 19-yr-old Samuel Umtiti at the height of it. The Cameroonian born central defender has established himself at the heart of Lyon’s defence, and will continue to be given opportunities this new campaign. Nationality: French Position: Centre Back Despite his young age, Nicolas Isimat-Mirin has loads of experience at professional level making over 80 first team appearances at his previous club, Valenciennes. The 21-year-old has been linked with some top European clubs, Liverpool most notably. As Monaco’s big money revolution took seed this summer, Isimat-Mirin was a rare young signing made (along with Anthony Martial) as Monaco look to add to their young talents. Manager Ranieri, would have identified the defenders obvious talents, and one can expect much from the Frenchman. 6. Jordan Ayew Nationality: Ghanaian Position: Striker Jordan Ayew is from a rich football background, with nearly his entire family involved in football professionally. The 21-year-old has been around for quite sometime but is often ignored by the football fraternity. He has already notched up over a 100 appearances for both club & country. Still living in the shadows of his brother Andre in the Marsellie squad, the Ghanaian will be hoping Elie Baup gives him a more regular role in the first-team squad. 5. Kurt Zouma Nationality: French Position: Centre Back Kurt Zouma has been one of the most sought after Ligue 1 players in 2013, with clubs like Manchester United being linked with the 18-year-old. He however has (so far) stayed in France, having already cemented his place in the Saint Etienne first team. A move, however, to a bigger European side is imminent. It’s set to be an intriguing campaign for Les Verts having lost their main man Aubameyang in the summer. Needless to say, Zouma is set to play an important role as Saint Etienne look to maintain their challenge for European spots. Nationality: Brazilian Position: Centre Back Marquinhos’ career has erupted over the last one year. After securing a move to the Serie A from Corinthians, stellar performances made top European sides take notice. The mighty Barcelona, among others, were tracking the career of the Brazilian. PSG finally won the race, adding one of the most sought after youngsters to their growing list of talents. One can only hope that the 19-year-old is given regular first-team football as he looks to enhance his career. A tough ask, given PSG’s existing squad list and expectations for the campaign. 3. Lucas Digne Nationality: French Position: Left-Back Second PSG player to feature on the list, is also the second big money young signing the French champions made this summer. Digne is thought to be one of the brightest French talents of the current generation. With plenty of experience at former club, Lille, Digne will not be shy to push for a place this coming campaign. The 20-year-old was being tracked by many clubs, but chose to stay in France and join the revolution. Only time will tell if this is a mutually beneficial move. The future, though, is extremely bright for Digne. 2. Lucas Ocampos Nationality: Argentine Position: Winger Another Monaco talent features as the returning club look to make their mark on French and World football. Ocampos was at the 2004 Champions League runners-up before the likes of Falcao made it. The Argentine was a crucial part of the side that gained promotion from Ligue 2, having signed from South American giants, River Plate. The youngster turned 19 only this summer and has his best years ahead of him. A scary thought for the rest of the French league. Despite the star names, Ocampos will continue to be an integral part of Ranieri’s plans; one can expect much from this wonderkid. 1. Florian Thauvin Nationality: French Position: Attacking Midfielder Lille’s new signing makes it at the top of our list. Florian Thauvin is an exciting French talent who will be plying his trade in France’s top division. The ex-Bastia man was signed way back in January and loaned back to his original club as a show of goodwill & to get some game time. A move which proved to be beneficial for the 20-year-old. Lille have always been known for possessing talented individuals, assisting them in challenging for European spots. Thauvin will play a vital role in the 13-14 campaign if Lille are to get back to where they want to be. Click here to read a detailed Scout Report on Florian Thauvin Special Mentions It’s always difficult to narrow down a list to just the Top 10. The above talents are the ones (in our opinion) that should be paid attention to. There are however, a couple of others who unfortunately didn’t make the list, but possess the talent nevertheless. Yassine Benzia from Lyon’s young side is one that could have an important season ahead of him, along with Rachid Ghezzal. Adrien Rabiot is one name coming through from PSG that looks to possess some talent; opportunities however may be hard to come by. Kurzawa and Fabinho are two names among Monaco’s elite that are looking to make a name for themselves, while 17-year-old Anthony Martial has also joined the cash-rich club. Bordeaux’s Uruguayan youngster, Diego Rolan, almost made the list while Rennes’ full-back, Dimitri Foulquier also deserves a mention. Nice, as mentioned, are a club with a lot of young talent; Valentin Eysseric has a crucial role to play in the side. Lorient’s new signing, Vincent Aboubakar, has established himself in the Cameroonian national team and looks to make his mark in the French league as well. Ligue 2’s ‘Best Player’ award winner, Gilbert Imbula, joined Marsellie as he looks to play a crucial role in their campaign. PSG’s Jean-Christophe Bahebeck will be out on loan for Valenciennes in 13-14, while Serge Aurier is a bright spark in Toulouse team of youngsters. And finally, Jordan Veretout from Nantes looks like a solid midfielder as well. Stay tuned for more young talents as we look to cover other leagues as well in our quest to follow the development of the best young talents in World football.	i don't know
Which folk band’s version of The Archers’ theme introduces the Sunday Omnibus Edition?	Pete Shutler \| ZoomInfo.com Pete Shutler + Get 10 Free Contacts a Month Please agree to the terms and conditions I agree to the Terms of Service and Privacy Policy . I understand that I will receive a subscription to ZoomInfo Grow at no charge in exchange for downloading and installing the ZoomInfo Contact Contributor utility which, among other features, involves sharing my business contacts as well as headers and signature blocks from emails that I receive. Web References (42 Total References) Morris Matters \| The Morris Ring Wessex Morris Men remember The Yetties' Pete Shutler with fundraising event in Sherborne ... Pete Shutler remembered by Wessex Morris Men this weekend Pete Shutler www.bbc.co.uk [cached] Pete Shutler was a founder member of The Yetties, one of the most popular bands on the British folk music scene. He went to school in the Dorset town of Yetminster, where he met the other band members and from which they took their name. After being suspended from his job with the local council for moonlighting as a musician, the Yetties went professional, releasing more than 40 albums during their career. ... Away from The Yetties, Shutler accompanied Bob Arnold (The Archers' Tom Forrest) on an album of folk songs and it is his accordion version of the Archers' theme tune, Barwick Green, which plays on the Sunday omnibus edition. $reference.title	The Yetties
The “Brain of Britain” theme music is adapted from which Mozart piece?	Been and Gone: The original Jersey Boy, and the inspiration for Cider With Rosie - BBC News BBC News Been and Gone: The original Jersey Boy, and the inspiration for Cider With Rosie By Nick Serpell Obituary Editor, BBC News 3 October 2014 Close share panel Image copyright ALAMY Our regular column covering the deaths of significant - but lesser reported - people of the past month. Rosalind Buckland was the inspiration for the title of Cider with Rosie, Laurie Lee's evocative description of his childhood in a Cotswold village. Born Rosalind Gleed, she was Lee's second cousin and was the only Rosie growing up in the village of Slad during World War One. Lee's description of sharing cider and kisses with Rosie is one of the best-known passages of the book. "Never to be forgotten, that first long secret drink of golden fire, juice of those valleys and of that time, wine of wild orchards, of russet summer, of plump red apples, and Rosie's burning cheeks." In fact, little Rosie Gleed was only nine at the time, but it has long been accepted that the Rosie in question was a composite of a number of village girls. She later declared, "I feel very proud that Laurie wrote me into his book." She died just four days short of her 100th birthday. Songwriter Bob Crewe's compositions made the Four Seasons one of the most successful bands of the 1960s. He penned the hits Sherry and Big Girls Don't Cry, both of which showcased the band's close harmonies and Frankie Valli's falsetto voice. Crewe co-wrote a number of other songs for the band including Rag Doll, Can't Take My Eyes Off You and My Eyes Adored You. Crewe was a New Jersey native who failed in his ambition to be a performer, and turned to songwriting instead. His compositions were covered by a number of artists - Silence is Golden by the Tremeloes, The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore by the Walker Brothers and Bye Bye Baby by the Bay City Rollers. In the 1970s he turned to disco with Lady Marmalade, a hit record for Labelle. As a record producer he oversaw Lovers Concerto by The Toys, based on a Bach minuet, and the soundtrack to the Jane Fonda film, Barbarella. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Bob Crewe at the opening of Jersey Boys in 2005 Pete Shutler was a founder member of The Yetties, one of the most popular bands on the British folk music scene. He went to school in the Dorset town of Yetminster, where he met the other band members and from which they took their name. After being suspended from his job with the local council for moonlighting as a musician, the Yetties went professional, releasing more than 40 albums during their career. Shutler's accordion came to the fore in the band's rendition of old English dance tunes. They became well-known for playing traditional music that had originally been collected by the author, Thomas Hardy. Away from The Yetties, Shutler accompanied Bob Arnold (The Archers' Tom Forrest) on an album of folk songs and it is his accordion version of the Archers' theme tune, Barwick Green, which plays on the Sunday omnibus edition. The Queen is rarely seen in public without a hat and many of them were designed by Phillip Somerville. A former actor, he began designing hats in 1953, opening his own business in London in 1971. The Queen became a customer in the early 1980s and, at one time, Somerville was making more than 50 hats a year for her. It was an exacting task as he had to liaise closely with her clothes designers to ensure the colour and style of his creations matched her coats. As well as the Queen, he made hats for Diana, Princess of Wales and the Duchess of Kent. He was responsible for creating two items of headgear for James Bond films - the wide-brimmed black hat worn by the character Xenia in Goldeneye, and the fur hat modelled by Elektra King in The World is not Enough. Image copyright ALAMY Image caption Electra King (Sophie Marceau) modelling a Phillip Somerville hat in The World Is Not Enough Sheila Stewart's book, Lifting the Latch, was compared to Lark Rise to Candleford as a vivid description of a rural England, now vanished. Based on interviews she had with a former farm labourer, it tells of life on the land in a rural community in the days of plough horses and carts. Stewart was the illegitimate child of a servant who was left with an elderly couple in Devon. But she was taken away and brought up in homes run by the Waifs and Strays Society. She won a scholarship to a grammar school and became a teacher, later setting up her own nursery school. Her memoir of her life in care, A Home from Home, was published in 1967 when she became a full-time writer. She also published Country Kate, written in the Warwickshire dialect, and Ramblin' Rose, chronicling the lives of women who had worked the horse-drawn narrow boats on England's canals. The ginger tomcat, Hamish McHamish sprang to fame after the publication of a book detailing his adventures around the university town of St Andrews, in Fife. In theory he belonged to Marianne Baird, a retired BBC producer, but he was prone to wander, taking up residence wherever food and a comfortable place to sleep could be found. These included a number of shops in St Andrews where he became a familiar figure to the residents and students in the town. His fame spread when he acquired a Facebook page and a Twitter account which encouraged visitors to look out for him and have their picture taken with the feline star. His life was chronicled in a book, Hamish McHamish of St Andrews: Cool Cat About Town. In the end he succumbed to a chest infection, but remains immortalised in a bronze statue, unveiled earlier this year by the Provost of Fife. Image copyright Facebook Among others who died in September: Toby Balding Racehorse trainer, one of the few to win the 'Big Three" jump races. Deborah Cavendish Dowager Duchess of Devonshire and last of the Mitford sisters Christopher Hogwood Conductor and founder of the Academy of Ancient Music	i don't know
Which life-saving natural hormone was first extracted by Banting and Best in 1921?	The Discovery of Insulin The Discovery of Insulin Before the discovery of insulin, diabetes was a feared disease that most certainly led to death. Doctors knew that sugar worsened the condition of diabetic patients and that the most effective treatment was to put the patients on very strict diets where sugar intake was kept to a minimum. At best, this treatment could buy patients a few extra years, but it never saved them. In some cases, the harsh diets even caused patients to die of starvation. During the nineteenth century, observations of patients who died of diabetes often showed that the pancreas was damaged. In 1869, a German medical student, Paul Langerhans, found that within the pancreatic tissue that produces digestive juices there were clusters of cells whose function was unknown. Some of these cells were eventually shown to be the insulin-producing beta cells. Later, in honor of the person who discovered them, the cell clusters were named the islets of Langerhans. In 1889 in Germany, physiologist Oskar Minkowski and physician Joseph von Mering, showed that if the pancreas was removed from a dog, the animal got diabetes. But if the duct through which the pancreatic juices flow to the intestine was ligated - surgically tied off so the juices couldn't reach the intestine - the dog developed minor digestive problems but no diabetes. So it seemed that the pancreas must have at least two functions: To produce digestive juices To produce a substance that regulates the sugar glucose This hypothetical internal secretion was the key. If a substance could actually be isolated, the mystery of diabetes would be solved. Progress, however, was slow. Banting's Idea In October 1920 in Toronto, Canada, Dr. Frederick Banting, an unknown surgeon with a bachelor's degree in medicine, had the idea that the pancreatic digestive juices could be harmful to the secretion of the pancreas produced by the islets of Langerhans. He therefore wanted to ligate the pancreatic ducts in order to stop the flow of nourishment to the pancreas. This would cause the pancreas to degenerate, making it shrink and lose its ability to secrete the digestive juices. The cells thought to produce an antidiabetic secretion could then be extracted from the pancreas without being harmed. Early in 1921, Banting took his idea to Professor John Macleod at the University of Toronto, who was a leading figure in the study of diabetes in Canada. Macleod didn't think much of Banting's theories. Despite this, Banting managed to convince him that his idea was worth trying. Macleod gave Banting a laboratory with a minimum of equipment and ten dogs. Banting also got an assistant, a medical student by the name of Charles Best. The experiment was set to start in the summer of 1921. Banting, right, and Best, left, with one of the diabetic dogs used in experiments with insulin. Credits: University of Toronto Archives The Experiment Begins Banting and Best began their experiments by removing the pancreas from a dog. This resulted in the following: It's blood sugar rose. It became thirsty, drank lots of water, and urinated more often. It became weaker and weaker. The dog had developed diabetes. Experimenting on another dog, Banting and Best surgically ligated the pancreas, stopping the flow of nourishment, so that the pancreas degenerated. After a while, they removed the pancreas, sliced it up, and froze the pieces in a mixture of water and salts. When the pieces were half frozen, they were ground up and filtered. The isolated substance was named "isletin." The extract was injected into the diabetic dog. Its blood glucose level dropped, and it seemed healthier and stronger. By giving the diabetic dog a few injections a day, Banting and Best could keep it healthy and free of symptoms. Banting and Best showed their result to Macleod, who was impressed, but he wanted more tests to prove that their pancreatic extract really worked. Banting's and Best's laboratory, where insulin was discovered. Credits: University of Toronto Archives Extended Tests For the increased testing, Banting and Best realized that they required a larger supply of organs than their dogs could provide, and they started using pancreases from cattle. With this new source, they managed to produce enough extract to keep several diabetic dogs alive. The new results convinced Macleod that they were onto something big. He gave them more funds and moved them to a better laboratory with proper working conditions. He also suggested they should call their extract "insulin." Now, the work proceeded rapidly. In late 1921, a third person, biochemist Bertram Collip, joined the team. Collip was given the task of trying to purify the insulin so that it would be clean enough for testing on humans. During the intensified testing, the team also realized that the process of shrinking the pancreases had been unnecessary. Using whole fresh pancreases from adult animals worked just as well. Testing on Humans The team was eager to start testing on humans. But on whom should they test? Banting and Best began by injecting themselves with the extract. They felt weak and dizzy, but they were not harmed. Collip continued his work to purify the insulin. He also experimented with trying to find the correct dosage. He learned how to diminish the effect of an insulin overdose with glucose in different forms. He discovered that the glucose should be as pure as possible. Orange juice and honey are good examples of foods rich in glucose. In January 1922 in Toronto, Canada, a 14-year-old boy, Leonard Thompson, was chosen as the first person with diabetes to receive insulin. The test was a success. Leonard, who before the insulin shots was near death, rapidly regained his strength and appetite. The team now expanded their testing to other volunteer diabetics, who reacted just as positively as Leonard to the insulin extract. The Nobel Prize The news of the successful treatment of diabetes with insulin rapidly spread outside of Toronto, and in 1923 the Nobel Committee decided to award Banting and Macleod the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The decision of the Nobel Committee made Banting furious. He felt that the prize should have been shared between him and Best, and not between him and Macleod. To give credit to Best, Banting decided to share his cash award with him. Macleod, in turn, shared his cash award with Collip. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for insulin has been much debated. It has been questioned why Macleod received the prize instead of Best and Collip. However, Macleod played a central role in the discovery of insulin. It was he who supported the project from the beginning. He supervised the work and it is also most likely that Macleod's contacts in the scientific world helped the team in getting a speedy recognition of their discovery. Frederick G. Banting and John Macleod were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 "for the discovery of insulin." The Legacy of Insulin Banting, Macleod, and the rest of the team patented their insulin extract but gave away all their rights to the University of Toronto, which would later use the income from insulin to fund new research. Very soon after the discovery of insulin, the medical firm Eli Lilly started large-scale production of the extract. As soon as 1923, the firm was producing enough insulin to supply the entire North American continent. Although insulin doesn't cure diabetes, it's one of the biggest discoveries in medicine. When it came, it was like a miracle. People with severe diabetes and only days left to live were saved. And as long as they kept getting their insulin, they could live an almost normal life.	Insulin
Which Cumbrian town’s boundaries incorporate the 11-mile-long Walney Island?	Frederick G. Banting - Biographical Frederick G. Banting The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923 Frederick G. Banting, John Macleod Share this: Frederick G. Banting - Biographical Frederick Grant Banting was born on November 14, 1891, at Alliston, Ont., Canada. He was the youngest of five children of William Thompson Banting and Margaret Grant. Educated at the Public and High Schools at Alliston, he later went to the University of Toronto to study divinity, but soon transferred to the study of medicine. In 1916 he took his M.B. degree and at once joined the Canadian Army Medical Corps, and served, during the First World War, in France. In 1918 he was wounded at the battle of Cambrai and in 1919 he was awarded the Military Cross for heroism under fire. When the war ended in 1919, Banting returned to Canada and was for a short time a medical practitioner at London, Ontario. He studied orthopaedic medicine and was, during the year 1919-1920, Resident Surgeon at the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto. From 1920 until 1921 he did part-time teaching in orthopaedics at the University of Western Ontario at London, Canada, besides his general practice, and from 1921 until 1922 he was Lecturer in Pharmacology at the University of Toronto. In 1922 he was awarded his M.D. degree, together with a gold medal. Earlier, however, Banting had become deeply interested in diabetes. The work of Naunyn, Minkowski, Opie, Schafer, and others had indicated that diabetes was caused by lack of a protein hormone secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. To this hormone Schafer had given the name insulin, and it was supposed that insulin controls the metabolism of sugar, so that lack of it results in the accumulation of sugar in the blood and the excretion of the excess of sugar in the urine. Attempts to supply the missing insulin by feeding patients with fresh pancreas, or extracts of it, had failed, presumably because the protein insulin in these had been destroyed by the proteolytic enzyme of the pancreas. The problem, therefore, was how to extract insulin from the pancreas before it had been thus destroyed. While he was considering this problem, Banting read in a medical journal an article by Moses Baron, which pointed out that, when the pancreatic duct was experimentally closed by ligatures, the cells of the pancreas which secrete trypsin degenerate, but that the islets of Langerhans remain intact. This suggested to Banting the idea that ligation of the pancreatic duct would, by destroying the cells which secrete trypsin, avoid the destruction of the insulin, so that, after sufficient time had been allowed for the degeneration of the trypsin-secreting cells, insulin might be extracted from the intact islets of Langerhans. Determined to investigate this possibility, Banting discussed it with various people, among whom was J.J.R. Macleod , Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto, and Macleod gave him facilities for experimental work upon it. Dr. Charles Best, then a medical student, was appointed as Banting's assistant, and together, Banting and Best started the work which was to lead to the discovery of insulin. In 1922 Banting had been appointed Senior Demonstrator in Medicine at the University of Toronto, and in 1923 he was elected to the Banting and Best Chair of Medical Research, which had been endowed by the Legislature of the Province of Ontario. He was also appointed Honorary Consulting Physician to the Toronto General Hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, and the Toronto Western Hospital. In the Banting and Best Institute, Banting dealt with the problems of silicosis, cancer, the mechanism of drowning and how to counteract it. During the Second World War he became greatly interested in problems connected with flying (such as blackout). In addition to his medical degree, Banting also obtained, in 1923, the LL.D. degree (Queens) and the D.Sc. degree (Toronto). Prior to the award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1923, which he shared with Macleod, he received the Reeve Prize of the University of Toronto (1922). In 1923, the Canadian Parliament granted him a Life Annuity of $7,500. In 1928 Banting gave the Cameron Lecture in Edinburgh. He was appointed member of numerous medical academies and societies in his country and abroad, including the British and American Physiological Societies, and the American Pharmacological Society. He was knighted in 1934. As a keen painter, Banting once took part of a painting expedition above the Arctic Circle, sponsored by the Government. Banting married Marion Robertson in 1924; they had one child, William (b. 1928). This marriage ended in a divorce in 1932, and in 1937 Banting married Henrietta Ball. When the Second World War broke out, he served as a liaison officer between the British and North American medical services and, while thus engaged, he was, in February 1941, killed in an air disaster in Newfoundland. From Nobel Lectures , Physiology or Medicine 1922-1941, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1965 This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel . It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures . To cite this document, always state the source as shown above. Frederick G. Banting died on February 21, 1941.	i don't know
Living from 1672 to 1769, which card games authority is known as “the father of Whist”?	Edmond Hoyle Facts ADD TO WORD LIST Edmond Hoyle Facts Edmond Hoyle (1672-1769) was an authority on card games and is often referred to as the "Father of Whist." Although he did not invent the game, with the publication of his systematized book of rules and procedures, the game became widely popular, especially among the English aristocracy. He also published rules on backgammon, brag, quadrille, piquet, and chess. Almost nothing is known of Hoyle's life before 1741. It has been speculated that he was from Yorkshire and later owned land in Dublin, but scholars agree that the historical records are most likely referring to another Edmond Hoyle. It is commonly believed that he was a lawyer. In 1741 he was residing in Queen Square, London, where he earned at least part of his income by giving lessons on the card game whist. In need of a standard book of rules to assist his students, he wrote A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist. When the manuscript handbook was well received by his students, he was encouraged to publish it. A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist The book was entered at Stationers' Hall on November 17, 1742, with Hoyle as the sole owner of the copyright. The book sold for one guinea and became a popular success, despite the fact that numerous pirated versions quickly appeared on the market. Reprinted in 14 successive editions along with numerous revised editions published after Hoyle's death, A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist ultimately became one of the best selling books of the eighteenth century. The Game of Whist Whist, on which the modern card game bridge is based, is played with a full deck of 52 cards by two sets of partners. The object is to take tricks, or earn points, by playing the highest-ranking card in each round. To begin, all cards are dealt out around the table, one card at a time laid face down, with each player ultimately holding 13 cards. The last card, which belongs to the dealer, is dealt face up and determines the trump suit of hearts, diamonds, spades, or clubs for that hand. The player on the dealer's left begins the play by laying a card on the table face up. Other players then must follow suit. If the same suit is not available in one's hand, a player can lay down a card from the trump suit. Any trump card outranks all cards from other suits. For example, in a round in which spades is trump, if an eight of diamonds is led, followed by a ten of diamonds, a king of diamonds, and a two of spades, the trump card, two of spades, wins the round even though it is numerically lower. If more than one player lays down a trump card, the highest trump card takes the trick. Partners earn one point for every trick that they take after the first six. Therefore, with 13 points possible per hand, the highest score per hand is seven. A game is won by being the first partners to earn seven points. As the first book to offer a scientific approach to whist, or any other card game for that matter, A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist provided new insight and strategy on card playing. Along with providing a systematized book of rules for the game, Hoyle introduced laws of probability in determining the correct play. He also was the first to suggest that play can be aided by inferring the remaining cards in a player's hand based on the previously played cards. In other words, with 13 cards in each suit, if for example 10 cards within a suit have already been laid down during a round, a player can make educated predictions regarding where the other three suit cards lie. Including a code of ethics and fair play, Hoyle provided a foundation of ethical play that went almost wholly unchanged for two centuries. Numerous Editions Printed The second edition of A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist, which included several additions, appeared as a pocket-sized book in 1743, selling for two shillings. The third and fourth editions were also published in 1743, with the fourth edition revised to contain the 24 rules of whist that would govern the game until revised once again by Hoyle in his twelfth edition, published in 1760. The fifth, sixth, and seventh editions were published in 1744, 1746, and 1747, respectively. The eighth edition, published in 1748 as Hoyle's Standard Games, offered 13 new cases and included Hoyle's rules for quadrille, piquet, and backgammon. The ninth edition, bearing the title The Accurate Gamester's Companion was also published in 1748. The tenth edition, produced in 1750 and 1755, is identical to the eighth edition. The eleventh edition, published as Mr. Hoyle's Games of Whist, Quadrille, Piquet, Chess, and Backgammon, Complete, is undated. First released in 1760, the twelfth edition was reissued in 1761 with two new cases. Although undated, the thirteenth edition is believed to have been published in 1763, and both the fourteenth and fifteenth editions released in 1770. A French translation, Traite abrege de Jeu de Whist, was first published in 1764. Four years later, a German edition, titled Anweisung zum Whistspiel, was printed. Every edition of an original A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist bore Hoyle's signature. His rules as laid out in his 1760 edition, slightly amended, governed whist until 1864 when they were replaced by a new set of rules adopted by the Arlington and Portland whist clubs in London. British writer and physician Henry Jones became the leading authority on whist during the nineteenth century. Going through numerous revisions, whist eventually evolved into the game of bridge. Other Works Besides the numerous revised editions of A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist, Hoyle published six other rulebooks. His Short Treatise on the Game of Backgammon appeared in three editions (1743, 1745, and 1748). Hoyle's rules and strategies for backgammon remain largely unchanged to this day. His Short Treatise on the Game of Piquet, to which are added some Rules and Observations for playing well at Chess was first published in 1744, with new editions issued in 1746 and 1748. Short Treatise on the Game of Quadrille, to which is added the Laws of the Game was published in 1745. These three titles also appeared in the eighth edition of A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist (1748). In 1751 Hoyle published Short Treatise on the Game of Brag, containing the Laws of the Game; also Calculations, shewing the Odds of winning or losing certain Hands dealt. Hoyle explained how to calculate odds in situations found in piquet, all fours, whist, dice, lotteries, and annuities in An Essay Towards making the Doctrines of Chances Easy to those who understand Vulgar Arithmetick only, To which is added, Some Useful Tables on Annuities for Lives, published in 1754 with a new edition appearing in 1764. Finally, An Essay Towards making the Game of Chess Easily learned By those who know the Moves only, without the Assistance of a Master was published in 1761. "According to Hoyle" Hoyle's books became so popular that all rulebooks for card, table, and board games became known as "Hoyles." The phrase "According to Hoyle" was used to describe the correct rules or procedures in any activity or game. A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist became such a success that it spawned a play in 1743, The Humours of Whist. The skit provided a comical look at Hoyle and his pupils and the downfall of card sharks whose secrets Hoyle exposed. References to Hoyle can also be found in literature, including Fielding's Tom Jones, Alexander Thomson's poem "Whist, "and Lord Byron's Don Juan. His name was widely pirated to signify authority of other writers on games, who often used "Hoyle" in the title of their publication. Even after his death, many misconceptions arose regarding what Hoyle actually wrote. According to Albert A. Ostrow in The Complete Card Player (1945), "Many people believe that Edmond Hoyle himself promulgated most of the card rules attributed to him. Even some writers on cards have fallen into the same error and in taking issue with Hoyle have, for example, learnedly discussed 'his' rules on poker. The fact of the matter is this— Edmond Hoyle never heard of poker. " Even to this day, books of rules for card, table, and board games are published under the name of Hoyle. Even though the games were unknown to Hoyle himself, his name continues to represent the ultimate authority on game rules. Hoyle died in London on August 29, 1769; he was 97 years old. Books British Authors Before 1800: A Biographical Dictionary. edited by Stanley Kunitz and Howard Haycraft, The H. W. Wilson Company, 1952. The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia. Second edition. Edited by David Crystal, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Chambers Biographical Dictionary. Sixth edition. Edited by Melanie Parry, Larousse Kingfisher Chambers, 1997. The Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest Times to 1900. edited by Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, Oxford University Press, 1938. Frey, Richard L., The Official Encyclopedia of Bridge. New, Revised and Expanded Edition. Crown Publishing, Inc. 1971. The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. Volume 2: 1660-1800. edited by George Watson, Cambridge University Press, 1971. The New Century Handbook of English Literature. edited by Clarence L. Barnhart, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1956. Ostrow, Albert A., The Complete Card Player. Whittlesey House, 1945. The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Fourth edition. Edited by Sir Paul Harvey, Revised by Dorothy Eagle. Clarendon Press, 1967. Online	Edmond Hoyle
Under what pen name does novelist David Cornwell write?	1887 Standard HOYLE / Playing Cards Gambling Poker Wild West Gaming Chess + \| Schilb Antiquarian Search any author, title, or keyword » Store » 1887 Standard HOYLE / Playing Cards Gambling Poker Wild West Gaming Chess + 1887 Standard HOYLE / Playing Cards Gambling Poker Wild West Gaming Chess + 1887 Standard HOYLE / Playing Cards Gambling Poker Wild West Gaming Chess + Edmond Hoyle (1672 – August 29, 1769) was a writer best known for his works on the rules and play of card games. The phrase “according to Hoyle” came into the language as a reflection of his generally-perceived authority on the subject; since that time, use of the phrase has expanded into general use in situations in which a speaker wishes to indicate an appeal to a putative authority. Author: Edmond Hoyle Title: The Standard Hoyle. A complete guide and reliable authority upon all games of chance or skill now played in the United States, whether of native origin or foreign introduction. Published: New York, Excelsior Publishing House 1887 1st ed thus Wear: wear as seen in photos Binding: tight and secure binding Pages: complete with all 532 pages; plus indexes, prefaces, and such Publisher: New York, Excelsior Publishing House 1887 1st ed Size: ~7.5in X 5.25in Very Fast. Very Safe. Shipping Worldwide. Satisfaction Guarantee: Customer satisfaction is our first priority. Notify us within 7 days of receiving your item and we will offer a full refund guarantee without reservation Edmond Hoyle (1672 – August 29, 1769[1]) was a writer best known for his works on the rules and play of card games. The phrase “according to Hoyle” came into the language as a reflection of his generally-perceived authority on the subject;[1] since that time, use of the phrase has expanded into general use in situations in which a speaker wishes to indicate an appeal to a putative authority. Contents 2.1 Superseded by new rules 3 Other published works Early life undocumented Little is known about Hoyle’s life; he is primarily known through his books. Much of what is written about him is untrue or exaggerated.[2] The suggestion that he trained at the bar seems unfounded.[3] Treatise on whist By 1741, Hoyle began to tutor members of high society at the game of whist, selling his students a copy of his manuscript notes.[4] Hoyle expanded the manuscript and published A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist in 1742, selling it for the high price of one guinea.[5] When the book quickly sold out, rather than publish a new edition, Hoyle sold the rights to Whist to bookseller Francis Cogan for 100 guineas, an enormous sum for a small pamphlet.[5] Before Cogan was able to publish a second edition, two printers pirated the work, giving the author as “A Gentleman” rather than Hoyle. The printers disguised their identities by publishing under false names, one as Webster,[6] the other as Webb.[7] Cogan published second[8] and third[9] editions of Whist and two months later, obtained an injunction against the pirates which he announced in a fourth edition (all 1743).[10] To distinguish the genuine editions from the piracies, Cogan paid Hoyle tuppence per copy to autograph the genuine works. Ironically, the piracies were profitable to Hoyle, though a disaster for Cogan who was forced to lower the price of the book to match the pirates and to pay for Hoyle’s signature.[5] Superseded by new rules The laws of whist published in A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist were regarded as authoritative until 1864,[1] after which time it was superseded by the new rules written by John Loraine Baldwin and adopted by the Arlington and Portland clubs. Other published works Cogan published other works by Hoyle: A Short Treatise on the Game of Backgammon (1743),[11] the curious[12] An Artificial Memory for Whist, (1744)[13] and more short treatises on the games of piquet and chess (1744)[14] and quadrille (1744).[15] Cogan became bankrupt in 1745 and sold the Hoyle copyright to Thomas Osborne, who published Hoyle with much more success.[5] Hoyle wrote a treatise on the game of brag (1751),[16] a book on probability theory (1754),[17] and one on chess (1761).[18] Over time, Hoyle’s work pushed off the market Charles Cotton’s aging The Compleat Gamester, which had been considered the “standard” English-language reference work on the playing of games – especially gambling games – since its publication in 1674.[19] Collected edition In 1748, Osborne stopped publishing the individual treatises, but instead sold a collected edition under the title Mr. Hoyle’s Treatises of Whist, Quadrille, Piquet, Chess and Back-Gammon. The Whist treatise was described as the “eighth” edition.[20] The “fourteenth” edition (1765) was the last published during Hoyle’s lifetime.[21] “Fifteenth”[22] and “sixteenth”[23] editions appeared after his death with the autograph reproduced by woodblock print. Reprints The books were frequently reprinted in Ireland, something that was permitted as the English copyright statute, the Statute of Anne, did not extend to Ireland. One edition was printed in Edinburgh.[24][25] Hoyle’s writing was translated into many continental languages; first Portuguese (1753), then German (1754), French (1761), Italian (1768), Russian (1769) and Dutch (1790).[26] Modern usage Many modern card game rule books contain the word “Hoyle” in the title, but the moniker does not mean that the works are derivative of Hoyle’s (in much the same way that many modern dictionaries contain “Webster” in their titles without necessarily relating to the work of Noah Webster). Because of his contributions to gaming, he was a charter inductee into the Poker Hall of Fame in 1979 – even though he died before poker was invented.[27] See also Hoyle Casino, computer casino simulation game, named for Edmond Hoyle Hoyle Card Games, a computer game, also named for Edmond Hoyle. Order 1887 Standard HOYLE / Playing Cards Gambling Poker Wild West Gaming Chess + Order Book @ $140.00	i don't know
Who is the medical examiner central to the crime novels of Patricia Cornwell?	If you like books by Patricia Cornwell \| Librarypoint If you like books by Patricia Cornwell By: Kara Rockwell This readalike is in response to a customer's book-match request. If you would like personalized reading recommendations, fill out the book-match form and a librarian will email suggested titles to you. Available for adults, teens, and kids. You can browse the book matches here . Patricia Cornwell writes crime novels and is known especially for her series featuring Dr. Kay Scarpetta, a medical examiner. Her book Postmortem , which is the first novel to feature Dr. Scarpetta, won a slew of awards, including the Edgar Award and the Macavity Award for best first mystery. If you like books by Patricia Cornwell, here are some other books and authors that you might like: The Alibi Man by Tami Hoag Former narcotics detective Elena Estes just wants to be left alone, but when a colleague is murdered, her hunt for the killer leads her straight back to the smarmy Palm Beach crowd she abandoned long ago. (Library Journal) Devil Bones by Kathy Reichs In a house under renovation in Charlotte, North Carolina, a plumber discovers a forgotten cellar, and some rather grisly remains—the severed head of a teenage girl, several decapitated chickens, and a couple of cauldrons containing beads, feathers, bones, and other relics of religious ceremonies. In a river not far away, an adolescent boy's torso carved with a pentagram, is found. Are these crimes the work of Satanists and devil worshipers? (catalog summary) The Devil's Bones by Jefferson Bass Investigating a suspicious death in which the victim's remains were found in a burned car, forensic anthropologist Bill Brockton engages in an unorthodox experiment to better understand the case. (catalog summary) Fractured by Karin Slaughter Detective Will Trent of the Georgia Bureau of Investigation takes on the case of a girl who has been savagely murdered in one of Atlanta's most desirable neighborhoods. (catalog summary) The Keepsake by Tess Gerritsen When a perfectly preserved "mummy" is discovered in the dusty basement of Boston's Crispin Museum and an archaeologist turns up missing, medical examiner Maura Isles and Boston homicide detective Jane Rizzoli have precious little time to derail the Archaeology Killer before he adds another chilling piece to his monstrous collection. (catalog summary) The Killing Hour by Lisa Gardner Rookie FBI agent Kimberly Quincy is after a serial killer who always claims two victims, leaving clues with the first corpse that will lead to the second-whose slow, torturous death could be prevented. (Library Journal) Nine by Jan Burke LAPD homicide detective Alex Hartwick finds himself at odds with the feds when criminals on the FBI's Most Wanted list start dropping like flies in his jurisdiction. (Library Journal) Sleepyhead by Mark Billingham In a variation on the serial killer theme, newcomer Billingham's villain doesn't want to actually kill his victims (those who do die he considers mistakes ) so much as induce massive strokes that will leave them cerebrally conscious while otherwise in a completely comatose state known as locked-in syndrome. (catalog summary)	Kay Scarpetta
What is the nautical term for a staircase between two decks on a ship?	Best-selling crime novelist Patricia Cornwell is born - Jun 09, 1956 - HISTORY.com Best-selling crime novelist Patricia Cornwell is born Share this: Best-selling crime novelist Patricia Cornwell is born Author Best-selling crime novelist Patricia Cornwell is born URL Publisher A+E Networks On this day in 1956, one of the world’s top-selling crime novelists, Patricia Cornwell, best known for her forensic pathologist character Dr. Kay Scarpetta, is born in Miami, Florida. Cornwell, whose maiden name is Daniels, had a difficult childhood: When she was 5, her father, a lawyer, left the family. Afterward, Cornwell moved with her mother and two brothers to Montreat, North Carolina. There, her mother was hospitalized for mental illness, forcing Cornwell and her brothers to spend time in foster care. Cornwell graduated from Davidson College in 1979, married her college professor and became a reporter for the Charlotte Observer, eventually covering the police beat. She went on to work for six years as a technical writer and computer analyst in the chief medical examiner’s office in Richmond, Virginia. After multiple rejections from publishers, Cornwell’s first novel, “Postmortem,” was released in 1990. The book features Dr. Kay Scarpetta, the brainy, murder-solving medical examiner. “Postmortem” was a hit, and Cornwell has since penned 18 other top sellers starring Scarpetta. Known for meticulous research and grisly detail in her writing, Cornwell attends autopsies and interviews forensic scientists and law-enforcement professionals to keep up with the latest procedures and technology. She’s also learned to pilot helicopters, shoot guns and scuba dive because her characters do. Her books have been credited with helping to inspire such TV shows as “CSI: Crime Scene Investigation” and “Cold Case.” In addition to the Scarpetta series, Cornwell has written novels featuring journalist-turned-cop Andy Brazil and state police investigator Win Garano, along with several cookbooks and a children’s book. In 2002, the blockbuster author published “Portrait of a Killer: Jack the Ripper—Case Closed,” based on her own intensive investigation into the notorious, never-captured 19th century London serial killer, who she believes was the British artist Walter Sickert. Cornwell’s personal life has occasionally read like the pages of a crime thriller. In 1992, the writer, then divorced, had a brief affair with married FBI agent Margo Bennett. Four years later, Bennett’s estranged husband Eugene, an ex-FBI agent who blamed the affair for the breakup of his marriage, launched an (ultimately unsuccessful) plot to murder his wife. Today, Cornwell, whose crime fiction has earned her an estimated $100 million, travels with bodyguards and is known for her philanthropy, donating millions to forensic research and animal rescue, among other causes. Related Videos	i don't know
Which long nonsense poem is subtitled: An Agony in 8 Fits?	The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony, in Eight Fits (FREE Audiobook Included!) eBook by Lewis Carroll - 1230000094379 \| Kobo Show less The Hunting of the Snark (An Agony in 8 Fits) is usually thought of as a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) in 1874, when he was 42 years old. It describes "with infinite humour the impossible voyage of an improbable crew to find an inconceivable creature". The poem borrows occasionally from Carroll's short poem "Jabberwocky" in Through the Looking-Glass (especially the poem's creatures and portmanteau words), but it is a stand-alone work, first published in 1876 by Macmillan. The illustrations were by Henry Holiday. In common with other Carroll works, the meaning of his poems has been queried and analysed in depth. One of the most comprehensive gatherings of information about the poem and its meaning is The Annotated Snark by Martin Gardner. The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony, in Eight Fits (Over 10 Illustrations) (FREE Audiobook Included!) , this ebook have -Included TOC for Reader.	The Hunting of the Snark
Which eponymous operatic heroine leaps to her death from Rome’s Castel Sant’Angelo?	SAYLOR, M.: Hunting of the Snark (The) / New Music for Vintage Silent Film Comedies (Cantate Chamber Singers, Snark Pit-band, Snark Ensemble, Becker) Maurice Saylor (b. 1957) The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony in Eight Fits New Music for Vintage Silent Film Comedies Lewis Carroll wrote his epic nonsense poem The Hunting of the Snark in 1874. The verse tale, subtitled An Agony in Eight Fits, tells the story of ten characters whose names all inexplicably begin with the letter “B”. There is The Bellman who hires the crew in his quest for the Snark, The Baker (who has forgotten his name), The Butcher, and The Beaver, as well as The Boots, The Bonnet Maker, The Barrister, The Banker, The Billiard-Marker, and The Broker. In an 1887 article, Carroll wrote about his conception of the Snark: “I was walking on a hill-side, alone, one bright summer day, when suddenly there came into my head one line of verse—one solitary line—‘For the Snark was a Boojum, you see.’ I knew not what it meant, then: I know not what it means now; but I wrote it down: and, some time afterwards, the rest of the stanza occurred to me, that being its last line: and so by degrees, at odd moments during the next year or two, the rest of the poem pieced itself together, that being its last stanza. And since then, periodically, I have received courteous letters from strangers, begging to know whether ‘The Hunting of the Snark’ is an allegory, or contains some hidden moral, or is a political satire: and for all such questions I have but one answer, ‘I don’t know!’” Carroll continued to answer all inquiries in the same way: all he could say was that the Snark was a Boojum and he knew of no other double meanings, symbolism, or intangible ideals. After years of questions, he did concede: “I’m very much afraid I didn’t mean anything but nonsense! Still, you know, words mean more than we mean to express when we use them: so a whole book ought to mean a great deal more than what the writer meant.” A year before his death, he wrote: “To the best of my recollection, I had no other meaning in my mind, when I wrote it: but people have since tried to find the meanings in it. The one I like best (which I think is partly my own) is that it may be taken as an allegory for the pursuit of happiness. ” When I suggested a musical setting of this text to Gisèle Becker and the Cantate Chamber Singers, I was offered the use of a standard Mozart-size orchestra. It struck me that a traditional orchestra would be too straight-laced for Jubjubs and Boojums. My notion was to have a sort of pit-band, a Snarkestra, consisting of instruments reviled by society at large and rejected by people of good taste and common sense. The work is scored for five woodwind doublers playing seventeen instruments: two piccolos, E flat clarinet, four B flat clarinets, two bass clarinets, oboe, English horn, bassoon, two B flat soprano saxophones, B flat tenor saxophone, E flat baritone saxophone, B flat bass saxophone, three percussionists playing orchestral bells, xylophone, marimba (two players), vibraphone, and a battery of traditional instruments as well as the less-standard ones such as brake drum and wash tub. Added to the mix are banjo, harmonica, piano, accordion, and bass accordion, amplified violin, chorus, and children’s chorus. I have evaded suggestions for the inclusion of kazoos and other para-instruments, for my intention was to highlight well-established instruments…well-established outside the standard concert ensemble. The instrumentation plays an important rôle in characterization. Instruments that represent the menace and danger of the Snark/Boojum are instruments exotic to the concert hall (also representing danger to the proper world of classical music): banjo, accordion, harmonica, amplified violin, bass saxophone, washtub, etc. The instrumentation can also color the work in other ways: Fit the Fifth, the Beaver’s Lesson, is accompanied almost entirely by instruments made of wood: marimba, xylophone, violin and clarinets. I chose to have the chorus narrate and represent all the characters instead of having soloists playing the rôles. This practice allowed me to use the original Lewis Carroll text without modification. The chorus at times is also asked to be part of the Snarkestra, employing infrequently-used vocal techniques such as uvular trills. A simple guide to the major themes: The main Snark theme consists of a vacillation between major and minor—which may be thought to represent the fact that, as wonderful as a Snark may be, one may suddenly discover it is a Boojum just as quickly as major can slide to minor. The first two statements of this idea start on the tone “B” so as to keep company with the Bellman, Beaver, Baker, and other “B” characters. The second version of the main theme ends with an augmented 4th, an interval that will be associated with the Boojum. There is a refrain throughout the work: “They sought it with thimbles, they sought it with care; They pursued it with forks and hope; They threatened its life with a railway-share; They charmed it with smiles and soap.” This chorale is in the Locrian mode (a mode based on the 7th scale degree) which has a diminished 5th (which sounds the same as the augmented 4th) in its tonic triad. There is a sea chanty which represents the characters on the ship that have set out to help in hunting the Snark. The Baker, being an awkward sort, has his text clumsily set to the music. Being the odd man out of the crew, he has a version of the sea chanty inverted and placed in a clumsy, awkward mode. As the story progresses, the Baker’s version of the tune is turned upside down time and time again—each time getting narrower in range until the tune, as does the Baker, “softly and suddenly vanishes away”—fading off on a “B.” The opening of the work represents the excitement, the wild adventure, the rapture of hunting the Snark, but also the horrors and potential danger—because sometimes Snarks are Boojums. So, I warn you now, the first couple of minutes are a bumpy ride. New Music for Vintage Silent Film Comedies These three silent film scores were written for the films of Charley Chase (Born Charles Joseph Parrott in 1893 in Baltimore, Md.; died in 1940). Chase was an American comedian, actor, screenwriter and film director. He is best known for his work in Hal Roach short film comedies, most notably for supervising the first entries in the Our Gang (Little Rascals) series, as well as for directing several films starring Lloyd Hamilton. Chase, unlike most of his comic peers, used no special costume or exaggerated makeup. His comic persona was that of a dapper, agreeable young man—everyday husband, boyfriend, businessman—in a wild jazz age, always unwittingly finding himself in the worst of embarrassing situations. In his later years, Chase worked at Columbia Pictures, starring in his own series of two-reel comedies as well as producing and directing comedies including those of The Three Stooges. The three scores accompany films from 1924 that are part of Chase’s Jimmy Jump series, which some have suggested as the forerunner to the TV sitcom. In Stolen Goods, Jimmy helps cure a lovely young kleptomaniac who steals his heart, as well as everything else in sight. Its mood is comparatively mellow for slapstick comedy, and the score is a reflection of that laid-back nature. Publicity Pays has thespian wannabe Mrs. Jimmy Jump sign a contract to become the next Greta Garbo. Acting like a great actress is beyond her talents, and her expensive animal props threaten to have the landlord throw them out of their happy home. The score is a theme and variations on a well-known children’s tune as aural representation of the star of the show: a monkey. In Too Many Mammas, Jimmy gets into hot water when he tries to cover for his philandering boss, losing his own girl in the process. The hot jazz style of the music reflects the speakeasy where most of the action takes place. Maurice Saylor	i don't know
In which modern-day country is Bizet’s “The Pearl Fishers” set?	About Les Pêcheurs de Perles \| Opera \| GP at the Met About the Opera Premiere date: May 12, 2016 \| 0:00:30 The Met’s acclaimed new production of Bizet’s The Pearl Fishers (Les Pêcheurs de Perles), a rarity by the composer of Carmen that has not been staged by the company in a century, comes to THIRTEEN’S Great Performances at the Met for the first time Sunday, May 22 at 12 p.m. on PBS(Check local listings). In New York, THIRTEEN will air the opera on Sunday, May 29 at 12:30 p.m. Conducted by Gianandrea Noseda and directed by Penny Woolcock, Bizet’s sweeping romance tells the story of a beautiful Hindu priestess pursued by rival pearl divers competing for her hand. Diana Damrau leads the cast as the priestess Leïla, opposite Matthew Polenzani as Nadir, Mariusz Kwiecien as Zurga, and Nicolas Testé as the high priest Nourabad. Original Premiere The 1863 opera premiered at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris, 1863. Critics at the time were not especially enthused but the audience was swept up in the ravishing score tinged with the allure of a mythical South Asian setting. The drama itself remains within the conventional standards of the day, with a love triangle complicated by the true friendship of the two men involved in it. Opera Setting The opera was originally set in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) in non-historic “ancient times,” signifying an exotic land with a mythical and romantic aura. The Met’s new production places the action in an unspecified locale in the Far East. About the Score In addition to its striking lyrical expression, the score is filled with surprising and delightful features throughout. The important role of the chorus is evident from the opening number, with its extraordinarily beautiful middle section for men’s voices. The orchestral writing is equally sophisticated, especially in the subtle touches of instrumentation. But it is the remarkable solos and ensembles that have made the opera impossible to forget, chief among them the celebrated duet for the tenor and baritone, “Au fond du temple saint.” Its abundant melody miraculously encompasses a profusion of diverse sentiment, from religious ecstasy to exalted friendship to sadness and loss. Les Pêcheurs de Perles at the Met Before the current 2015–16 season, The Pearl Fishers had only received four performances at the Met. Three of them, in 1916, starred Enrico Caruso and Giuseppe De Luca. “When word gets around,” The New York Times predicted in its review earlier this season, “the sleeper hit of the Metropolitan Opera season could be the new production of Bizet’s Les Pêcheurs de Perles (The Pearl Fishers)… The British director and filmmaker Penny Woolcock, working with a dream cast… delivers in this sensitive and insightful production. Ms. Damrau brings brilliant coloratura agility, radiant sound and charisma galore to the role of Leila. Mr. Kwiecien is an ideal Zurga. Singing with burnished sound and lyrical richness… Mr. Polenzani sang this haunting aria of remembrance with wondrous lyrical tenderness while conveying the music’s gently swaying gait.” New York Magazine raved, “Gianandrea Noseda leads a gilded performance of the tremblingly French score… Matthew Polenzani, a tenor of enormous gifts and versatility, commands a legato so smooth it’s practically liquid. Mariusz Kwiecien brings a muscular authority and tough-guy tenderness to Zurga, the potentate with a heart of gold. As Leila, Diana Damrau spends a good deal of time behind a veil, but there’s nothing retiring about the way she unleashes her voice, which gyres about the stage in a swirl of golden notes.” Soprano Patricia Racette hosts the broadcast. Production Credits and Funders Print The Pearl Fishers was originally seen live in movie theaters on January 16 as part of the groundbreaking The Met: Live in HD series, which transmits live performances to more than 2,000 movie theaters and performing arts centers in over 70 countries around the world. The Live in HD series has reached a record-breaking 19 million viewers since its inception in 2006. Great Performances at the Met is a presentation of THIRTEEN Productions LLC for WNET, one of America’s most prolific and respected public media providers. Corporate support for Great Performances at the Met is provided by Toll Brothers, America’s luxury home builder®. Major funding for the Met Opera presentation is provided by the National Endowment for the Arts. This Great Performances presentation is funded by the Irene Diamond Fund, the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Arts Fund, The Philip and Janice Levin Foundation, The Agnes Varis Trust, and public television viewers. For the Met, Matthew Diamond directs the telecast. Jay David Saks is Music Producer. Mia Bongiovanni and Elena Park are Supervising Producers, and Louisa Briccetti and Victoria Warivonchik are Producers. Peter Gelb is Executive Producer. For Great Performances, Bill O’Donnell is Series Producer; David Horn is Executive Producer. More from GP at the Met: The Pearl Fishers (Pêcheurs de Perles) (4)	Sri Lanka
Of what breed was Schnorbitz, with whom Bernie Winters appeared in his later career?	Song of the Week 36: Au Fond du Temple Saint (Bizet) – Björling/Merrill, Byrne/ Wainwright – The Song of the Week Blog February 5, 2013 Song of the Week 36: Au Fond du Temple Saint (Bizet) – Björling/Merrill, Byrne/ Wainwright You might think that bromance is a relatively recent phenomenon, but long before The Odd Couple, Butch Cassidy & the Sundance Kid, Midnight Cowboy, and Star Trek, there was The Temple Duet from The Pearl Fishers (Les pêcheurs de perles) by Georges Bizet. Not long after the French, those innovators in the field of amour, had chanced upon the ménage á trois , these upstanding messieurs had another solution: Singing in harmony together. I wasn´t really aware of the piece until I heard the David Byrne album Grown Backwards, which also features a wonderful take on Verdi´s Un Di Felice, Eterea . Safe to say David´s a fan of opera then. As is his duet partner for Au fond du Temple Saint (In the Depths of the Temple), Rufus Wainwright, who we talked about in Song of the Week 22: Poses . Without further ado, here are the pair of them. They´ve just seen the girl of their dreams, a goddess, and rather than bash each other over the head with clubs caveman style, they have an Épiphanie and decide to stay best friends forever. Bizet wrote the opera The Pearl Fishers when he was just 25, and had yet to establish himself in the Parisian musical world. He was commissioned to write it mainly on the strength of his potential as a former winner of the Prix de Rome. In April 1862, Bizet was in rehearsal for his one act opera La Guzla de l´Emir at the Opéra Comique , when he was approached by Léon Carvalho, manager of the independent Théâtre Lyrique company in Paris. Carvalho had been offered an annual grant of 100,000 francs by the Minister for Fine Arts, Count Walewski on the condition that every year he stage a new three act opera from a recent Prix de Rome winner. He had a high opinion of Bizet´s abilities, so he offered him the libretto of an exotic story by Carré and Eugéne Cormon. Bizet took the opportunity immediately, but because the grant was restricted to composers who had not had any previous work performed commercially, he decided to quickly abandon the rehearsals for La Guzla. The opera has never been performed, and the music has since unfortunately disappeared. Les pêcheurs was first performed in 1863 on an initial run of 18 performances. It was well received by the public, but the critics of the time weren´t all that kind. The critics eventually came around when the music became some of the best loved in all of opera. Although some describe the quality of the music as uneven and in part unoriginal, most now acknowledge it as a work of great promise, where the signs of the composer´s genius for melody and instrumentation were already evident; the seeds of which would later culminate in his masterpiece 10 years later, Carmen . Bizet died suddenly in the opening run of that opera and would never get to see its popularity flourish. More modern commentators recognise him as a composer of brilliance and originality whose premature death at 36 was a major loss to the French Musical Theatre scene. The story for The Pearl Fishers is considered quite silly by some. However, many of his contemporaries such as Hector Berlioz were considerably impressed by the musical prowess on show. The opera is set on a tropical paradise, the island Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) and it is the story of how two men´s vow of eternal friendship is threatened by their love for the same woman. She has her own dilemma, whether to choose secular love or hold true to her sacred oath as a priestess. Sri Lanka is known as The Tear Drop of India, because of it´s location and shape, and also The Pearl of the Indian Ocean, for its natural beauty. The opera was not revived in Bizet´s lifetime, but from 1886 onwards it began to be played regularly in Europe and America. The original score was lost, so performances of the time were based on amended versions, which had made significant departures from the original. Since the 1970s efforts have been made to redo the score to fall more in line with Bizet´s original intentions. One of the most beloved versions (see video below) is that of Swedish tenor Johan Jonatan “Jussi” Björling and American baritone Robert Merrill, but it´s also been tackled superbly by Gigli and De Luca, in Italian by the great Caruso and a host of other opera superstars. Good luck opera surfing if that´s the kind of thing that floats your surfboard. Well, that´s all for this week. Enjoy… I´ll leave you with Rick and Louis from the film Casablanca: Lyric and translation: Tout d’abord, en français ZURGA Dans l’air par la brise attiédi, Les brahmines au front inondé de lumière, Appelaient lentement la foule à la prière! NADIR Au fond du temple saint Paré de fleurs et d’or, Une femme apparaît! Oh oui, jurons de rester amis! Oui, c’est elle! C’est la déesse! En ce jour qui vient nous unir, Et fidèle à ma promesse, Comme un frère je veux te chérir! C’est elle, c’est la déesse Qui vient en ce jour nous unir! Oui, partageons le même sort, Soyons unis jusqu’à la mort! And the translation… It was in the evening! In the air cooled by a breeze, The brahmanes with faces flooded with light, Slowly called the crowd to prayer! NADIR At the back of the holy temple, decorated with flowers and gold, A woman appears!	i don't know
Which TV detective had a pet dog called Jussi in some series?	Wallander (Series) - TV Tropes Ate His Gun : Happens in the Swedish episode The Secret. In the final episode of the Henriksson version, Wallander himself almost does this after his Alzheimer's is exposed, which will end his career, literally loading his pistol and putting it in his mouth. He is however unable to pull the trigger. Aww, Look! They Really Do Love Each Other : Many of the scenes between Wallander and his daughter Linda turn out this way. Although they have the unerring knack of infuriating each other and often argue, they still care very deeply for each other. Big Damn Heroes : Martinsson in the Branagh version of One Step Behind, who follows Kurt to his house, and shoots Åke before he can shoot Linda. Bilingual Bonus : Some of the written Swedish in the British version. For example, when Wallander checks his inbox, viewers are treated to a bunch of annoying emails from Tom Hiddleston 's character Magnus Martinsson, with headlines like "Vem stängde inte av kaffebryggaren?" ("Who left the coffee maker on?") and "Glöm inte möte med Martinsson!" ("Don't forget meeting with Martinsson!"). It's worth pointing out that the Swedish Wallander is fluent in English and uses it on a few occasions. Blood from the Mouth : In Firewall, this is how you can tell that Ella's not going to make it. Indeed she seems to have been shot in the gut. Averted in The Man who smiled, although it would have been fatal without Wallander's prompt intervention. Used at the end of the Swedish episode Blodsband to show that Oskar Ung has been fatally shot. Buffy Speak : Kenneth Branagh's Wallander is really good at muttering half cut off, incomprehensible words when he is distracted. Bury Your Gays : Svedberg in One Step Behind ends being this, killed by one of the men he was involved with, who ended up having been a mass murderer who preyed on happy people. He killed Svedberg because he was too close to discovering his secret. Averted with the others in the novel. Butt Monkey : Wallander can't even go out to eat without the universe abusing him. In one episode, Nyberg forgets his wallet and Kurt's card is out of date, so they come off looking like bums and get yelled at by an angry waitress. He also survives an assassination attempt because he trips over a rug. In the Swedish films starring Krister Henriksson, Officer Svartman is undoubtedly also a Butt Monkey. He gets shot at, beaten by thugs, has something horrendous done to a sensitive part of his body and has his car shot to pieces by mooks. Character Outlives Actor : Johanna Sällström (Linda Wallander) killed herself in 2007 between the first and second seasons of the TV 4 series. Linda was written out of the second season and recast for the third. Cult : Wallander investigates one in Before the Frost. Corrupt Politician : In Sidetracked, a former Minister of Justice is murdered because of his shady past and using his influence to cover up what he had really been up to. Dead Person Conversation : The final scene of The Troubled Man features one between Wallander and his father, who consoles Wallander about his memory loss. Deus Angst Machina : While True Art Is Angsty , the Branagh adaptations could possibly be called "Wallander's Horrible Life". In the novels, Wallander is often generally unsatisfied with his life, with no idea how to improve it. In The Dogs of Riga, he's so fed up with life that he experiences chest pains and nearly quits police work to take up a much less stressful job in security instead. That said, in the novels he does have some happy experiences, especially when he's spending time with Linda or his Latvian girlfriend Baiba. Dirty Communists : Deconstructed. The second volume, The Dogs of Riga, mostly takes place in the then-totalitarian state of Latvia, which was in the process of falling apart in the time frame of the series (it had fallen apart the year before the novel was written, although it wasn't entirely clear what would be happening to the country at that point). It is quite clear that Mankell, while sympathetic to the ideals communism was avowedly intended to serve, strongly detests the Soviet system. Most of the sympathetic characters in the novel at some point criticise the Soviet system for failing to uphold those ideals, and the disparity between incomes of corrupt "public servants" and the rest of the country is a rather notable theme of the book (not to mention the complete lack of any semblance of civil liberties). Disappeared Dad : Erik Westin in Before The Frost, who left his daughter Anna when she was quite young. Unfortunately he turns up again . Driven to Suicide : Happens to Stefan in the Swedish episode The Secret. Håkan von Enke in The Troubled Man. Dysfunctional Family : Wallander's. Let's see: Kurt's estranged from his father and his new wife, can't cope with his father's dementia, and forgets his birthday. His daughter Linda has a hard time dealing with her dad always forgetting their dates and never checking his messages, and has to take his place at his father's side. Kurt's wife left him and he can't stand the thought that she may love someone else. There's genuine affection between him and Linda, despite all this. Even Evil Has Loved Ones : Håkan von Enke in The Troubled Man is a traitor who murders his wife as part of a plan to flee the country, but he genuinely loves both his severely disabled daughter and his granddaughter Klara. One of the reasons he has engineered the coverup is so that Klara's future won't be tainted by association. Even Evil Has Standards : Wilson, Håkan von Enke's American contact in The Troubled Man is fine with undermining the Swedish government in the early 1980s and threatening Wallander's family. But Håkan murdering Louise? That's going too far, and Wilson abandons Håkan to Wallander instead of helping him escape. Linda Wallander as played by Johanna Sällström probably counts as this. Isabelle Melin from season two of the Swedish films. The BBC Magnus is improbably young and improbably pretty. Heroes Love Dogs : In the novels, Wallander spends years yearning for a pet dog and a house by the sea. In The Troubled Man, the final book in the series, he finally gets his wish. The second season of the Swedish series starring Krister Henriksson also shows Wallander with his pet labrador, Jussi, who he clearly adores. A couple of episodes of the Swedish series show him taking care of other people's dogs and loving it. Branagh's Wallander gets his house and dog in the third season. Heroic B.S.O.D. : In The White Lioness Wallander shoots and kills a Russian assassin (and sees another one burn to death) and suffers this as a consequence. It's so bad that for a long time he considers quitting the police force, until he gets drawn in to the events of The Man Who Smiled and changes his mind. Hidden in Plain Sight : Discussed and then played straight in the Branagh version of The Dogs of Riga. Played with again in The Troubled Man, where Håkan's plot requires Wallander to find the book. Homage : In Dogs Of Riga, our protagonist travels to a foreign country, and the first thing he does there is to attend the funeral of an acquaintance involved in mafia, corruption and black marketeering. There, he meets the late acquaintance's girlfriend and a very suspicious-looking local chief of police. I can't believe it's not The Third Man . (Bonus points for taking a stroll with said girlfriend on a rather long stretch of cementery lane.) When he visits South Africa to investigate the murder of a Swedish tourist, he has to deal with a white police officer with some unreformed attitudes . Called van Heerden . Hypercompetent Sidekick : Ebba, the police station receptionist, can find out just about any information Wallander needs on anything, is a top-class organiser and can even track down such obscure items as a tofu pie to feed a vegan witness. In the Henriksson series, she's also shown to have a decent singing voice (her actress, Marianne Mörck, is also a stage and opera singer). I Never Said It Was Poison : How Wallander finally figures out who the main villain is in The Dogs of Riga. Inherently Funny Words : In the first Branagh series, Wallander's doctor tells him that he has an illness called HONK. Even he gets a laugh out of it. Instant Drama, Just Add Tracheotomy : Performed by Branagh's Kurt Wallander with a kitchen knife and a pen. It Works Better with Bullets : in One Step Behind, Wallander pulls this on himself: after the trauma of shooting a dangerous suspect dead, he removes the bullets from his clip. Then the psycho suspect takes his daughter Linda hostage at gunpoint. Janitor Impersonation Infiltration : Happens in the Mastermind film in the first season of the Swedish films. The Big Bad does it to keep tabs on the investigation and gather information on how he can further harm Wallander and Martinsson. Make It Look Like an Accident : in The Man Who Smiled, the father of a friend of Wallander's is killed in this manner after he discovers too much about his employer's involvement in organ trafficking. The Mafiya : They are smuggling drugs from Lativa to Sweden in the Branagh adaptation of The Dogs of Riga. Norse by Norsewest : Averted in the Branagh version — even the Fair Cop has black hair. Though Magnus, Linda and Wallander all have light hair and eyes, brunettes abound. The Swedish productions avert this, of course, being... Swedish productions. Self-Immolation : at the beginning of Sidetracked a teenage girl does this in the middle of a field, apparently out of fear of Wallander. Later it's discovered that she wanted to die because she had been trafficked into Sweden and was being forced to work as a prostitute. A cultist also does this in the Branagh adaptation of Before the Frost. Serial-Killer Killer : A rare female example in The Fifth Woman. Sounding It Out : Wallander reads out an email that we see written in Swedish in English for the audience's benefit Translation Convention : The English-language Branagh version anglicized several place names, for instance, Ystad's pronunciation is altered (from "ee-stad" to "eah-stad"). Wallander's name is pronounced "Wall-and-er", while the Swedish pronunciation is "Val-and-air". One notable case in Firewall in which the on-screen status data of a computer specialist is in English, but it's entirely plausible for someone in a country where English is a second language of most of the population to do that. Combined with Swedish not always being a good option when it comes to computer programs (due to bad or nonexistent translations), it might not have been this trope, but exactly what it looked like: English. Tender Tears : Count it up in the Branagh adaptation, and Wallander cries in literally four out of the six episodes that have been produced. There's a borderline case of shining eyes in 2x01, which could make it five out of six. But it's because he's so empathetic; he almost never cries for himself. In the novels Wallander doesn't cry as often, but in Before The Frost Linda notes the tears in his eyes when he hears about the death of an old friend. In The White Lioness Wallander is shown to be extremely empathetic towards those people suffering through no fault of their own, several times getting a lump in his throat as he deals with a murder victim and her family. In the Swedish episode The Secret Wallander breaks down and cries when he realises that Stefan had committed suicide because he had been abused as a child and that he could have helped, but chose not to listen to him. Title Drop : An unusual visual title drop with some hostile, barking police dogs in the Branagh adaptation of The Dogs of Riga. Trauma Conga Line : Sometimes it seems that if Wallander ever felt real happiness, the world would probably end or something. The novel The White Lioness has a Trauma Conga Line that leads to Wallander's Heroic B.S.O.D. and almost causes him to quit the force. Truth in Television : The controversy surrounding the submarines in The Troubled Man is based on actual events. Vomiting Cop : In the Swedish series, Isabelle vomits at a gruesome murder scene made worse by the oppressive heat wave. She blames it on the stench.	Kurt Wallander
Which Welsh town’s Esplanade Hotel was for 75 years The Barbarians’ headquarters?	Wallander (Series) - TV Tropes Ate His Gun : Happens in the Swedish episode The Secret. In the final episode of the Henriksson version, Wallander himself almost does this after his Alzheimer's is exposed, which will end his career, literally loading his pistol and putting it in his mouth. He is however unable to pull the trigger. Aww, Look! They Really Do Love Each Other : Many of the scenes between Wallander and his daughter Linda turn out this way. Although they have the unerring knack of infuriating each other and often argue, they still care very deeply for each other. Big Damn Heroes : Martinsson in the Branagh version of One Step Behind, who follows Kurt to his house, and shoots Åke before he can shoot Linda. Bilingual Bonus : Some of the written Swedish in the British version. For example, when Wallander checks his inbox, viewers are treated to a bunch of annoying emails from Tom Hiddleston 's character Magnus Martinsson, with headlines like "Vem stängde inte av kaffebryggaren?" ("Who left the coffee maker on?") and "Glöm inte möte med Martinsson!" ("Don't forget meeting with Martinsson!"). It's worth pointing out that the Swedish Wallander is fluent in English and uses it on a few occasions. Blood from the Mouth : In Firewall, this is how you can tell that Ella's not going to make it. Indeed she seems to have been shot in the gut. Averted in The Man who smiled, although it would have been fatal without Wallander's prompt intervention. Used at the end of the Swedish episode Blodsband to show that Oskar Ung has been fatally shot. Buffy Speak : Kenneth Branagh's Wallander is really good at muttering half cut off, incomprehensible words when he is distracted. Bury Your Gays : Svedberg in One Step Behind ends being this, killed by one of the men he was involved with, who ended up having been a mass murderer who preyed on happy people. He killed Svedberg because he was too close to discovering his secret. Averted with the others in the novel. Butt Monkey : Wallander can't even go out to eat without the universe abusing him. In one episode, Nyberg forgets his wallet and Kurt's card is out of date, so they come off looking like bums and get yelled at by an angry waitress. He also survives an assassination attempt because he trips over a rug. In the Swedish films starring Krister Henriksson, Officer Svartman is undoubtedly also a Butt Monkey. He gets shot at, beaten by thugs, has something horrendous done to a sensitive part of his body and has his car shot to pieces by mooks. Character Outlives Actor : Johanna Sällström (Linda Wallander) killed herself in 2007 between the first and second seasons of the TV 4 series. Linda was written out of the second season and recast for the third. Cult : Wallander investigates one in Before the Frost. Corrupt Politician : In Sidetracked, a former Minister of Justice is murdered because of his shady past and using his influence to cover up what he had really been up to. Dead Person Conversation : The final scene of The Troubled Man features one between Wallander and his father, who consoles Wallander about his memory loss. Deus Angst Machina : While True Art Is Angsty , the Branagh adaptations could possibly be called "Wallander's Horrible Life". In the novels, Wallander is often generally unsatisfied with his life, with no idea how to improve it. In The Dogs of Riga, he's so fed up with life that he experiences chest pains and nearly quits police work to take up a much less stressful job in security instead. That said, in the novels he does have some happy experiences, especially when he's spending time with Linda or his Latvian girlfriend Baiba. Dirty Communists : Deconstructed. The second volume, The Dogs of Riga, mostly takes place in the then-totalitarian state of Latvia, which was in the process of falling apart in the time frame of the series (it had fallen apart the year before the novel was written, although it wasn't entirely clear what would be happening to the country at that point). It is quite clear that Mankell, while sympathetic to the ideals communism was avowedly intended to serve, strongly detests the Soviet system. Most of the sympathetic characters in the novel at some point criticise the Soviet system for failing to uphold those ideals, and the disparity between incomes of corrupt "public servants" and the rest of the country is a rather notable theme of the book (not to mention the complete lack of any semblance of civil liberties). Disappeared Dad : Erik Westin in Before The Frost, who left his daughter Anna when she was quite young. Unfortunately he turns up again . Driven to Suicide : Happens to Stefan in the Swedish episode The Secret. Håkan von Enke in The Troubled Man. Dysfunctional Family : Wallander's. Let's see: Kurt's estranged from his father and his new wife, can't cope with his father's dementia, and forgets his birthday. His daughter Linda has a hard time dealing with her dad always forgetting their dates and never checking his messages, and has to take his place at his father's side. Kurt's wife left him and he can't stand the thought that she may love someone else. There's genuine affection between him and Linda, despite all this. Even Evil Has Loved Ones : Håkan von Enke in The Troubled Man is a traitor who murders his wife as part of a plan to flee the country, but he genuinely loves both his severely disabled daughter and his granddaughter Klara. One of the reasons he has engineered the coverup is so that Klara's future won't be tainted by association. Even Evil Has Standards : Wilson, Håkan von Enke's American contact in The Troubled Man is fine with undermining the Swedish government in the early 1980s and threatening Wallander's family. But Håkan murdering Louise? That's going too far, and Wilson abandons Håkan to Wallander instead of helping him escape. Linda Wallander as played by Johanna Sällström probably counts as this. Isabelle Melin from season two of the Swedish films. The BBC Magnus is improbably young and improbably pretty. Heroes Love Dogs : In the novels, Wallander spends years yearning for a pet dog and a house by the sea. In The Troubled Man, the final book in the series, he finally gets his wish. The second season of the Swedish series starring Krister Henriksson also shows Wallander with his pet labrador, Jussi, who he clearly adores. A couple of episodes of the Swedish series show him taking care of other people's dogs and loving it. Branagh's Wallander gets his house and dog in the third season. Heroic B.S.O.D. : In The White Lioness Wallander shoots and kills a Russian assassin (and sees another one burn to death) and suffers this as a consequence. It's so bad that for a long time he considers quitting the police force, until he gets drawn in to the events of The Man Who Smiled and changes his mind. Hidden in Plain Sight : Discussed and then played straight in the Branagh version of The Dogs of Riga. Played with again in The Troubled Man, where Håkan's plot requires Wallander to find the book. Homage : In Dogs Of Riga, our protagonist travels to a foreign country, and the first thing he does there is to attend the funeral of an acquaintance involved in mafia, corruption and black marketeering. There, he meets the late acquaintance's girlfriend and a very suspicious-looking local chief of police. I can't believe it's not The Third Man . (Bonus points for taking a stroll with said girlfriend on a rather long stretch of cementery lane.) When he visits South Africa to investigate the murder of a Swedish tourist, he has to deal with a white police officer with some unreformed attitudes . Called van Heerden . Hypercompetent Sidekick : Ebba, the police station receptionist, can find out just about any information Wallander needs on anything, is a top-class organiser and can even track down such obscure items as a tofu pie to feed a vegan witness. In the Henriksson series, she's also shown to have a decent singing voice (her actress, Marianne Mörck, is also a stage and opera singer). I Never Said It Was Poison : How Wallander finally figures out who the main villain is in The Dogs of Riga. Inherently Funny Words : In the first Branagh series, Wallander's doctor tells him that he has an illness called HONK. Even he gets a laugh out of it. Instant Drama, Just Add Tracheotomy : Performed by Branagh's Kurt Wallander with a kitchen knife and a pen. It Works Better with Bullets : in One Step Behind, Wallander pulls this on himself: after the trauma of shooting a dangerous suspect dead, he removes the bullets from his clip. Then the psycho suspect takes his daughter Linda hostage at gunpoint. Janitor Impersonation Infiltration : Happens in the Mastermind film in the first season of the Swedish films. The Big Bad does it to keep tabs on the investigation and gather information on how he can further harm Wallander and Martinsson. Make It Look Like an Accident : in The Man Who Smiled, the father of a friend of Wallander's is killed in this manner after he discovers too much about his employer's involvement in organ trafficking. The Mafiya : They are smuggling drugs from Lativa to Sweden in the Branagh adaptation of The Dogs of Riga. Norse by Norsewest : Averted in the Branagh version — even the Fair Cop has black hair. Though Magnus, Linda and Wallander all have light hair and eyes, brunettes abound. The Swedish productions avert this, of course, being... Swedish productions. Self-Immolation : at the beginning of Sidetracked a teenage girl does this in the middle of a field, apparently out of fear of Wallander. Later it's discovered that she wanted to die because she had been trafficked into Sweden and was being forced to work as a prostitute. A cultist also does this in the Branagh adaptation of Before the Frost. Serial-Killer Killer : A rare female example in The Fifth Woman. Sounding It Out : Wallander reads out an email that we see written in Swedish in English for the audience's benefit Translation Convention : The English-language Branagh version anglicized several place names, for instance, Ystad's pronunciation is altered (from "ee-stad" to "eah-stad"). Wallander's name is pronounced "Wall-and-er", while the Swedish pronunciation is "Val-and-air". One notable case in Firewall in which the on-screen status data of a computer specialist is in English, but it's entirely plausible for someone in a country where English is a second language of most of the population to do that. Combined with Swedish not always being a good option when it comes to computer programs (due to bad or nonexistent translations), it might not have been this trope, but exactly what it looked like: English. Tender Tears : Count it up in the Branagh adaptation, and Wallander cries in literally four out of the six episodes that have been produced. There's a borderline case of shining eyes in 2x01, which could make it five out of six. But it's because he's so empathetic; he almost never cries for himself. In the novels Wallander doesn't cry as often, but in Before The Frost Linda notes the tears in his eyes when he hears about the death of an old friend. In The White Lioness Wallander is shown to be extremely empathetic towards those people suffering through no fault of their own, several times getting a lump in his throat as he deals with a murder victim and her family. In the Swedish episode The Secret Wallander breaks down and cries when he realises that Stefan had committed suicide because he had been abused as a child and that he could have helped, but chose not to listen to him. Title Drop : An unusual visual title drop with some hostile, barking police dogs in the Branagh adaptation of The Dogs of Riga. Trauma Conga Line : Sometimes it seems that if Wallander ever felt real happiness, the world would probably end or something. The novel The White Lioness has a Trauma Conga Line that leads to Wallander's Heroic B.S.O.D. and almost causes him to quit the force. Truth in Television : The controversy surrounding the submarines in The Troubled Man is based on actual events. Vomiting Cop : In the Swedish series, Isabelle vomits at a gruesome murder scene made worse by the oppressive heat wave. She blames it on the stench.	i don't know
Which musician played Nikola Tesla in the 2006 film The Prestige?	The Prestige (2006) - IMDb IMDb 17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC NEWS There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON TV ON DISC ALL Two stage magicians engage in competitive one-upmanship in an attempt to create the ultimate stage illusion. Director: a list of 38 titles created 09 Sep 2013 a list of 27 titles created 24 Sep 2013 a list of 36 titles created 24 Dec 2013 a list of 39 titles created 24 Aug 2015 a list of 47 titles created 9 months ago Search for " The Prestige " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 2 Oscars. Another 5 wins & 32 nominations. See more awards » Videos A man juggles searching for his wife's murderer and keeping his short-term memory loss from being an obstacle. Director: Christopher Nolan A thief, who steals corporate secrets through use of dream-sharing technology, is given the inverse task of planting an idea into the mind of a CEO. Director: Christopher Nolan In 1954, a U.S. marshal investigates the disappearance of a murderess who escaped from a hospital for the criminally insane. Director: Martin Scorsese 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8.5/10 X Eight years after the Joker's reign of anarchy, the Dark Knight, with the help of the enigmatic Selina, is forced from his imposed exile to save Gotham City, now on the edge of total annihilation, from the brutal guerrilla terrorist Bane. Director: Christopher Nolan Two detectives, a rookie and a veteran, hunt a serial killer who uses the seven deadly sins as his modus operandi. Director: David Fincher An insomniac office worker, looking for a way to change his life, crosses paths with a devil-may-care soap maker, forming an underground fight club that evolves into something much, much more. Director: David Fincher A team of explorers travel through a wormhole in space in an attempt to ensure humanity's survival. Director: Christopher Nolan With the help of a German bounty hunter, a freed slave sets out to rescue his wife from a brutal Mississippi plantation owner. Director: Quentin Tarantino An undercover cop and a mole in the police attempt to identify each other while infiltrating an Irish gang in South Boston. Director: Martin Scorsese When the menace known as the Joker wreaks havoc and chaos on the people of Gotham, the caped crusader must come to terms with one of the greatest psychological tests of his ability to fight injustice. Director: Christopher Nolan After training with his mentor, Batman begins his fight to free crime-ridden Gotham City from the corruption that Scarecrow and the League of Shadows have cast upon it. Director: Christopher Nolan In Nazi-occupied France during World War II, a plan to assassinate Nazi leaders by a group of Jewish U.S. soldiers coincides with a theatre owner's vengeful plans for the same. Directors: Quentin Tarantino, Eli Roth Stars: Brad Pitt, Diane Kruger, Eli Roth Edit Storyline In the end of the Nineteenth Century, in London, Robert Angier, his beloved wife Julia McCullough and Alfred Borden are friends and assistants of a magician. When Julia accidentally dies during a performance, Robert blames Alfred for her death and they become enemies. Both become famous and rival magicians, sabotaging the performance of the other on the stage. When Alfred performs a successful trick, Robert becomes obsessed trying to disclose the secret of his competitor with tragic consequences. Written by Claudio Carvalho, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Are You Watching Closely? See more » Genres: Rated PG-13 for violence and disturbing images \| See all certifications » Parents Guide: 20 October 2006 (USA) See more » Also Known As: El gran truco See more » Filming Locations: $14,801,808 (USA) (20 October 2006) Gross: Did You Know? Trivia When Hugh Jackman's character arrives in Colorado Springs he is actually arriving at the Darien Ranch in the Western Colorado town of Marble where the scene was filmed. Colorado Springs being in Eastern Colorado. See more » Goofs Borden mentions that a "penny" could be slipped into the barrel of the pistol used for the bullet catch trick. English pennies of this period were substantial and wide, much wider than the barrel of the pistol being used by Borden could accommodate. See more » Quotes (Singapore) – See all my reviews I've said it before, but I'll say it again. Christopher Nolan can do no wrong. Teaming up again with his Batman Begins cast of Christian Bale and Michael Caine, and joined with the Scoop team consisting of X-Men's Wolverinie Hugh Jackman and Scarlett Johansson, the stellar (eye candy) cast already set tongues wagging as to whether they'll be able to live up to the hype of Nolan's long awaited movie directly challenging the other picture about Victorian magicians, The Illusionist. The Prestige is the third act of any magic trick, with the first and second acts being the Pledge and the Turn. And this movie lives up to its namesake to a T. The way the movie plays out, it's like a huge magic trick, with the audience waiting to see how it unfolds, getting the suspicion on how it's done, but yet sitting through it thorough engaged to discover how everything will be revealed and resolved. It tells the story of how two magicians, fellow apprentices turned unfortunate rivals, plod down the slow path of jealous obsession, revenge, and the deliberate attempts to go at lengths to steal each other's ideas, to go one up against the other, a fight in romance, life and the long held passionate drive to discredit each other. There are perfect explanations of the value of secrets, and how secrets can sometimes be used as tools for deceit. What I thought was valuable in the movie was the reinforcement of the notion of how "magic" actually worked. Besides the better understanding of the common body of scientific knowledge, things like having pretty assistants to distract, and having planted staff amongst the audience, somehow made me a sceptic to tricks and illusions, and try harder to spot at which stage had things undergone a sleight of hand. More importantly, it introduced me to the notion and importance of a loyal engineer behind the scenes who designs elaborate contraptions solely for the magician's use, and how having disloyal staff can indeed be detrimental to any leaks of secrets. And Michael Caine took on this engineering role as Cutter, responsible for assisting Rupert Angier (Hugh Jackman) with loyalty and conviction that they could, as a team, beat Christian Bale's Alfred Borden. I thought the cast in general were superb, with Christian Bale leading the charge. Hugh Jackman too showed that he could play a dark character, as the two leads tackled their characters' theme of sacrifice, arrogance, and ultimately redemption, especially for Rupert Angier. I thought he did what he did towards the end was a kind of penance to what happened in the beginning, hoping to kill two birds with a single stone, to exact the sweetest revenge he could possibly muster. What also was intriguing about the two lead characters was that there is no right or wrong, no hero or villain. It's always a shade of grey in what they do, and for Alfred Borden, I felt it's more for survival and the provision for family, which is a strong subplot running through the film. I just have to mention though, that Scarlett Johansson being Esquire's Sexiest Woman Alive, gets to play a flower vase role here as a magician's assistant, though her role as the pawn between the rivals added a little gravitas. The atmosphere was set up great, and so were the costumes and sets. The soundtrack was hauntingly mesmerizing, capturing the look and mood appropriately. Look out too for David Bowie's appearance as a Serbian scientist! I was floored by the deftness of how Nolan weaved and juxtaposed the non linear narrative so flawlessly. While the usual techniques is to use placeholders, or flashback sequences, colours etc, here, time is so fluid, but yet the audience will know precisely which era they're in, without being explicitly told, or working too much of the noodle. You just know, and it's just that feeling of being totally transparent with time. Even though the movie clocked in at slightly more than 2 hours, you don't feel its length at all. At the end of the movie, one quote popped into mind: Misdirection - what the eyes see and the ears hear, the mind believes. Quite apt to describe how things work out during the movie, or to describe in general, Nolan 's films so far. That added richness to lift the movie to a superior plane. Do yourself a favour, if there's one movie you absolutely must watch this week, then Prestige must be your natural choice. It's smart in delivery and slick in presentation. There is none other. P.S. Is it just me, or are notebooks a common feature in Nolan's movies? 541 of 703 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	David Bowie
What is the title of Mandela’s autobiography of his life up to his release from prison?	The Tesla Phenomenon The Tesla Phenomenon getmedia/fe611f7d-a1c2-4f24-a00e-340589ccecbf/The-Tesla-Phenomenon_thumb.jpg.aspx?width=60&height=60&ext=.jpg Nikola Tesla at the age of 37. Photo taken in 1893 by Napoleon Sarony. It was an ignoble end for a self-proclaimed genius. Nikola Tesla died broke and alone (and maybe passionately in love with a pigeon) at the Hotel New Yorker in Manhattan in 1943. The prolific inventor had long been overshadowed by his rival, Thomas Edison, who had gained worldwide fame for the light bulb, the phonograph, and the motion-picture camera. Today, more than 70 years later, there is a revival for the man responsible for alternating current and the induction motor. The name Tesla is now considered very cool. Thomas Edison may have invented movies, and Mickey Rooney played Young Tom Edison while Spencer Tracy starred as Edison, the Man, but there hasn’t been a film about him since 1940. Tesla, on the other hand, is something of a pop-culture phenomenon. In the 2006 Christopher Nolan film, The Prestige, rock musician David Bowie played an eccentric version of Tesla capable of building a teleportation machine. More recently, Jim Jarmusch (director of such films as Mystery Train and Night on Earth) and composer Phil Kline have been collaborating on a “modern baroque opera,” about Tesla in New York. Bernstein Artists, Inc., the New York production company developing the project, describes the opera as “a ‘more or less’ true series of fantasies based on the incredible life of Nikola Tesla …A man has conversations with birds, invents electric ray guns, and makes a ship disappear. The reality presented will be that of dreams or memories. Or myths.” Tesla in his Colorado Springs laboratory with his "Magnifying Transmitter." Image: Wikimedia Commons Tesla’s even a television star. For four seasons of the SyFy series Sanctuary, a fictional version of Tesla has appeared as a part-human, part-vampire scientist. And celebrity industrialist Elon Musk named his high-end electric car company “Tesla.” Would driving an Edison have the same flash appeal? Maybe we should have seen this coming thirty years ago, when a rock band from Sacramento, CA, named itself Tesla. Ten years later, New York City named the intersection of West 40th Street and Avenue of the Americas the Nikola Tesla Corner. And anyone passing through can rent room 3327 at the Hotel New Yorker where Tesla died. There’s a plaque on the wall verifying it. According to rumor, this is where Tesla, in declining physical and mental health, developed a romantic attachment to an all-white female pigeon. For those eager for more things Tesla, there is the Tesla Memorial Society of New York. Its companion website hosts a searchable database of about 4,200 pages of documents relating to Tesla published in his lifetime. It claims to include every major newspaper article on Tesla from 1886 to 1920 and provides a look at the early days of X-ray, remote control, and robotics, and also at Tesla’s efforts to develop wireless electricity. Iwona Rudinska, editor of The Tesla Collection, says that part of Tesla’s appeal and the reason that his memory is making such a comeback today is that, “He is comparable to Steve Jobs in that he was a visionary who changed the world.” That’s true of Edison, too. Tesla, she added, was “not just an innovator, but a scientist whose mind operated within a philosophical framework that made his writings fascinating. He was a man who traveled his own road.” View the current and past issues of Mechanical Engineering. [He] was not just an innovator, but a scientist whose mind operated within a philosophical framework that made his writings fascinating. He was a man who traveled his own road. Iwona Rudinska, The Tesla Collection	i don't know
Paradoxically, which city is the original home of the Harlem Globetrotters?	The Harlem Globetrotters Tickets - All Tour Dates Why Choose etc? Inventory ETC is a resale marketplace, not a box office or a venue. We have tickets to thousands of events all over the world. If you need it, we've got it. Our 200% Guarantee Read guarantee Pricing We sell tickets at market value. Prices may be above or below face value. So look around and you'll be able to find lots of great deals here. Experience ETC has been selling tickets since 2005. We provided tickets to more than a million customers throughout the world. Keep in touch! Useful Info The Globetrotters preliminary formation as a competitive group of athletes evolved from the south side of Chicago in the 1920’s. From the original group of mostly Wendell Phillips High School students and basketball enthusiasts of the surrounding area, they were first introduced as the Chicago Globetrotters. Shortly afterwards the team relocated to what was then the hub of African-American culture, a portion of the northern section of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The team adopted Harlem as their home base, and was then officially referred to as the New York Harlem Globetrotters. An original true contender in the competitive (pre-National Basketball Association) national basketball scene, the Globetrotters participated and won the 1940 World Professional Basketball Tournament. The team became somewhat shadowed by the 1946 birth of the NBA. They began to act creatively, slowly working in comic, juggling, and skilled coordination and handling routines into their performances. It was from there that they moved away from competitive basketball for a sustained period of time and aired more on the side of exhibition and entertainment, featuring a combination of comedy and theater with remarkable athleticism, which has become the backbone of the professional team over their historical path through almost a century of competition and entertainment. The team ventured back to competitive basketball in the early 1990’s but continued to play as an exhibition team as well. They have played well over 20,000 games in over one hundred countries over the course of their career and continue to do so today.	Chicago
Which country’s national flag is the only one which is not rectangular (or square)?	Harlem Globetrotters Icon - and Hall of Famer - Meadowlark Lemon Passes Away at 83. \| Harlem Globetrotters Harlem Globetrotters Icon - and Hall of Famer - Meadowlark Lemon Passes Away at 83. Globetrotters legend captured the hearts and imagination of countless fans worldwide (ATLANTA, Dec. 28, 2015) – Meadowlark Lemon – known to many as the “Clown Prince of Basketball” with the Harlem Globetrotters – passed away yesterday in Scottsdale, Ariz., at the age of 83. Services are pending. During his 24 seasons with the Globetrotters, Lemon played in more than 7,500 consecutive games, performing for popes, kings, queens, presidents and innumerable fans in nearly 100 countries around the world. “For a generation of fans, the name Meadowlark Lemon was synonymous with the Harlem Globetrotters,” said Globetrotters CEO Kurt Schneider. “He was an incredible entertainer and brought happiness and lifelong memories to millions around the world. We have lost a great ambassador of the game.” The Globetrotters are dedicating this, their 90th anniversary tour, to Lemon and fellow Harlem Globetrotters legend and Hall of Famer Marques Haynes, who passed away in May. In April 1952, the Globetrotters received a letter from Lemon requesting a tryout. After serving two years in the Army – where he played a few games with the Trotters on an overseas tour – Lemon was given a tryout by Globetrotters’ owner Abe Saperstein and made the cut. Lemon played his first season with one of the Globetrotter developmental teams, the Kansas City Stars, and played his first season full season with the Globetrotters in 1954. Lemon was part of an extremely popular period in Globetrotters history, appearing on several popular television programs and specials, including “ABC's Wide World of Sports,” “CBS Sports Spectacular,” “The Ed Sullivan Show” and “The Harlem Globetrotters Popcorn Machine.” He also appeared in numerous national TV commercials and was immortalized in animation on “The Harlem Globetrotters” cartoon series and on episodes of “Scooby Doo.” Lemon was enshrined into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2003, three years after receiving the John W. Bunn Award, named in honor of the Hall of Fame's first executive director, recognizing outstanding lifetime contributions to basketball. A native of Wilmington, N.C., Lemon received a Globetrotters “Legends” Ring and had his number 36 jersey retired as part of a 75th anniversary black tie charity fund-raiser on Jan. 5, 2001, at Chicago's Fairmont Hotel. Lemon spent the last several years of his life serving as an ordained minister and motivational speaker. Celebrating 90 iconic years of providing smiles, sportsmanship and service to millions, The Harlem Globetrotters® are a worldwide icon, synonymous with one-of-a-kind family entertainment and great basketball skills. Throughout their history, the Original Harlem Globetrotters have showcased their iconic talents in 122 countries and territories on six continents, often breaking down cultural and societal barriers while providing fans with their first-ever basketball experience. Proud inductees of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, the Globetrotters have entertained hundreds of millions of fans – among them popes, kings, queens, and presidents – over nine thrilling decades. Harlem Globetrotters International, Inc. is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Herschend Enterprises, the largest family-owned themed entertainment company in the U.S.	i don't know
At which school was squash first played?	140 years of squash – World Squash Also available as a pdf document For over 1000 years man has invented and enjoyed a variety of games played by hitting a ball with either a closed fist – as in “fives” or “bunch of fingers” – or with some form of bat or racket. Around the year 1148 the French played “la Paume”, meaning “the palm of the hand”, which developed into Jeu de Paume, Real Tennis, Royal Tennis or, if you play the sport, simply Tennis. At sometime in the early 19th century this obsession with rackets and balls spawned another variety of the sport in the unlikely birthplace of the Fleet Prison in London. The prisoners in “The Fleet”, mainly debtors, took their exercise by hitting a ball against walls, of which there were many, with rackets and so started the game of “Rackets”. Rackets progressed, by some strange route, to Harrow and other select English schools about 1820 and it was from this source that our own sport of Squash, or Squash Rackets, developed. Squash was invented in Harrow school around 1830, when the pupils discovered that a punctured Rackets ball, which “squashed” on impact with the wall, produced a game with a greater variety of shots and required much more effort on the part of the players, who could not simply wait for the ball to bounce back to them as with Rackets. The variant proved popular and in 1864 the first four Squash courts were constructed at the school and Squash was officially founded as a sport in its own right. In those early days Squash, as with all other sports, was without any form of international standardisation and it was inevitable that slight variations in the way it was played, and the equipment used, would occur. Luckily only two main streams of activity followed, one in England with its 21 feet wide courts and “soft” ball and the other in North America, with its 18½ feet wide courts and “hard” ball and with both courts having the same length of 32 feet the universality of Squash was not seriously challenged. We will look at these two branches separately and also at the way in which Squash spread to almost every nation in the world. EARLY DAYS IN ENGLAND The first recorded reference to “Squash”, other than in Harrow school, appeared in 1890 in the English book “The Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes” written by the Duke of Beaufort. Eustace Miles, a world championship at both Tennis and Rackets, wrote the first book on Squash in 1901; stating that the sport was enjoyed by thousands of players in various parts of the world. By that time there were courts in schools and universities in England and some also in private houses. The first professional Squash Championship was held in 1920 in England, when C.R. Read (Queens Club) beat A.W.B. Johnson (RAC Club). In 1923 H.A.L. Rudd, writing in “Baily’s Magazine”, forecast that Rackets would lose many players to Squash with the arrival of the first English Amateur Championships. He was concerned at this prospect as he considered Rackets to be a “manlier” game; Squash afforded a good “sweat” but did not demand the same skill as Rackets, in his opinion. Rudd’s forecast proved to be only too correct as Squash grew rapidly and soon left its parent sport far behind in popularity. As Squash play developed so did its administrative structure. The first discrete national associations to be formed were the United States Squash Racquets Association in 1907 and the Canadian Squash Racquets Association in 1911. In England the game was regulated by a Squash sub-committee of the Tennis and Rackets Association from 1908 until it gained full status as the Squash Rackets Association in 1928. A court built at the Bath Club in London at the beginning of the 20th century was chosen as the model for the standard size of a Squash court, 32 feet by 21 feet or 9.75 metres by 6.4 metres, much smaller that the court for Rackets which measures 60 feet by 30 feet (18.3 metres by 9.1 metres). The British dimensions were proposed in 1911, but not ratified until 1923. The point a rally scoring system to 15 was used universally in Squash until 1926 when the current hand in, hand out system to 9 points was introduced outside North America. The American hardball game, however, continued to be played to 15 points and this system was also adopted for the men’s professional circuit in 1991 in an effort to shorten the matches. In 1933 the great Egyptian player F.D. Amr Bey, won the first of his five British Open Championships, then seen as the World Championships. He was followed in his achievement by M.A. Karim of Egypt who won the title four times from 1947 to 1950 and then the dominating Khan dynasty from Pakistan; Hashim (1951 1958), Roshan (1957), Azam (1959 1962), Mohibullah (1963), Jahangir (1982 1992) and Jansher (1993 1994). The Women’s British Open commenced even earlier than the Men’s, with Miss J.I. Cave winning the title in 1922. Until 1960 the title belonged solely to English players, with Janet Morgan (Shardlow) winning 10 times between 1950 and 1959. She was followed by the most famous woman Squash player ever, the Australian Heather Blundell (McKay), who won the title 16 times and dominated the sport from 1961 to 1979 – remaining undefeated throughout her playing career. Significant and multiple successors were the New Zealander, Susan Devoy, who won the title 8 times between 1984 and 1992, and the Australian, Michelle Martin, who won the title 6 times from 1993 to 1998. Perhaps the players who had the most impact on the development of the sport were Jonah Barrington (Ireland) and Geoff Hunt (Australia). They dominated Squash between the late 1960’s and early 1980’s, capturing the imagination of sportsmen and women everywhere and starting a boom in the sport which raised the number of courts to 46000 worldwide and the number of players to over 15 million by 1994. SQUASH IN AMERICA Squash was certainly being played in Canada before 1882, as it was then that James P Conover, the Headmaster of St. Paul’s School in Concord, New Hampshire, USA, saw it being played in Montreal. He thought it would be a perfect sport for his boys and wrote in the November 1882 edition of the school magazine “It is the universal experience that, for health and for the highest perfection in the game, the average boy or man should play but one rubber a day”. He went on to describe the new Squash complex and its 21 feet wide courts and compare the game favourably with Rackets. “This building will cover an area of fifty feet by sixty, and will have a height of about seventy feet from the ground to the eaves. The ball used in such courts is about the size of a walnut, of rubber, and hollow, with a hole in it to prevent breaking. The so-called “squash-ball court” recommended itself to the club for many reasons; such courts are largely used in English public schools; cost of construction is much less; fewer racquet bats are broken and fewer balls destroyed; fewer heads are cracked and fewer knees and elbows barked; the danger from being hit by the ball (quite an item among young players) is cancelled; and for all intents and purposes the game is the same and produces just as good players.” Although the International, or “soft”, ball was harder and bouncier than it is now it was not ideally suited to the cold courts in Concord where the temperature was often below freezing point during play. A harder rubber ball was developed and found to be more suited to slightly narrower courts, leading to the 18½ feet court, 19 feet court and other experimental widths. It was not until 1924 that the court specifications were codified, at which time it was decided to standardise on the 18½ feet width and a 17 inch ’ tin’ rather than the 19 inch variety used for the soft ball. By 1929 official court plans were being sold by the USSRA and the hardball game was brought into controlled growth. The United States Squash Racquets Association was founded in 1907 and it was in that year also that the first recognised National Championship for Squash in any country was held with John A Miskey of Philadelphia winning the American title, a feat he repeated in 1908 and 1910. After Miskey the National title was won six times by Stanley W Pearson, also from Philadelphia, between 1915 and 1923, with his son Stanley Jr continuing the tradition by taking it in 1948. Other great national players from Philadelphia included Charles M P Brinton (1941/42/46/47) and G Diehl Mateer Jr (1954/56/61) with Henri R Salaun from Boston winning four times between 1995 and 1961. Victor Niederhoffer (New York) dominated the 1970s with 5 victories, Kenton Jernigan (Newport, Rhode Island) recorded three titles in the 1980s and Mexican Hector Barragan won five consecutive titles from 1990 to 1994. In the early days most of the Women’s National titles were won by players from Boston, Philadelphia or Wilmington, interspersed by the occasional English tourist winner, such as Susan Noel (1933), Margot Lumb (1935) and the great Janet Morgan (1949 & 1955). Margaret Howe of Boston won three times between 1929 and 1934, while two Philadelphians, Anne Page and Cecile Bowes, won four times each between 1936 and 1948. Thereafter one player or another dominated the scene for several years; Betty (Howe) Constable from Philadelphia winning four titles (1956-1959), Margaret Varner (Wilmington) four (1960-1963), Gretchen Spruance (Wilmington) five (1973-1978) with the 1980s totally dominated by Alicia McConnell (Brooklyn) with seven titles (1982-1988) and Demer Holleran from Hanover NH taking over in 1989 to remain undefeated for seven years until 1995. With the establishment of a Professional Tour, to which clubs were encouraged to send their teaching pro., a list of world famous names acquired US titles from the mid-fifties – Hashim Khan (4 wins), Mahmoud Kerim (4), Mohibullah Khan (5), Sharif Khan (9), Mark Talbott (5), Jahangir Khan (2) and Jansher Khan (3). Squash played with a hard ball on an 18½ feet wide court was the only form of the sport played in the USA until the mid-1980s, but then growing exposure to the “International” game resulted in some 21 feet wide courts being built and the international, “soft”, ball being used on both the wide and narrow courts. Additionally, the USSRA recognised a 20 feet width as being acceptable for International play, this width being derived from the increasing trend to convert Racquetball courts to Squash use. In an incredibly short period of time in the early 1990s Squash in the USA changed from being overwhelmingly “hardball” to predominantly “softball”, with the only available monitor of the trend, ball sales, indicating that by 1996 around 80% of all play was International. Quite why this change happened, and why so quickly, is still being debated but there is little doubt that a new generation of players is now experiencing the love affair with international squash which happened in all other nations and finding it preferable to the higher racket skills demanded by the hardball game. The North American players were also the first to appreciate the virtues of Doubles Squash, with the hardball being used on a court measuring 45 feet long by 25 feet wide. The first National Doubles Championships were held in 1933 and Hardball Doubles continues to thrive even though the singles version now holds only a minority of play. SQUASH IN AUSTRALIA, GERMANY AND ROUND THE WORLD Squash spread rapidly in its early days and the major growth areas were wherever British forces were stationed. South Africa, India, Pakistan, Egypt, Australia, New Zealand and many other countries learned their Squash from the military and soon adopted it as their own. Probably the most successful Squash nation of all time, Australia, had its Squash seed planted through contact with the military. Although the first Squash courts in Australia were established in 1913, at the Melbourne Club in Victoria, there was no official Squash association until 1934 although top players had been engaged in ad hoc club tournaments since 1927. During 1934 a group of players decided that local administrative pressure and the need to liaise with interstate and overseas organisations demanded an official body and the Squash Rackets Association of Australia (SRAA) was founded, although its main tasks remained locally orientated in the Melbourne area. Even when the first Australian Championships were held, for men in 1931 and women in 1932, they were, in reality, State Championships for Victoria. The SRA of Victoria was formed in 1937. In New South Wales the first court was built just after the first World War, by Mr. Bjelke-Petersen, the uncle of the former Queensland Premier, Sir Joe Bjelke-Petersen. The New South Wales SRA was formed in 1937 and the first pennant competition in Sydney commenced in July 1939. But it was in the 1960s that Squash started to really take off in Australia. Greater commercial development came into the sport and public Squash centres were built all over the country, bringing the game to a much wider audience. This growth brought amazing international success with many of the world’s best players coming from the Australian Squash scene. Heather McKay, Ken Hiscoe, Geoff Hunt, Vicki Cardwell, Steve Bowditch, Rhonda Thorne and, more recently, Michelle and Rodney Martin all become World Squash Champions at senior level and Peter Nance, Chris Robertson, Robyn Lambourne, Sarah Fitz-Gerald and Rachael Grinham achieved the same distinction at junior level. Hunt was World Champion 7 times and won 8 British Open titles while Heather McKay was the most successful Squash player of all time, being undefeated in international competition for an astounding 19 years. In 1976 the headquarters of the SRAA were transferred to Queensland and merged with the Australian Women’s SRA to form the ASRA in 1986, its name being changed to Squash Australia in 1990. In Germany Squash was born twice! Its first cradle was in Berlin in 1930 when the first four courts were built by Dr. Ernst von Siemens, head of the technology department of the electronics company which bore his name, and he started regular company staff activities and even foreign competitions on the “wall-play-halls”. Other courts followed, but during wartime they were all used for a variety of other purposes and it was not until 1978 that the Siemens courts were again used by the “Berlin Wallball Game Club”. The initiative for the rebirth came from Christhof Viscount Vitzthum who had discovered the sport in Australia, heard about the Siemens courts by accident and started to promote Squash and bring the courts back into use. But an even earlier start had been made in Hamburg by a merchant, Henning Harders, who erected three courts following an infection by the Squash bug in Australia and it was a group of Hamburg players who founded the German SRA in 1973 and sent a team to the European Team Championships in Stockholm in 1974. Two years after the German SRA was founded the first National Championships were held and within a few years there were over 6000 courts and 2 million players in the nation – the most spectacular growth of Squash anywhere in the world. German Squash celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary in 1998 by bringing the Women’s World Championships to Stuttgart. Many other nations experienced tremendous growth in Squash, starting slowly in the 1960s and 1970s, but then gaining momentum over the past thirty years. In each country the basic story is the same: a group of enthusiasts starts to play and promotes the game which, because of its inherent qualities of intense exercise coupled with all-absorbing competition, grows rapidly and becomes a major sport in the land. The formula which made Squash grow in its traditional homelands is now being seen again in the Czech Republic, Poland, Malaysia, Japan, Brazil, Colombia, Korea and many new Squash nations, worldwide. PAKISTAN – BIRTHPLACE OF CHAMPIONS Of all the nations where Squash is played, Pakistan is the greatest enigma, producing a succession of amazing Squash champions from a country where there are still less than 500 courts. No history of Squash can be complete without an account of the amazing exploits of the Khan dynasty, starting with Hashim who won the first of his seven British Open titles in 1951 at the age of 35 years. Hashim was the first of a line of great Pakistani Squash Champions – Azam Khan, Mohibullah Khan, Roshan Khan, Aftab Jawaid, Gogi Alauddin, Mo Yasin, Qamar Zaman, Mohibullah Khan Junior, Hiddy Jahan and the two greatest players of the 1980s and 1990s, perhaps of all time, Jahangir Khan and Jansher Khan. Jahangir, now Emeritus President of the World Squash Federation, dominated the sport for 14 years, winning the British Open 10 times and the World Open 8 times and was undefeated for 5½ years. Jansher took over his mantle in 1989 with the first of his World Open titles and began a debate in the sport about which JK was the greatest of them all. NEW MILLENNIUM, NEW ORDER As the 20th century came to an end, the professional Squash scene was still dominated by the older powers – England, Australia and Canada. In the PSA rankings Jonathan Power of Canada and Peter Nicol of England reigned supreme, but a new force was arising as exemplified by Ahmed Barada. Egypt was starting to awaken. On the women’s front the WISPA ranking were still dominated by England, Australia and New Zealand, with Sarah Fitz-Gerald, Carol Owens, Cassie Jackman and Leilani Joyce (Rorani) sharing the top spots. But here again there were signs of new nations emerging. As the new decade progressed a remarkable change happened. On the men’s front Egypt and France came into prominence and by 2009 Amr Shabana, Ramy Ashour and Karim Darwish headed the list for Egypt and Gregory Gaultier and Thierry Lincou waved the French flag. In the women’s rankings a new, huge talent in the shape of Malaysia’s Nicol David took a strong grip on the top of the list and headed Vanessa Atkinson of Netherlands, the Grinham sisters from Australia and Natalie Grainger of USA. The continuing development of Squash into new areas is now showing itself on the professional scene and the ‘local hero’ effect is spreading the sport even more widely. SQUASH AND THE OLYMPIC GAMES Squash made its first bid to be included on the Olympic Programme for the Barcelona Games in 1992 and under the leadership of Presidents Tunku Imran and Susie Simcock continued the campaigns for Atlanta in 1996, Sydney in 2000, Athens in 2004 and Beijing in 2008. During this time there was no formal procedure for gaining admission to the Games and the process of lobbying was frustrating and occult in nature. With up to 12 sports vying for limited opportunities for entry, a more disciplined method of modification and selection for the programme was required. This came about with the appointment of Jacques Rogge as the new IOC President, in succession to Juan Antonio Samaranch. Under his leadership a formal bid process was instituted for selection for the 2012 Games, eventually used to vote for London in 2012. Five sports, including Squash, were selected to go through a rigorous examination process and in 2005 the IOC Session in Singapore was given the opportunity to vote on the shape of the programme. The first series of votes resulted in Baseball and Softball being eliminated from the 2012 programme and this, theoretically, created a space for two new sports. After a close and tense series of votes, Squash and Karate were voted ahead of Rugby Sevens, Golf and Roller Sports as the delegates’ choice, but protocol demanded that a vote was then taken to grant the chosen sports Olympic status. Neither Squash nor Karate secured the two-thirds majority necessary and consequently the London Games were confirmed with a reduced compliment of sports. With the experience of 2005, the IOC created an even more formalised process for the selection of the programme for 2016. The 5 sports from the 2005 list were joined by Baseball and Softball to undergo detailed evaluation; and by now it was apparent that substantial time, effort and finance had to be put behind the bids. The WSF, under the new President N Ramachandran mounted a highly visible campaign, identifying the unique qualities that the introduction of Squash could bring to the programme in 2016, but the sport lost out to golf and Rugby7s. Currently the bidding process is underway for the 2020 Olympic Games, with one place definitely available and squash very much in the running as a result of a full and strategized bid. Squash is poised to gain its overdue admission to the most important event in world sport. THE WORLD SCENE In its early days international Squash was controlled by the Squash Rackets Association of England and the United States Squash Rackets Association, but in 1966 representatives of the sport from Australia, Great Britain, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, USA, Canada and the United Arab Republic met in London and agreed to form the International Squash Rackets Association (ISRF), the first meeting of which was held on 5 January 1967. The ISRF continued to thrive and was amalgamated with the Women’s International Squash Federation in 1985. In 1992 the name of the Federation was changed to the World Squash Federation (WSF), finally recognising that the sport had been universally referred to simply as “Squash”, rather than “Squash Rackets”, for most of its existence. Squash is played in some 185 countries, on nearly 50,000 courts, and the WSF now has 150 Squash playing National Associations in membership. It is the sole International Federation for the sport, as recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and maintains responsibility for the Rules of the Game, Court and Equipment Specifications, Refereeing and Coaching. The WSF maintains a World Calendar of events, organises and promotes World Championships for Men, Women, Junior Men, Junior Women and Masters age groups in both singles and doubles Squash; and leads its Member Nations in programmes for the development of the sport. Squash has been played for over 140 years, grown sensationally in the last forty and is now poised to become one of the largest and best loved of all sports. 2010-05-31	Harrow
Inhabitants of which UK city are often called “Loiners”?	History of Squash History of Squash Job, Jobs, Jobs Something to sell ... by Ted Wallbutton of the WSF For over 1,000 years man has invented and enjoyed a variety of games played by hitting a ball with either a closed fist - as in ï¿½fivesï¿½ or ï¿½bunch of fingersï¿½ - or with some form of bat or racket. Around the year 1148 the French played ï¿½le Paumeï¿½, meaning ï¿½the palm of the handï¿½, which developed into Jeu de Paume, Real Tennis, Royal Tennis or, if you play the sport, simply Tennis. At sometime in the early 19th century this obsession with rackets and balls spawned another variety of the sport in the unlikely birthplace of the Fleet Prison in London. The prisoners in ï¿½The Fleetï¿½, mainly debtors, took their exercise by hitting a ball against walls, of which there were many, with rackets and so started the game of ï¿½Racketsï¿½. Rackets progressed, by some strange route, to Harrow and other select English schools about 1820 and it was from this source that our own sport of Squash, or Squash Rackets, developed. Squash was invented in Harrow school around 1830, when the pupils discovered that a punctured Rackets ball, which "squashed" on impact with the wall, produced a game with a greater variety of shots and required much more effort on the part of the players, who could not simply wait for the ball to bounce back to them as with Rackets. The variant proved popular and in 1864 the first four Squash courts were constructed at the school and Squash was officially founded as a sport in its own right. In those early days Squash, as with all other sports, was without any form of international standardisation and it was inevitable that slight variations in the way it was played, and the equipment used, would occur. Luckily only two main streams of activity followed, one in England with its 21 feet wide courts and ï¿½softï¿½ ball and the other in North America, with its 18ï¿½ feet wide courts and ï¿½hardï¿½ ball and with both courts having the same length of 32 feet the universality of Squash was not seriously challenged. We will look at these two branches separately and also at the way in which Squash spread to almost every nation in the world. EARLY DAYS IN ENGLAND The first recorded reference to "Squash", other than in Harrow school, appeared in 1890 in the English book "The Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes" written by the Duke of Beaufort. Eustace Miles, a world championship at both Tennis and Rackets, wrote the first book on Squash in 1901; stating that the sport was enjoyed by thousands of players in various parts of the world. By that time there were courts in schools and universities in England and some also in private houses. The first professional Squash Championship was held in 1920 in England, when C.R. Read (Queens Club) beat A.W.B. Johnson (RAC Club). In 1923 H.A.L. Rudd, writing in "Baily's Magazine", forecast that Rackets would lose many players to Squash with the arrival of the first English Amateur Championships. He was concerned at this prospect as he considered Rackets to be a "manlier" game; Squash afforded a good "sweat" but did not demand the same skill as Rackets, in his opinion. Rudd's forecast proved to be only too correct as Squash grew rapidly and soon left its parent sport far behind in popularity. As Squash play developed so did its administrative structure. The first discrete national associations to be formed were the United States Squash Racquets Association in 1907 and the Canadian Squash Racquets Association in 1911. In England the game was regulated by a Squash sub committee of the Tennis and Rackets Association from 1908 until it gained full status as the Squash Rackets Association in 1928. A court built at the Bath Club in London at the beginning of the 20th century was chosen as the model for the standard size of a Squash court, 32 feet by 21 feet or 9.75 metres by 6.4 metres, much smaller that the court for Rackets which measures 60 feet by 30 feet (18.3 metres by 9.1 metres). The British dimensions were proposed in 1911, but not ratified until 1923. The point-a-rally scoring system to 15 was used universally in Squash until 1926 when the current hand-in, hand-out system to 9 points was introduced outside north America. The American hardball game, however, continued to be played to 15 points and this system was also adopted for the men's professional circuit in 1991 in an effort to shorten the matches. In 1933 the great Egyptian player F.D. Amr Bey, won the first of his five British Open Championships, then seen as the World Championships. He was followed in his achievement by M.A. Karim of Egypt who won the title four times from 1947 to 1950 and then the dominating Khan dynasty from Pakistan; Hashim (1951-1958), Roshan (1957), Azam (1959-1962), Mohibullah (1963), Jahangir (1982-1992) and Jansher (1993-1994). The Women's British Open commenced even earlier than the Men's; with Miss J.I. Cave winning the title in 1922. Until 1960 the title belonged solely to English players, with Janet Morgan (later Shardlow) winning 10 times between 1950 and 1958. She was followed by the most famous woman Squash player ever, the Australian Heather McKay, who dominated the sport from 1966 to 1977 and remained undefeated throughout her playing career. Her successor was the New Zealander, Susan Devoy, who won the title 8 times between 1984 and 1992. Perhaps the players who had the most impact on the development of the sport were Jonah Barrington (Ireland) and Geoff Hunt (Australia). They dominated Squash between the late 1960's and early 1980's, capturing the imagination of sportsmen and women everywhere and starting a boom in the sport which raised the number of courts to 46000 worldwide and the number of players to over 15 million by 1994. SQUASH IN AMERICA Squash was certainly being played in Canada before 1882, as it was then that James P Conover, the Headmaster of St. Paulï¿½s School in Concord, New Hampshire, USA, saw it being played in Montreal. He thought it would be a perfect sport for his boys and wrote in the November 1882 edition of the school magazine ï¿½It is the universal experience, that for health and for the highest perfection in the game, the average boy or man should play but one rubber a dayï¿½. He went on to describe the new Squash complex and its 21 feet wide courts and compare the game favourably with Rackets. ï¿½This building will cover an area of fifty feet by sixty, and will have a height of about seventy feet from the ground to the eaves. The ball used in such courts is about the size of a walnut, of rubber, and hollow, with a hole in it to prevent breaking. The so-called ï¿½squash-ball courtï¿½ recommended itself to the club for many reasons; such courts are largely used in English public schools; cost of construction is much less; fewer racquet bats are broken and fewer balls destroyed; fewer heads are cracked and fewer knees and elbows barked; the danger from being hit by the ball (quite an item among young players) is cancelled; and for all intents and purposes the game is the same and produces just as good players.ï¿½ Although the International, or ï¿½softï¿½, ball was harder and bouncier than it is now it was not ideally suited to the cold courts in Concord where the temperature was often below freezing point during play. A harder rubber ball was developed and found to be more suited to slightly narrower courts, leading to the 18ï¿½ feet court, 19 feet court and other experimental widths. It was not until 1924 that the court specifications were codified, at which time it was decided to standardise on the 18ï¿½ feet width and a 17 inch ï¿½ tinï¿½ rather than the 19 inch variety used for the soft ball. By 1929 official court plans were being sold by the USSRA and the hardball game was brought into controlled growth. The United States Squash Racquets Association was founded in 1907 and it was in that year also that the first recognised National Championship for Squash in any country was held with John A Miskey of Philadelphia winning the American title, a feat he repeated in 1908 and 1910. After Miskey the National title was won six times by Stanley W Pearson, also from Philadelphia, between 1915 and 1923, with his son Stanley Junior continuing the tradition by taking it in 1948. Other great national players from Philadelphia included Charles M P Brinton (1941/42/46/47) and G Diehl Mateer Jr (1954/56/61) with Henri R Salaun from Boston winning four times between 1995 and 1961. Victor Niederhoffer (New York) dominated the 1970s with 5 victories, Kenton Jernigan (Newport, Rhode Island) recorded three titles in the 1980s and Mexican Hector Barragan won five consecutive titles from 1990 to 1994. In the early days most of the Womenï¿½s National titles were won by players from Boston, Philadelphia or Wilmington, interspersed by the occasional English tourist winner, such as Susan Noel (1933), Margot Lumb (1935) and the great Janet Morgan (1949 & 1955). Margaret Howe of Boston won three times between 1929 and 1934, while two Philadelphians, Anne Page and Cecile Bowes won four times each between 1936 and 1948. Thereafter one player or another dominated the scene for several years; Betty (Howe) Constable from Philadelphia winning four titles (1956-1959), Margaret Varner (Wilmington) four (1960-1963), Gretchen Spruance (Wilmington) five (1973-1978) with the 1980s totally dominated by Alicia McConnell (Brooklyn) with seven titles (1982-1988) and Demer Holleran from Hanover NH taking over in 1989 to remain undefeated for seven years until 1995. With the establishment of a Professional Tour, to which clubs were encouraged to send their teaching pro., a list of world famous names acquired US titles from the mid-fifties - Hashim Khan (4 wins), Mahmoud Kerim (4), Mohibullah Khan (5), Sharif Khan (9), Mark Talbott (5), Jahangir Khan (2) and Jansher Khan (3). Squash played with a hard ball on an 18ï¿½ feet wide court was the only form of the sport played in the USA until the mid-1980s, but then growing exposure to the ï¿½Internationalï¿½ game resulted in some 21 feet wide courts being built and the international, ï¿½softï¿½, ball being used on both the wide and narrow courts. Additionally, the USSRA recognised a 20 feet width as being acceptable for International play, this width being derived from the increasing trend to convert Racquetball courts to Squash use. In an incredibly short period of time in the early 1990s Squash in the USA changed from being overwhelmingly ï¿½hardballï¿½ to predominantly ï¿½softballï¿½, with the only available monitor of the trend, ball sales, indicating that by 1996 around 80% of all play was International. Quite why this change happened, and why so quickly, is still being debated but there is little doubt that a new generation of players is now experiencing the love affair with international squash which happened in all other nations and finding it preferable to the higher racket skills demanded by the hardball game. The North American player was also the first to appreciate the virtues of Doubles Squash, with the hardball being used on a court measuring 45 feet long by 25 feet wide. The first National Doubles Championships were held in 1933 and hardball Doubles continues to thrive even though the singles version now holds only a minority of play. AUSTRALIA, GERMANY AND 123 OTHER NATIONS Squash spread rapidly in its early days and the major growth areas were wherever British forces were stationed. South Africa, India, Pakistan, Egypt, Australia, New Zealand and many other countries learned their Squash from the military and soon adopted it as their own. Probably the most successful Squash nation of all time, Australia, had its Squash seed planted through contact with the military. Although the first Squash courts in Australia were established in 1913, at the Melbourne Club in Victoria, there was no official Squash association until 1934 although top players had been engaged in ad hoc club tournaments since 1927. During 1934 a group of players decided that local administrative pressure and the need to liaise with interstate and overseas organisations demanded an official body and the Squash Rackets Association of Australia (SRAA) was founded, although its main tasks remained locally orientated in the Melbourne area. Even when the first Australian Championships were held, for men in 1931 and women in 1932, they were, in reality, State Championships for Victoria. The SRA of Victoria was formed in 1937. In New South Wales the first court was built just after the first World War, by Mr. Bjelke-Petersen, the uncle of the former Queensland Premier, Sir Joe Bjelke-Petersen. The New South Wales SRA was formed in 1937 and the first pennant competition in Sydney commenced in July 1939. But it was in the 1960s that Squash started to really take off in Australia. Greater commercial development came into the sport and public Squash centres were built all over the country, bringing the game to a much wider audience. This growth brought amazing international success with many of the worldï¿½s best players coming from the Australian Squash scene. Heather McKay, Ken Hiscoe, Geoff Hunt, Vicki Cardwell, Steve Bowditch, Rhonda Thorne and, more recently, Michelle and Rodney Martin all become World Squash Champions at senior level and Peter Nance, Chris Robertson, Robyn Lambourne, Sarah Fitz-Gerald and Rachael Grinham achieved the same distinction at junior level. Hunt was World Champion seven times and won eight British Open titles while Heather McKay was the most successful Squash player of all time, being undefeated in international competition for an astounding 19 years. In 1976 the headquarters of the SRAA were transferred to Queensland and merged with the Australian Womenï¿½s SRA to form the ASRA in 1986, its name being changed to Squash Australia in 1990. In Germany Squash was born twice! Its first cradle was in Berlin in 1930 when the first four courts were built by Dr. Ernst von Siemens, head of the technology department of the electronics company which bore his name, and he started regular company staff activities and even foreign competitions on the ï¿½wall-play-hallsï¿½. Other courts followed, but during wartime they were all used for a variety of other purposes and it was not until 1978 that the Siemens courts were again used by the ï¿½Berlin Wallball Game Clubï¿½. The initiative for the rebirth came from Christhof Viscount Vitzthum who had discovered the sport in Australia, heard about the Siemens courts by accident and started to promote Squash and bring the courts back into use. But an even earlier start had been made in Hamburg by a merchant, Henning Harders, who erected three courts following an infection by the Squash bug in Australia and it was a group of Hamburg players who founded the German SRA in 1973 and sent a team to the European Team Championships in Stockholm during 1974. Two years after the German SRA was founded the first National Championships were held and within a few years there were over 6000 courts and 2 million players in the nation - the most spectacular growth of Squash anywhere in the world. Germany celebrated their twenty-fifth anniversary in 1998 by bringing the Womenï¿½s World Championships to Stuttgart. Many other nations experienced tremendous growth in Squash, starting slowly at the beginning of the century and then gaining momentum over the past thirty years. In each country the basic story is the same. A group of enthusiasts start to play and promote the game which, because of its inherent qualities of intense exercise coupled with all-absorbing competition., grows rapidly and becomes a major sport in the land. The formula which made Squash grow in its traditional homelands is now being seen again in Japan, Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, Korea and many new Squash nations, worldwide. PAKISTAN ï¿½ BIRTHPLACE OF CHAMPIONS Of all the nations where Squash is played Pakistan is the greatest enigma, producing a succession of amazing Squash champions from a country where there are still less than 400 courts. No history of Squash can be complete without an account of the amazing exploits of the Khan dynasty, starting with Hashim who won the first of his seven British Open titles in 1951 at the age of 35 years. Hashim was the first of a line of great Pakistani Squash Champions - Azam Khan, Mohibullah Khan, Roshan Khan, Aftab Jawaid, Gogi Alauddin, Mo Yasin, Qamar Zaman, Mohibullah Khan Junior, Hiddy Jahan and the two greatest players of the 1980s and 1990s, perhaps of all time, Jahangir Khan and Jansher Khan. Jahangir, now a Vice-President of the World Squash Federation, dominated the sport for 14 years, winning the British Open 10 times and the World Open 8 times and was undefeated for 5ï¿½ years. Jansher took over his mantle in 1989 with his first of World Open titles and began a debate in the sport about which JK was the greatest of them all. THE WORLD SCENE In its early days international Squash was controlled by the Squash Rackets Association of England and the United States Squash Rackets Association, but in 1966 representatives of the sport from Australia, Great Britain, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, USA, Canada and the United Arab Republic met in London and agreed to form the International Squash Rackets Association (ISRF), the first meeting of which was held on 5 January 1967. The ISRF continued to thrive and was amalgamated with the Women's International Squash Federation in 1985. In 1992 the name of the Federation was changed to the World Squash Federation (WSF), finally recognising that the sport had been universally referred to simply as "Squash", rather than "Squash Rackets", for most of its existence. Squash is played in 130 countries, on 47000 courts, and the World Squash Federation now has 116 Squash playing National Associations in membership. It is the sole International Federation for the sport, as recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and maintains responsibility for the rules of the Game, Court and Equipment Specifications, Refereeing and Coaching. The WSF maintains a World Calendar of events and organises and promotes World Championships for Men, Women, Junior Men, Junior women and Master age groups in both singles and doubles Squash. The Federation leads its Member Nations in programmes for the development of the sport and is currently working with the IOC towards the target of having Squash included as a sport on the programme of the Olympic Games in the year 2008. Squash has been played for over 130 years, grown sensationally in the last thirty and is now poised to become one of the largest and best loved of all sports.	i don't know
Which river flows the length of the Grand Canyon?	Colorado River We'd like to send you lake news articles, videos, and podcasts from around the web. We will never share your email Colorado River Length: 1450 miles (2,333 kilometers) Colorado River rising in the Rocky Mountains of north Colorado, in northwest Rocky Mountain National Park northwest of Denver, and flowing generally southwest through Colorado, Utah, Arizona, then between Nevada and Arizona, and Arizona and California, and then into Mexico, emptying into the Gulf of California. The Colorado River drains 244,000 square miles. The source is surrounded on three sides by the Continental Divide; flows south through Grand Lake (Shadow Mountain Reservoir) and Lake Granby reservoirs, then generally southwest past Glenwood Springs, Rifle, and Grand Junction, Colorado, where it receives the Gunnison River from southeast, into Utah, where it forms the south boundary of Arches National Park at Moab, then through Canyonlands National Park, where it receives the Green River, its longest tributary from the north. The Colorado then enters Glen Canyon National Recreational Area and Lake Powell, formed by the Glen Canyon Dam at Page, in extreme northeast Arizona, and at 26,997,000,000 cubic feet is the 2d largest reservoir in the United States. The Colorado receives the San Juan River from the east. Below Glen Canyon Dam, the river enters Marble Canyon and Grand Canyon National Park. (The river and part of Lake Powell form the northwest boundary of the Navajo Indian Reservation.) Due to major park expansion in 1975, the river flows 140 miles through the park, through Marble Canyon and the spectacular Grand Canyon; then for another 100 miles it forms the south boundary of the west extension of the park and north boundary of Hualapai Indian Reservation. It then enters Lake Mead National Recreational Area (at 28,253,000,000 cubic feet Lake Mead, formed by Hoover Dam, is the largest reservoir in the United States). The lake and Lake Mohave below it, formed by Davis Dam, form the Arizona-Nevada state line. The large north arm of Lake Mead receives the Virgin River from the northeast. Below the Hoover Dam, the river flows almost due south. Below the Davis Dam, it flows through Fort Mohave Indian Reservation and becomes the California-Arizona state line. It forms the boundary of Havasu National Wildlife Refuge, east, and Chemehueva Indian Reservation, west, flowing past Lake Havasu City and through Lake Havasu, formed by Parker Dam. Below Parker Dam, the river flows past Parker; through Colorado Indian Reservation; through Cibola and Imperial National wildlife refuges; forms east and south boundary of Fort Yuma Indian Reservation; and past Yuma, Arizona. Around Yuma, the Colorado passes through Imperial, Laguna, and Morelos dams, each with minor reservoirs, the volume of the river having been reduced by diversion to major cities and irrigation projects in California, Nevada, and Arizona. Just east of Yuma, the Colorado receives the Gila River from east. Below Yuma, the river forms part of the United States-Mexico border. Approximately final 100 miles of the river, reduced to a braided trickle, flows through Mexico, forming the border between Baja California Norte and Sonora states, and enters the north end of the Gulf of California. In its small delta is Isla Montague. Many national parks, monuments, and recreational areas are located along the river banks. The Colorado’s waters are used for power and irrigation, especially by means of the Colorado River. storage project, the Colorado–Big Thompson project, Hoover Dam, Davis Dam, Imperial Dam, the All-American Canal, Parker Dam, and Glen Canyon Dam. Controversies over water rights on the Colorado have long raged between the United States and Mexico and among the bordering states; treaties and compacts regulate the river’s use. COLORADO RIVER LAKES	Colorado
What is Canada’s national animal?	River Trips / Permits - Grand Canyon National Park (U.S. National Park Service) 1 Day Commercial River Trips - Half-day and full-day smooth water trips on the Colorado River. 2 to 5 Day Noncommercial River Trips - Noncommercial trips that launch from Diamond Creek and takeout at Lake Mead typically are 2 to 5 days in length. Permits for these whitewater trips are available to the public starting one year in advance and are distributed on a first-come first-served basis. Lees Ferry to Diamond Creek River Trips (commercial and noncommercial) - Motorized and non-motorized whitewater rafting trips which launch from Lees Ferry and take-out at Diamond Creek vary greatly in length. Motor trips usually take a minimum of 7 days to reach Diamond Creek, but half trip options are available for those who wish to hike in or out at Phantom Ranch. Individuals can choose between commercial and noncommercial trips. 3 to 18 Day Commercial River Trips . These are professionally guided raft trips, available to the public and often reserved a year or two in advance. 12 to 25 Day Noncommercial River Trips . These are self-guided raft trips, sometimes referred to as private river trips. Permits for these trips are made available to the public through a WEIGHTED LOTTERY.	i don't know
Which fruit is often carved onto gateposts as a symbol of hospitality?	Kids Corner \| Dole NZ Coconut Water The pineapple is native to Brazil and Paraguay, but the pineapples Dole brings into New Zealand are grown in the biggest pineapple plantation in the world, on Mindanao Island in the Philippines. Christopher Columbus found pineapples on the Caribbean island of Guadalupe in 1493. He took them to Spain where the Europeans thought the fruit resembled a pine cone. Sailors soon discovered that the fruit was great protection against scurvy - a nasty disease that affected sailors in particular. The disease was a result of a diet that lacked vitamin C. Pineapples helped because they are extremely high in this vitamin. In the Caribbean the pineapple symbolised hospitality and the Europeans who travelled there knew they were welcome if a pineapple was placed at the entrance to the village. This symbolism quickly spread through Europe where the pineapple was often carved onto bedposts or fireplaces. The pineapple has been a universal symbol of hospitality and welcome all over the world for several hundred years. Pineapples do not grow on trees. They are the fruit of a bromeliad, rising from the centre on a single spike surrounded by sword-like leaves. The pineapple plant is the only bromeliad to produce edible fruit. Pineapples take about 18 months to grow to harvest size but can keep growing up to 7 or 8kg if allowed. The Tropical Gold pineapples that Dole brings into New Zealand have had the 'crowns' or leaves at the top of the pineapple removed. These crowns are recycled in the Philippines where the pineapples are grown. They are made into plant material used to feed and replenish the soil and some of the crowns are selected to be replanted to grow new pineapples. This is what makes them 'eco pineapples'. Pineapple is not a single fruit, but a sorosis. That means the fruit of a hundred or more separate flowers grow on the plant spike. As they grow, they swell with juice and pulp, expanding to become the fruit. The juice from the pineapple can be used to stop other fruit from going brown - like bananas or apples. It is also good in a marinade to help tenderise the meat. Don't put raw pineapple into jelly, as the bromelain enzyme in the pineapple will stop it setting.	Pineapple
Which classic novel begins, “Call me Ishmael”?	The Hidden History of the Housewarming Pineapple \| Atlas Obscura The Hidden History of the Housewarming Pineapple Please separate multiple addresses with commas. We won't share addresses with third parties. Subscribe me to the Get our latest, delivered straight to your inbox by subscribing to our newsletter . Subscribe to our newsletter and get our latest, sent right to your inbox. Subscribe Thanks for subscribing! Related Stories Exploring America's Largest Collection of Early Tavern Signs Found: An Ancient Groundcherry That Proves Nightshades Are Older Than We Think Is There Such a Thing as Too Many Blueberries? One of the grander uses of a pineapple motif, at Dunmore House in Scotland. (Photo: Otter/WikiCommons CC BY-SA 3.0 ) If you were rich 1700s nobleman, had a dinner table, and wanted to impress your fellow gentry, a pineapple would sure as hell be the way to go. Indeed, if you find yourself at an old inn or perhaps even a new, trendy hotel, there will likely be a picture of a pineapple somewhere near you. It is a near-universal symbol of hospitality. But why? Thanks to centuries of pillaging and colonizing, the pineapple has traveled far and wide and come to represent something more than tasty fruit. Beyond merely being a symbol of welcoming, it has dark imperial roots to show. A vintage illustration of a pineapple. (Photo: ArtsCult.com/flickr ) Up until the 15th century, pineapples were not known by the Western world. In South American countries like Brazil, they were grown and enjoyed by the locals, but few others outside these countries knew of the pineapple’s existence. Historical accounts claim that Christopher Columbus was the first European to come face to face with the fruit during his second voyage in 1493, when he and his crew found a Caribbean village that ate pineapple. They tried it and reportedly liked it quite a bit, deciding to bring it back to their European home. The very concept of pineapples equating to hospitality, in fact, comes from these Caribbean trips, according to the World Encyclopedia of Food. Imperial travelers would go to these remote islands, and discovered that natives who hung the fruit in front of their entrances were welcoming to strangers. A 1675 painting by Hendrik Danckerts, showung Charles II presented with the first pineapple grown in England. (Photo: Public Domain/WikiCommons ) Thanks to their presence in front of villages and local huts, once they reached Europe pineapples became widely considered a gentry symbol of hospitality. The concept travelled to America too, where colonial houses began showcasing the pineapple’s image in common areas. Plantations took up the trend and started carving pineapple-like shapes into columns at their entrances. This, in fact, became a well-known addition to entrance architecture. The European bastardization of the pineapple symbol, however, meant more than just hospitality—it meant prestige. The richest of the rich bought these fruits, however expensive to show off to other their ability to have them. Since demand relied on the few shipments between the far-off continents, supply would often be scarce. This led to a brand new pineapple rental market taking the European gentry by storm, writes historian Mary V. Thompson. Although, by the 1700s, Europeans started growing them in their own hothouses. A pineapple adorns the front steps to a house in Greenwich Village, New York. (Photo: Spencer Means/flickr ) All the same, pineapples were considered an extravagance at the time. In America, one pineapple could be sold for as much as the equivalent of $8000, according to Mental Floss . Back in Europe the price was no less excessive, says the BBC , with a pineapple’s value reaching as much as the equivalent of £5,000. It became a trend for hostesses to show off the large spiny things in parlors and dining rooms. Today pineapples are everywhere. But they’ve come to represent more than just exotic fruit. During the Napoleonic Era, political cartoonists would put pineapples in to represent extravagance. In the 1600s the Christian church adopted the symbol, as architect Christopher Wren began fitting them on church finials. Pineapples remain a mainstay in the hospitality industry. The very first words of the hospitality handbook Welcome to Hospitality: An Introduction plainly claim that the “universal symbol for hospitality is the pineapple.” Colonial houses still have pictures of pineapples throughout the rooms, and hotels continue to show them off. In fact, the Maxwell Hotel in Seattle uses the pineapple as its very logo. The symbol persists as a homage to past table centerpieces and a relic of the colonial lifestyle. Pineapples at the entrance of Simmons-Edwards House in Charleston, South Carolina. (Photo: Spencer Means/flickr ) Despite this, the austere pineapple appeal has softened. Beyond a more abundant supply of the fruit, more people began adopting its aesthetic. Sailors, for instance, would bring the fruit home from their travels and place them on their home’s gateposts as a sign of welcoming. This, writes historian Nicola Cornick , led to the pineapple signifying “a sense of welcome, good cheer, warmth and celebration.” The next time you take a bite out of the fruit, think of its imperial past. What began as a treat for the rich—one which a Royal botanist described as “being so sweete in smell… tasting… as if Wine, Rosewater and Sugar were mixed together” in 1640—has become something more common and hospitable. Although if you were to ask the non-gentry their thoughts on pineapples in the 1600s, they probably wouldn’t feel so welcome.	i don't know
What is the two-letter prefix used in numbering the highest grade of Spanish motorway?	motorway - definition - What is ? What is ? motorway definition : motorway A controlled-access highway is a type of highway which has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow and ingress/egress regulated. Common English terms are freeway (in Australia and parts of the United States and Canada), motorway (in the United Kingdom and Ireland) and expressway (some parts of Canada, parts of the United States, and many Asian countries). Terms in other languages sometimes seen in English include , , , , , , , , or . Other similar terms include Interstate and parkway. Some of which may be limited access highways, although this term can also refer to a class of highway with somewhat less isolation from other traffic. In countries following Vienna convention, the motorway qualification implies they are forbidden for walking or parking, and reserved for the only use of motorized vehicles. A controlled-access highway provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, intersections or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with other roads, railways, or pedestrian paths, which are instead carried by overpasses and underpasses across the highway. Entrances and exits to the highway are provided at interchanges by slip roads (ramps), which allow for speed changes between the highway and arterial roads and collector roads. On the controlled-access highway, opposing directions of travel are generally separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffic barrier or grass. Elimination of the sources of potential conflicts with other directions of travelers dramatically improves safety, and capacity. Controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. Italy opened its first autostrada in 1924 connecting Milan to Varese (A8). Germany began to build its first autobahn controlled-access highway without speed limits (then referred to as a dual highway) in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn (now A555). It then rapidly constructed a nationwide system of such roads in anticipation of their use in the Second World War. The first North American freeways (known as parkways) opened in the New York City area in the 1920s. Britain, heavily influenced by the railways, did not build its first motorway, the Preston By-pass (M6), until 1958. Most technologically advanced nations feature an extensive network of freeways or motorways to provide high-capacity urban travel, or high-speed rural travel, or both. Many have a national-level or even international-level (e.g. European E route) system of route numbering. ==Definition standards== There are several international standards which give some definitions of words such as motorways, but there is no formal definition of the English language words "motorway", "freeway" and "expressway", or of the equivalent words in other languages such as "autoroute", "Autobahn", "autostrada", "autocesta", that are accepted worldwide—in most cases these words are defined by local statute or design standards or regional international treaties. Descriptions that are widely used include: ;Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals ::"Motorway" means a road specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does not serve properties bordering on it, and which: :# Is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other either by a dividing strip not intended for traffic or, exceptionally, by other means; :# Does not cross at level with any road, railway or tramway track, or footpath; and, :# Is specially sign-posted as a motorway; One green or blue symbol (like 25px) appears at motorway entry in countries which follow Vienna Convention. Exit is marked with another symbol: 25px. The definitions of "motorway" from the OECD and PIARC are almost identical. ;British Standards ::Motorway: Limited-access dual carriageway road, not crossed on the same level by other traffic lanes, for the exclusive use of certain classes of motor vehicle. ;ITE (including CITE) ::Freeway: A divided major roadway with full control of access and with no crossings at grade. This definition applies to toll as well as toll-free roads. :::Freeway A: This designates roadways with greater visual complexity and high traffic volumes. Usually this type of freeway will be found in metropolitan areas in or near the central core and will operate through much of the early evening hours of darkness at or near design capacity. :::Freeway B: This designates all other divided roadways with full control of access where lighting is needed. In the European Union, for statistic and safety purposes, some distinction might be made between motorway and expressway, for instance a principal arterial might be considered as: Roads serving long distance and mainly interurban movements. Includes motorways (urban or rural) and expressways (road which does not serve properties bordering on it and which is provided with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic). Principal arterials may cross through urban areas, serving suburban movements. The traffic is characterized by high speeds and full or partial access control (interchanges or junctions controlled by traffic lights). Other roads leading to a principal arterial are connected to it through side collector roads. In this view, CARE's definition stands that a motorway is understood as a public road with dual carriageways and at least two lanes each way. All entrances and exits are signposted and all interchanges are grade separated. Central barrier or median present throughout the road. No crossing is permitted, while stopping is permitted only in an emergency. Restricted access to motor vehicles, prohibited to pedestrians, animals, pedal cycles, mopeds, agricultural vehicles. The minimum speed is not lower than and the maximum speed is not higher than (Except Germany where there is no speed limit is defined). According to the common European definition, a motorway is defined as "a road, specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does not serve properties bordering on it, and which: (a) is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other, either by a dividing strip not intended for traffic, or exceptionally by other means; (b) does not cross at level with any road, railway or tramway track, or footpath; (c) is specially sign-posted as a motorway and is reserved for specific categories of road motor vehicles. Urban motorways are also included in this definition. However, the respective national definitions and the type of roads covered may present slight differences in different EU countries. ==History== The first version of modern controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. The Long Island Motor Parkway in Long Island, New York, opened in 1908 as a private venture, was the world's first limited-access roadway. It included many modern features, including banked turns, guard rails and reinforced concrete tarmac. Modern controlled-access highways originated in the early 1920s in response to the rapidly increasing use of the automobile, the demand for faster movement between cities and as a consequence of improvements in paving processes, techniques and materials. These original high-speed roads were referred to as "dual highways" and, while divided, bore little resemblance to the highways of today. Opened in 1921, the AVUS in Berlin is the oldest controlled-access highway in Europe, although it was initially opened as a race track. The first dual highway opened in Italy in 1924, between Milan and Varese, and now forms parts of the A8 and A9 motorways. This highway, while divided, contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges. Shortly thereafter, in New York in 1924, the Bronx River Parkway was opened to traffic. The Bronx River Parkway was the first road in North America to utilize a median strip to separate the opposing lanes, to be constructed through a park and where intersecting streets crossed over bridges. The Southern State Parkway opened in 1927, while the Long Island Motor Parkway was closed in 1937 and replaced by the Northern State Parkway (opened 1931) and the contiguous Grand Central Parkway (opened 1936). In Germany, construction of the Bonn-Cologne autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the mayor of Cologne. In Canada, the first city–to-city controlled-access road was the Queen Elizabeth Way, which featured a cloverleaf and trumpet interchange when it opened in 1937, and until the Second World War, boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built. A decade later, the first section of Highway 401 was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since gone on to become the busiest highway in the world. The word freeway was first used in February 1930 by Edward M. Bassett. Bassett argued that roads should be classified into three basic types: highways, parkways, and freeways. Speed limits are generally higher on freeways and are occasionally nonexistent (as on much of Germany's Autobahn network). Because higher speeds reduce decision time, freeways are usually equipped with a larger number of guide signs than other roads, and the signs themselves are physically larger. Guide signs are often mounted on overpasses or overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes. Exit numbers are commonly derived from the exit's distance in miles or kilometers from the start of the freeway. In some areas, there are public rest areas or service areas on freeways, as well as emergency phones on the shoulder at regular intervals. In the United States, mileposts start at the southern or westernmost point on the freeway (either its terminus or the state line). California, Ohio and Nevada use postmile systems in which the markers indicate mileage through the state's individual counties. However, Nevada and Ohio, and some freeways that pass through Kern County, California, also use the standard milepost system concurrently with their respective postmile systems. ===Cross sections=== Two-lane freeways, often undivided, are sometimes built when traffic volumes are low or right-of-way is limited; they may be designed for easy conversion to one side of a four-lane freeway. (Most of the Bert T. Combs Mountain Parkway in Eastern Kentucky is two lanes, but work has begun to make all of it four-lane.) These are often called Super two roads. Several such roads are infamous for a high rate of lethal crashes; an outcome because they were designed for short sight distances (sufficient for freeways without oncoming traffic, but insufficient for the years in service as two-lane road with oncoming traffic). An example of such a "Highway to Hell" was European route E4 from Gävle to Axmartavlan, Sweden. The high rate of crashes with severe personal injuries on that (and similar) roads did not cease until a median crash barrier was installed, transforming the fatal crashes into non-fatal crashes. Otherwise, freeways typically have at least two lanes in each direction; some busy ones can have as many as 16 or more lanes in total. In San Diego, California, Interstate 5 has a similar system of express and local lanes for a maximum width of 21 lanes on a segment between Interstate 805 and California State Route 56. In Mississauga, Ontario, Highway 401 uses collector-express lanes for a total of 18 lanes through its intersection with Highway 403/Highway 410 and Highway 427. These wide freeways may use separate collector and express lanes to separate through traffic from local traffic, or special high-occupancy vehicle lanes, either as a special restriction on the innermost lane or a separate roadway, to encourage carpooling. These HOV lanes, or roadways open to all traffic, can be reversible lanes, providing more capacity in the direction of heavy traffic, and reversing direction before traffic switches. Sometimes a collector/distributor road, a shorter version of a local lane, shifts weaving between closely spaced interchanges to a separate roadway or altogether eliminates it. In some parts of the world, notably parts of the US, frontage roads form an integral part of the freeway system. These parallel surface roads provide a transition between high-speed "through" traffic and local traffic. Frequent slip-ramps provide access between the freeway and the frontage road, which in turn provides direct access to local roads and businesses. Except on some two-lane freeways (and very rarely on wider freeways), a median separates the opposite directions of traffic. This strip may be as simple as a grassy area, or may include a crash barrier such as a "Jersey barrier" or an "Ontario Tall Wall" to prevent head-on collisions. On some freeways, the two carriageways are built on different alignments; this may be done to make use of available corridors in a mountainous area or to provide narrower corridors through dense urban areas. ===Control of access=== Control of access relates to a legal status which limits the types of vehicles that can use a highway, as well as a road design that limits the points at which they can access it. Freeways are usually limited to motor vehicles of a minimum power or weight; signs may prohibit cyclists, pedestrians and equestrians and impose a minimum speed. It is possible for non-motorized traffic to use facilities within the same right-of-way, such as sidewalks constructed along freeway-standard bridges and multi-use paths next to freeways such as the Suncoast Trail along the Suncoast Parkway in Florida. In some US jurisdictions, especially where freeways replace existing roads, non-motorized access on freeways is permitted. Different states of the United States have different laws. Cycling on freeways in Arizona may be prohibited only where there is an alternative route judged equal or better for cycling. Wyoming, the least populated state, allows cycling on all freeways. Oregon allows bicycles except on specific urban freeways in Portland and Medford. In countries such as the United Kingdom new motorways require an Act of Parliament to ensure restricted right of way. Since upgrading an existing road (the "Queen's Highway") to a full motorway will result in extinguishing the right of access of certain groups such as pedestrians, cyclists and slow-moving traffic, many controlled access roads are not full motorways. In some cases motorways are linked by short stretches of road where alternative rights of way are not practicable such as the Dartford Crossing (the furthest downstream public crossing of the River Thames) or where it was not economic to build a motorway alongside the existing road such as the former Cumberland Gap. The A1 is a good example of piece-wise upgrading to motorway standard—as of January 2013, the route had five stretches of motorway (designated as A1(M)). Continental European non-motorway dual carriageways can have limits as high as . US Route 23 (US 23) in Ohio has a speed limit as high as but isn't legally a freeway-class road since it has no disclaimers saying that low-speed vehicles are prohibited; it also has at-grade intersections like expressway-class roadways. Research shows 85 percent of motor vehicle-bicycle crashes follow turning or crossing at intersections. Freeway travel eliminates almost all those conflicts save at entrance and exit ramps—which, at least on those freeways where cycling has not been banned, have sufficient room and sight for cyclists and motorists. An analysis of crashes in Arizona showed no safety problems with cycling on freeways. Fewer than one motor vehicle-bicycle crash a year was recorded on nearly open to cyclists in Arizona. Major arterial roads will often have partial access control, meaning that side roads will intersect the main road at grade, instead of using interchanges, but driveways may not connect directly to the main road, and drivers must use intersecting roads to access adjacent land. There may be occasional interchanges with other major arterials. Examples include US 23 between SR 15's eastern terminus and Delaware, Ohio, along with SR 15 between its eastern terminus and I-75, US 30, SR 29/US 33, and US 35 in western and central Ohio. This type of road is sometimes called an expressway. ===Construction techniques=== The most frequent way freeways are laid out is usually by building them from the ground up after things such as forestry or buildings are cleared away. Sometimes they deplete farmland, but other methods have been developed for economic, social and even environmental reasons. Full freeways are sometimes made by converting at-grade expressways or by replacing at-grade intersections with overpasses; however, any at-grade intersection that ends a freeway remains. Often, when there is a two-lane undivided freeway or expressway, it is converted by constructing a twin corridor on the side by leaving a median between the two travel directions. The opposing side for the old two-way corridor becomes a passing lane. Other techniques involve building a new carriageway on the side of a divided highway that has a lot of private access on one side and sometimes has long driveways on the other side since an easement for widening comes into place, especially in rural areas. When a "third" carriageway is added, sometimes it can shift a directional carriageway by (or maybe more depending on land availability) as a way to retain private access on one side that favors over the other. Other methods involve constructing a service drive that shortens the long driveways (typically by less than ). ==Intersections and access points== An intersection is a highway layout that permits traffic from one controlled-access highway to access another and vice versa whereas an access point is a highway layout where traffic from a distributor or local road can join a controlled-access highway. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom, do not distinguish between the two, but other, such as Germany; make a distinction using the word Kreuz (cross) for the former and Ausfahrt (exit) for the other. In all cases one road crosses the other via a bridge. The inter-connecting roads, or slip-roads, which link the two roads, can follow any one of a number of patterns. The actual pattern is determined by a number of factors including local topology, traffic density, land cost, building costs, type of road, etc. In some jurisdictions feeder/distributor lanes are common, especially for cloverleaf interchanges; in others, such as the United Kingdom, where the roundabout interchange is common, feeder/distributor lanes are seldom seen. A few of the more common types of junction are shown below: ==Safety== Motorways are the safest roads by design. While accounting for more than one quarter of all kilometres driven, they contributed only 8% of the total number of European road deaths in 2006. Germany's Federal Highway Research Institute provided International Road Traffic and Accident Database (IRTAD) statistics for the year 2010, comparing overall fatality rates with motorway rates: There are many differences between countries in their geography, economy, traffic growth, highway system size, degree of urbanization and motorization, etc.; all of which need to be taken into consideration when comparisons are made. According to Vinci Autoroutes one third of accidents in French motorways are due to sleepy driving. The German autobahn network illustrates the safety trade-offs of controlled access highways. The injury crash rate is very low on autobahns while 22 people died per 1000 injury crashes—although autobahns have a lower rate than the 29 deaths per 1,000 injury accidents on conventional rural roads, the rate is higher than the risk on urban roads. Speeds are higher on rural roads and autobahns than urban roads, increasing the severity potential of a crash. According to ESTC, German motorways without a speed limit, but with a speed recommendation, are three times more deadly than motorways with a speed limit. Germany also introduced some speed limits on various motorway sections which were not limited. This generated a reduction in deaths in a range from 20% to 50% on those sections. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Road Class ! Injury Crashes ! Fatalities ! Injury Rate* ! Fatality Rate* ! Fatalities per 1000 Injury Crashes \|- \|Autobahn \|align=right\| 17,847 \|align=right\| 387 \|align=right\| 80 \|align=right\| 1.7 \|align=right\| 21.7 \|- \|Urban \|align=right\| 206,696 \|align=right\| 1,062 \|align=right\| 1390 \|align=right\| 5.1 \|align=right\| 3.7 \|- \|Rural \|align=right\| 75,094 \|align=right\| 2,151 \|align=right\| 220 \|align=right\| 7.6 \|align=right\| 34.5 \|- \| style="background: #efefef;" \| Total \| style="background:#efefef; text-align:right;"\| 299,637 \| style="background:#efefef; text-align:right;"\| 3,600 \| style="background:#efefef; text-align:right;"\| 420 \| style="background:#efefef; text-align:right;"\| 5.0 \| style="background:#efefef; text-align:right;"\| 12.0 \|} * per 1,000,000,000 travel-kilometres ==Environmental effects== Controlled-access highways have been constructed both between major cities as well as within them, leading to the sprawling suburban development found near most modern cities. Highways have been heavily criticized by environmentalists, urbanists, and preservationists for the noise, pollution, and economic shifts they bring. Additionally, they have been criticized by the driving public for the inefficiency with which they handle peak hour traffic. Often, rural highways open up vast areas to economic development and municipal services, generally raising property values. In contrast to this, above-grade highways in urban areas are often a source of lowered property values, contributing to urban decay. Even with overpasses and underpasses, neighbourhoods are divided—especially impoverished ones where residents are less likely to own a car, or to have the political and economic influence to resist construction efforts. Beginning in the early 1970s, the US Congress identified freeways and other urban highways as responsible for most of the noise exposure of the US population. Subsequently, computer models were developed to analyze freeway noise and aid in their design to help minimize noise exposure. Some cities have implemented freeway removal policies in which freeways have even been demolished and reclaimed as boulevards or parks, notably in Seoul (Cheonggyecheon), Portland (Harbor Drive), New York City (West Side Highway), Boston (Central Artery), San Francisco (Embarcadero Freeway) and Milwaukee (Park East Freeway). An alternative to surface or above ground freeway construction has been the construction of underground urban freeways using tunnelling technologies. This has been extremely successful in the Australian cities of Sydney (which has five such freeways), Melbourne (which has two such freeways) and Brisbane (which has three such freeways). This has had the benefit of removing traffic from surface roads and in the case of Melbourne's Eastlink Motorway, has helped preserve an ecologically sensitive area from destruction. Other Australian cities face similar problems (lack of available land, cost of home acquisition, aesthetic problems and community opposition). Brisbane, which also has to contend with physical boundaries (the river) and heavy population increases, has embraced underground tunnel freeways. There are currently two open to traffic (Clem Jones Tunnel (Clem7) and Airport Link), one under construction (Legacy Way) and one (East-West Link) is currently in planning. All of the tunnels are designed to act as an inner-city ring road or bypass system and include provisions for public transport, whether underground or in reclaimed space on the surface. In Canada, the extension of Highway 401 into Detroit, known as the Herb Gray Parkway, has been designed with numerous tunnels and underpasses which provide land for parks and recreational uses. Freeway opponents have found that freeway expansion is often self-defeating: expansion simply generates more traffic. That is, even if traffic congestion is initially shifted from local streets to a new or widened freeway, people will begin to run errands and commute to more remote locations. Over time, the freeway and its environs become congested again as both the average number and distance of trips increases. This idea is known as induced demand. Urban planning experts such as Drusilla Van Hengel, Joseph DiMento and Sherry Ryan argue that although properly designed and maintained freeways may be convenient and safe, at least in comparison to uncontrolled roads, they may not expand recreation, employment and education opportunities equally for different ethnic groups, or for people located in certain neighborhoods of a given city. Still, they may open new markets to some small businesses. Construction of urban freeways for the US Interstate Highway System, which began in the late 1950s, led to the demolition of thousands of city blocks, and the dislocation of many more thousands of people. The citizens of many inner city areas responded with the freeway and expressway revolts. Through the study of Washington's response, it can be shown that the most effective changes came not from executive or legislative action, but instead from policy implementation. One of the foremost rationales for the creation of the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT) was that an agency was needed to mediate between the conflicting interests of interstates and cities. Initially, these policies came as regulation of the state highway departments. Over time, USDOT officials re-focused highway building from a national level to the local scale. With this shift of perspective came an encouragement for alternative transportation, and locally based planning agencies. At present, freeway expansion has largely stalled in the United States, due to a multitude of factors that converged in the 1970s: higher due process requirements prior to taking of private property, increasing land values, increasing costs for construction materials, local opposition to new freeways in urban cores, the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (which imposed the requirement that each new federally funded project must have an environmental impact statement or report) and falling gas tax revenues as a result of the nature of the flat-cent tax (it is not automatically adjusted for inflation), the tax revolt movement, and growing popular support for high-speed mass transit in lieu of new freeways. ==Route numbering== ===United Kingdom=== ====Great Britain==== In England and Wales, the numbers of major motorways followed a numbering system separate to that of the A-road network, though based on the same principle of zones. Running clockwise from the M1 the zones were defined for Zones 1 to 4 based on the proposed M2, M3 and M4 motorways. The M5 and M6 numbers were reserved for the other two planned long distance motorways. The Preston Bypass, the UK's first motorway, should have been numbered A6(M) under the scheme decided upon, but it was decided to keep the number M6 as had already been applied. In Scotland, where the Scottish Office (superseded by the Scottish Government in 1999) rather than the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation had the decision, there is no zonal pattern, but rather the A-road rule is strictly enforced. It was decided to reserve the numbers 7, 8 and 9 for Scotland. The M8 follows the route of the A8, and the A90 became part of the M90 when the A90 was re-routed along the path of the A85. ====Northern Ireland==== In Northern Ireland a distinct numbering system is used, which is separate from the rest of the United Kingdom, though the classification of roads along the lines of A, B and C is universal throughout the UK and the Isle of Man. According to a written answer to a parliamentary question to the Northern Ireland Minister for Regional Development, there is no known reason as to how Northern Ireland's road numbering system was devised. However motorways, as in the rest of the UK, are numbered M, with the two major motorways coming from Belfast being numbered M1 and M2. The M12 is a short spur of the M1 with the M22 being a short continuation (originally intended to be a spur) of the M2. There are two other motorways, the short M3, the M5 and a motorway section of the A8 road, known as the A8(M). ===Republic of Ireland=== In the Republic of Ireland, motorway and national road numbering is quite different from the UK convention. Since the passage of the Roads Act 1993, all motorways are part of, or form, national primary roads. These routes are numbered in series, (usually, radiating anti-clockwise from Dublin, starting with the N1/M1) using numbers from 1 to 33 (and, separately from the series, 50). Motorways use the number of the route of which they form part, with an M prefix rather than N for national road (or in theory, rather than R for regional road). In most cases, the motorway has been built as a bypass of a road previously forming the national road (e.g. the M7 bypassing roads previously forming the N7)—the bypassed roads are reclassified as regional roads, although updated signposting may not be provided for some time, and adherence to signage colour conventions is lax (regional roads have black-on-white directional signage, national routes use white-on-green). Under the previous legislation, the Local Government (Roads and Motorways) Act 1974, motorways theoretically existed independently to national roads, however the short sections of motorway opened during this act, except for the M50, always took their number from the national road that they were bypassing. The older road was not downgraded at this point (indeed, regional roads were not legislated for at this stage). Older signage at certain junctions on the M7 and M11 can be seen reflecting this earlier scheme, where for example N11 and M11 can be seen coexisting. The M50, an entirely new national road, is an exception to the normal inheritance process, as it does not replace a road previously carrying an N number. The M50 was nevertheless legislated in 1994 as the N50 route (it had only a short section of non-motorway section from the Junction 11 Tallaght to Junction 12 Firhouse until its extension as the Southern Cross Motorway). The M50's designation was chosen as a recognisable number. As of 2010, the N34 is the next unused national primary road designation. In theory, a motorway in Ireland could form part of a regional road. In Australia, motorway numbering varies from state to state. Currently most states are adopting numbering systems with the prefix M for motorways. In Pakistan, motorways are denoted with the prefix M. In Belgium, motorways but also some dual carriageways have numbers preceded by an A. However, those that also have an E-number are generally referenced with that one. City ring and bypasses have numbers preceded by an R, these also can be either motorways or dual carriageways. ==Regional variation== While the design characteristics listed above are generally applicable around the globe, every jurisdiction provides its own specifications and design criteria for controlled-access highways. ===Africa=== ====South Africa==== In South Africa, the term freeway differs from most other parts of the world. A freeway is a road where certain restrictions apply. The following are forbidden from using a freeway: * a vehicle drawn by an animal; * a pedal cycle (such as a bicycle); * a motorcycle having an engine with a cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cm3 or that is propelled by electrical power; * a motor tricycle or motor quadrucycle; * pedestrians Drivers may not use hand signals on a freeway (except in emergencies) and the minimum speed on a freeway is . Drivers in the rightmost lane of multi-carriageway freeways must move to the left if a faster vehicle approaches from behind to overtake. Despite popular opinion that "freeway" means a road with at least two carriageways, single carriageway freeways exist, as is evidenced by the statement that "the roads include of dual carriageway freeway, of single carriageway freeway and of single carriage main road with unlimited access." ===Americas=== ====Brazil==== Although some of Brazilian highway is built to motorway-standard, there is no distinct designation for controlled-access highways in the Brazilian federal and state highway systems. The term autoestrada (Portuguese for "motorway") is not commonly used in Brazil; the terms estrada ("road") and especially rodovia ("highway") are instead preferred. Nevertheless, the most technically advanced motorways in Brazil are defined Class 0 motorways by the National Department of Transport Infrastructure (DNIT). These motorways are built to safely allow for vehicular speeds of up to ). In mountainous terrain, the maximum allowable grade is 5% and maximum allowable radius is (with 12% super-elevation). São Paulo state, with of motorway, has the most in the country. It is also the state with more highways conceded to the private sector, resulting in the highest value of toll fares per kilometer of highway. Brazil's first motorway, the Rodovia Anhanguera, was completed in 1953 as an upgrade of the earlier single-carriageway highway. That same year, construction of the second carriageway of Rodovia Anchieta began. Motorway construction, most projects in the form of upgrades of older single-carriageway highways, quickened in the following decades. The current Class 0 motorways include: Rodovia dos Bandeirantes, Rodovia dos Imigrantes, Rodovia Castelo Branco, Rodovia Ayrton Senna/Carvalho Pinto, Rodovia Osvaldo Aranha (also known as "Free-way") and São Paulo's Metropolitan Beltway Rodoanel Mario Covas, all modern, post-70's highways meeting modern European standards. Other stretches of highway such as the under-construction south BR-101 and Rodovia Régis Bittencourt are of older design standards. ====Canada==== Canada has no current national system for controlled-access highways. With the exception of the Trans Canada Highway, all highways, including the controlled-access ones, are under provincial jurisdiction. The largest networks in the country are in Ontario (400-series highways) and Quebec (Autoroutes of Quebec). These roads are influenced by, and have influenced, US standards, but have design innovations and differences. The total length of dual-carriageways with controlled access in Canada is , of which are in British Columbia, in Alberta, in Saskatchewan, in Ontario, in Quebec, and in the Maritimes. ====El Salvador==== The RN-21 (East–West, Boulevard Monseñor Romero), is the very first freeway to be built in El Salvador and in Central America. The freeway passes the northern area of the city of Santa Tecla, La Libertad. It has a small portion serving Antiguo Cuscatlan, La Libertad, and merges with the RN-5 (East–West, Boulevard de Los Proceres/Autopista del Aeropuerto) in San Salvador. The total length of the RN-21 is and is currently working as a traffic reliever in the metropolitan area. The RN-21 was named in honor of the first mayor of San Salvador, Diego de Holguin, due to political reasons it was renamed to Boulevard Monseñor Romero, in honor to Óscar Romero. The first phase of the highway was completed in 2009, and the second phase was completed and opened in November 2012. ====United States==== In the United States, a freeway is defined by the federal government's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices as a divided highway with full control of access. This means two things. First, adjoining property owners do not have a legal right of access, meaning that they cannot connect their lands to the highway by constructing driveways, although frontage roads provide access to properties adjacent to a freeway in many places. When an existing road is converted into a freeway, all existing driveways must be removed and access to adjacent private lands must be blocked with fences or walls. Second, traffic on a freeway is "free-flowing". All cross-traffic (and left-turning traffic) is relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are no traffic conflicts on the main line of the highway which must be regulated by traffic lights, stop signs, or other traffic control devices. Achieving such free flow requires the construction of many overpasses, underpasses, and ramp systems. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can almost always maintain their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to vehicles crossing perpendicular to mainline traffic. In contrast, an expressway is defined as a divided highway with partial control of access. Expressways may have driveways and at-grade intersections, though these are usually less numerous than on ordinary arterial roads. This distinction was apparently first developed in 1949 by the Special Committee on Nomenclature of what is now the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. In turn, the definitions were incorporated into AASHTO's official standards book, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, which would become the national standards book of USDOT under a 1966 federal statute. The same distinction has also been codified into the statutory law of eight states: California, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, and Wisconsin. However, each state codified the federal distinction slightly differently. California expressways do not necessarily have to be divided, though they must have at least partial access control. For both terms to apply, in Wisconsin, a divided highway must be at least four lanes wide; and in Missouri, both terms apply only to divided highways at least long that are not part of the Interstate Highway System. In North Dakota and Mississippi, expressways may have "full or partial" access control and "generally" have grade separations at intersections; a freeway is then defined as an expressway with full access control. Ohio's statute is similar, but instead of the vague word generally, it imposes a requirement that 50% of an expressway's intersections must be grade-separated for the term to apply. Only Minnesota enacted the exact MUTCD definitions, in May 2008. The term expressway is also used for what the federal government calls "freeways". Where the terms are distinguished, freeways can be characterized as expressways upgraded to full access control, while not all expressways are freeways. Examples in the United States of roads which are technically expressways (under the federal definition), but contain the word "freeway" in their names: State Fair Freeway in Kansas, Chino Valley Freeway in California, Rockaway Freeway in New York, and Shenango Valley Freeway (a portion of US 62) in Pennsylvania. Unlike in some jurisdictions, not all freeways in the US are part of a single national freeway network (although together with non-freeways, they form the National Highway System). For example, many state highways such as California State Route 99 have significant freeway sections. Many sections of the older United States Numbered Highways network have been upgraded to freeways but have kept their existing US Highway numbers. ===Asia=== ====China==== The National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) expressway network of the People's Republic of China is the longest in the world. The total length of China's expressways was by the end of 2014. Only in 2012, of expressways were added to this network. Expressways in China are a fairly recent addition to a complicated network of roads. According to Chinese government sources, China did not have any expressways before 1988. One of the earliest expressways nationwide was the Jingshi Expressway between Beijing and Shijiazhuang in Hebei province. This expressway now forms part of the Jingzhu Expressway, currently one of the longest expressways nationwide at over . ====Hong Kong==== In Hong Kong major motorways are numbered from 1 to 10 in addition to their names. Speed limits on expressways typically range from . ====India==== Expressways in India make up more than of the Indian National Highway System on which they are the highest class of road. The National Highways Development Project is underway to add an additional of expressways to the network by the year 2022. The National Highways Network of India, is a network of highways that is managed and maintained by agencies of the Government of India. Currently India has of National Highways out of which more than are four- or six-laned and remaining are two-laned. The national highway system of India consists of approximately of four-laned highways that collect tolls from users but do not have control of access and cannot be called expressways. Currently, a massive project is underway to expand the highway network and the Government of India plans to add an additional of expressways to the network by the year 2022. ====Indonesia==== In Indonesia, an expressway is better known as a Toll Road. Indonesia has 1,710 km expressway length so far, almost 70% of its expressways are in Java island. In 2009, the Indonesian government had planned to expand more expressway network in Java island by connecting Merak to Banyuwangi which is the total length of Trans-Java toll road including the Java big cities expressway such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung and its complements is more than 1,000 kilometers. The Indonesian government also had planned to build the Trans-Sumatra toll road that connects Banda Aceh to Bakauheni along 2,700 kilometers. In 2012, the government will allocate 150 trillion rupiah for the construction of the toll roads. There are three stages of construction of Trans-Sumatra toll road which is expected to be connected together in 2025. The other islands in Indonesia such as Kalimantan, Sulawesi also has begun constructed its expressways including connecting Manado to Makassar in Sulawesi and also Pontianak to Balikpapan in Kalimantan. However, there are still no plans to build an expressway in Papua due to its slow population growth. Indonesia is expected to have at least 7,000 kilometers expressway in 2030. ====Iran==== The history of freeways in Iran goes back to before the Iranian Revolution. The first freeway in Iran was built at that time, between Tehran and Karaj with additional construction and the studies of many other freeways started as well. Today Iran has about of freeway. ====Israel==== Controlled-access highways in Israel are designated by a blue colour. Blue highways are completely grade-separated but may include bus stops and other elements that may slow down traffic on the right lane. ====Japan==== make up the majority of controlled-access highways in Japan. The network boasts an uninterrupted link between Aomori Prefecture at the northern part of Honshū and Kagoshima Prefecture at the southern part of Kyūshū, linking Shikoku as well. Additional expressways serve travellers in Hokkaidō and on Okinawa Island, although those are not connected to the Honshū-Kyūshū-Shikoku grid. Expressways have a combined length of . ====Korea==== Since Gyeongin Expressway linking Seoul and Incheon opened in 1968, national expressway system in South Korea has been expanded into 36 routes, with total length of as of 2012. Most of expressways are four-lane roads, while (26%) have six to ten lanes. Speed limit is typically for routes with four or more lanes, and for two-lane routes. Some north–south routes, including some sections of Gyeongbu Expressway, have limit of . Expressways in South Korea were originally numbered in order of construction. Since 24 August 2001, they have been numbered in a scheme somewhat similar to that of the Interstate Highway System in the United States. Furthermore, the symbols of the South Korean highways are similar to the US red, white and blue. Arterial routes are designated by two-digit numbers, with north-south routes having odd numbers, and east-west routes having even numbers. Primary routes (i.e. major thoroughfares) have 5 or 0 as their last digit, while secondary routes end in other digits. Branch routes have three-digit route numbers, where the first two digits match the route number of an arterial route. This differs from the American system, whose last two digits match the primary route. Belt lines have three-digit route numbers where the first digit matches the respective city's postal code. This also differs from American numbering. Route numbers in the range 70–99 are not used in South Korea; they are reserved for designations in the event of Korean reunification. The Gyeongbu Expressway kept its Route 1 designation, as it is South Korea's first and most important expressway. ====Malaysia==== The Malaysian Expressway System (), which begins with the North-South Expressway (NSE), is currently in the process of being substantially developed. These expressways are built by private companies under the supervision of the government highway authority, Malaysian Highway Authority. The expressway network of Malaysia is considered the best expressway network in Southeast Asia and also in Asia after China and Japan and also the fifth in the world. They were 30 expressways in the country and the total length is . and another is still under construction. The closed toll expressway system is similar to the Japanese Expressway System and Chinese Expressway System. All Malaysian toll expressways are controlled-access highway and managed in the Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) system. Malaysian expressways exist in both West Malaysia and East Malaysia, however, the former are better-connected. The North-South Expressway passes through all the major cities and conurbations in West Malaysia, such as Penang, Ipoh, the Klang Valley and Johor Bahru. The Pan Borneo Highway connects the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak with Brunei. ====Pakistan==== Pakistan has a network of high-quality, international-standard limited access (or access-controlled) Motorways and Expressways, which are maintained and operated by the National Highway Authority. Pakistan also has the second largest network of motorways in South Asia just behind India. In August 2012, operational Motorways and Expressways in Pakistan had a combined length of with another under construction. NHA plans to construct an additional of Motorways in the next 10 years. Pakistan's motorways are part of Pakistan's National Trade Corridor project that aims to link Pakistan's three Arabian Sea ports of Karachi, Port Qasim and Gwadar to the rest of the country and further on with Afghanistan, Central Asia and China. Pakistan's first motorway, the M2, was inaugurated in November 1997. The M2 is a , six-lane motorway that links Pakistan's federal capital, Islamabad, with Punjab's provincial capital, Lahore. Since the completion of the M2, two additional motorways have become operational. These are the four-lane (with capacity to increase to six lanes) M3 (Pindi Bhattian-Faisalabad), which links the M2 to Faisalabad and the six-lane M1 (Peshawar-Swabi-Islamabad). Under-construction motorways include: (Karachi–Lahore Motorway) (KLM), estimated to be completed in 2017 with a total length of M4 (Faisalabad-Multan), estimated to be completed in 2015 with a total length of M8 (Ratodero–Gwadar), estimated to be completed in 2016 with a total length of M9 (Hyderabad–Karachi), estimated to be completed in 2016 with a total length of Planned motorways include: M5 (Multan–Dera Ghazi Khan), with a total length of . M6 (Dera Ghazi Khan–Ratodero), with a total length of . M7 (Dadu–Hub), with a total length of . ====The Philippines==== Full control-access highways in the Philippines are referred to as expressways as the term freeway or motorway is almost never used. ====Singapore==== The expressways of Singapore are special roads that allow motorists to travel quickly from one urban area to another. All of them are dual carriageways with grade-separated access. They usually have three to four lanes in each direction, although there are two-lane carriageways at many expressway—expressway intersections and five-lane carriageways in some places. There are ten expressways, including the new Marina Coastal Expressway. Studies about the feasibility of additional expressways are ongoing. Construction on the first expressway, the Pan Island Expressway, started in 1966. , there are of expressways in Singapore. The Singaporean expressway networks are connected with Malaysian expressway networks via Ayer Rajah Expressway (connects with the Second Link Expressway via the Malaysia–Singapore Second Link) and Bukit Timah Expressway (connects with the Eastern Dispersal Link via the Johor–Singapore Causeway). ====Sri Lanka==== Sri Lanka currently has over of designated expressways serving the southern part of the country. The first stage of the E01 Expressway (Southern Expressway) which opened in 2011 was Sri Lanka's first expressway spanning a distance of . The second stage of the Southern Expressway opened in 2014 and extends to Matara. The E03 Expressway (Colombo–Katunayake Expressway) opened in 2013 and connects Sri Lanka's largest city Colombo with the Bandaranaike International Airport covering a distance of . All E-Grade highways in Sri Lanka are access controlled, toll roads with speeds limits in the range of . The network is to be expanded to by 2019. Operational (fully or partially) : * [[E01 expressway (Sri Lanka)\|]] (Kottawa-Matara) * [[E02 expressway (Sri Lanka)\|]] (Kottawa-Kerawalapitiya) * [[E03 expressway (Sri Lanka)\|]] (Colombo-Katunayake) Planned : * [[E04 expressway (Sri Lanka)\|]] (Enderamulla-Kurunegala-Kandy) * [[E06 expressway (Sri Lanka)\|]] (Kahatuduwa-Pelmadulla) * Colombo Metropolitan expressway (Colombo Fort to Peliyagoda, connecting Colombo with the E03 expressway (Sri Lanka) Colombo-Katunayaka expressway.) ====Thailand==== The Thai motorway network is an intercity motorway network that spans . It is to be extended to over according to the master plan. Thailand's motorway network is considered to be separate from Thailand's expressway network, which is the system of usually elevated expressways within Greater Bangkok. Thailand also has a provincial highway network. The Thai highway network spans over across all regions of Thailand. These highways, however, are often dual carriageways with frequent u-turn lanes and intersections slowing down traffic. Coupled with the increase in the number of vehicles and the demand for a limited-access motorway, the Thai Government issued a Cabinet resolution in 1997 detailing the motorway construction master plan. Some upgraded sections of highway are being turned into a "motorway", while other motorways are being purpose-built. ===Europe=== According to Eurostat: A motorway is a road specially designed and built for motor vehicle traffic, which does not directly provide access to the properties bordering on it. Other characteristics of motorways include: two separated carriageways for the opposing directions of traffic, except at special points or, temporarily, due to carriageway repairs etc.; carriageways that are not crossed at the level of the carriageway by any other road, railway or tramway track, or footpath; and the use of special signposting to indicate the road as a motorway and to exclude specific categories of road vehicles and/ or road users. In determining the extent of a motorway its entry and exit lanes are included irrespective of the location of the motorway signposts. Urban motorways are also included in this term. Motorways status is signaled at the entry and exit of the motorway by a symbol conforming to international agreements, but specific to each country. File:Spain traffic signal s1.svg\|Spain File:Zeichen 330 - Autobahn, StVO 1992.svg\| Germany File:UK motorway symbol.svg\|United Kingdom File:SwissSign Highway.png\|Switzerland File:Autoroute F.svg\|France File:Italian traffic signs - autostrada.svg\|Italy The peripheral northern and eastern regions of the EU had a lower motorway densities. Within the European Union, there are 26 regions where motorways did not exist. There were 26 NUTS level 2 regions with no motorway network in 2013. Those regions are islands or remote regions, for instance four overseas French regions and Corsica. The Baltic member state of Latvia, as well as four regions from Poland, and two regions from each of Bulgaria and Romania also reported no motorway network; several of these regions bordered onto non-member neighbouring countries to the east of the EU. European main international traffic arteries are defined by ECE/TRANS/SC.1/384 which consider three types of roads: motorways, express roads, and ordinary roads. ====Albania==== Highways in Albania form part of the recent Albanian road system. Following the collapse of communism in 1991, highways began to be modernized with the construction of the first highway in Albania, SH2, connecting Tirane with Durrës via Vora. Since the 2000s, main roadways have drastically improved, though lacking standards in design and road safety. This involved the construction of new roadways and the putting of contemporary signs. However, some state roads continue to deteriorate from lack of maintenance while others remain unfinished. File:Autostrada Durrës-Morina-04.jpg\|thumb\|A1 Nation's Highway in Northern Albania connecting Albania with Kosovo. File:Kraba Tunnel.JPG\|thumb\|Krraba Tunnel on the A3 Tirana - Elbasan File:A2 Levan Vlora.JPG\|right\|thumb\|A2 Fier - Vlore known as the Independence Highway ====Austria==== The Austrian autobahns (German: Autobahnen) are controlled-access highways in Austria. They are officially called Bundesstraßen A (Bundesautobahnen) under the authority of the Federal Government according to the Austrian Federal Road Act (Bundesstraßengesetz), not to be confused with the former Bundesstraßen highways maintained by the Austrian states since 2002. Austria currently has 18 autobahns, since 1982 built and maintained by the self-financed ASFiNAG stock company in Vienna, which is wholly owned by the Austrian republic and earns revenue from road-user charges and tolls. Each route bears a number as well as an official name with local reference, which however is not displayed on road signs. Unusually for European countries, interchanges (between motorways called Knoten, "knots") are numbered by distance in kilometres starting from where the route begins; this arrangement is also used in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Spain, and most provinces of Canada (and in most American states, albeit in miles). The current Austrian Autobahn network has a total length of 1,720 km (1,070 mi). File:Brenner-Autobahn_mit_der_Europabrücke_bei_Patsch.jpg\|Brenner Autobahn near Innsbruck File:A22_Floridsdorfer_Brücke.jpg\|A22 Donauuferautobahn, near the exit Floridsdorfer Brücke ====Belgium==== In 1937, the first motorway between Brussels and Ostend was completed, following the example of neighboring countries such as Germany. It mainly served local industries and tourism as a connection between the capital city and a coastal region. However, the Second World War and the reparation of the complete road network after the war caused a serious delay in the creation of other motorways. In 1949, the first plans were made to build a complete motorway network of that would be integrated with the neighboring networks. Although the plans were ready, the construction of the motorway network was much slower than in neighboring countries because the project was deemed not to be urgent. Because of economic growth in the 1960s, more citizens could afford cars, and the call for good-quality roads was higher than ever before. In each year between 1965 and 1973, over of motorway were built. At the end of the 1970s, the construction of motorways slowed down again due to costs, combined with an economic crisis, more expensive fuel and changing public opinion. In the following years, the only investments done were to complete already started motorway constructions. But most important cities were already connected. In 1981, the responsibilities for construction and maintenance of the motorways shifted from the federal to the regional governments. This sometimes caused tensions between the governments. For example, the part of the ring road around Brussels that crosses Wallonian territory has never been finished, since only Flanders suffers from the unfinished ring. Belgium today has the longest total motorway length per area unit of any country in the world. Most motorway systems in Belgium have at least three lanes in each direction. Nearly all motorways have overhead lighting including those in rural areas. The dense population of Belgium and the still unfinished state of some motorways, such as the ring roads around Brussels and Antwerp cause major traffic congestion on motorways. On an average Monday morning in 2012, there was a total of of traffic jams and the longest traffic jam of the year was , purely on the motorways. ====Bulgaria==== Legislation in Bulgaria defines two types of highways: motorways () and expressways (). The main differences are that motorways have emergency lanes and the maximum allowed speed limit is , while expressways do not have emergency lanes and the speed limit is . , of motorways are in service, with another under various stages of construction. More than are planned. Also, several expressways are planned. ====Croatia==== The primary high-speed motorways in Croatia are called autoceste (; singular: autocesta), and they are defined as roads with at least three lanes in each direction (including hard shoulder) and a speed limit of not less than . ====Czech Republic==== The Czech Republic has currently (2016) of motorways (dálnice) whose speed limit is 130 km/h or 80 mph (or 80 km/h or 50 mph within a town). The total length should be around 2030. The number of a motorway (in red) copies the number of the national route (in blue) which has been replaced by the motorway. There are also roads for motorcars (silnice pro motorová vozidla). Those common roads are not subject to a fee (in form of vignette) for vehicles with total weight up to 3,5 t and their high speed limit, if they have divided dual carriageways, may reach 110 km/h or 70 mph, partially up to 130 km/h or 80 mph. ====Denmark==== Denmark has a well covered motorway system today, which has been difficult to build due to the county's geography with many islands. The longest bridges are the Great Belt and the Øresund bridges to Skåne (Scania) in southern Sweden. Both are motorways with dual electrical train tracks added. A motorway tunnel across the Fehmarn Belt to Germany is planned. Around Copenhagen, two ring motorways have been built. Even roads with fewer than 10,000 vehicles per day have been built in the most northern part of Jutland. This was done to assure that all ferry traffic is directed to the motorway system as soon as possible. ====Finland==== Finland has 863 kilometres (536 mi) of motorway, which is only a small proportion of the whole highway network. More than half of the length of the motorway network consists of six radial motorways originating in Helsinki, to Kirkkonummi (Länsiväylä), Turku (Vt1/E18), Tampere (Vt3/E12), Tuusula, Heinola (Vt4/E75) and Hamina (Vt7/E18). These roads have a total length of . The other motorways are rather short sections close to the biggest cities, often designed to be bypasses. The motorway section on national roads 4 and 29, between Simo and Tornio, is said to be the northernmost motorway in the world. Finnish motorways do not have a separate road numbering scheme. Instead, they carry national highway numbers. In addition to signposted motorways, there are also some limited-access two-lane expressways, and other grade-separated four-lane expressways (perhaps the most significant example being Ring III near Helsinki). ====France==== The Autoroute system in France consists largely of toll roads, except around large cities and in parts of the north. It is a network of worth of motorways. Autoroute destinations are shown in blue, while destinations reached through a combination of autoroutes are shown with an added autoroute logo. Toll autoroutes are signalled with the word péage (toll). File:Séparation A430 & A43.JPG\|thumb\|Cross between A430 motorway and A43 motorway File:Autoroute A2 - Barrière de péage de Hordain-5705.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Barrière de péage\|Toll barrier in Hordain (south of Hordain), on autoroute A2 ====Germany==== Germany's network of controlled-access expressways includes federal Autobahnen and Bundesstraßen as well as Landesstraßen (State Highways), Kreisstraßen (District Highways) and Gemeindestraßen (municipal highways). The federal Autobahn network has a total length of in 2014, making it one of the densest networks in the world. The German autobahns have no general speed limit (though about 47% of the total length is subject to local and/or conditional limits), but the advisory speed limit (Richtgeschwindigkeit) is . The lower class expressways usually have speed limits of or lower. File: Garching_Bundesautobahn_9.jpg \|thumb\|right\|German Motorway (Autobahn) - one of the world's earliest motorways File:A5Langen.jpg\|thumb\|An autobahn with 4 lanes in each direction of travel for 21 kilometers. The section between Zeppelinheim and Darmstadt is the oldest Autobahn. File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F088783-0003, Bei Bad Honnef, Ferienverkehr auf der A 3.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The A 3 in 1991 File:Verkehrszeichen auf der Bundesautobahn 20090320 001.JPG\|thumb\|Dynamic traffic signs on an Autobahn. ====Hungary==== In Hungary, a controlled-access highway is called an (plural ). ====Ireland==== In Ireland the Local Government (Roads and Motorways) Act 1974 made motorways possible, although the first section, the M7 Naas Bypass, did not open until 1983. The first section of the M50 opened in 1990, a part of which was Ireland's first toll motorway, the West-Link. However it would be the 1990s before substantial sections of motorway were opened in Ireland, with the first completed motorway—the M1 motorway—being finished in 2005. Under the Transport 21 infrastructural plan, motorways or high quality dual carriageways were built between Dublin and the major cities of Cork, Galway, Limerick and Waterford by the end of 2010. Other shorter sections of motorway either have been or will be built on some other main routes. In 2007 legislation (the Roads Bill 2007) was created to allow existing roads be designated motorways by order because previously legislation allowed only for newly built roads to be designated motorways. As a result, most HQDCs nationwide (other than some sections near Dublin on the N4 and N7, which did not fully meet motorway standards) were reclassified as motorways. The first stage in this process occurred when all the HQDC schemes open or under construction on the N7 and N8, and between Kinnegad and Athlone on the N6 and Kilcullen and south of Carlow on the N9, were reclassified motorway on 24 September 2008. Further sections of dual carriageway were reclassified in 2009. As of December 2011, the Republic of Ireland has around 1,017 kilometres (632 mi) of motorways. ====Italy==== The world's first motorway was the Autostrada dei laghi, inaugurated on 21 September 1924 in Milan. It linked Milan to Varese; it was then extended to Como, near the border with Switzerland, inaugurated on 28 June 1925. Piero Puricelli, the engineer who designed this new type of road, decided to cover the expenses by introducing a toll. Other motorways built before the Second World War in Italy were Naples-Pompeii, Florence-Pisa, Padua-Venice, Milan-Turin, Milan-Bergamo-Brescia and Rome-Ostia. Type B highways (or strada extraurbana principale), commonly but unofficially known as superstrada, are divided highways with at least two lanes for each direction, a paved shoulder on the right, no cross-traffic and no at-grade intersections. Access restrictions on such highways are exactly the same as on autostrade, as is the signage at the beginning and the end of the highway (the only differences being the background colours and the maximum speed limit: blue instead of green and 110 KMpH instead of 130 KMpH). ====Netherlands==== Roads in the Netherlands include at least of motorways and expressways, and with a motorway density of 64 kilometres per 1,000 km2 (103 mi/1,000 mi2), the country has one of the densest motorway networks in the world. About are fully constructed to motorway standards, These are called Autosnelweg or simply snelweg, and numbered and signposted with an A and up to three digits, like A12. They are consistently built with at least two carriageways, guard rails and interchanges with grade separation. Since September 2012, the nationwide maximum speed has been raised to , but on many stretches speed is still limited to . Dutch motorways may only be used by motor vehicles both capable and legally allowed to go at least . Dutch roads are used with a very high intensity in relation to the network length Regulation from February 2007 added roads S2 and S79 to the list. Regulation from October 2009 supplemented plans with road S61. ====Portugal==== Portugal was the third country in Europe—after Italy and Germany—to build a motorway (, plural: ), opening, in 1944, the Lisbon-Estádio Nacional section of the present A5 (Autoestrada da Costa do Estoril). Additional motorway sections were built in the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s. However, the large-scale building of motorways started only in the late 1980s. Currently, Portugal has a very well-developed network of motorways, with about a extension, that connects all the highly populated coastal regions of the country and the main cities of the less populous interior. This means that 87% of the Portuguese population lives at less than 15 minutes' driving time from a motorway access. Unlike the Spanish network, most of the Portuguese motorways are tolled, although there are also some non-tolled highways, namely in Lisbon, Oporto and Trás-os-Montes. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the government of Portugal created seven shadow toll concessions, the SCUT toll (, no costs for the user). In those concessions it were included more than 900 km of motorways and highways, some of them already built, others which were built in the following years. However, due to economical and political reasons, the shadow toll concept was abolished between 2010 and 2011, with electronic toll equipment being installed in these motorways, to charge their users. Having only electronic tolls, former SCUT motorways can now only be used by vehicles equipped with electronic payment devices or vehicles registered in the system. Portuguese motorways form an independent network (, National Motorway Network), that overlaps with the Fundamental and Complementary subnetworks of the National Highway Network (). Each motorway section overlapping with the Fundamental subnetwork is part of an IP (, Principal route) and each motorway section overlapping with the Complementary subnetwork is part of an IC (, Complementary route). Thus, a motorway can overlap with sections of different IP or IC routes and - on the other hand - an IP or IC route can overlap with sections of different motorways. An example is A22 motorway, which overlaps with sections of IP1 and of IC4 routes; another example is IP1 route, which overlaps with sections of the A22, A2, A12, A1 and A3 motorways. The National Motorway Network has a proper numbering system in which each motorway has a number prefixed by the letter "A". In most cases, a motorway signage indicates only its A number. The number of the IP or IC of which a motorway section is a part is not signed except in some short motorways which lack a proper A number. ====Republic of Macedonia==== The total motorway network in Macedonia as of 2016 is 242 km. There are another 132 km being constructed, so by 2019 the total motorway size will be almost 400 km. The two motorway routes are A1 motorway (Republic of Macedonia), which is part of the European corridor E-75 and A2 motorway (Republic of Macedonia) (part of E-65). New stretch is under construction from Skopje to Stip (A3). ====Romania==== The first motorway in Romania was completed in 1972, linking Bucharest and Pitești. As of July 2015, Romania has of motorways in use, with another under construction. The Romanian Government has adopted a General Master Plan for Transport that was approved by the European Union in July 2015, containing the strategy for expanding the road (including motorway) network until 2040, using EU funding. ====Serbia==== Motorways () and expressways () are the backbone of the road system in Serbia. There are 654 km of motorways and 23 km of expressways, or 677 km in total. Motorways in Serbia have three lanes (including emergency lane) in each direction, signs are white-on-green, as in the rest of former Yugoslavia and the normal speed limit is 120 km/h. Expressways, unlike motorways, don't have emergency lanes, signs are white-on-blue and the normal speed limit is 100 km/h. As the Serbian word for motorway is "autoput", the "A1", "A2" or "A3" road designations are used since November 2013. All state roads categorized as class I, that are motorways currently of in the future, are marked with one-digit numbers and known as class Ia. All other roads, which belong to class I, are marked with two-digit numbers and known as class Ib. Expressways belong to class Ib, too. E-numeration is also widely used on motorways. File:E-75 in Serbia.JPG\|right\|thumb\|A1/E-75 motorway in Serbia File:Belgrade (town sign).jpg\|right\|thumb\|Town sign at the entrance in Belgrade, on the A1 motorway ====Spain==== The Spanish network of autopistas and autovias has a length of . Autopistas are specifically reserved for automobile travel, so all vehicles not able to sustain at least are banned from them. General speed limits are mandated by the Spanish Traffic Law as . Specific limits may be imposed based on road, meteorological or traffic conditions. Spanish legislation requires an alternate route to be provided for slower vehicles. Many, but not all, autopistas are toll roads, which also mandates an alternate toll-free route under the Spanish laws. M40 outside Madrid.jpg\|thumb\|The M-40 autopista (motorway) is one of the beltways serving Madrid. It is one of the few non-toll autopistas of significant length A5 Navalcarnero.jpg\|thumb\|The A-5 autovía (expressway) near Navalcarnero, Madrid. Note the mostly nonexistent acceleration lane in the road joining from the bottom right Algaba.jpg\|thumb\|Modern autovías (expressway) such as the A-66 near Guillena, Seville, offer most, if not all, features that are required by an autopista (motorway) ====Sweden==== Sweden has the largest motorway network in Scandinavia (). It is, however, unevenly allocated. Most motorways are located in the south of the country, where the population density is the highest. The first motorway in Sweden opened in 1953, between Lund and Malmö. Four-lane expressways had been built before, an early example is E20 between Gothenburg and Alingsås, built in the early 1940s. Most of the current network was built in the 1970s and 1990s. A Swedish highway that has a significant portion of the Swedish motorway network is E4, which runs from the border city of Tornio in Finland to Helsingborg in Scania. E4 is the main route that connects the capital Stockholm with Scania and the rest of the European continent, via E20 over the Öresund bridge. All of E4 south of the city Gävle is of motorway standard, with only the part passing Ljungby (32 km) left, currently in expressway standard. Upgrade to motorway standard will start in 2017. The part of E4 that runs through western Stockholm is called Essingeleden and is the busiest road in Sweden. Other highways that have a significant portion of motorway standard is E6, E20, E18 and E22. Motorways in Sweden are however not restricted to European routes; so called Riksvägar and other regional road types can also be of motorway standard. An example of this is Riksväg 40. Riksväg 40 is the main link between the largest cities in the country, Stockholm and Gothenburg. Notably, not even the majority of the European route- network in Sweden is motorway or even have expressway standard. All of this is because road numbering and road standard is separate in Sweden, as in the rest of Scandinavia. ====Turkey==== Motorways () of Turkey are a network in constant development. Some motorways require toll (using only RFID methods), mostly six lanes wide, illuminated and with a speed limit. In 2013, the motorways were long in total. File:Turkish state road D 750.JPG\|thumb\|Turkish state road D 750 at Konya junction. Toros Mountains in the background File:Seyrantepe bridge.png\|thumb\|Otoyol 2 near Ali Sami Yen Stadium, İstanbul ====United Kingdom==== =====Great Britain===== A map Showing Future Pattern of Principal National Routes was issued by the Ministry of War Transport in 1946 shortly before the law that allowed roads to be restricted to specified classes of vehicle (the Special Roads Act 1949) was passed. The first section of motorway, the M6 Preston Bypass, opened in 1958 followed by the first major section of motorway (the M1 between Crick and Berrygrove), which opened in 1959. by 1972 the first of motorway had been built. Whilst roads outside of urban areas continued to be built throughout the 1970s, opposition to urban routes became more pronounced. Most notably, plans by the Greater London Council for a series of ringways were cancelled following extensive road protests and a rise in costs. In 1986 the compromised, single-ring, M25 motorway was completed. In 1996 the total length of motorways reached . Motorways in Great Britain, like in numerous European countries, will nearly always have the following characteristics: #No traffic lights (except occasionally on slip roads prior to the main carriageway) #Exit is nearly always via a numbered junction and slip road only with minor rare exceptions. #Pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles below a specific engine size are banned. #There is a central reservation separating traffic flowing in opposing directions (the only exception to this is the A38 (M) in Birmingham where the central reservation is replaced by another lane in which the direction of traffic changes depending on the time of day. There was another small spur motorway near Manchester with no solid central reservation, but this was declassified as a motorway in the 2000s.) #No roundabouts on the main carriageway. (This is only the case however on motorways beginning with M (so called M class)). In the case of Upgraded A Roads ending with M there are numerous cases of roundabouts on the main carriageway. In all M class motorways bar two, there are no roundabouts except where they mark the point at which the numbered motorway in question ends or the motorway designation ends. The only exceptions in Great Britain to this are the M271 in Southampton which has a roundabout on the main carriageway where it meets the M27, but then continues as the M271 after the junction. This motorway has been criticised as being "illegal", and as undermining the meaning of an "M Class" motorway.. The second exception came about as a result of renumbering sections of the M62 and M66 motorways near Manchester as the M60, to form a ring around the city. What was formerly the junction between the M62 and M66 now involves the clockwise M60 negotiating a roundabout, while traffic for the eastbound M62 and northbound M66 carries straight on from the M60. This junction, known as 'Simister Island', has also been criticised for the presence of a roundabout and the numbered route turning off. =====Northern Ireland===== Legal authority existed in the Special Roads Act (Northern Ireland) 1963 similar to that in the 1949 Act. The first motorway to open was the M1 motorway, though it did so under temporary powers until the Special Roads Act had been passed. Work on the motorways continued until the 1970s when the oil crisis and The Troubles both intervened causing the abandonment of many schemes. ===Oceania=== ====Australia==== Most of Australia's capital cities feature a motorway network within their urban areas. Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth, while Canberra, Adelaide, Hobart and the regional centres of Newcastle, Geelong, Gold Coast and Wollongong feature a selection of limited-access routes. Outside these areas traffic volumes do not generally demand motorway-standard access, although heavily trafficked regional corridors such as Sydney–Newcastle (M1 Pacific Motorway), Brisbane–Gold Coast (M1 Pacific Motorway), Melbourne–Geelong (M1 Princes Freeway), Perth-Mandurah (SR2 Kwinana Freeway) and that form part of major long-distance routes feature high-standard motorway links. The M31 Hume Highway/Freeway connecting Sydney and Melbourne and the M23 Federal Highway spur route that connects Canberra with Sydney are the only major interstate highways that are completed to a continuous dual carriageway standard. In addition, construction on the A1/M1 Pacific Highway connecting Sydney and Brisbane is underway to upgrade the M1 to dual carriageway highway. There are also plans to upgrade the A25 Barton Highway, another spur off the M31 that connects Canberra with Melbourne, to a dual carriageway highway. Although these inter-city highways are dual carriageway they are not all controlled access highways. Most of these inter-city highways have driveways to adjacent property and at-grade junctions with smaller roads. Unlike many other countries, some of Australia's motorways are being opened to cyclists. As the respective state governments upgrade their state's motorways bicycle lanes are being added and/or shoulders widened alongside the motorways. ====New Zealand==== The term Motorway in New Zealand encompasses multilane divided freeways as well as narrower 2-4-lane undivided expressways with varying degrees of grade separation; the term Motorway describes the legal traffic restrictions rather than the type of road. New Zealand's motorway network is small due to the nation's low population density and low traffic volumes making it uneconomical to build controlled-access highways outside the major urban centres. New Zealand's first motorway opened in December 1950 near Wellington, running from Johnsonville to Tawa. This motorway now forms the southern part of the Johnsonville-Porirua Motorway and part of State Highway 1. Auckland's first stretch of motorway was opened in 1953 between Ellerslie and Mount Wellington (between present-day exit 435 and exit 438), and now forms part of the Southern Motorway. Most major urban areas in New Zealand feature limited-access highways. Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin contain motorways, with only Auckland having a substantial motorway network. ==See also== List of controlled-access highway systems ==Notes==	AP
In The Archers, which river flows through Ambridge?	Lexile Codes \| The Lexile® Framework for Reading Frequently Asked Questions Sometimes a Lexile measure by itself is not enough information to choose a particular book for a particular reader. This is why some books get Lexile codes—two-letter designations that appear before the Lexile measure (for example, AD580L). The Lexile code gives you more information about a book that relates to its developmental appropriateness, reading difficulty, and common or intended usage. Word frequency and sentence length—the two text characteristics that determine a Lexile measure—do not describe all of the content of a book. Lexile codes provide some context to the numerical measure to further help you guide readers toward fruitful reading experiences. There are also Spanish Lexile codes for Spanish titles with Lexile measures. The Lexile codes are: NP: Non-Prose AD: Adult Directed Picture books are frequently considered for an AD or "adult directed" code because they are usually read to a child, rather than a child reading them independently. This is the classic example of parent and child sitting together on the couch with the book open in their laps. Although seemingly easy reading, picture books can still present a challenging independent reading experience to an age-appropriate reader for reasons of text difficulty and book layout or design. The text difficulty of picture books varies widely across the genre. For instance, Maurice Sendak's Where the Wild Things Are (HarperCollins Publishers) is a beloved read-aloud for preschoolers. Its Lexile measure of 740L, however, is around the average reading ability for someone ending fourth grade. Upon a closer look, the text comprises long sentences and contains some fairly high-level vocabulary such as "mischief," "private," "gnash," and "rumpus." The parent on the couch would help the preschooler sound these words out and decipher these long sentences. Therefore the book is coded adult directed and the measure is AD740L. Additionally, picture books can have design elements that may visually complicate reading for a child. Factors such as font size, typeface, page layout, legibility, and the relationship between pictures and text may significantly impact reading comprehension. The story and illustrations in Where the Wild Things Are are perfect for young children. But the lines of the text are close together and the sentences are spread over multiple pages, often in long horizontal lines. These design elements may challenge a child's ability to read the book independently even if the text difficulty is well matched. Initially, a more advanced reader may need to read the book with a child. Back to Top NC: Non-Conforming The NC code is applied to books that have a Lexile measure markedly higher than is typical for the publisher's intended audience or designated developmental level of the book. The Lexile measure of a book is compared to the Lexile range of readers in the intended audience in order to make an NC code determination. The NC code is useful when matching high-ability readers with a book that's still at an appropriate developmental level. Alternatively, some picture books with disproportionately high Lexile measures may receive an AD (Adult Directed) code. Seymour Simon's Amazing Aircraft (SeaStar Books) is coded NC710L. Its spine reads "grades 1-3" but its Lexile measure is higher than a typical early elementary school student's ability range. Therefore the book is coded as Non-Conforming. Back to Top HL: High-Low A text designated as "HL" has a Lexile measure much lower than the average reading ability of the intended age range of its readers. Librarians and booksellers sometimes refer to young adult books with disproportionately low Lexile measures as "high-low" books, meaning "high-interest" plus "low-readability." These books receive an HL code. Often fiction, HL books are useful when matching older (grade 7 and beyond) struggling or reluctant readers with text at both an appropriate difficulty level and an appropriate developmental level. Despite their short sentences and basic vocabulary, HL books are designed to appeal to readers at a more mature developmental level. For example, Beth Goobie's Sticks and Stones (Orca Soundings) is classified as a young adult book and measures 430L—an average reading ability for 2nd graders. The book's characters are high-school students who struggle with the many challenges that face high-school students such as dating and gossip. Therefore, the book is coded HL430L. Back to Top IG: Illustrated Guide The IG code is applied to books that consist of independent pieces or sections of text such as in an encyclopedia or glossary. These text pieces could be moved around without affecting the overall linear flow of the book. Usually nonfiction, IG books are often used as a reference resource rather than read in their entirety like a storybook. Their distinguishing text characteristics include: technical vocabulary, definitions, and pronunciation guides in parentheses or contrasting type integration of illustrations and diagrams into the text pull-quotes, factoids, and other categorical marginalia the presentation of each discrete topic on one to two pages These text characteristics do not necessarily impact reading comprehension or developmental appropriateness. Instead, the IG code conveys an idea of the kind of book and what the book typically will be used for in the classroom or library. Birds of Prey by Dr. Gerald Legg (Franklin Watts Library) is coded IG. Separate paragraphs are arranged upon the page, functioning more like multiple-sentence captions. A particular reading order is neither indicated by the layout nor important to comprehension. Thus the book measure is IG320L. Back to Top GN: Graphic Novel The GN code indicates that the book is a graphic novel or comic book. The text of GN books appears primarily in voice or thought bubbles integrated into comic book-style illustrations. Graphic novels tend to contain a larger percentage of dialogue than most other genres of books. They also typically lack some of the required text conventions of dialogue, such as putting "she said" after a quoted sentence, because illustration methods are used to indicate spoken text. The impact of picture support on reading comprehension is not captured in the Lexile measure of a graphic novel. To Dance: A Ballerina's Graphic Novel (Aladdin) , written by Siena Cherson Siegel and illustrated by Mark Siegel, is coded as GN610L. Also see this article from Edutopia about the instructional value of using graphic novels and comics in the classroom. Back to Top BR: Beginning Reader Beginning Reader (BR) is a code given to readers and text that are below 0L on the Lexile scale. In some cases, for readers, a BR code is followed by a number and L (e.g., BR150L). A Lexile reader measure of BR150L indicates that the Lexile measure of the reader is 150 units below 0L. The smaller the number following the BR code, the more advanced the reader is. For example, a BR150L reader is more advanced than a BR200L reader. Unlike the reader measure, all text measures below 0L are currently reported as BR. MetaMetrics has conducted research to differentiate the BR text measures, and these measures will be available at a later date. Note that Beginning Reader (BR) is the only Lexile code that applies to both readers and text. All other codes apply only to text. Hop on Pop by Dr. Seuss (Random House) is a BR book. Back to Top NP: Non-Prose The NP code is for any book comprising more than 50% non-standard or non-conforming prose. NP books do not receive a Lexile measure, merely the NP code. Some common examples of non-prose content are poems, plays, songs, recipes, and text with non-standard or absent punctuation. Since the Lexile Framework is based on prose analysis, Maurice Sendak's Alligators All Around (HarperTrophy) is coded NP. The text of the book is not in complete sentences and lacks punctuation entirely. The text difficulty of such a book cannot currently be assigned a Lexile measure.	i don't know
Which species of wild goose, Anser anser, is the ancestor of all European domestic geese?	Greylag goose (Anser anser) Greylag goose Anser anser (Carolus Linnaeus, 1758) The greylag goose (also spelled graylag in the United States) (Anser anser) is a bird with a wide range in the Old World. It is the type species of the genus Anser. It was in pre-Linnean times known as the wild goose ("Anser ferus"). This species is the ancestor of domesticated geese in Europe and North America. Flocks of feral birds derived from domesticated birds are widespread. The greylag goose is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Within science, the greylag goose is most notable as being the bird with which the ethologist Konrad Lorenz first did his major studies into the behavioural phenomenon of imprinting. Description The greylag is the largest and bulkiest of the grey geese of the genus Anser. It has a rotund, bulky body, a thick and long neck, and a large head and bill. It has pink legs and feet, and an orange or pink bill. It is 74 to 91 cm long with a wing length of 41.2 to 48 cm. It has a tail 6.2 to 6.9 cm, a bill of 6.4 to 6.9 cm long, and a tarsus of 7.1 to 9.3 cm. It weighs 2.16 to 4.56 kg, with a mean weight of around 3.3 kg. The wingspan is 147 to 180 cm. Males are generally larger than females, with the sexual dimorphism more pronounced in the eastern subspecies rubirostris, which is larger than the nominate subspecies on average. The plumage of the greylag goose is greyish-brown, with a darker head and paler belly with variable black spots. Its plumage is patterned by the pale fringes of its feathers. It has a white line bordering its upper flanks. Its coverts are lightly coloured, contrasting with its darker flight feathers. Juveniles differ mostly in their lack of a black-speckled belly. The Greylag goose has a loud cackling call, HOOOOOONK! or GAAA!, like the domestic goose. Goslings will chirp or whistle lightly, and adults will hiss if threatened or angered. Distribution and habitat This species is found throughout the Old World, apparently breeding where suitable localities are to be found in many European countries, although it no longer breeds in southwestern Europe. Eastwards, it extends across Asia to China. In North America, there are both feral domestic geese, which are similar to greylags, and occasional vagrants. In Great Britain, their numbers had declined as a breeding bird, retreating north to breed wild only in the Outer Hebrides and the northern mainland of Scotland. However, during the 20th century, feral populations have been established elsewhere, and they have now re-colonised much of England. These populations are increasingly coming into contact. The breeding habitat is a variety of wetlands including marshes, lakes, and damp heather moors. In Norway, the number of greylag geese is estimated to have increased three- to fivefold during the last 15–20 years. As a consequence, farmers' problems caused by goose grazing on farmland has increased considerably. This problem is also evident for the pink-footed goose. Behaviour The geese are generally migratory, moving south or west in winter. Scottish breeders, some other populations in northwestern Europe, and feral flocks are largely resident. This species is one of the last to migrate, and the "" portion of its name is said to derive from this lagging behind other geese. This article uses material from the Wikipedia released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike Licence 3.0 . Please see license details for photos in photo by-lines. Videos of Greylag goose	Greylag goose
What is the name of the coarse woollen textile used to cover snooker tables?	The RSPB: Greylag goose Greylag goose Conservation status: Amber The ancestor of most domestic geese, the greylag is the largest and bulkiest of the wild geese native to the UK and Europe. In many parts of the UK it has been re-established by releasing birds in suitable areas, but the resulting flocks (often mixed with Canada geese) found around gravel pits, lakes and reservoirs all year round in southern Britain tend to be semi-tame and uninspiring. The native birds and wintering flocks found in Scotland retain the special appeal of truly wild geese. Illustrations Swans, ducks and geese (Anatidae) Where to see them Greylag geese are easily seen in lowland areas of the UK all year, sometimes even in suburban parks with lakes but especially on low-lying grassy fields in river valleys. Wild ones, however, are found mostly north of the Solway and can be seen at RSPB nature reserves such as Mersehead (Dumfries & Galloway), Vane Farm (Fife) and Loch of Strathbeg (Grampian) from September to April. Wild breeding greylags can be found at Forsinard (Caithnes & Sutherland). When to see them All year round in the south; mostly September to March or April where wild visitors appear in the north. What they eat Grass, roots, cereal leaves and spilled grain Population	i don't know
Off the coast of which country do the volcanic Westmann Islands lie?	The beautiful Viking stave church in Vestmannaeyjar islands \| Icelandmag The beautiful Viking stave church in Vestmannaeyjar islands Tweet Rooted in history The stave church is located at the old harbour in Heimaey island. The big cliff to the left is called Heimaklettur and is one of the island's most famous landmarks. Photo/Vilhelm Gunnarsson Although the beautiful stave church on the island of Heimaey in the Westman Islands is not as old as you might think, its roots go deep in history. It was built and consecrated in the year 2000, and presented to the Icelandic nation by Norway in commemoration of the thousand-year anniversary of Iceland’s conversion to Christianity, and contains a replica of the Norwegian medieval altarpiece of Saint Olav. The architecture and the building methods are from the period just after the close of the Viking Age in the 1100 and 1200’s, the church being a replica of the Norwegian Haltdalen stave church , which was built around 1170. The location is called Skansinn and is a part of the harbor of the town of Vestmannaeyjabær on Heimaey, the largest and only inhabited island of the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. It’s located on land that was formed in the huge 1973 eruption, as were the black walls of lava right behind it. The 15 islands and about 30 skerries of the Westman archipelago lie off the south coast of Iceland, along a linear volcanic system that consists of 70–80 volcanoes both above and below the sea. The islands have been formed by eruptions over the past 10,000 to 12,000 years, one of which was the 1973 eruption of the volcano Eldfell, right in the middle of the town of Vestmannaeyjabær, another being the infamous eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010. The ferry ride to Heimaey island is only 30 minutes from Landeyjarhöfn harbor. It’s a visit you should not miss.	Iceland
Of what species is Yggdrasil, the immense tree at the heart of Norse mythology?	ICELAND OFF-ROAD ICELAND OFF-ROAD Story & Photos by Vicki Hoefling Andersen High on Adventure, November 2014 Despite the beauty of Fljotshlid’s serene location, there’s a hint of sulfur in the crisp morning air. Horses graze in the shadow of Eyjafjallajokull, world-famous for its 2010 eruption which shut down European airports for over a week. I scan a landscape which was inundated by flood when the eruption melted its massive glaciers. Fortunately I can dismiss E15 (as it is often referred to) as the culprit because less than a hundred miles away is the newly active Bardarbunga, a rift eruption which opened shortly before my visit and was currently belching 24,000 tons of sulfur into the air each day. Icelandic horses graze below the glaciers of Eyjafjallajokull. To keep the breed pure, Icelandic law prohibits the importation of other horses and if a horse leaves the country, it is not allowed to return. The largest volcanic island in the world, Iceland covers 40,000 square miles, about the size of the state of Kentucky and a bit larger than Portugal. Sixteen billion years ago it was an ancient sea bed, but now sits atop the Mid-Atlantic ridge just south of the Arctic Circle, and boasts some 35 active volcanoes and 269 named glaciers. This combination of geological activity covers 4,500 square miles in barren lava and envelopes another 5,000 with glaciers. Its population of 325,000 is concentrated along the coastline, with two-thirds of Icelanders residing in the capital city of Reykjavik. This leaves 80% of the island uninhabited, resulting in room for a lot of outdoor and backcountry adventure possibilities and a nice variety of outfitters and guides around the country. Arcanum Adventure Tours is a great way to explore Myrdalsjokull glacier, although late summer might find the slopes dusted with volcanic ash from Katla. (photos above left and middle courtesy of Arcanum Adventure Tours) Year-round sledding is enjoyed thanks to Iceland’s many glaciers. Katla, one of the country’s largest volcanoes, was considered the gateway to Hell in ancient times, but is now home to the country’s fourth largest glacier – Myrdalsjokull. It has been nearly a hundred years since Katla erupted, but she still rattles the ground and spews ash. David Rockland models his ATV Adventures Iceland gear (above left), perfect for whatever weather or conditions he encounters while exploring the Reykjanes Peninsula. Behind the Blue Lagoon (above right) is the hill (largest hump in the distance) on which David is standing. In the picture of David, the steam plume behind him is the one that originates from the power plant behind the Blue Lagoon. (photos courtesy of “the dashingly handsome ATV-riding expert” David Rockland) ATV Adventures Iceland, based out of Grindavík harbor on the southwestern coast about 45 minutes south of Reykjavik, offers a variety of tours that can include snorkeling or jet boating, caving or indulging in the mineral-rich thermal waters of the Blue Lagoon. Iceland’s varied terrain and scenery provides opportunities to explore volcanic landscapes and rugged Atlantic Ocean shorelines. Follow trails and climb hills to open the vista of a country rich in natural wonders and history. Although a somewhat soggy day at Landeyjahofn, the GPS assured us that the Westman Islands were right there in front of us. A shipwreck from Heimaey’s fishing fleet stands lookout over the volcanic archipelago. Situated off the southwest coast of Iceland are the Westman Islands (Vestmannaeyjar in Icelandic). In 1963 a volcanic explosion gave birth to the newest addition, Surtsey, named for Surtur the fire god of Icelandic mythology. Ten years later, an eruption on Heimaey buried 360 homes in the archipelago’s only town under a deep layer of volcanic ash. Fortunately the fishing fleet was in harbor and evacuated all the inhabitants. On a clear day the Westman Islands can easily be seen just nine miles from the black sand beach Landeyjahofn. At least that’s what the GPS told us. Following the Seljalandsa river a few miles inland from the coast, you’ll encounter Seljalandsfoss plunging 200 feet over an old sea cliff (above left). Less than 20 miles to the east, Skogafoss dives over the same ancient coastline in a 82-foot wide, 197-foot tall torrent. Magnificent as it is, Seljalandsfoss is just a hint of the topography a few miles ahead, in Thorsmork National Park. An early Viking settler named this area Thorsmork, dedicating the region to Thor, the Norse god of thunder. A trio of intertwined valleys are guarded on three sides by active glacier-draped volcanoes, dotted with backcountry huts, and laced with popular hiking trails including one of Iceland’s most famous, Fimmvorduhals. You’ll also find many, many rivers to cross. Thanks to Nature’s fiery fury and glaciers in every direction, no matter the time of year there are watery channels to be faced.	i don't know
Which nonsense poem is subtitled, An Agony in 8 Fits?	The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony, in Eight Fits by Lewis Carroll - The 1117th Greatest Fiction Book of All Time Sign In The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony, in Eight Fits by Lewis Carroll The Hunting of the Snark (An Agony in 8 Fits) is typically categorized as a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll, the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson. Written from 1874 to 1876, the poem borrows the setting, some creatures, and eight portmanteau words from Carroll's earlier poem "Jabberwocky" in his children's novel Through the Looking Glass (1871). - Wikipedia	The Hunting of the Snark
Of whose “pilgrimage” did Lord Byron write a long narrative poem?	The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony in Eight Fits - Lewis Carroll - Google Books The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony in Eight Fits 0 Reviews https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Hunting_of_the_Snark.html?id=rCiZhKQT_NkC The Hunting of the Snark, Lewis Carroll's classic masterpiece of nonsense verse, takes the reader on a wonderfully witty and inventive hunt for the ever-elusive Snark. The tantalizing mysteries of the poem are here perfectly matched in these brilliant new illustrations by artist Mahendra Singh, who has created a visual treasure hunt, full of riddles, puns, and allusions. When asked what his poem meant, Carroll would always reply that he did not know. But, on one occasion, he did write to friends that perhaps “…the whole book is an allegory on the search for happiness.” “To seek it with thimbles, to seek it with care; To pursue it with forks and hope, To threaten its life with a railway-share; To charm it with smiles and soap!” What people are saying - Write a review The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony in Eight Fits User Review - Joanna Schmidt - Book Verdict "The Hunting of the Snark" is the longest of Carroll's nonsense poems, and readers of his other works will recognize his adeptness in creating story and meaning through his wordplay, rhyme, and ... Read full review View all » About the author (2010) Oxford University mathematics professor Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (1832 - 1898), under his pen name Lewis Carroll, created some of the most brilliant, original and uniquely inventive literature in the English language. He is most famous for three magical works: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Through the Looking-Glass, and the witty, whimsical and ever-elusive The Hunting of the Snark. � When pressed to explain the meaning of The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll invariably replied that he did not know. "I'm very much afraid I didn't mean anything but nonsense!" he wrote in a letter to friends, "Still, you know, words mean more than we mean to express when we use them: so a whole book ought to mean a great deal more than the writer meant. So, whatever good meanings are in the book, I'm very glad to accept as the meaning of the book. The best I've seen is...that the whole book is an allegory on the search for happiness. I think that fits beautifully in many ways." � About the Artist Mahendra Singh is an illustrator and longstanding Lewis Carroll aficionado. He is a member of the Lewis Carroll Society of North America and an editor for their journal, the Knight Letter. For Singh, creating the illustrations for The Hunting of the Snark "has been a labor of love--fitting Lewis Carroll into a proto-Surrealist straitjacket with matching Dada cufflinks. Bibliographic information	i don't know
Which breakfast cereal’s manufacturing process did Henry Perky patent in 1895?	Henry Perky’s Tasty Invention \| bluejayblog Henry Perky’s Tasty Invention Posted on July 31, 2016 by swabby429 Nebraska history contains several cul de sacs along it’s relatively short path. One of those regards the inventor of shredded wheat breakfast cereal, Henry Perky. Perky’s story begins near Mount Hope, Ohio where he was born on December 7, 1843. 22 years later he married Susanna Crow. They had one son who survived into adulthood, Scott. In 1868, the Perky’s moved to Omaha, Nebraska where Henry apprenticed in law in the office of General John Cowin. After passing the Bar exam, Perky relocated a few miles north to Fremont for awhile, then moved to the small town of Wahoo, Nebraska. There, he served on the village board after the town was incorporated in September of 1874. Perky also was the publisher of Wahoo’s newspaper, The Independent. Perky also served one term in the Nebraska legislature in the mid 1870s. In the mid 1880s Perky was hired by Byron Atkinson who had purchased the bankrupt “Robbins Cylindrical Steel (railroad) Car Company. After an aborted start in Chicago, Perky proposed that the large manufacturing plant be built in Lincoln, Nebraska. In 1888, he wanted the car to be named the “City of Lincoln”. The car had no commercial takers, so, in 1889, Perky took leave of Nebraska and moved on to St. Joseph, Missouri to build his plant near there. In September, his factory burned and nearly all the assets were lost. The one remaining car was taken on a transcontinental tour, but again, attracted no commercial orders. He then displayed the car at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. It attracted plenty of casual curious viewers but no commercial orders. After the fair closed, the car was abandoned at the site. It was after the 1889 factory fire that Perky briefly returned to Omaha. His troubles with the Steel railway cars caused much worry and contributed to chronic digestion problems. His physician prescribed a bland diet of vegetables and included boiled wheat nuggets with cream. One unsubstantiated story says that while Perky was eating in the dining room of an Omaha hotel, he observed another patron eating boiled wheat with cream. It was then and there that the idea of a pre-cooked ready to eat wheat biscuit popped into his head. In 1892, Perky collaborated with his machinist friend, William Henry Ford of Watertown, New York to develop a machine that could manufacture pillow shaped wheat biscuit food. In August of 1893, Ford and Perky were awarded the U.S. Patent for a “Machine for the Preparation of Cereals for Food.” The pair demonstrated the machine at the Columbian Exposition, at the same time the steel railcar was being shown. The cereal proved to be a much more popular hit than the railroad car. Perky and Ford had initially hoped that the exposition could help them sell their machine, but nobody was willing to invest in an unproven product. Perky moved to Denver, Colorado to open his own small bakery to produce biscuits to be served in an attached cafe. The cereal was also sold door to door from wagons. People loved to eat the biscuits, but once again, Perky was unable to sell any of his machines. In the meantime, Perky could lay legitimate claim to being the person to produce the very first pre-cooked, ready to eat breakfast cereal. From large scale production and distribution in Colorado, Perky decided to expand his business and to only sell cereal. In October of 1895, Perky was awarded the U.S. Patent for his “Design for a Biscuit”. That year, he moved to Massachusetts and established a much larger shredded wheat company. There, he watched sales of his product greatly increase. With the advent of easily available electricity in 1901, Perky and his newly hired director, Edward Deeds, constructed a new baking plant at Niagra Falls, New York. Their newly established “National Food Company” not only manufactured shredded wheat “pillows”, it became a model industrial plant. Perky named the factory “The Palace of Light”. It featured pristine white tiles, floor to ceiling windows, air-conditioning, showers, auditoriums, and lunchrooms. In 1902, Perky sold his interest in the National Food Company and retired to a large farm in Maryland. His plan was to operate an agricultural, co-educational boarding school to teach domestic science and farming subjects. Only a few days before the scheduled grand opening, Henry Perky passed away on June 29, 1906. His tuition-free school never did open. Ciao The Blue Jay of Happiness quotes former British Prime Minister David Cameron. “Terms are like shredded wheat–two are wonderful, but three might just be too many.” Rate this:	Shredded wheat
What is the one-word name of the artificial sweetener sold as Candarel and NutraSweet?	Drop that spoon! The truth about breakfast cereals: an extract from Felicity Lawrence's book \| Business \| The Guardian Food & drink industry Drop that spoon! The truth about breakfast cereals Britain is one of the world's largest consumers of puffed, flaked and sugared breakfast cereals. How did that happen when many were said to contain less nutrition than the boxes they come in? Felicity Lawrence investigates Processed cereals represent a triumph of marketing, packagaing and US economic and foreign policy. Photograph: Alamy Tuesday 23 November 2010 07.28 EST First published on Tuesday 23 November 2010 07.28 EST Close How did it all begin? It was one of those things that crept up on us and we still can't quite believe it happened. Looking back, we'd been in denial for some time. Then a friend who hadn't seen the family for a while came round and blurted out the bald truth. 'God, Dodi's got rather fat. In fact, you know, I think that might count as obese.' Once said, it had to be admitted. If you looked at Dodi from behind when he was sitting down, you could see a substantial spare tyre around his thirteen-year-old middle. It bulged out from his hips and flopped down like a muffin rising up and out over its baking case. He had become quite lazy too, preferring to lounge in front of the fire rather than play in the garden as he used to. His excess weight was slowing him down. He had been hooked on a particular brand of instant meal for ages. Guaranteed real tuna, the packaging said. Enriched with omega-3 and -6 fats! The small print told another story. What was inside was largely byproducts from other industrial processing: rendered poultry meal mixed with fillers of corn gluten meal, ground rice, soya oil and dried beet pulp. Dodi is our cat, and we know cats do not normally eat carbohydrates such as ground rice or sugar nor corn nor vegetables oils. Nevertheless that's what we had been feeding him. It said on the packets that it was 'scientifically formulated' after all. The absurdity of feeding an animal types of waste it never evolved to eat that actually makes it fat and sick ought to be easy enough to see. But we have not apparently been alone in our blindness – feline diabetes has risen dramatically in the last few years in the UK. Where the human diet is concerned a similar myopia seems to have descended upon the British. Instead of relying on a food culture developed over centuries, we have come to defer top the pseudo-scientific instructions of professionals and marketeers. Where did it all go wrong? The rise of breakfast cereal makes a revealing case study in the evolutionary process behind the modern diet. One of the earliest convenience foods, processed cereals represents a triumph of marketing, packaging and US economic and foreign policy. They are the epitome of cheap commodity converted by manufacturing to higher value goods; of agricultural surplus turned into profitable export. Their ingredients have a disconcerting overlap with my cat food. Somehow they have wormed into our confused consciousness as intrinsically healthy when by and large they are degraded foods that have to have any goodness artificially restored. I have long been intrigued by how the British breakfast was conquered and what it tells us about the rest of our food. For this is the elephant in the room of course: it is the industrial processing of food that is the real problem. To understand where not we, but rather it, all went wrong, you have to understand the economic and political structures behind today's food system. The transformation of the British breakfast in the last 100 years has been complete. Unlike our European partners we have succumbed almost entirely to the American invention. A century ago simple cereal grains, cooked either as porridge or bread, were the staples of breakfast around the world and in this country too, just as they had been in previous centuries. When the first National Food Survey was conducted on behalf of the medical officer of the Privy Council, Sir John Simon, in 1863 it questioned 370 families of the 'labouring poor' and found that breakfast consisted variously of tea kettle broth (bread soaked in hot milk and salt), bread and butter, bread and cheese, milk gruel, bread and water and oatmeal and milk porridge. Today, instead, the British and the Irish are the largest eaters of puffed, flaked, flavoured, shaped, sugared, salted and extruded cereals in the world. We munch an average of 6.7kg of the dehydrated stuff per person in the UK and 8.4kg each in Ireland. The Mediterraneans, generally credited with a healthy diet, have so far kept this form of instant breakfast down to an average one kilo per person per year. The French, those cheese-eating surrender monkeys of American opprobrium, have proved culturally resistant to transatlantic pressure in this as in other fields. While the Eastern Europeans, deprived of marketing until the fall of the communism and the break up of the Soviet Union, have barely heard of processed cereals yet, being capable of getting through the first meal of the day with no apparent anxiety and only a few grams a year between them. How can such a radical overhaul of a food culture come about and was there something peculiarly susceptible about the British and the Americans that led to it? To find out, I went to the US, to the Mid-West states that are the heartland of industrial corn production and to the home of the first cornflakes, to try to understand something of the history and economics of the cereal business. Prepackaged and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals began with the American temperance movement in the nineteenth century. In the 1830s, the Reverend Sylvester Graham preached the virtues of a vegetarian diet to his congregation and in particular the importance of wholemeal flour. Meat-eating, he said, excited the carnal passions. Granula considered the first ready-to-eat breakfast cereal, was developed from his 'Graham flour' by one of his followers, James Caleb Jackson, for patients at the latter's water cure resort. It was a baked lump of slow-cooked wheat and water that was said to be hard as rock and had to be broken up and soaked overnight to be edible. It was sold at ten times the cost of its ingredients. The business motive for proselytizing by breakfast cereal was established. Following on from Jackson, the Seventh Day Adventists took up the mission begun by Graham. A colony of them had set up in a small town called Battle Creek near the American Great Lakes in Michigan. There they established the Western Health Reform Institute in 1866 to cure hog guzzling and to their mind degenerate Americans of their dyspepsia and vices. John Harvey Kellogg turned it into the famous Battle Creek Sanatarium, a curious but money-spinning mix of health spa, holiday camp and experimental hospital. Kellogg, a sort of early cross between Billy Graham and Gillian McKeith, set about devising cures for what he believed were the common ills of the day, in particular constipation and masturbation. In Kellogg's mind the two were closely linked, the common cause being a lack of fibre, both dietary and moral. As well as prescribing daily cold water baths, exercise drills, and unorthodox medical interventions, creating health-giving foods for patients was a major preoccupation. Kellogg, his wife and his younger brother William Keith experimented in the Sanatarium kitchen to produce an easily digested form of cereal. They came up with their own highly profitable Granula, but were promptly sued by Jackson, the original maker of Granula, and had to change the name to Granola. Victorian prudery and religion may have been at the root of processed cereal development, but parables about camels and eyes of needles did not discourage any of these evangelicals from seeing the commercial advantage and using the law to protect their business interests. Around this time an entrepreneur called Henry Perky had also invented a way of passing steamed wheat through rollers, one grooved and one smooth, to form strands that could be pressed into biscuits to make the first shredded wheat. JH Kellogg experimented further with his team and eventually they found a way of rolling cooked wheat to make flakes which could then be baked. Cornflakes followed when the Kelloggs worked out how to use cheap American corn instead of wheat, although initially they had problems keeping them crisp and preventing them from going rancid. This great leap forward is of a piece with other major developments in the industrialization of our diets: it is usually the combination of technological advances and the right economic conditions that lead to radical changes in what we eat. It was a chronically dyspeptic businessman and former patient of Kellogg's at the Sanatarium who unleashed the power of marketing on breakfast. Charles Post set up the rival La Vita Inn in Battle Creek and developed his own versions of precooked cereals. He distributed them with such encouraging tracts as The Road to Wellville. 'The sunshine that makes a business plant grow is advertizing,' he declared. He placed ads for his cereals in papers with paid-for testimonials from apparently genuine happy eaters. He also cheerfully invented diseases which his products could cure. His Grape Nuts were miraculously not only 'brain food' but could also cure consumption and malaria, and were even, despite their enamel-cracking hardness, said to be an antidote to loose teeth. By 1903 Battle Creek had turned into a cereal Klondike. At one point there were over 100 cereal factories operating in the town to satisfy the new craze, many making fabulously exaggerated claims about the health benefits of their products. This symbiotic relationship between sales, health claims and the promotion of packaged breakfast cereals has continued ever since. Nor was it a coincidence that this particular Klondike sprang up in the American Mid-West, whose vast tracts of virgin land had been recently opened up by settlers and turned over to the agricultural production that powered US development. The Kelloggs had tried unsuccessfully to protect their flaking process with patents. When WK saw how much others were making from the new foods, he launched his own advertizing campaign, giving away free samples and putting ads in newspapers. The road to nutritional corruption opened up early. The Kellogg brothers argued over whether to make the cereals more palatable by adding sugar – the addition was anathema to John who saw sugar as an adulterant and a scourge, but William reckoned it was needed to stop the products tasting like 'horse-food'. WK won. Global expansion followed quickly. Britain saw its first cornflakes in 1924 when the company set up offices in London and used unemployed men and boy scouts to act as a sales force for the imported cereal which was shipped in from Canada. By 1936 UK sales topped £1 million, and Kellogg's was ready to open its first British manufacturing plant in Manchester in 1938. The technology used to make industrial quantities of breakfast cereal today is essentially the same as that developed from the kitchen experiments of those fundamentalist healers, although new ways have been found to add the sugar, salt and flavourings. Cornflakes are generally made by breaking corn kernels into smaller grits which are then steam cooked in batches of up to a tonne under pressure of about 20lbs per square inch. The nutritious germ with its essential fats is first removed because, as the Kellogg brothers discovered all that time ago, it goes rancid over time and gets in the way of long shelf life. Flavourings, vitamins to replace those lost in processing and sugar may be added at this stage. It then takes four hours and vast amounts of energy to drive the steam out of the cooked grits before they can be rolled by giant rollers into flakes. Steamed wheat biscuits such as shredded wheats are made with whole wheat grains which are pressure cooked with water. They are then passed between rollers which squeeze them into strands and build them up into layers. These processes begin the breakdown of the raw starches in the cereals so even though they are whole grains they are absorbed more quickly in the body – and they typically have glycemic index scores of around 75, close to the GIs in the high 70s or low 80s of cornflakes, Bran Flakes, Special K and Rice Krispies, compared with 45/46 for minimally-processed grains such as porridge or mueslis without sugar. (Glucose has a GI of 100 and is what these indexes measure other foods against. They indicate how fast different foods are converted to glucose and absorbed into the bloodstream.) Worries about the nutritional value of such highly processed grains surfaced early. Post's company was one of the first to begin the heavy duty pre-sweetening of cereals with sugar coating in the late 1940s. The sales were enviable. The Kellogg company however held back, according to interviews with former employees in Cerealizing America, the highly entertaining account of cereal history by Scott Bruce and Bill Crawford. The charitable Kellogg Foundation which had been set up by then to promote children's health and education was a major shareholder and was concerned that flogging sugar-coatings to the young might not be compatible with its purpose. Many of the health benefits claimed for breakfast cereals depended on fortification rather than micronutrients from the raw ingredients, most of which were either destroyed by the process or stripped away before it. The earliest fortification was with vitamin D, the so-called sunshine vitamin, and acted as a marketing tool. Today a new wave of fortification is coming, and once again its principal purpose is marketing. Inulin, a form of fibre from plants, known to the food industry until recently as a cheap bulking agent thanks to its ability to retain water and mimic the mouthfeel of fats, is now added as a 'prebiotic'. They have coined this word for it because it resists digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract and reaches the large intestine almost intact where it is fermented by bacteria, encouraging the production of friendly microflora, which the industry markets too, as probiotics. The inulin, in other words, does what the fibre naturally occurring in whole grains would do if it hadn't been stripped out by over processing. Companies are also looking at adding omega-3 fatty acids such as DHA. (Where my cat food goes, breakfast cereals follow.) There are technical difficulties with this. Since the DHA tends to come from fish, it makes things taste fishy, and its flavour has to be masked with other additives. That processed cereals had become little more than sugary junk with milk and vitamin pills added, was an accusation made as long ago as the 1970s. A US congressional hearing in 1970 was told by an adviser to President Nixon on nutrition, Robert Choate, that the majority of breakfast cereals 'fatten but do little to prevent malnutrition'. Choate was outraged at the aggressive targeting of children in breakfast cereal advertizing. He analysed sixty well-known cereal brands for nutritional quality and concluded that two thirds of them offered 'empty calories, a term thus far applied to alcohol and sugar'. Rats fed a diet of ground-up cereal boxes with sugar, milk and raisins were healthier than rats fed the cereals themselves, he testified to senators. Battle Creek today is a small backwater in Michigan three hours drive from Chicago. There is not much sign now of the cereal gold rush that changed the British palate, and the flake factories working day and night have mostly gone. But the legacy lives on. In their place alongside Kellogg airport and the Kellogg Foundation is Kellogg's Cereal City. Built in the shape of an old American grain store, it is a museum testament to the power of marketing that so maddened Choate. Walking through the collection I too was struck by how much our breakfast today is the child of advertizing. Trading on our insecurity about health, manipulating our emotions and selling to us through health professionals has always been part of the great puff. The antique cardboard boxes on show underline how from the first breakfast cereals sold not just a meal but a way of life: Power, Vim, Vigor, Korn Kinks and Climax cereal are among the early brand names. One of my favourite sections of the museum was the cabinet of boxes and pamphlets recording the original health claims that anticipate today's persuasive messages. 'Keeps the blood cool!' 'Makes red blood redder!' There were the cereals that echoed today's claims for prebiotics, 'Will correct stomach troubles!' or indeed the claims on my cat food, 'The most scientific food in the world!' Getting children hooked, making them associate breakfast cereal with fun and entertainment, blurring the lines between advertizing and programmes, exploiting new media – today it is the internet and viral marketing – was one of the main aims of competing manufacturers from the early days, as the museum displays show, and a crucial part in conquering the British breakfast. Kellogg's sponsored a children's programme called 'The Singing Lady'. In 1931 the artist Vernon Grant heard the programme and was inspired to draw the Kellogg's Rice Krispie ad characters Snap, Crackle and Pop. His cartoon characters were used in ad campaigns that catapulted Rice Krispie sales up into the league of the more established cornflakes brands. Walt Disney was powerfully influenced by Grant's work. And when the Great Depression hit America in the 1930s following the crash of the stock market, WK Kellogg doubled his ad spend. In 1939 Charles Post meanwhile introduced his own characters, a trio of bears, to sell his new Sugar Crisps. (The original three bears were of course happy with plain porridge.) Kellogg's responded with Tony the Tiger and Katy the Kangaroo, although Katy retired after a year. Post also bought a licence from Disney to use his Mickey Mouse character on his cereal boxes. The museum records how giveaway toys were being used by then too, to attract children's loyalty and to encourage early pester power and repeat purchases. Cereal advertizing likewise helped shape early television. A chance meeting on a train in 1949 between the then chairman of Kellogg's and an advertizing man called Leo Burnett led to a working relationship that both transformed the cereal market and made the mould for TV ads. Burnett used 'motivational research' to work out how to appeal to women and children with different kinds of packaging. Subliminal marketing was born. With his help Kellogg's broadcast the first colour TV programmes and commercials for children. The result was that by the mid 1950s the company had captured nearly half the rapidly expanding US processed cereal market and was in a prime position to build its empire in Europe using the same methods. The UK market for those cereal boxes was worth over £1.27 billion in 2005. It too has been created and maintained by advertizing. It is characterized by health claims, now as then. Along with other highly processed foods such as fizzy drinks, and fast food brands, breakfast cereals are among the most highly marketed products. Kellogg's has consistently been the largest advertizer of its cereals in this country, spending roughly £50 million a year in recent years, about twice what its rival Cereal Partners spends. Cereal Partners is a joint venture with Nestlé which markets that company's breakfast cereals in Britain and manufactures cereals for leading supermarkets' own label brands. The respective investments are duly reflected in the companies' market shares. We buy what we have been persuaded to buy. Without advertizing we might never know we needed processed cereal and revert to porridge or bread instead. Or as Kellogg's European president Tim Mobsby put it to MPs conducting an inquiry into obesity in 2004, 'if we were not to have that capability [of TV advertizing] there is a probability that the consumption of cereals would actually drop…that is not necessarily a positive step forward.' The following spring I was one of a handful of reporters flown in a private jet by Kellogg's to its Old Trafford cornflakes factory, as part of its campaign to protect its portfolio and its ability to market it, particularly to children. The ostensible reason for the trip was that Kellogg's was launching a new acquisition in the UK, Kashi, a brand of mixed-grain puffed cereal free of all additives. But criticism of the food industry for selling obeso-genic products high in fat, salt and sugar had reached a crescendo in the UK and the breakfast cereal manufacturers were the subject of unwelcome attention. Before touring the factory, we were ushered past the giant Tony the Tiger cut-out in the entrance lobby and up into the strategic planning department for a presentation on nutrition policy and labelling. Here the company nutritionist explained how Kellogg's had decided to take a lead in promoting a new kind of labelling to help 'mum' make 'healthier choices'. Rather than the traffic light labelling the government's food standards agency was researching, Kellogg's and other leading food manufacturers had decided to go live with a system of labels based on guideline daily amounts. These would avoid identifying foods as good or bad with red, amber and green and instead give figures for how much fat, salt and sugar a portion of the product contained as a proportion of a guideline amount, calculated by the industry, which you should eat a day of those nutrients. Needless to say the industry's guideline daily amounts were more generous than official targets, particularly on sugars. The FSA had already rejected this scheme as too complicated to be helpful but Kellogg's told us that it had 'lent them one of our researchers so we've been in on the consultation process and we've been able to get the GDAs into the final FSA testing'. In response to pressure from the FSA, the Association of Cereal Food Manufacturers had already reduced salt by a quarter in five years, she went on. Cornflakes were even tastier than before because you could taste the corn more now. So why was there so much salt in the first place, we asked. The managing director of Kellogg's Europe Tony Palmer confessed that 'if we'd known you could take out 25 per cent of the salt and make cornflakes taste even better, we would have done it earlier. But it's also about the interaction with the sugar – as you take the salt out, you've got to reduce the sugar because it starts to taste sweeter.' But isn't the target to reduce sugar consumption too? Why not just cut down on salt and sugar, we wondered. Well, sugar helps keep the crispness and is part of the bulk, so that would be difficult, we were told. Mr Palmer's eyebrows started working furiously as he answered: 'And the risk is, if you take the salt out you might be better off eating the cardboard carton for taste,' he said. The public relations team moved us rapidly on from this unfortunate echo of Senator Choate's 1970s' accusation of nutritional bankruptcy to a presentation on the Kashi Way. 'We hold the spirit of health in all we do,' one of them explained, echoing this time the quasi-religious marketing babble of the founding cereal makers. Although I was aware that breakfast cereal manufacturers were among the top marketers of processed foods in the UK, it was only when the broadcasting regulator Ofcom tried to draw up new rules to restrict TV advertizing to children of junk foods, that I saw quite how dependent consumption was on us being manipulated by the manufacturers' messages. Kellogg's led a ferocious campaign of lobbying to stop the restrictions. As well as educating journalists with trips such as mine to the cornflakes factory, it lobbied MPs, ministers and regulators. One of its public relations agencies Hill and Knowlton boasted on its website how it had managed to change government and Whitehall thinking on Kellogg's behalf. 'A series of meetings with Number 10, the Department of Health, the Food Standards Agency, the Health Select committee, one-to-one briefings with key individuals and an event for parliamentarians' had enabled them to disseminate Kellogg's messages, with the result that 'the campaign resulted in a significant shift in attitudes among core government stakeholders,' they claimed. The industry is adamant that its products are a healthy way to start the day, and has recruited Professor Tom Sanders, head of the nutrition department at King's College London, to defend 'breakfast cereals served with semi-skimmed milk' as 'low energy meals that provide about one fifth of the micronutrients of children'. However, a survey published by the independent consumer watchdog Which? called 'Cereal Reoffenders' took a rather different view. When it analysed 275 big-name breakfast cereals from leading manufacturers on sale in UK supermarkets in 2006 it found that 75 per cent of them had high levels of sugar, while almost a fifth had high levels of salt, according to criteria drawn up by the food standards agency for its traffic light nutritional labels. Nearly 90 per cent of those targeted at children were high in sugar, 13 per cent were high in salt, and 10 per cent were high in saturated fat. Several cereals making claims to be good for you got a red light too. All Bran was high in salt; Special K got a red for sugar and salt. Some high fibre bran cereals were giving you more salt per serving than a bag of crisps. (Some of these may have since been reformulated.) It was when I saw details of the proposals from Ofcom on restricting marketing of junk foods to children that I understood why the lobbying had been so determined. What became clear was that breakfast cereals, although heavily marketed as healthy, would be the category to take the largest hit by a long way. About £70 million of TV ads a year from cereal manufacturers would be banned because they were promoting what the experts defined as unhealthy. The sector spent a total of £84 million on ads that year. In other words, the vast majority of its marketing effort would be wiped out. It had everything to lose. Because, as the House of Commons had been told, without marketing to manipulate our desires, we might not eat processed cereals at all. Back at the Battle Creek Museum you can see how Kellogg's would view that. Before exiting the exhibition into the shop, I passed a section on 'global expansion'. 'The company has rededicated itself to reaching 1.5 billion new cereal customers around the world in the next decade…and bringing about a fundamental change in eating habits.' As well as advertizing in new markets, it has been sponsoring school nutrition programmes and health symposia for professionals. This activity is part of a 'massive program of nutrition education directed at improving the world's eating habits with accelerated expansion into countries where ready-to-eat cereal is unknown', it proclaimed. Improving the world's eating habits has the attraction, as the nineteenth-century American entrepreneurs discovered, of being what economic analysts call a 'high margin to cost business'. The raw materials of breakfast cereals, commodity grains, are cheap (or at least were cheap until biofuels recently entered the equation). US agricultural subsidies totalled $165 billion in the eleven years 1995 to 2005. Just five crops accounted for 90 per cent of the money – corn, rice, wheat, soya beans and cotton. That handful of ingredients I keep finding in everything. If you want to understand why all these commodities, cotton aside, make it not only in to the cat food but in to most other processed foods you eat, this is where you have to start. One of the biggest costs is not the value of the ingredients, nor the cost of production, but the marketing, which as you might expect from all the activity described above, is typically 20 to 25 per cent of the sales value, according to analysts JP Morgan. About a quarter of your money is going not on the food but on the manufacturer's cost of persuading you to buy it. That still leaves room for gross margins on processed cereals that are 40 to 45 per cent, with profit margins around the very healthy 17 per cent mark. Start selling this kind of processed diet to new consumers in the booming economies of China and India and your profits, and those of the country that has dominated grain exports and trading, the US, will soar. This is what the food industry calls adding value. The added value is not nutritional value of course; quite the opposite. The added value is shareholder value, and as a very rough rule of thumb I reckon on nutritional value being stripped away in inverse proportion to the shareholder value added. • Extracted from Eat Your Heart Out: Why the food business is bad for the planet and your health by Felicity Lawrence, published by Penguin. Buy both Felicity Lawrence's books, Eat Your Heart Out (RRP £8.99) and Not on the Label (£9.99) for only £13 (save £5.98) or buy them individually for £7 each. Visit guardianbookshop.co.uk or call 0330 333 6846	i don't know
Abbreviated to MVP, what is the American sporting equivalent of “Man of the Match”?	Gimmick Matches - TV Tropes Gimmick Matches You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account Share YMMV Well, goddamn. It's a World Wrestling Federation. Why don't we put on some fucking wrestling, Vince Russo? once in a while? What do you want to do, Holiday on ice with chimpanzees? (Shit, matter of fact, I probably gave him his next Pay-Per-View.) TNA prefers to call their gimmick matches "concept matches" . A sample of some recurring gimmick matches (and their included tropes), and a number of notable examples of each match: 2-out-of-3-falls — The simplest of gimmick matches, this simply means that the wrestlers have a series of matches until one of them has won 2. Sometimes each fall will have its own gimmick from another match type on the list; this is called a Three Stages of Hell match or a Ring Master's Challenge. Tropes: This match is almost never decided after two falls; the competitors win one apiece, leading to the third, deciding fall. Usually, if the match ends in two straight falls, then someone is either working a "losing streak" angle or is being buried. The Briscoe Brothers in Ring of Honor developed a reputation for winning these matches in two straight falls. One of the WWF's many rule variances developed around this type of match: originally, a wrestler / team had to win both falls by pinfall or submission for a title change to be valid. This was eventually reverted to a pinfall or submission only being necessary in the final fall. "Two out of three falls" was actually the standard in the very early years of professional wrestling, with "One-fall" becoming the norm when wrestling made the jump from "sport" to "sports entertainment". Before this a single fall contest was called a "Lightning Match". It was used as the storyline reason for then-WWWF leaving the National Wrestling Alliance in 1963. NWA Champion Buddy Rogers lost a one-fall match against Lou Thesz , and WWWF refused to acknowledge the title switch since it wasn't done with two out of three falls. So they went on their own, naming Rogers as the first WWWF Champion. It was also the catalyst for the creation of the AWA. In 1957, Eduardo Carpentier defeated Lou Thesz for the NWA title in a two-out-of-three falls match. However, since one of those falls was a DQ, there was a dispute among the NWA promoters over who should be the champion, with most promotoers recognizing Thesz and other, renegade promoters recognizing Carpentier (and even sanctioning a title change between him and Verne Gagne, who was the one really pulling the strings at the time). After promoter Wally Karbo unsuccessfully lobbied for a title unification match between Gagne and the NWA champion, the two split off and formed the AWA. Note that when British Freestyle wrestling was big, back in the '70s and '80s all its matches were best out of three, or as Brian Crabtree (the MC) always put it "Two falls, two submissions or a knockout to decide the winner." Hence the Monty Python's Flying Circus sketch "The Wrestling Epilogue", with a priest and a professor getting into the ring together, "The existence or otherwise of God to be decided by two falls, two submissions or a knockout". You can see it on Youtube here . Hence also the line in Good Omens "Three rounds, one Fall, no submission" to describe the war between Heaven and Hell. 2 out of 3 remains the standard match in Mexican lucha libre (but not everywhere in the Spanish speaking or Latin world) Tag Team Match — A two man team faces another two man team under the stipulation only one wrestler from each team can be in the ring at a time. A wrestler in the ring usually must tag his partner, most commonly standing on the ring apron behind the ropes, before they can switch places, though in Mexican wrestling a wrestler can also exit the ring to allow his partner to take his place. When one wrestler from a team is beaten, the other team wins. It varies on how long wrestlers have after the tag to switch places, usually between five to fifteen seconds, with the longer times allowing " double team maneuvers " to be performed on an outnumbered wrestler before the referee calls for a disqualification. As previously mentioned, it also highly varies as to what rules apply to participants who leave the ring entirely. Tropes: One wrestler gets cut off from their partner for an extended period of time . Legal wrestlers are forced out of the ring because a referee failed to see a tag. Participants in separate feuds are paired together to tease upcoming matches and allow those involved to interact with someone else, to keep things fresh. Identical wrestlers or wrestlers with identical masks illegally switch places behind the referee's back. Easily the most common of all gimmick matches, tag teams are hardly even considered a gimmick any more, and for a while it was common for promotions to establish tag team titles before any other kinds of belts or divisions(such as Super World Of Sports, X-LAW, Chikara and WAVE). Mexican fans couldn't get enough of tag teams, to the point that UWA introduced a trios division , while AAA came up with a mascot division where a smaller wrestler teams up with a larger wrestler using a derivative of his gimmick (or the other way around), and a mixed tag team division where a man must team with a woman. In Ring of Honor , the Mexican style of entering without a tag so long as your partner has exited the ring is called a Scramble Match, though they have an added stipulation that in multiple team scrambles, tags become very important because anyone can tag out anyone. Tags also are unneeded under " Dragon Gate Rules". Tornado Match — The much simpler but much less common counterpart where all team members are allowed in the ring at the same time. Many of the more "extreme" gimmick match variations turn tag team matches into tornado matches when added onto them, however. Relevos Australianos — a three on three minimum match where each team has a captain and victory is achieved either by eliminating one team's captain or by eliminating all of a captain's teammates. Despite the name, it is more commonly seen in Mexico than Australia. Gate Of Heaven — Three stages of hell, applied to tag team matches. Started in Dragon Gate, with the first fall being a strict tag team match with two referees to make sure tags actually happen. Second fall, Dragon Gate rules. Third fall, if necessary, tables, ladders and chairs are now legal. Iron Man — This match goes on for a predetermined length of timenote often, though not always, one hour, and continues even if a wrestler scores a pinfall, submission, or other decision; instead, each decision counts as a point, and the wrestler with the most points in the end wins. Tropes: Like the 2-out-of-3 falls match, this one usually ends up tied until the closing minutes of the bout. At any point when it is not tied (until the closing moments) the face is always behind. Sometimes if it is tied at the bell, everyone is confused, Calvinball kicks in, someone wins and the loser complains. The Ultimate Submission match is a variant of the Iron Man match where only submissions count for points. In one ROH match heel World Champion Bryan Danielson took the lead within the last 30 seconds — giving his opponent no chance to even the score. At Bound For Glory 2005: AJ Styles fought Christopher Daniels for the entire match without a single point earned by either man, until Styles finally gained a pinfall with 2 seconds left for victory. The more common variation (this match is very rare) is the heel wrestler taking a big lead, then the face wrestler racing to either tie the score or force overtime. In the most famous Iron Man match to actually feature pinfalls, The Rock was racing to tie the score against Triple H ; as he was WWF Champion at the time, he would retain his title in the event of a draw (a convention which has been retained since). Thunder Queen — Used in All Japan Womens Pro Wrestling : Two teams of four. Individual members have one five-minute Iron Woman match each (20 minutes total), followed by a 40-minute tag team Iron Woman match. The team with the highest total amount of pinfalls/submissions wins. Rounds — The match has a set time limit with preset breaks where the wrestlers must cease all contact and return to their corners to rest, in mimicry of boxing. Like the Iron Man match, each pin fall or submission counts as a point, with the winner being the wrestler with the most points at the end of all the rounds. Rounds tend to be an unpopular gimmick, with The American Wrestling Federation's attempt to revive them in the USA instead nearly killing it off for good there. The format has remained somewhat popular in some regions such as the UK, however, leading many to call these "British Rounds Matches". Ladder Match — There are no pins, submissions, countouts, or disqualifications in this match; instead, an object (usually a championship belt) is hung 10-15 feet above the ring, and ladders conveniently placed outside the ring. To win, a wrestler must retrieve a ladder and climb it to take possession of the object. Several variations exist: in a TLC match, tables and chairs are added to the ladders outside the ring, and in a Full Metal Mayhem match, chains are added to the standard TLC arsenal. Tropes: Expect lots of use of the ladder as a weapon, lots of jumping off the ladder, and lots of Ladder Tipping . At one point, the wrestlers involved will race up opposite sides of the same ladder; this inevitably culminates in a fist-fight at the top of the ladder. Origins of the ladder match are disputed with most crediting their innovation in 1972 to Dan Kroffat of Canada's Stampede wrestling, though Kendo Nagasaki, who later introduced them to World Of Sport in the UK, may have came up with the idea independently around the same time. King Of The Mountain is a TNA exclusive variant. In essence, it is a reverse ladder match (you must take the title belt from the ring announcer and hang it from a hook, by climbing a ladder). But before you can do that, you must first pin one of your four opponents. And when you are pinned, you have to spend 2 minutes in a penalty box outside the ring. WWE has the Money in the Bank Match, originally at WrestleMania , later with its own PPV ; anywhere from six to ten wrestlers compete at once, and the prize being hung above the ring is a briefcase, inside which is a contract which the winner can use to get a world championship match anytime he wants within one calendar year of winning it. Almost every time the contract has been cashed in, the one doing the cashing won the title, usually by doing so right after the current champion has taken a nasty beating from a previous challenger and is in little to no condition to fight back. There were only two exceptions to the battered champion strategy. The first was Rob Van Dam 's cashing against then-WWE Champion John Cena at ECW One Night Stand, which RVD announced weeks beforehand and simply gave him "homefield" advantage. The other was on the 1000th episode of Raw where Cena did the same to CM Punk . Only twice has the briefcase holder lost the cash-in match; first with the aforementioned Cena match and the second time with Damien Sandow . Most winners of the Money in the Bank match have been heels: only RVD, CM Punk (twice), Kane , Daniel Bryan, Cena, Randy Orton and Dean Ambrose have won the match as faces, and in the cases of Punk the second time, Kane, Bryan, and Orton, turned heel very shortly (or in Orton's case, immediately) after winning the title. In a complete parody of the concept, a Dramatic Dream Team actually has had wrestlers compete against ladders. Huge props to the wrestler for the awesome one-man job, which involves the ladder performing a hurricanrana on him. The DDT Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship that anyone or anything can win has been held by three different ladders. And then, for its 1,000th championship, the title belt itself became the champion. Extreme Rules 2014 had a parody called the WeeLC Match, with tiny ladders, chairs, tables, and even midget referees and announcers to accommodate the midget combatants Hornswoggle and El Torito. Steel Cage Match — The ring is surrounded by a chainlink fence cage; you must win by pinfall, submission, or escaping the cage (either by exiting through the door, or climbing over the topnote {Sometimes the door is padlocked after the wrestlers enter, so that climbing out is the only way to escape. Well, unless something ridiculous happens like a wrestler getting bodyslammed through the floor of the ring and escaping under the cage. Yes, WWE has actually ended a cage match in that manner.}; this stipulation was popularised by the WWF). In traditional WWE cage matches the ONLY win method is escape, but post territorial era matches usually ignore this as the drama of someone slowly climbing up gets old after awhile. Tropes: Good or bad, nobody tries for the pin, submission, or outside the door victories until they get desperate; everybody tries to climb over the top first. A wrestler perched on the top will often give up his impending victory and instead jump back into the cage with a splash, elbow drop, or other move. The earliest cage matches on record happened in Atlanta Georgia in rings surrounded by chicken wire to keep interference out/competitors in. As time went on, wire was swapped out for steel bars and eventually bars were swapped out for chain link fencing, which was easier to carry. Ring of Honor would create a variant called the Scramble Cage with wooden platforms atop each corner of the cage specifically to facilitate such back-into-the-ring dives. TNA, somewhat predictably, came up with a ludicrous variant where the participants have to fight into the cage. The company also has an entire PPV (Lockdown) dedicated to having every match inside their "Six Sides of Steel" cage. AAA, WCW and TNA have also used a "Thunder Cage", specifically based on the Thunder Dome of Mad Max . Ken Shamrock has hosted professional wrestling matches in his mixed martial arts training facility "The Lion's Den", which naturally uses a multi sided cage rather than a squared circle wrestling ring. Leva Bates proposed an "Arkham Asylum" cage match at SHINE 9, where the loser had to leave in a straitjacket (the restraining device, not the submission). The following year, Mr. Anderson and Samuel Shaw would have the "Straight Jacket" match to be nationally televised, but did not include the cage in TNA. Tower Of Doom — also known as a Triple Decker Cage Match in WCW because that's exactly what it is, three cages stacked on top of one another. Typically the central cage is divided into two rooms housing two teams of wrestlers. Pin falls and submissions only count in the ring on the bottom cage, so the teams will fight each other to reach the bottom, or in some cases, to force the opposition to the bottom where they can be eliminated. There has also been a variation where two wrestlers start at the bottom and race to the top for a dangling title belt, similar to the ladder match. Hell in a Cell — a WWE signature match; this variant of the Steel Cage match involves a larger cage which Jim Cornette admits to stealing from (or researching from) a Memphis territory, that includes the majority of the ringside area in its confines, and also has a roof, ala Dusty Rhodes 's war games. Escape rules don't apply; the match ends only via pinfall or submission, and only in the ring. In earlier matches big falls from the side or top of the cage were fairly commonplace (most famously, by Mick Foley ), but these have been toned down over safety concerns. HHH pinned Chris Jericho on top of the Cell at Judgment Day 2002. This was the only time someone had been pinned on top of the Cell. The infamous Hell in a Cell between Mick Foley and The Undertaker at King of the Ring '98 involved Foley taking two big falls: once getting thrown off the top of the 16-foot cage into the Spanish Announcers Table , and then (while badly injured from that first bump) getting chokeslammed through the roof of the cell. Until WWE started toning things down for safety reasons, attempts to replicate the "Holy Shit!" Quotient of that match were common. note Although popular belief is that Mick wasn't supposed to go through the roof, hence the ever so brief " Oh shit, did I just kill Mick? " reaction from Undertaker. There was also a Hell in a Cell derivative between Al Snow and the Big Bossman at Unforgiven 1999, which was infamous for all the wrong reasons . The "Kennel from Hell" consisted of a regular steel cage inside the Hell in a Cell cage, with "vicious attack dogs" in the cell portion. Thus, the wrestlers supposedly couldn't leave the ring cage without getting mauled by the dogs. But the "vicious" dogs did nothing but wag their tails and poop around the ring , making the match an even bigger joke than the stupid premise would have suggested. Big Japan Pro Wrestling had a variation of Hell In A Cell with a scaffold. The ring was covered in thumbtacks and "Japanese kenzans". Ultimate X — a TNA signature match; essentially a "ladder match without the ladders"; instead, two cables are strung across the ring (forming an "X" pattern), and the object (normally a championship belt or a large red "X") is placed where the cables meet. To claim the object and win, one must climb the turnbuckles, and then climb hand-over-hand across the cables to reach the object. Its flaws, however, are brought to the spotlight during the few times that the title or X has actually fallen. In the first match, officials had to stop the match and re-hang the belt twice. In a later match, a wrestler caught the X, and officials declared the match over, with a rematch immediately signed for a later date, this time with the X literally chained to the cables. Tropes: Like the ladder match, two wrestlers will often end up racing across the cables from opposite ends, and end up fighting in the middle. Like the steel cage match, a wrestler who has the victory within grasp will often give it up in order to do one spectacular move off of the high cables. In one version of this match, Team 3D actually did use a ladder to cheat and win the match. War Games: The Match Beyond — a signature match of defunct promotion WCW; the War Games match started with two rings, side-by-side, surrounded with a steel cage, and two teams of four (originally five, including the managers of the Road Warriors and The Four Horsemen in the original NWA War Games) wrestlers each. One wrestler from each team starts the match. After five minutes, one team (determined by coin toss) gets to send another man in, making it two-on-one. Two minutes later, the other side gets to send a man in. The two teams alternate sending men into the cage, every two minutes, until all eight men are in. At this point, "the match beyond" officially begins. Up until this point, there is no way to end the match; after this, the first team to make one of their opponents submit is declared the winner. TNA has a variation of this match with only one ring, calling it Lethal Lockdown. Tropes: The heels always win the coin toss, making sure that the faces are a man down (and thus, the underdogs) going through the majority of the match. This also increases the drama when the faces are able to even the odds after every advantage period. When announcing the Elimination Chamber, Eric Bischoff stated that he'd drawn heavily on War Games to create the match concept. Ring of Honor does a one-ring version called Steel Cage Warfare and used CZW 's Cage of Death for another variation. ROH is also notable for, during the ROH vs. CZW feud, performing the only variation of War Games rules ever in which the babyface team won the coin toss. Speaking of CZW's Cage of Death, it's a variation on the Wargames format with a little bit of Bunkhouse Stampede thrown in for good measure. The competitors showcase their best Garbage Wrestling while avoiding touching the floor (which either involves being thrown over the top of the cage or crashing through the wooden boards between the two rings) The "Big Japan CZW Crisis Big Born Cage of Death Death Match" electrifies the cage walls. WSU had a match named "War Games" that took place inside a steel cage. It was a team of three vs three. Two members of each team would start off and a new one would enter the ring every two minutes (beforehand there was a coin toss to decide which team would get a new member first). Once all six were in the ring the only way to win was for one member to say "I Quit" on behalf of the whole team. The match was only performed once and had a notoriously dramatic ending - one of the participants was threatened with a machete and one of her teammates forfeited the match to save her. Battle Royal — A match with a large number of participants (usually 20, but see Royal Rumble below) begin in the ring. The winner is the last man standing. Elimination is being thrown from the ring and landing on the floor outside (usually over the top rope, though Diva battle royals sometimes only requiring having exited the ring). Tropes: The biggest wrestler almost never wins, but it usually takes three or four (or sometimes ten or more) guys to eliminate him.note This trope was averted when this gimmick match was born in the 1970s; Andrï¿½ the Giant specialized in winning them. Also expect at least one elimination by someone who's already been eliminated (or occasionally by somebody who's not an actual participant). There will also often be one wrestler who's universally hated by faces and heels alike, who everybody teams up to eliminate immediately. WCW's World War 3 is a 60-man battle royal spanned across three rings. TNA, somewhat predictably, came up with a ludicrous variant—the Reverse Battle Royal—where the participants have to fight into the ring. ROH On HD Net combined this with tornado match, as the prize in the battle royal was a tag title shot, encouraging the established teams to work together throughout. Royal Rumble — WWE's signature variation of the Battle Royal has 30 mennote (20 in 1988, expanded to 40 in 2011 but back to 30 in 2012) with a twist: It starts with two wrestlers in the ring, and a new wrestler is added every 2 minutes, Although it has had 1, 1 1/2 and 2 minute intervals, the actual timing of the entrances varies on how "into" the match the crowd are. An entire pay-per-view event is built around it, and since 1993 the winner gets a shot at one of the two top titles at WrestleMania , which is held approximately two months afterwards. Tropes: Expect one of the first two wrestlers to last to the final four. If there's anybody that the evil boss has spent the last month trying to keep out of the match, watch him; he'll be the one to win it all. At one point, a dominant heel will go on an elimination spree but not actually win the match. Also, entrant #30 rarely wins, despite the obvious theoretical advantage to entering last. Only John Cena , The Undertaker , and Triple H have done so, and it can be said Cena's win was more because of the element of surprise — this was Cena's return from an injury. Also expect to see a former WWE star/legend to make a one-time appearance (though this can sometimes lead to more appearances or even a full-time return afterwards). Such notable examples include Honky Tonk Man in 1998 and 2001, Mr. Perfect in 2002 (who was one of the last four in the match), "Rowdy" Roddy Piper and Jimmy "Superfly" Snuka in 2008, Kevin Nash and Booker T in 2011, Road Dogg in 2012, and The Godfather in 2013 (lasting all of five seconds). No Disqualification/No Holds Barred/Street Fight/Extreme Rules — These match types in the post territory era connote an "anything goes" scenario where the only way to win is through pinfall or submission, with subtle variations depending on the elements each match type emphasizes. Falls counting anywhere is optional, but not standard like in the eponymous match type or a normal hardcore match. No DQ and No Holds Barred matches originally (and often still do) functioned like regular matches, with the former just disregarding the DQ rule and the latter allowing "banned" moves. Street fights sometimes have participants compete in "street clothes" rather than wrestling gear, and weapons are improvised from the surroundings or brought by the participants themselves. Falls Count Anywhere — Exactly What It Says on the Tin . Often more of a street fight than the eponymous match type itself, as it's not uncommon for the action to spill onto to the backstage areas or even outside the arenas and onto the actual streets(some feds such as ECW and LLF have managed to halt traffic with these matches). Depending on the circumstances it can be as tame as the above or extreme as below in terms of violence. Parking Lot Brawl — Like falls count anywhere, but restricted to a parking lot, or something similar. Hardcore Match — Basically the above match types but dialed Up to Eleven , it puts a major emphasis on ultraviolence. Often referred to as "garbage wrestling" because of its complete disregard for traditional mat wrestling and even an underemphasis on moderate brawling and "tame" weapon use in favor of excessive and creative use of unconventional weapons and extreme induced bleeding. Staple weapons are barbed wire, thumbtacks, fire and broken glass, with the probability of even more off-the-wall choices. WWF did a one-time variation of this where they rented an entire arena and then...didn't sell tickets (instead broadcasting the match to a filled arena elsewherenote This was Halftime Heat, a WWF event that was going up against the Super Bowl , so they had to play their best hand). This was called the Empty Arena match and was basically a Hardcore Match but without the audience, allowing The Rock and Mankind to brawl all through the audience area that would normally be filled with people. Mankind won the WWF Championship by pinning The Rock using a forklift and a pallet (hey, his shoulders were down) and this match was never used again (due to the prohibitive cost-usually a promotion will later sell tickets for later matches in that same arena and show the empty seats to them on a screen or something or just use an arena they own). One of the earliest and best-known examples of the Empty Arena match occurred in 1981, when Jerry Lawler faced off against Terry Funk at an empty Mid-South Coliseum in Memphis, Tennessee. A variation is the Bunkhouse Brawl, where weapons are strewn around the ring. Usually things like 2x4s, loaded gloves, or baseball bats. Raven made this match his specialty during his time in Ring of Honor and TNA; his personal version was called the Clockwork Orange House of Fun Match. The WWF did a variation of a no disqualification "empty arena" contest called a "Dungeon Match", where Owen Hart challenged Ken Shamrock to come to his basement (AKA the legendary Hart Family Dungeon) for a fight. Vintage Dragon introduced his own variation of the Bunkhouse Brawl in Vendetta Pro he called a Holiday Havoc match, featuring gift wrapped weapons around the arena, in the hands of fans and beneath a Christmas tree. There had been earlier variants of this though, such as Future Of Wrestling's Xtreme Xmas match where all the weapons were under a tree. Inferno Match — Sometimes called a " ring of fire " match. Fire surrounds the ring, usually just under the bottom rope; the first person to catch on fire loses. Dramatic spots of trying to push a resisting opponent closer to the flames are common. Tropes: If the Inferno Match is someone's "specialty" they are bound to lose, particularly if they're the one wearing the most protective clothing. Invariably all that gets set on fire is a boot or a glove, since anything else would be far too risky in reality (incidentally, while we're on the subject, let's give props to WWE wrestler Montel Vontavious Porter , who took the match-losing burn from one of these on his back — granted, he was clothed there, but it still takes balls). A variation, the Human Torch match, has the same victory condition, but the ring is not surrounded by fire. The man who's most commonly associated with this match in WWE, Kane , has only won one of them (against MVP, as mentioned above). It's treated as "his specialty" because his gimmick has a strong association with fire. Big Japan Pro Wrestling has the Fire Stone Death Match, where instead of fire, the ring is lined with electrified space heaters wrapped in barbed wire. At Summerslam 2013, Kane and Bray Wyatt had a Ring of Fire match where the ring was surrounded by fire, but the object was pinfall or submission. Kane lost when Bray's two henchmen managed to put out some of the fire, allowing them to enter the ring and beat Kane down. Bra & Panties Match — Two female wrestlers (or more likely, two non-wrestling pieces of eye candy) get in the ring and "violence" ensues until one of them is stripped of all clothing save their underwear. Used to be an "evening gown match" or a men's equivalent "tuxedo match" until the mid 90s Attitude era and was traditionally limited to valets and managers until that same era saw full time wrestlers participate in them. Tropes: Typically the heel loses and is humiliated by it, fleeing the ring trying to cover up... and then the victorious face willingly strips down anyway and parades around the ring for the (usually male) fans to enjoy. One of the oddest variations of this match combined the Tuxedo and Evening Gown stipulations to make Lilian Garcia the RAW ring announcer by defeating (a surprisingly-heel!) Howard Finkel. Several of the other divas joined in on beating Howard down after several markedly misogynistic remarks. At King of the Ring 2000, Pat Patterson and Gerald Brisco, two elderly male former wrestlers, had a match of this kind. Pure, refined horror , even when put in context ; they were feuding with Crash Holly for the Hardcore Championship (which was then defended under a 24/7 rule, which meant the title could be on the line anytime, anywhere). The Tennessee Boot match combines it with two out of three fall, though it can become two out of four falls. Each fall or submission forces the loser to remove a boot and the bootless wrestler loses. While tuxedo matches are supposedly the male equivalent, Dramatic Dream Team has made it clear more than once that bra & panties matches are not just for women. The particularly hairy Takayuki Ueki and Suguru Miyatake's mercifully went to a no contest. Thing On a Pole — Some object is put up on a pole at one corner of the ring, winner must retrieve it. Could be a flag, or a belt, a pink slip, or a bottle of tequila, or whatever. Occasionally, the thing on a pole is a weapon (such as a steel chair, a hockey stick, brass knuckles, whatever); in these cases, obtaining the item doesn't end the match, but instead makes the weapon legal to use without disqualification, giving a competitor a major advantage. Tropes: Despite not being particularly difficult to reach, wrestlers will struggle to weakly climb up there and paw at the object before being yanked away by an opponent. Matches are typically lousy, a poor man's ladder match. Vince Russo , journeyman wrestling writer and he of Shocking Swerve fame/infamy, absolutely adores these for some unknown reason. Often, the weapon would be disarmed from the person who retrieved it, and the other wrestler, for some odd reason, allowed to use it! Probably the most notable of these matches took place in late 1999, where the power-hungry Triple H and Stephanie McMahon made a "Pink Slip on a Pole" match pitting Mankind and The Rock against each other, whom were both major fan favorites. The stipulation being that whomever got the pink slip kept their job, while the loser got fired. Mankind would lose and thus be fired, but this would lead to a lengthy and awesome feud between him and Triple H. Perhaps the ultimate expression of this trope was the infamous(ly terrible) Thanksgiving Turkey on a Pole Match. This was during the AWA 's final phase: The God-forsaken Team Challenge Series. Not exactly the way the promotion would like to be remembered. This was when Col. DeBeers of South Africa faced long-time AWA jobber Jake "The Milk Man" Milliman. The match went predictably until somehow DeBeers was distracted, felled, and Milliman went up the ladder to retrieve the turkey, win the match, and demand "It's MY turkey!!" Over... and over... and over again. WCW's San Francisco 49er Match had four "secret boxes" on poles, one containing the Heavyweight title, the other three containing a blow-up doll, a coal miner's glove (from the infamous WCW 1992 Coal Miner's Glove Match), and a headshot of Scott Hall as Razor Ramon. It was so silly and combined with a decent match from the participants ( Booker T and Jeff Jarrett ), if it wasn't for the title, it would probably be better than it sounds. One of the better pole matches was between José Rivera JR and Eddie Colon during what were presumed to be WWC's dying days. The pole was tall enough that they did not have to pretend to have trouble reaching the object, Carly 's shovel , and Rivera actually was disqualified for using it after Colon had been the one to retrieve it. It still had some questionable bits as apparently the two competitor's unauthorized use was the only way to force a disqualification but it exceeded the low expectations on every level. One such match between Kaz and Black Reign had four boxes on poles. Three held mousetraps, the winning box held Black Reign's pet rat. A variation of this is used in TNA, often as a "Feast or Fired Match". Several of the boxes would contain either direct awarding of championship belts or imminent title shots. One, often, would remove the wrestler from the promotion — and you wouldn't know what was in which box you got until you opened them at a later date. One female variation had the match "loser" be forced to perform a striptease or be fired. This would be better than it sounds, until the person being forced to do so was Daffney , who had a goth gimmick . The Pole and Paddle variation was one that Trish Stratus did rather often. The match consisted of two attractive females, and the object in question was a spanking paddle; once one wrestler won the match by gaining it, she could spank the loser. Usually done solely for fanservice, with one very notorious exception involving a rather irate Molly Holly . In WWE's version of FCW, a "Money In The Bank" variation of the pole match with multiple participants and the winner getting a title shot, was done fairly often, especially with the Divas. Barbed Wire — depending on how "extreme" the competitors are, the turnbuckle pads are replaced with bared wire, the ring ropes are wrapped in it or the ropes are totally replaced by barbed wire. Tropes: Traditionally, American wire matches used rubber barbs since the 1970s but this was phased out since Mick Foley 's glory days (Japan, "Garbage" feds). Expect several excruciating spots where someone is tangled in the wire. (A legendary ECW match between Sabu and Terry Funk ended with ring tech spending ten minutes cutting the two men free of the tangle of wire they ended up in.) One variation sometimes seen in Japanese Garbage Wrestling promotions is the electrified barbed wire match. A wrestler running into the wires causes a shower of sparks. FMW once tried a flaming barbed wire match, which had to be called off when the wrestlers all bolted once the ring started melting. FMW has also had barbed wire tied to explosive charges, as well as the "Double Hell" match, were two sides of the ring have barbed wire in place of ropes and the other two lead right to open floor, which is usually covered in something equally dangerous. Lumberjack — A pre-determined number of wrestlers surround the ring (usually 12, but can vary from 10 to 30), ostensibly to keep both competitors in the ring (of course everyone knows it's to keep the heel from running). Tropes: The Lumberjacks are usually divided evenly between faces and heels, each group on one side of the ring. If a wrestler leaves the ring (usually thrown out), they'll be helped out if they land within their corresponding group, and pounded on by the opposite. Also, before the match reaches the climax, a brawl will usually break out among the lumberjacks, generally the signal for outside interference — which is almost always how the match ends. Will also be used by the Powers That Be to punish a wrestler (surrounding a face with heels, and vice versa). When a divas match is done as a lumberjack match, the lumberjacks are usually fellow divas and the match is called a Lumberjill match. All Pro Wrestling sometimes armed all of the lumberjacks with leather straps, giving the wrestlers extra incentive to stay in the ring. Milton Florida's First Annual Assault On Autism benefit show in 2011 saw D.J. Pringle and Damian Lavaye also have a match under this stipulation. TNA eventually gave it a name: Belting Pot match. Loser Leaves Town /Retirement Match — a match that stipulates that the loser of the match had to leave town (whichever promotional territory they were in) or retire, often "for good", but usually for three months . Generally used to cover for a wrestler's planned absence (for injury or a tour of a distant promotion - usually Japan). Tropes: Often resulted in an oddly-familiar masked-stranger showing up within a week or two of such a loss. Interestingly, in Memphis, the time-limit for losers leaving town was actually mentioned quite explicitly. Often the build up would mention that "the loser must leave the territory for a period of six months (or one year, or what have you)." These matches were especially popular during the territorial days of Professional Wrestling. It was an effective way to end a major feud, and it would draw a lot of money because the fans wouldn't see the losing wrestler for months or even years. TV Time-Limit Match — a match that ends in an official draw if the TV show ends before there is a winner or disqualification, but is otherwise standard. Virtually extinct now as all matches conveniently end (via pinfall, submission, disqualification, or a brawl breaking out) just in time for the program to end (or, as with Raw or on PPV's, the network has given the show overflow time should the match run a little long). Formerly, either 1980's Crockett-based television shows or Mid-South shows would be notorious for giving fans loads of jobber matches, and then one main event which might be interesting, but after a certain amount of the match, "BUT WE'RE OUT OF TIME!!!"... (The match is usually completed for the live audience.) It is possible you may see a television title, a belt in which every match fought for it is under this kind of time limit or something similar. In the 1950s, NWA LA introduced the "Beat The Champ" Television Title, with the added stipulation of the current "champion" taking on randomly selected challengers for five weeks, having to pay the former champion 100 USD if he failed. I Quit — essentially a contest of determination , there are no pinfalls, no submissions, no countouts, and no disqualifications in an I Quit match. Instead, there is just one way to lose: say the phrase "I Quit" note (or an equivalent phrase—e.g. "No más!" during a lucha libre version of the match) into a live microphone, in front of all the fans in the arena and everybody watching at home. Naturally, these are generally the most brutal matches ever seen in Professional Wrestling , as nobody wants to be seen as a quitter. In a famous version of this match between The Rock and Mick Foley (then Mankind), Foley was incapacitated by multiple chairshots to the head, and Rock won by replaying tape of Foley saying "I quit!" on Raw prior to the pay-per-view (in the context of "this is what I will not say"). A few years later, when Foley challenged Ric Flair to one of these matches, he tried to never say those two words in any of his promos leading up to the match so that the same trick wouldn't happen twice.note He would end up losing that match, too, after Flair threatened his friend, Melina , with a steel chair if he didn't quit. In a 2011 "I Quit" match between John Cena note (Who has an impressive record in "I Quit" matches (undefeated, which makes sense, considering his gimmick. ) and The Miz , a similar tactic was used by Miz in order to seemingly win the match, but on the account of the referee finding the cellphone that played the supposed recording of (an out-of-context) Cena saying "I quit!", Miz ended up losing the match to Cena. While the intent of the match is to show who is the more determined/braver of the two, this matches will end in a loophole of some sort about as often as they do cleanly. This often happens when the face is booked to lose yet still needs his reputation intact at the end of the match. The Rock/Mankind fight is an apt example. Others, such as the Triple H/Rock fight and the Mick Foley/Ric Flair fight, utilize the heel threatening harm upon a close one of their opponent unless they quit the match. Since any halfway decent person would put the well-being of friends over a victory, this is an acceptable way to lose an "I Quit" match with one's reputation intact. A variation is the version of the submission man where a wrestler's manager, valet, or friend has to throw in the towel to stop the match. If this variant is used, there is most likely a Faceï¿½Heel Turn in the Face's valet's future. However, the most famous of these types of matches, Bret Hart vs. Bob Backlund , actually had Hart's corner man (Davey Boy Smith) knocked out, leaving Bret's mother to throw in the towel in his stead, persuaded by his brother Owen Hart (though she probably didn't need much persuading after seeing Bret in Backlund's crossface chickenwing for a full five minutes), who had already turned heel owing to massive sibling rivalry; in fact, he was Backlund's cornerman in the match. The whole thing was teased as a My God, What Have I Done? moment for Owen — until Bret's mom threw in the towel and Owen immediately started celebrating.note (Backlund's 90's heel run began when he snapped at his former manager Arnold Skaaland for throwing in the towel during his match versus the Iron Sheik , ending his nearly six-year run as WWF Champion.) At ROH Rising Above, "The Lovely" Lacey prevented Tyler Black from throwing a towel in to his representative, Jimmy Jacobs , forcing him and Austin Aries to wrestle until one of them quit on their own. Smoky Mountain Wrestling used a variant on this particular variant called a "coward waves the flag" match, where each team of two had a representative at ringside wielding a white surrender flag. The winners were the team who would make their opponent's representative wave the flag. In both instances where the match was used, the same finish was used where the losers rep was tricked into waving his flag by swinging it at the other team's rep, which was seen by the referee as a "surrender". In a match billed as an I Quit between Beth Phoenix and Melina , neither competitor was required to say the words "I Quit" into a microphone, but rather just tell the referee whether or not they gave up. An I Quit match that made the loser seem royally badass was the one between Bret Hart and "Stone Cold" Steve Austin : the match ended with Austin passing out, but never saying "I Quit". In the match between the Hardy Boys , Matt Hardy and Jeff Hardy ; Matt quits, not because of the physical pain he's enduring, but because of the physical pain he's about to endure.note (Matt was tied to a table with his arms and legs duct taped, with no means of escape) Elimination — In any match where there are three or more wrestlers, the victory is usually decided by a simple pinfall or submission. However, an elimination variable added to such a match means that every wrestler except one (or every member of every team except one) must be pinned, forced to submit, counted out, or disqualified for there to be a victor. For example, in a four-man man match, there must be three eliminations for there to be a victor—and not all of them need be by the same wrestler. Three-man elimination matches were an ECW staple, with such a contest called a "Three-Way Dance". A variation, the Elimination Chamber, has become a signature match of WWE in the past few years, and specifically has been attached to their No Way Out pay-per-view (which in recent years has actually been named for the chamber). In this match, four men start behind Plexiglas cages within a much larger structure, not unlike Hell In A Cell, with the other two men start outside the Plexiglas like a regular match. Every two or three minutes, another is released. It is, as the name indicated, an elimination match: five competitors must be defeated for there to be a victor. Tends to get bloody, as the chamber has much less give than most types of cage. Another variation is the elimination tag, where both members of a tag team must be pinned, submitted, ect the match ends, with the first team to score a submission gaining a numerical advantage over the opposition. Elimination tags were popular in the WWF for them to build an a Pay Per View even around them called Survivor Series with four or five man tag teams! Of course, the heels almost always had the extra man. In its heyday, all the Series matches were of this type, but nowadays there are usually three or four, with other match types filling out the under card. In Lucha Libre, it is fairly common to make elimination tags with large numbers of participants into a Torneo cibernetico in which there can only be a single winner. If one team is completely eliminated first, the remaining team's members will fight each other in an elimination match. Although sometimes the match is used as a "qualifying" round for a larger event or series, in which case the ref will call for the bell after a set number of eliminations and those left will advance on to other matches. Tag Team Turmoil: Two to four tag teams start in the ring wrestling under normal tag team rules to eliminate the others by pin fall or submission. Each time a team is eliminated, another comes in to take their place until no one is left. A common occurrence is that an evil authority figure will insert another previously unannounced team into the match once a winner has been determined between all the known participants. Gauntlet Match — A match that usually has at least five competitors. Two will start until a pin fall or submission is gained after which the loser will be replaced by another wrestler and the process will continue until only one wrestler is left. The aforementioned Royal Rumble takes this up to eleven and combines this with battle royal, while Tag Team Turmoil can vary between an elimination match or a gauntlet depending on how many teams are involved. Variation: One wrestler may be forced to "run the gauntlet" in which wrestlers will keep coming at him one at a time until he defeats them all or is defeated himself. Sometimes the run will end when the wrestler forced to run it is beaten (if that's the case then the person who beats them is usually the last one they're expected to face), other times he must continue wrestling until he has faced everyone no matter how many of them beat him. Most commonly setup by evil bosses. In June 2015, Chris Hero willingly ran "an infinity gauntlet" hosted by SMASH where he promised to wrestle thirty minutes for every 500 USD raised for ALS. $3440 was raised, resulting in him wrestling for three hours and ten minutes straight. Lucha Underground has a unique variation called Aztec Warfare, which essentially combines classic Gauntlet with WWE's Royal Rumble - two wrestlers start the match and next one enters every 90 seconds, but unlike RR, fighters can be eliminated only by pinfall or submission. Blindfold Match — The wrestlers involved are blindfolded, hooded, or otherwise prevented from seeing. The fans, however, aren't so lucky. You see, these matches tend to be boring, disastrous, or a combination of both. They usually amount to the face wrestler pointing around the ring, and the crowd cheering when he points at the heel, leading the face to wander in that direction. This does not make for good entertainment. A perfect example of this is when TNA booked Chris Harris vs James Storm in a blindfold cage match. Their blindfolds repeatedly came off, 9/10 of the match involved them stumbling about the ring, and the fans turned on the match in a hurry, chanting "Boring" and even "Someone Stop This", and the match ended up being named the worst wrestling match of 2007. Yowza. Incidentally, there have been very few blindfold matches since then. Variant: Only one wrestler's blindfolded and at the complete mercy of the one who can still see. This is another one almost exclusively set up by evil boss types to punish faces, though on WWE Smackdown heel Jamie Noble had a blindfold to punish him for all the abuse he put Nidia through while she had been temporarily blinded by Yoshihiro Tajiri 's black mist . Handicap Match — Two or more wrestlers, acting as a tag team, take on a lesser number of wrestlers. This is almost always done by an evil boss to cause problems for a Face, or occasionally as Fanservice to punish a particularly disliked Heel (or to put a Giant over). During the kayfabe, pre-cable television era, where WWF fans got most of their fill of wrestling through its syndicated TV shows, handicap matches were a great way to get the popular Andrï¿½ the Giant on television. Usually, he would be matched against mid-card wrestlers, while sometimes these contests would be used to draw out the latest heel who claimed he could take down Andre. At the WWF's arena shows at venues such as Madison Square Garden, Andre was sometimes placed in 2-vs.-3 or on occasion 2-vs.-4 matchups (the heel side almost always featuring Captain Lou Albano ), with Andre's side always winning. John Cena and Randy Orton once took on the entire Raw roster. It was also an Elimination Match. Cena and Orton won the match when the RAW roster finally invaded after taking the better part of a half-dozen falls against it. Then the beatdown ensued, and Triple H came out to exact his dominance. First Blood Match — The loser is whoever bleeds first, or, more correctly, who the referee sees as bleeding first (the referee will frequently be seen checking the competitors by wiping their faces with a white towel.) There is no other way to win, or lose. Tropes: Count on the Heel to somehow hide that he's bleeding from the referee, use particularly brutal methods to cause the Face to bleed, or use some technique to make bleeding less likely. (Ironically, this type of match is actually less brutal than a normal match in which a wrestler happens to start bleeding and yet still must continue to fight.) Most notably used in a match between "Stone Cold" Steve Austin and Kane. The latter was given a ridiculously extreme advantage, because at the time he was masked and covered head to toe in a black-and-red costume, making it rather difficult for the referee to see if he was bleeding. Unsurprisingly, he won the match, but Austin won the title back a day later. John Cena defeated JBL in one of these matches by strangling him with a chain until he started coughing up blood. At TNA's 2011 Victory Road, Matt Morgan lost such a match when Hotstuff Hernandez threw fake blood on him. In Brew City Wrestling, Stacy Shadows cheated in a First Blood Steel Cage match by pouring previously drawn blood on women's champion Selene Grey. Sadistic Madness is a type of match created by TNA. It is similar to the First Blood match, but doesn't end when the blood starts flowing—at that point, the bleeding wrestler is able to be legally pinned (until at least one wrestler bleeds, there is no way for the match to be won or lost). Last Chance Match — Usually a championship match, with an extra rider—if the challenger doesn't win, he's barred from challenging for the title again until it changes hands. Lucha de Apuestas/Wager Match — Most common in Mexico, but comes up in other countries as well. A match where both competitors put something of theirs on the line. The most common ones are the Mask vs Mask match (between two masked wrestlers), Mask vs Hair (between a masked wrestler and an unmasked wrestler), and Hair vs Hair (between two unmasked wrestlers). Occasionally, a title belt will be put on the line, either instead of or in addition to the wrestler's mask or hair (such as Rey Mysterio Jr. and Eddie Guerrero 's mask vs title match in WCW ) According to The Other Wiki at least, there is an actual law about this in Mexico, which says that, if you lose your mask in such a match, you may never wear that mask, again, which is enforced whenever Mexico's wrestling ruling bodies damn well feel like it. In the case of Mysterio, Eric Bischoff decided to unmask him because he thought that wrestlers who hid their faces weren't "marketable". Mysterio and just about everyone around him were horrified at the idea of such a career-altering (and potentially career-wrecking) move being done for such a lame reason. Worse, WCW hardly did anything to push him after he was unmasked. Rey has been allowed to wear masks in WWE with no repercussions. The mask rule is enforced in the vast majority of cases. Rey's case is unique due to a number of factors, mainly the extremely disrespectful manner in which his unmasking was handled. Rey and his uncle, the original Rey Mysterio, argued that Rey was representing his uncle's image in WWE since he dropped the Jr. from his name (the original Mysterio was a heavyweight by the way). Pure Loophole Abuse , but the commission liked his uncle and they hated Bischoff for what he did so they allowed it. Last Man Standing — A gimmick rarer than most (though with increasing frequency in WWE), this match sees two wrestlers fight in a no-disqualification match until one of them is down for a ten-second count. Tropes: the likelihood of a tie is somewhere around 50% but varying depending on the people involved. Such a match will have a lot of high spots and generally moves that would normally end a match will draw a 9 count, usually multiple times. Expect the finish to usually involve someone being thrown off or through something. In days past, this was known as a Texas (or Mexican) Death Match and one wrestler had to pin the other for a three count before the referee's ten count would start. TNA and ROH reintroduced it for audiences in the late 2000s to mid 2010s. John Cena infamously won one of these against Batista in 2010 by duct-taping Batista's ankles to the turnbuckle . Hey, no one ever said you couldn't! Alberto Del Rio must have watched that match, since when he had a Last Man Standing match against The Big Show , he resorted to taping Show's feet to the bottom rope. Randy "Macho Man" Savage won a variant at Wrestlemania X against Crush in a similar way. In this variant, falls counted anywhere, and after being pinned, the wrestler had 60 seconds to return to the ring or lose the match. Savage pinned Crush, then tied him upside-down on a forklift so he couldn't get back in time. Exploding Ring Match (or "C4 match") — Sometimes seen in Japanese Garbage Wrestling promotions like FMW , a hardcore match in a ring rigged with explosives on a timer. In some versions the idea is to finish the match before the timer runs out and detonates the ring (although this does not necessarily end the match!), while in others the explosives are concentrated in a specific area, with the wrestlers struggling not to get pushed onto it. Frequently combined with the barbed wire match. Triple Threat/Fatal Four-Way — This match is similar to the Elimination match in that more than two wrestlers are involved. However, unlike the Elimination match, only one pinfall or submission is needed to end the match, whereby the wrestler who gets the pin or submission is declared the winner. A title is (almost) always on the line for these matches, and there is a good possibility that the current title holder will lose the title without being the one getting pinned. Naturally, there will invariably be multiple near-falls where the third wrestler breaks up the pin or hold. Also, you can count on one wrestler being "knocked out" or otherwise indisposed for much of the match and win it at the last moment after both his opponents have beat the living crap out of each other. Triple Threat, specifically, is one of the most interesting type of matches when you take wrestler alignment into account: Two Heels/One Face: This match will be, for around 50% of its duration, a handicap match. Both heels will gang up on the face and beat the crap out him. However, after beating the snot out of the face, the heels quickly turn on each other. Usually, the face is the title holder in this type of match. In this particular setup, it's pretty even odds on either the face or one of the heels winning. If the title holder's the face, it's quite common for him to lose the title by one of the heels pinning the other heel, meaning he lost the title but not "cleanly." (And thus, he isn't made to look weaker to the fans.) Once in a while, a heel might consider the face an Worthy Opponent and hint a turn , especially if he really goes at it with the other heel, but it's just as likely that both heels will be as rotten as ever. Two Faces/One Heel: Much less common than Two Heels/One Face. The heel is practically GUARANTEED to win this type of matchup. While the same handicap rules apply, it's not uncommon that the faces are much more vicious to each other than if it were two heels instead, and the heel will milk this for all it's worth. It is also quite common that one of the faces will start a feud with the other face after the match, if not do a turn outright. Notably averted by the Shawn Michaels / Triple H / Chris Benoit match at WrestleMania XX, and the rematch at Backlash . No Faceï¿½Heel Turn from either Michaels or Benoit, and Triple H didn't win - Benoit did . Both times. The first by making Triple H tap out, and the second by making Shawn Michaels tap out. Another aversion was Ayako Hamada vs Sara Del Rey vs Jessie McKay on SHIMMER volume 34, with McKay pulling off a Dark Horse Victory . Three Faces: Not as uncommon as you might think, this happens usually when an evil boss wants to punish a face stable. Expect the more vicious face to win, usually by using heel tactics, and like it so much he goes full heel . Three Heels: Probably the rarest type, this one usually happens when one of the heels is already hinting turning . Win or lose, the heel in question turns face and goes against the other two heels, usually gaining an ally from one of the established faces in the process. For added drama, the face that teams up with the former heel will be his sworn rival . There is also a six pack match (six wrestlers). Shockwave Impact Wrestling in Sidney Ohio USA, perhaps took the Iron Man match to its logical extreme by combining it with a six pack match and having it last for twelve straight hours. Logan Cross, Sid Fabulous, "Lightning" Tim Lutz, American Kickboxer II, Dark Angel(Williams) and DJ Tom Sharp were the wrestlers who pulled it off. Submission Match — Exactly What It Says on the Tin , a match that can only be won by Submission. At Backlash 2001 this was combined with an Iron Man match, to create the Ultimate Submission Match where the wrestler with the most submissions in the designated 30 minute time limit won. Perhaps the most legendary Submission match, the one at WrestleMania 13, actually ended without a submission, when a bleeding "Stone Cold" Steve Austin refused to tap out to Bret Hart 's Sharpshooter, despite having no way out of it. The match ended when Austin passed out from the pain instead of tapping out, eventually leading to a Heelï¿½Face Turn out of a new respect fans had for his raw determination, and he would go on to become the face of the Attitude Era. At the same time, Bret made a Faceï¿½Heel Turn with his ruthlessness in the match, even going so far as to continue beating the unconscious Austin after the match had already been called in his favor. Yes, that's right, a Faceï¿½Heel Double-Turn ; today it is still unanimously viewed as the greatest example of this extremely rare trope in wrestling history. The Undertaker has the following signature matches: Casket Match — Involves putting the opponent inside a casket and closing it to achieve victory. Infamously, when Triple H had one of these matches, it was impossible for him to win, as Viscera was too large to fit in the casket. ('Taker had two such matches against large opponents, and had double-wide caskets made for such a purpose. He beat Kamala , but lost to Yokozuna the first time. He beat him in the rematch at Survivor Series 94.) One such match between Undertaker and Kane ended in a draw when the casket was smashed to pieces. In one such match between Undertaker and The Big Show , Show deliberately smashed the casket to pieces, declared the match over, and tried to escape. Before he could, a second casket was carried out. Show then lost. Buried Alive Match — In this match, the only way to win is to take the opponent and bury him inside a grave. While it's no longer exclusively his, he's still linked with the Hell in a Cell match, since the first five Cell matches featured him. The original but often forgotten precursor to these was the Body Bag Match which he mostly fought against The Ultimate Warrior in 91. Last Ride Match — Put your opponent in the back of a hearse and drive it out of the arena to win. Pure Wrestling Rules — Most commonly appearing in Ring of Honor (they actually had a Pure Wrestling title for a while) but occasionally seen elsewhere. Each wrestler is allowed three rope breaks - once they are used up, the wrestler cannot use the ropes to escape pins or submissions. Closed fists are illegal, and using them will cause the wrestler to be penalized a rope break - if he is out of rope breaks, he will be disqualified. It should be pointed out that closed fists are usually illegal anyway but rarely enforced. Ric Flair once disqualified The Dudley Boys for their use of closed fists but it happens so rarely in regular matches no one could remember the last time a referee had done so note as early as 1951, a year before WWE existed in any form, heels such as Carl Meyer would punch baby faces in front of the referee and only get a stern warning. Likewise illegal holds (including all those involving the ropes) can be grounds for disqualification, but a five count is usually granted. The pure wrestling stipulation simply makes enforcement mandatory. If the commentators are to be trusted, closed fists are now legal in WWE; John Bradshaw Layfield pointed this out while discussing Antonio Cesaro 's signature European uppercut. In February 2015, Wonder Ring STARDOM decreed an immediate match ending disqualification must be called on any closed fist strike in response to Yoshiko going into business for herself on the Sunday 22nd Korakuen Hall show against Act Yasukawa. This was later clarified to be limited to face punches, which meant things like Io Shirai delivering a slingshot superman punch to the back of Hudson Envy's head did not stop matches. Taped Fist Match — The wrestlers must compete with their fists taped, the idea being that this would make it harder to grab each other while at the same time protecting their hands while punching, basically encouraging the athletes to "fight" instead of wrestle. Traditionally, these would be made in response to someone receiving multiple disqualifications for closed fist strikes but as that became less of a thing, wrestlers would simply be put in them as punishment for cheating or attacking someone outside of sanctioned matches. The American Wrestling Association and a few others had a brass knuckles title belt, where punching was legal in every match it was contested for, which were often taped fist matches or made use of brass knuckles. Dramatic Dream Team skipped all pretenses and simply booked "No Grappling Allowed" matches. Garbage wrestling fed Big Japan Pro Wrestling has the "Ancient Way" Death Match — Both fighters wrap their hands in hemp rope, which is then coated in honey and dipped in broken glass. Substitute the hemp rope with tape, and the honey with glue, and you have what ECW and CZW call the "Taipei Death Match". Scaffold Match — Two wrestlers or tag teams are on a narrow metal scaffold above the ring. Victory is either by throwing the opponent off the scaffold or some sort of capture the flag situation. Very old fashioned and all-but-obsolete gimmick that has some historical value. Scaffold matches have a reputation of being the worst out of all of wrestling's classic gimmick matches. The scaffold is very narrow and VERY high, making it difficult to have a good match up there. Sometimes wrestlers are so intimidated that they crawl around on it. There's also the risk of the match ending by accidental fall! The risk factor for this terrible match involves taking a fall off the scaffold that rivals Mick Foley 's Hell in the Cell dive for danger. Jim Cornette 's knee injury from a botched scaffold fall almost crippled him. So, wrestling's worst gimmick match is also one of its most dangerous. The most recent serious scaffold match revival undertaken by a "major" was in TNA. It wasn't any better or less dangerous than the scaffold matches from decades ago. According to Jim Helm, first voice of ICW, they started out in the 1950s in Nick Gulas's promotion as "Carpenter's matches". "Scaffold matches" were codified in the 1970s. Pro Wrestling Unplugged's Crazy Eight took the ladder match concept but had the wrestlers climb a scaffold to reach the title belt instead, surrounding it with a cage wall, two trampolines and four ropes to swing on. Big Japan Pro Wrestling has the Circus Death Match, which is scaffold match with a net to catch the wrestlers. A net made of barbed wire. Inspired by another garbage fed, the Big Japan W*ING Crisis Big Born Death Match has barbed wire trampolines. TNA also had its very own X shaped scaffold for a match it called Elevation X. This was slightly better, though no less dangerous, than a plain scaffold match by giving the wrestlers more directions to move in. Strap Match — Two wrestlers tied to opposite ends of a belt, rope, steel chain, or anything similar in order to keep them in close proximity to each other. This can also be referred to as a "Dog Collar Match," when the competitors are shackled at the neck. When these matches don't have pinfall or submission stipulations, the winner is decided by who can touch all four corners of a ring first. If a wrestler is knocked down while in the process of touching the corners, he must start over. Tables Match — One wrestler or a tag team must send their opponent(s) through a table to win. Some heels cheat by putting their opponents in some table wreckage just as the referee turns around. TNA had the Ghetto match, where a pin fall was required after going through the table. Stretcher Match — One wrestler must load the other on a stretcher and pull it across a finish line to win. In one such match between Brock Lesnar and The Big Show , Lesnar loaded Show, but the stretcher broke under his weight. Lesnar picked Show and the stretcher up with a forklift and drove across the finish line . Ambulance Match — One wrestler must put the other in the back of an ambulance and shut the doors to win. John Cena defeated Ryback at one of these by throwing him so hard he crashed through the roof of the ambulance and landed inside. Move Match — The first wrestler who uses a particular move on their opponent wins. Usually a bodyslam; if so, usually one competitor is much, much larger than the other. The best known of these was Yokozuna's Bodyslam challenge, which Lex Luger won. Another famous "Move Match" was the "$15,000 Body Slam Challenge" between Andre The Giant and Big John Studd at the first WrestleMania. If Andre slammed Studd, Andre would win $15,000, though if Andre was slammed, he would have to retire. Who won? Well, Andre's last WWF match was six years later. Variation: In one match between Austin Aries and Senshi , the object was Submission, but the submission would only count if the wrestler used the Crossface Chickenwing to do it. Bull Nakano Produce Empress featured a Guillotine Drop Match with four wrestlers from four different promotionsnote Kayoko Haruyama from JWP, Ryo Mizunami from WAVE, AKINO from Oz Academy, Maki Narumiya from Ice Ribbon who each used the move, it being the finisher of the retiring Nakano. Substance Match — The wrestlers fight in a pool of some kind of substance, like mud , chocolate milk, eggnog, etc. Matches end in pinfall or submission. Naturally used with female wrestlers for comedy and fanservice. Notably, Candice Michelle defeated Melina in one of these by holding her head under the chocolate pudding until she tapped out to keep from drowning. Match of 10,000 Tacks — The only way to win is to slam your opponent onto a pile of thumbtacks. A variation called the Serengeti Survival Match allows pinfalls and submissions. Pillow Fight — Two or more female wrestlers begin the match with a bed full of pillows in the ring, and typically come to the ring in a nightgown, lingerie, or pajamas. Matches end in pinfall or submission. Again, it is typically used for comedy and fanservice. Notably, Torrie Wilson once picked up the bed with Candice Michelle on it and threw it.	Most Valuable Player
Who was the earliest King of England to be the title character of a Shakespeare play?	Gimmick Matches - TV Tropes Gimmick Matches You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account Share YMMV Well, goddamn. It's a World Wrestling Federation. Why don't we put on some fucking wrestling, Vince Russo? once in a while? What do you want to do, Holiday on ice with chimpanzees? (Shit, matter of fact, I probably gave him his next Pay-Per-View.) TNA prefers to call their gimmick matches "concept matches" . A sample of some recurring gimmick matches (and their included tropes), and a number of notable examples of each match: 2-out-of-3-falls — The simplest of gimmick matches, this simply means that the wrestlers have a series of matches until one of them has won 2. Sometimes each fall will have its own gimmick from another match type on the list; this is called a Three Stages of Hell match or a Ring Master's Challenge. Tropes: This match is almost never decided after two falls; the competitors win one apiece, leading to the third, deciding fall. Usually, if the match ends in two straight falls, then someone is either working a "losing streak" angle or is being buried. The Briscoe Brothers in Ring of Honor developed a reputation for winning these matches in two straight falls. One of the WWF's many rule variances developed around this type of match: originally, a wrestler / team had to win both falls by pinfall or submission for a title change to be valid. This was eventually reverted to a pinfall or submission only being necessary in the final fall. "Two out of three falls" was actually the standard in the very early years of professional wrestling, with "One-fall" becoming the norm when wrestling made the jump from "sport" to "sports entertainment". Before this a single fall contest was called a "Lightning Match". It was used as the storyline reason for then-WWWF leaving the National Wrestling Alliance in 1963. NWA Champion Buddy Rogers lost a one-fall match against Lou Thesz , and WWWF refused to acknowledge the title switch since it wasn't done with two out of three falls. So they went on their own, naming Rogers as the first WWWF Champion. It was also the catalyst for the creation of the AWA. In 1957, Eduardo Carpentier defeated Lou Thesz for the NWA title in a two-out-of-three falls match. However, since one of those falls was a DQ, there was a dispute among the NWA promoters over who should be the champion, with most promotoers recognizing Thesz and other, renegade promoters recognizing Carpentier (and even sanctioning a title change between him and Verne Gagne, who was the one really pulling the strings at the time). After promoter Wally Karbo unsuccessfully lobbied for a title unification match between Gagne and the NWA champion, the two split off and formed the AWA. Note that when British Freestyle wrestling was big, back in the '70s and '80s all its matches were best out of three, or as Brian Crabtree (the MC) always put it "Two falls, two submissions or a knockout to decide the winner." Hence the Monty Python's Flying Circus sketch "The Wrestling Epilogue", with a priest and a professor getting into the ring together, "The existence or otherwise of God to be decided by two falls, two submissions or a knockout". You can see it on Youtube here . Hence also the line in Good Omens "Three rounds, one Fall, no submission" to describe the war between Heaven and Hell. 2 out of 3 remains the standard match in Mexican lucha libre (but not everywhere in the Spanish speaking or Latin world) Tag Team Match — A two man team faces another two man team under the stipulation only one wrestler from each team can be in the ring at a time. A wrestler in the ring usually must tag his partner, most commonly standing on the ring apron behind the ropes, before they can switch places, though in Mexican wrestling a wrestler can also exit the ring to allow his partner to take his place. When one wrestler from a team is beaten, the other team wins. It varies on how long wrestlers have after the tag to switch places, usually between five to fifteen seconds, with the longer times allowing " double team maneuvers " to be performed on an outnumbered wrestler before the referee calls for a disqualification. As previously mentioned, it also highly varies as to what rules apply to participants who leave the ring entirely. Tropes: One wrestler gets cut off from their partner for an extended period of time . Legal wrestlers are forced out of the ring because a referee failed to see a tag. Participants in separate feuds are paired together to tease upcoming matches and allow those involved to interact with someone else, to keep things fresh. Identical wrestlers or wrestlers with identical masks illegally switch places behind the referee's back. Easily the most common of all gimmick matches, tag teams are hardly even considered a gimmick any more, and for a while it was common for promotions to establish tag team titles before any other kinds of belts or divisions(such as Super World Of Sports, X-LAW, Chikara and WAVE). Mexican fans couldn't get enough of tag teams, to the point that UWA introduced a trios division , while AAA came up with a mascot division where a smaller wrestler teams up with a larger wrestler using a derivative of his gimmick (or the other way around), and a mixed tag team division where a man must team with a woman. In Ring of Honor , the Mexican style of entering without a tag so long as your partner has exited the ring is called a Scramble Match, though they have an added stipulation that in multiple team scrambles, tags become very important because anyone can tag out anyone. Tags also are unneeded under " Dragon Gate Rules". Tornado Match — The much simpler but much less common counterpart where all team members are allowed in the ring at the same time. Many of the more "extreme" gimmick match variations turn tag team matches into tornado matches when added onto them, however. Relevos Australianos — a three on three minimum match where each team has a captain and victory is achieved either by eliminating one team's captain or by eliminating all of a captain's teammates. Despite the name, it is more commonly seen in Mexico than Australia. Gate Of Heaven — Three stages of hell, applied to tag team matches. Started in Dragon Gate, with the first fall being a strict tag team match with two referees to make sure tags actually happen. Second fall, Dragon Gate rules. Third fall, if necessary, tables, ladders and chairs are now legal. Iron Man — This match goes on for a predetermined length of timenote often, though not always, one hour, and continues even if a wrestler scores a pinfall, submission, or other decision; instead, each decision counts as a point, and the wrestler with the most points in the end wins. Tropes: Like the 2-out-of-3 falls match, this one usually ends up tied until the closing minutes of the bout. At any point when it is not tied (until the closing moments) the face is always behind. Sometimes if it is tied at the bell, everyone is confused, Calvinball kicks in, someone wins and the loser complains. The Ultimate Submission match is a variant of the Iron Man match where only submissions count for points. In one ROH match heel World Champion Bryan Danielson took the lead within the last 30 seconds — giving his opponent no chance to even the score. At Bound For Glory 2005: AJ Styles fought Christopher Daniels for the entire match without a single point earned by either man, until Styles finally gained a pinfall with 2 seconds left for victory. The more common variation (this match is very rare) is the heel wrestler taking a big lead, then the face wrestler racing to either tie the score or force overtime. In the most famous Iron Man match to actually feature pinfalls, The Rock was racing to tie the score against Triple H ; as he was WWF Champion at the time, he would retain his title in the event of a draw (a convention which has been retained since). Thunder Queen — Used in All Japan Womens Pro Wrestling : Two teams of four. Individual members have one five-minute Iron Woman match each (20 minutes total), followed by a 40-minute tag team Iron Woman match. The team with the highest total amount of pinfalls/submissions wins. Rounds — The match has a set time limit with preset breaks where the wrestlers must cease all contact and return to their corners to rest, in mimicry of boxing. Like the Iron Man match, each pin fall or submission counts as a point, with the winner being the wrestler with the most points at the end of all the rounds. Rounds tend to be an unpopular gimmick, with The American Wrestling Federation's attempt to revive them in the USA instead nearly killing it off for good there. The format has remained somewhat popular in some regions such as the UK, however, leading many to call these "British Rounds Matches". Ladder Match — There are no pins, submissions, countouts, or disqualifications in this match; instead, an object (usually a championship belt) is hung 10-15 feet above the ring, and ladders conveniently placed outside the ring. To win, a wrestler must retrieve a ladder and climb it to take possession of the object. Several variations exist: in a TLC match, tables and chairs are added to the ladders outside the ring, and in a Full Metal Mayhem match, chains are added to the standard TLC arsenal. Tropes: Expect lots of use of the ladder as a weapon, lots of jumping off the ladder, and lots of Ladder Tipping . At one point, the wrestlers involved will race up opposite sides of the same ladder; this inevitably culminates in a fist-fight at the top of the ladder. Origins of the ladder match are disputed with most crediting their innovation in 1972 to Dan Kroffat of Canada's Stampede wrestling, though Kendo Nagasaki, who later introduced them to World Of Sport in the UK, may have came up with the idea independently around the same time. King Of The Mountain is a TNA exclusive variant. In essence, it is a reverse ladder match (you must take the title belt from the ring announcer and hang it from a hook, by climbing a ladder). But before you can do that, you must first pin one of your four opponents. And when you are pinned, you have to spend 2 minutes in a penalty box outside the ring. WWE has the Money in the Bank Match, originally at WrestleMania , later with its own PPV ; anywhere from six to ten wrestlers compete at once, and the prize being hung above the ring is a briefcase, inside which is a contract which the winner can use to get a world championship match anytime he wants within one calendar year of winning it. Almost every time the contract has been cashed in, the one doing the cashing won the title, usually by doing so right after the current champion has taken a nasty beating from a previous challenger and is in little to no condition to fight back. There were only two exceptions to the battered champion strategy. The first was Rob Van Dam 's cashing against then-WWE Champion John Cena at ECW One Night Stand, which RVD announced weeks beforehand and simply gave him "homefield" advantage. The other was on the 1000th episode of Raw where Cena did the same to CM Punk . Only twice has the briefcase holder lost the cash-in match; first with the aforementioned Cena match and the second time with Damien Sandow . Most winners of the Money in the Bank match have been heels: only RVD, CM Punk (twice), Kane , Daniel Bryan, Cena, Randy Orton and Dean Ambrose have won the match as faces, and in the cases of Punk the second time, Kane, Bryan, and Orton, turned heel very shortly (or in Orton's case, immediately) after winning the title. In a complete parody of the concept, a Dramatic Dream Team actually has had wrestlers compete against ladders. Huge props to the wrestler for the awesome one-man job, which involves the ladder performing a hurricanrana on him. The DDT Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship that anyone or anything can win has been held by three different ladders. And then, for its 1,000th championship, the title belt itself became the champion. Extreme Rules 2014 had a parody called the WeeLC Match, with tiny ladders, chairs, tables, and even midget referees and announcers to accommodate the midget combatants Hornswoggle and El Torito. Steel Cage Match — The ring is surrounded by a chainlink fence cage; you must win by pinfall, submission, or escaping the cage (either by exiting through the door, or climbing over the topnote {Sometimes the door is padlocked after the wrestlers enter, so that climbing out is the only way to escape. Well, unless something ridiculous happens like a wrestler getting bodyslammed through the floor of the ring and escaping under the cage. Yes, WWE has actually ended a cage match in that manner.}; this stipulation was popularised by the WWF). In traditional WWE cage matches the ONLY win method is escape, but post territorial era matches usually ignore this as the drama of someone slowly climbing up gets old after awhile. Tropes: Good or bad, nobody tries for the pin, submission, or outside the door victories until they get desperate; everybody tries to climb over the top first. A wrestler perched on the top will often give up his impending victory and instead jump back into the cage with a splash, elbow drop, or other move. The earliest cage matches on record happened in Atlanta Georgia in rings surrounded by chicken wire to keep interference out/competitors in. As time went on, wire was swapped out for steel bars and eventually bars were swapped out for chain link fencing, which was easier to carry. Ring of Honor would create a variant called the Scramble Cage with wooden platforms atop each corner of the cage specifically to facilitate such back-into-the-ring dives. TNA, somewhat predictably, came up with a ludicrous variant where the participants have to fight into the cage. The company also has an entire PPV (Lockdown) dedicated to having every match inside their "Six Sides of Steel" cage. AAA, WCW and TNA have also used a "Thunder Cage", specifically based on the Thunder Dome of Mad Max . Ken Shamrock has hosted professional wrestling matches in his mixed martial arts training facility "The Lion's Den", which naturally uses a multi sided cage rather than a squared circle wrestling ring. Leva Bates proposed an "Arkham Asylum" cage match at SHINE 9, where the loser had to leave in a straitjacket (the restraining device, not the submission). The following year, Mr. Anderson and Samuel Shaw would have the "Straight Jacket" match to be nationally televised, but did not include the cage in TNA. Tower Of Doom — also known as a Triple Decker Cage Match in WCW because that's exactly what it is, three cages stacked on top of one another. Typically the central cage is divided into two rooms housing two teams of wrestlers. Pin falls and submissions only count in the ring on the bottom cage, so the teams will fight each other to reach the bottom, or in some cases, to force the opposition to the bottom where they can be eliminated. There has also been a variation where two wrestlers start at the bottom and race to the top for a dangling title belt, similar to the ladder match. Hell in a Cell — a WWE signature match; this variant of the Steel Cage match involves a larger cage which Jim Cornette admits to stealing from (or researching from) a Memphis territory, that includes the majority of the ringside area in its confines, and also has a roof, ala Dusty Rhodes 's war games. Escape rules don't apply; the match ends only via pinfall or submission, and only in the ring. In earlier matches big falls from the side or top of the cage were fairly commonplace (most famously, by Mick Foley ), but these have been toned down over safety concerns. HHH pinned Chris Jericho on top of the Cell at Judgment Day 2002. This was the only time someone had been pinned on top of the Cell. The infamous Hell in a Cell between Mick Foley and The Undertaker at King of the Ring '98 involved Foley taking two big falls: once getting thrown off the top of the 16-foot cage into the Spanish Announcers Table , and then (while badly injured from that first bump) getting chokeslammed through the roof of the cell. Until WWE started toning things down for safety reasons, attempts to replicate the "Holy Shit!" Quotient of that match were common. note Although popular belief is that Mick wasn't supposed to go through the roof, hence the ever so brief " Oh shit, did I just kill Mick? " reaction from Undertaker. There was also a Hell in a Cell derivative between Al Snow and the Big Bossman at Unforgiven 1999, which was infamous for all the wrong reasons . The "Kennel from Hell" consisted of a regular steel cage inside the Hell in a Cell cage, with "vicious attack dogs" in the cell portion. Thus, the wrestlers supposedly couldn't leave the ring cage without getting mauled by the dogs. But the "vicious" dogs did nothing but wag their tails and poop around the ring , making the match an even bigger joke than the stupid premise would have suggested. Big Japan Pro Wrestling had a variation of Hell In A Cell with a scaffold. The ring was covered in thumbtacks and "Japanese kenzans". Ultimate X — a TNA signature match; essentially a "ladder match without the ladders"; instead, two cables are strung across the ring (forming an "X" pattern), and the object (normally a championship belt or a large red "X") is placed where the cables meet. To claim the object and win, one must climb the turnbuckles, and then climb hand-over-hand across the cables to reach the object. Its flaws, however, are brought to the spotlight during the few times that the title or X has actually fallen. In the first match, officials had to stop the match and re-hang the belt twice. In a later match, a wrestler caught the X, and officials declared the match over, with a rematch immediately signed for a later date, this time with the X literally chained to the cables. Tropes: Like the ladder match, two wrestlers will often end up racing across the cables from opposite ends, and end up fighting in the middle. Like the steel cage match, a wrestler who has the victory within grasp will often give it up in order to do one spectacular move off of the high cables. In one version of this match, Team 3D actually did use a ladder to cheat and win the match. War Games: The Match Beyond — a signature match of defunct promotion WCW; the War Games match started with two rings, side-by-side, surrounded with a steel cage, and two teams of four (originally five, including the managers of the Road Warriors and The Four Horsemen in the original NWA War Games) wrestlers each. One wrestler from each team starts the match. After five minutes, one team (determined by coin toss) gets to send another man in, making it two-on-one. Two minutes later, the other side gets to send a man in. The two teams alternate sending men into the cage, every two minutes, until all eight men are in. At this point, "the match beyond" officially begins. Up until this point, there is no way to end the match; after this, the first team to make one of their opponents submit is declared the winner. TNA has a variation of this match with only one ring, calling it Lethal Lockdown. Tropes: The heels always win the coin toss, making sure that the faces are a man down (and thus, the underdogs) going through the majority of the match. This also increases the drama when the faces are able to even the odds after every advantage period. When announcing the Elimination Chamber, Eric Bischoff stated that he'd drawn heavily on War Games to create the match concept. Ring of Honor does a one-ring version called Steel Cage Warfare and used CZW 's Cage of Death for another variation. ROH is also notable for, during the ROH vs. CZW feud, performing the only variation of War Games rules ever in which the babyface team won the coin toss. Speaking of CZW's Cage of Death, it's a variation on the Wargames format with a little bit of Bunkhouse Stampede thrown in for good measure. The competitors showcase their best Garbage Wrestling while avoiding touching the floor (which either involves being thrown over the top of the cage or crashing through the wooden boards between the two rings) The "Big Japan CZW Crisis Big Born Cage of Death Death Match" electrifies the cage walls. WSU had a match named "War Games" that took place inside a steel cage. It was a team of three vs three. Two members of each team would start off and a new one would enter the ring every two minutes (beforehand there was a coin toss to decide which team would get a new member first). Once all six were in the ring the only way to win was for one member to say "I Quit" on behalf of the whole team. The match was only performed once and had a notoriously dramatic ending - one of the participants was threatened with a machete and one of her teammates forfeited the match to save her. Battle Royal — A match with a large number of participants (usually 20, but see Royal Rumble below) begin in the ring. The winner is the last man standing. Elimination is being thrown from the ring and landing on the floor outside (usually over the top rope, though Diva battle royals sometimes only requiring having exited the ring). Tropes: The biggest wrestler almost never wins, but it usually takes three or four (or sometimes ten or more) guys to eliminate him.note This trope was averted when this gimmick match was born in the 1970s; Andrï¿½ the Giant specialized in winning them. Also expect at least one elimination by someone who's already been eliminated (or occasionally by somebody who's not an actual participant). There will also often be one wrestler who's universally hated by faces and heels alike, who everybody teams up to eliminate immediately. WCW's World War 3 is a 60-man battle royal spanned across three rings. TNA, somewhat predictably, came up with a ludicrous variant—the Reverse Battle Royal—where the participants have to fight into the ring. ROH On HD Net combined this with tornado match, as the prize in the battle royal was a tag title shot, encouraging the established teams to work together throughout. Royal Rumble — WWE's signature variation of the Battle Royal has 30 mennote (20 in 1988, expanded to 40 in 2011 but back to 30 in 2012) with a twist: It starts with two wrestlers in the ring, and a new wrestler is added every 2 minutes, Although it has had 1, 1 1/2 and 2 minute intervals, the actual timing of the entrances varies on how "into" the match the crowd are. An entire pay-per-view event is built around it, and since 1993 the winner gets a shot at one of the two top titles at WrestleMania , which is held approximately two months afterwards. Tropes: Expect one of the first two wrestlers to last to the final four. If there's anybody that the evil boss has spent the last month trying to keep out of the match, watch him; he'll be the one to win it all. At one point, a dominant heel will go on an elimination spree but not actually win the match. Also, entrant #30 rarely wins, despite the obvious theoretical advantage to entering last. Only John Cena , The Undertaker , and Triple H have done so, and it can be said Cena's win was more because of the element of surprise — this was Cena's return from an injury. Also expect to see a former WWE star/legend to make a one-time appearance (though this can sometimes lead to more appearances or even a full-time return afterwards). Such notable examples include Honky Tonk Man in 1998 and 2001, Mr. Perfect in 2002 (who was one of the last four in the match), "Rowdy" Roddy Piper and Jimmy "Superfly" Snuka in 2008, Kevin Nash and Booker T in 2011, Road Dogg in 2012, and The Godfather in 2013 (lasting all of five seconds). No Disqualification/No Holds Barred/Street Fight/Extreme Rules — These match types in the post territory era connote an "anything goes" scenario where the only way to win is through pinfall or submission, with subtle variations depending on the elements each match type emphasizes. Falls counting anywhere is optional, but not standard like in the eponymous match type or a normal hardcore match. No DQ and No Holds Barred matches originally (and often still do) functioned like regular matches, with the former just disregarding the DQ rule and the latter allowing "banned" moves. Street fights sometimes have participants compete in "street clothes" rather than wrestling gear, and weapons are improvised from the surroundings or brought by the participants themselves. Falls Count Anywhere — Exactly What It Says on the Tin . Often more of a street fight than the eponymous match type itself, as it's not uncommon for the action to spill onto to the backstage areas or even outside the arenas and onto the actual streets(some feds such as ECW and LLF have managed to halt traffic with these matches). Depending on the circumstances it can be as tame as the above or extreme as below in terms of violence. Parking Lot Brawl — Like falls count anywhere, but restricted to a parking lot, or something similar. Hardcore Match — Basically the above match types but dialed Up to Eleven , it puts a major emphasis on ultraviolence. Often referred to as "garbage wrestling" because of its complete disregard for traditional mat wrestling and even an underemphasis on moderate brawling and "tame" weapon use in favor of excessive and creative use of unconventional weapons and extreme induced bleeding. Staple weapons are barbed wire, thumbtacks, fire and broken glass, with the probability of even more off-the-wall choices. WWF did a one-time variation of this where they rented an entire arena and then...didn't sell tickets (instead broadcasting the match to a filled arena elsewherenote This was Halftime Heat, a WWF event that was going up against the Super Bowl , so they had to play their best hand). This was called the Empty Arena match and was basically a Hardcore Match but without the audience, allowing The Rock and Mankind to brawl all through the audience area that would normally be filled with people. Mankind won the WWF Championship by pinning The Rock using a forklift and a pallet (hey, his shoulders were down) and this match was never used again (due to the prohibitive cost-usually a promotion will later sell tickets for later matches in that same arena and show the empty seats to them on a screen or something or just use an arena they own). One of the earliest and best-known examples of the Empty Arena match occurred in 1981, when Jerry Lawler faced off against Terry Funk at an empty Mid-South Coliseum in Memphis, Tennessee. A variation is the Bunkhouse Brawl, where weapons are strewn around the ring. Usually things like 2x4s, loaded gloves, or baseball bats. Raven made this match his specialty during his time in Ring of Honor and TNA; his personal version was called the Clockwork Orange House of Fun Match. The WWF did a variation of a no disqualification "empty arena" contest called a "Dungeon Match", where Owen Hart challenged Ken Shamrock to come to his basement (AKA the legendary Hart Family Dungeon) for a fight. Vintage Dragon introduced his own variation of the Bunkhouse Brawl in Vendetta Pro he called a Holiday Havoc match, featuring gift wrapped weapons around the arena, in the hands of fans and beneath a Christmas tree. There had been earlier variants of this though, such as Future Of Wrestling's Xtreme Xmas match where all the weapons were under a tree. Inferno Match — Sometimes called a " ring of fire " match. Fire surrounds the ring, usually just under the bottom rope; the first person to catch on fire loses. Dramatic spots of trying to push a resisting opponent closer to the flames are common. Tropes: If the Inferno Match is someone's "specialty" they are bound to lose, particularly if they're the one wearing the most protective clothing. Invariably all that gets set on fire is a boot or a glove, since anything else would be far too risky in reality (incidentally, while we're on the subject, let's give props to WWE wrestler Montel Vontavious Porter , who took the match-losing burn from one of these on his back — granted, he was clothed there, but it still takes balls). A variation, the Human Torch match, has the same victory condition, but the ring is not surrounded by fire. The man who's most commonly associated with this match in WWE, Kane , has only won one of them (against MVP, as mentioned above). It's treated as "his specialty" because his gimmick has a strong association with fire. Big Japan Pro Wrestling has the Fire Stone Death Match, where instead of fire, the ring is lined with electrified space heaters wrapped in barbed wire. At Summerslam 2013, Kane and Bray Wyatt had a Ring of Fire match where the ring was surrounded by fire, but the object was pinfall or submission. Kane lost when Bray's two henchmen managed to put out some of the fire, allowing them to enter the ring and beat Kane down. Bra & Panties Match — Two female wrestlers (or more likely, two non-wrestling pieces of eye candy) get in the ring and "violence" ensues until one of them is stripped of all clothing save their underwear. Used to be an "evening gown match" or a men's equivalent "tuxedo match" until the mid 90s Attitude era and was traditionally limited to valets and managers until that same era saw full time wrestlers participate in them. Tropes: Typically the heel loses and is humiliated by it, fleeing the ring trying to cover up... and then the victorious face willingly strips down anyway and parades around the ring for the (usually male) fans to enjoy. One of the oddest variations of this match combined the Tuxedo and Evening Gown stipulations to make Lilian Garcia the RAW ring announcer by defeating (a surprisingly-heel!) Howard Finkel. Several of the other divas joined in on beating Howard down after several markedly misogynistic remarks. At King of the Ring 2000, Pat Patterson and Gerald Brisco, two elderly male former wrestlers, had a match of this kind. Pure, refined horror , even when put in context ; they were feuding with Crash Holly for the Hardcore Championship (which was then defended under a 24/7 rule, which meant the title could be on the line anytime, anywhere). The Tennessee Boot match combines it with two out of three fall, though it can become two out of four falls. Each fall or submission forces the loser to remove a boot and the bootless wrestler loses. While tuxedo matches are supposedly the male equivalent, Dramatic Dream Team has made it clear more than once that bra & panties matches are not just for women. The particularly hairy Takayuki Ueki and Suguru Miyatake's mercifully went to a no contest. Thing On a Pole — Some object is put up on a pole at one corner of the ring, winner must retrieve it. Could be a flag, or a belt, a pink slip, or a bottle of tequila, or whatever. Occasionally, the thing on a pole is a weapon (such as a steel chair, a hockey stick, brass knuckles, whatever); in these cases, obtaining the item doesn't end the match, but instead makes the weapon legal to use without disqualification, giving a competitor a major advantage. Tropes: Despite not being particularly difficult to reach, wrestlers will struggle to weakly climb up there and paw at the object before being yanked away by an opponent. Matches are typically lousy, a poor man's ladder match. Vince Russo , journeyman wrestling writer and he of Shocking Swerve fame/infamy, absolutely adores these for some unknown reason. Often, the weapon would be disarmed from the person who retrieved it, and the other wrestler, for some odd reason, allowed to use it! Probably the most notable of these matches took place in late 1999, where the power-hungry Triple H and Stephanie McMahon made a "Pink Slip on a Pole" match pitting Mankind and The Rock against each other, whom were both major fan favorites. The stipulation being that whomever got the pink slip kept their job, while the loser got fired. Mankind would lose and thus be fired, but this would lead to a lengthy and awesome feud between him and Triple H. Perhaps the ultimate expression of this trope was the infamous(ly terrible) Thanksgiving Turkey on a Pole Match. This was during the AWA 's final phase: The God-forsaken Team Challenge Series. Not exactly the way the promotion would like to be remembered. This was when Col. DeBeers of South Africa faced long-time AWA jobber Jake "The Milk Man" Milliman. The match went predictably until somehow DeBeers was distracted, felled, and Milliman went up the ladder to retrieve the turkey, win the match, and demand "It's MY turkey!!" Over... and over... and over again. WCW's San Francisco 49er Match had four "secret boxes" on poles, one containing the Heavyweight title, the other three containing a blow-up doll, a coal miner's glove (from the infamous WCW 1992 Coal Miner's Glove Match), and a headshot of Scott Hall as Razor Ramon. It was so silly and combined with a decent match from the participants ( Booker T and Jeff Jarrett ), if it wasn't for the title, it would probably be better than it sounds. One of the better pole matches was between José Rivera JR and Eddie Colon during what were presumed to be WWC's dying days. The pole was tall enough that they did not have to pretend to have trouble reaching the object, Carly 's shovel , and Rivera actually was disqualified for using it after Colon had been the one to retrieve it. It still had some questionable bits as apparently the two competitor's unauthorized use was the only way to force a disqualification but it exceeded the low expectations on every level. One such match between Kaz and Black Reign had four boxes on poles. Three held mousetraps, the winning box held Black Reign's pet rat. A variation of this is used in TNA, often as a "Feast or Fired Match". Several of the boxes would contain either direct awarding of championship belts or imminent title shots. One, often, would remove the wrestler from the promotion — and you wouldn't know what was in which box you got until you opened them at a later date. One female variation had the match "loser" be forced to perform a striptease or be fired. This would be better than it sounds, until the person being forced to do so was Daffney , who had a goth gimmick . The Pole and Paddle variation was one that Trish Stratus did rather often. The match consisted of two attractive females, and the object in question was a spanking paddle; once one wrestler won the match by gaining it, she could spank the loser. Usually done solely for fanservice, with one very notorious exception involving a rather irate Molly Holly . In WWE's version of FCW, a "Money In The Bank" variation of the pole match with multiple participants and the winner getting a title shot, was done fairly often, especially with the Divas. Barbed Wire — depending on how "extreme" the competitors are, the turnbuckle pads are replaced with bared wire, the ring ropes are wrapped in it or the ropes are totally replaced by barbed wire. Tropes: Traditionally, American wire matches used rubber barbs since the 1970s but this was phased out since Mick Foley 's glory days (Japan, "Garbage" feds). Expect several excruciating spots where someone is tangled in the wire. (A legendary ECW match between Sabu and Terry Funk ended with ring tech spending ten minutes cutting the two men free of the tangle of wire they ended up in.) One variation sometimes seen in Japanese Garbage Wrestling promotions is the electrified barbed wire match. A wrestler running into the wires causes a shower of sparks. FMW once tried a flaming barbed wire match, which had to be called off when the wrestlers all bolted once the ring started melting. FMW has also had barbed wire tied to explosive charges, as well as the "Double Hell" match, were two sides of the ring have barbed wire in place of ropes and the other two lead right to open floor, which is usually covered in something equally dangerous. Lumberjack — A pre-determined number of wrestlers surround the ring (usually 12, but can vary from 10 to 30), ostensibly to keep both competitors in the ring (of course everyone knows it's to keep the heel from running). Tropes: The Lumberjacks are usually divided evenly between faces and heels, each group on one side of the ring. If a wrestler leaves the ring (usually thrown out), they'll be helped out if they land within their corresponding group, and pounded on by the opposite. Also, before the match reaches the climax, a brawl will usually break out among the lumberjacks, generally the signal for outside interference — which is almost always how the match ends. Will also be used by the Powers That Be to punish a wrestler (surrounding a face with heels, and vice versa). When a divas match is done as a lumberjack match, the lumberjacks are usually fellow divas and the match is called a Lumberjill match. All Pro Wrestling sometimes armed all of the lumberjacks with leather straps, giving the wrestlers extra incentive to stay in the ring. Milton Florida's First Annual Assault On Autism benefit show in 2011 saw D.J. Pringle and Damian Lavaye also have a match under this stipulation. TNA eventually gave it a name: Belting Pot match. Loser Leaves Town /Retirement Match — a match that stipulates that the loser of the match had to leave town (whichever promotional territory they were in) or retire, often "for good", but usually for three months . Generally used to cover for a wrestler's planned absence (for injury or a tour of a distant promotion - usually Japan). Tropes: Often resulted in an oddly-familiar masked-stranger showing up within a week or two of such a loss. Interestingly, in Memphis, the time-limit for losers leaving town was actually mentioned quite explicitly. Often the build up would mention that "the loser must leave the territory for a period of six months (or one year, or what have you)." These matches were especially popular during the territorial days of Professional Wrestling. It was an effective way to end a major feud, and it would draw a lot of money because the fans wouldn't see the losing wrestler for months or even years. TV Time-Limit Match — a match that ends in an official draw if the TV show ends before there is a winner or disqualification, but is otherwise standard. Virtually extinct now as all matches conveniently end (via pinfall, submission, disqualification, or a brawl breaking out) just in time for the program to end (or, as with Raw or on PPV's, the network has given the show overflow time should the match run a little long). Formerly, either 1980's Crockett-based television shows or Mid-South shows would be notorious for giving fans loads of jobber matches, and then one main event which might be interesting, but after a certain amount of the match, "BUT WE'RE OUT OF TIME!!!"... (The match is usually completed for the live audience.) It is possible you may see a television title, a belt in which every match fought for it is under this kind of time limit or something similar. In the 1950s, NWA LA introduced the "Beat The Champ" Television Title, with the added stipulation of the current "champion" taking on randomly selected challengers for five weeks, having to pay the former champion 100 USD if he failed. I Quit — essentially a contest of determination , there are no pinfalls, no submissions, no countouts, and no disqualifications in an I Quit match. Instead, there is just one way to lose: say the phrase "I Quit" note (or an equivalent phrase—e.g. "No más!" during a lucha libre version of the match) into a live microphone, in front of all the fans in the arena and everybody watching at home. Naturally, these are generally the most brutal matches ever seen in Professional Wrestling , as nobody wants to be seen as a quitter. In a famous version of this match between The Rock and Mick Foley (then Mankind), Foley was incapacitated by multiple chairshots to the head, and Rock won by replaying tape of Foley saying "I quit!" on Raw prior to the pay-per-view (in the context of "this is what I will not say"). A few years later, when Foley challenged Ric Flair to one of these matches, he tried to never say those two words in any of his promos leading up to the match so that the same trick wouldn't happen twice.note He would end up losing that match, too, after Flair threatened his friend, Melina , with a steel chair if he didn't quit. In a 2011 "I Quit" match between John Cena note (Who has an impressive record in "I Quit" matches (undefeated, which makes sense, considering his gimmick. ) and The Miz , a similar tactic was used by Miz in order to seemingly win the match, but on the account of the referee finding the cellphone that played the supposed recording of (an out-of-context) Cena saying "I quit!", Miz ended up losing the match to Cena. While the intent of the match is to show who is the more determined/braver of the two, this matches will end in a loophole of some sort about as often as they do cleanly. This often happens when the face is booked to lose yet still needs his reputation intact at the end of the match. The Rock/Mankind fight is an apt example. Others, such as the Triple H/Rock fight and the Mick Foley/Ric Flair fight, utilize the heel threatening harm upon a close one of their opponent unless they quit the match. Since any halfway decent person would put the well-being of friends over a victory, this is an acceptable way to lose an "I Quit" match with one's reputation intact. A variation is the version of the submission man where a wrestler's manager, valet, or friend has to throw in the towel to stop the match. If this variant is used, there is most likely a Faceï¿½Heel Turn in the Face's valet's future. However, the most famous of these types of matches, Bret Hart vs. Bob Backlund , actually had Hart's corner man (Davey Boy Smith) knocked out, leaving Bret's mother to throw in the towel in his stead, persuaded by his brother Owen Hart (though she probably didn't need much persuading after seeing Bret in Backlund's crossface chickenwing for a full five minutes), who had already turned heel owing to massive sibling rivalry; in fact, he was Backlund's cornerman in the match. The whole thing was teased as a My God, What Have I Done? moment for Owen — until Bret's mom threw in the towel and Owen immediately started celebrating.note (Backlund's 90's heel run began when he snapped at his former manager Arnold Skaaland for throwing in the towel during his match versus the Iron Sheik , ending his nearly six-year run as WWF Champion.) At ROH Rising Above, "The Lovely" Lacey prevented Tyler Black from throwing a towel in to his representative, Jimmy Jacobs , forcing him and Austin Aries to wrestle until one of them quit on their own. Smoky Mountain Wrestling used a variant on this particular variant called a "coward waves the flag" match, where each team of two had a representative at ringside wielding a white surrender flag. The winners were the team who would make their opponent's representative wave the flag. In both instances where the match was used, the same finish was used where the losers rep was tricked into waving his flag by swinging it at the other team's rep, which was seen by the referee as a "surrender". In a match billed as an I Quit between Beth Phoenix and Melina , neither competitor was required to say the words "I Quit" into a microphone, but rather just tell the referee whether or not they gave up. An I Quit match that made the loser seem royally badass was the one between Bret Hart and "Stone Cold" Steve Austin : the match ended with Austin passing out, but never saying "I Quit". In the match between the Hardy Boys , Matt Hardy and Jeff Hardy ; Matt quits, not because of the physical pain he's enduring, but because of the physical pain he's about to endure.note (Matt was tied to a table with his arms and legs duct taped, with no means of escape) Elimination — In any match where there are three or more wrestlers, the victory is usually decided by a simple pinfall or submission. However, an elimination variable added to such a match means that every wrestler except one (or every member of every team except one) must be pinned, forced to submit, counted out, or disqualified for there to be a victor. For example, in a four-man man match, there must be three eliminations for there to be a victor—and not all of them need be by the same wrestler. Three-man elimination matches were an ECW staple, with such a contest called a "Three-Way Dance". A variation, the Elimination Chamber, has become a signature match of WWE in the past few years, and specifically has been attached to their No Way Out pay-per-view (which in recent years has actually been named for the chamber). In this match, four men start behind Plexiglas cages within a much larger structure, not unlike Hell In A Cell, with the other two men start outside the Plexiglas like a regular match. Every two or three minutes, another is released. It is, as the name indicated, an elimination match: five competitors must be defeated for there to be a victor. Tends to get bloody, as the chamber has much less give than most types of cage. Another variation is the elimination tag, where both members of a tag team must be pinned, submitted, ect the match ends, with the first team to score a submission gaining a numerical advantage over the opposition. Elimination tags were popular in the WWF for them to build an a Pay Per View even around them called Survivor Series with four or five man tag teams! Of course, the heels almost always had the extra man. In its heyday, all the Series matches were of this type, but nowadays there are usually three or four, with other match types filling out the under card. In Lucha Libre, it is fairly common to make elimination tags with large numbers of participants into a Torneo cibernetico in which there can only be a single winner. If one team is completely eliminated first, the remaining team's members will fight each other in an elimination match. Although sometimes the match is used as a "qualifying" round for a larger event or series, in which case the ref will call for the bell after a set number of eliminations and those left will advance on to other matches. Tag Team Turmoil: Two to four tag teams start in the ring wrestling under normal tag team rules to eliminate the others by pin fall or submission. Each time a team is eliminated, another comes in to take their place until no one is left. A common occurrence is that an evil authority figure will insert another previously unannounced team into the match once a winner has been determined between all the known participants. Gauntlet Match — A match that usually has at least five competitors. Two will start until a pin fall or submission is gained after which the loser will be replaced by another wrestler and the process will continue until only one wrestler is left. The aforementioned Royal Rumble takes this up to eleven and combines this with battle royal, while Tag Team Turmoil can vary between an elimination match or a gauntlet depending on how many teams are involved. Variation: One wrestler may be forced to "run the gauntlet" in which wrestlers will keep coming at him one at a time until he defeats them all or is defeated himself. Sometimes the run will end when the wrestler forced to run it is beaten (if that's the case then the person who beats them is usually the last one they're expected to face), other times he must continue wrestling until he has faced everyone no matter how many of them beat him. Most commonly setup by evil bosses. In June 2015, Chris Hero willingly ran "an infinity gauntlet" hosted by SMASH where he promised to wrestle thirty minutes for every 500 USD raised for ALS. $3440 was raised, resulting in him wrestling for three hours and ten minutes straight. Lucha Underground has a unique variation called Aztec Warfare, which essentially combines classic Gauntlet with WWE's Royal Rumble - two wrestlers start the match and next one enters every 90 seconds, but unlike RR, fighters can be eliminated only by pinfall or submission. Blindfold Match — The wrestlers involved are blindfolded, hooded, or otherwise prevented from seeing. The fans, however, aren't so lucky. You see, these matches tend to be boring, disastrous, or a combination of both. They usually amount to the face wrestler pointing around the ring, and the crowd cheering when he points at the heel, leading the face to wander in that direction. This does not make for good entertainment. A perfect example of this is when TNA booked Chris Harris vs James Storm in a blindfold cage match. Their blindfolds repeatedly came off, 9/10 of the match involved them stumbling about the ring, and the fans turned on the match in a hurry, chanting "Boring" and even "Someone Stop This", and the match ended up being named the worst wrestling match of 2007. Yowza. Incidentally, there have been very few blindfold matches since then. Variant: Only one wrestler's blindfolded and at the complete mercy of the one who can still see. This is another one almost exclusively set up by evil boss types to punish faces, though on WWE Smackdown heel Jamie Noble had a blindfold to punish him for all the abuse he put Nidia through while she had been temporarily blinded by Yoshihiro Tajiri 's black mist . Handicap Match — Two or more wrestlers, acting as a tag team, take on a lesser number of wrestlers. This is almost always done by an evil boss to cause problems for a Face, or occasionally as Fanservice to punish a particularly disliked Heel (or to put a Giant over). During the kayfabe, pre-cable television era, where WWF fans got most of their fill of wrestling through its syndicated TV shows, handicap matches were a great way to get the popular Andrï¿½ the Giant on television. Usually, he would be matched against mid-card wrestlers, while sometimes these contests would be used to draw out the latest heel who claimed he could take down Andre. At the WWF's arena shows at venues such as Madison Square Garden, Andre was sometimes placed in 2-vs.-3 or on occasion 2-vs.-4 matchups (the heel side almost always featuring Captain Lou Albano ), with Andre's side always winning. John Cena and Randy Orton once took on the entire Raw roster. It was also an Elimination Match. Cena and Orton won the match when the RAW roster finally invaded after taking the better part of a half-dozen falls against it. Then the beatdown ensued, and Triple H came out to exact his dominance. First Blood Match — The loser is whoever bleeds first, or, more correctly, who the referee sees as bleeding first (the referee will frequently be seen checking the competitors by wiping their faces with a white towel.) There is no other way to win, or lose. Tropes: Count on the Heel to somehow hide that he's bleeding from the referee, use particularly brutal methods to cause the Face to bleed, or use some technique to make bleeding less likely. (Ironically, this type of match is actually less brutal than a normal match in which a wrestler happens to start bleeding and yet still must continue to fight.) Most notably used in a match between "Stone Cold" Steve Austin and Kane. The latter was given a ridiculously extreme advantage, because at the time he was masked and covered head to toe in a black-and-red costume, making it rather difficult for the referee to see if he was bleeding. Unsurprisingly, he won the match, but Austin won the title back a day later. John Cena defeated JBL in one of these matches by strangling him with a chain until he started coughing up blood. At TNA's 2011 Victory Road, Matt Morgan lost such a match when Hotstuff Hernandez threw fake blood on him. In Brew City Wrestling, Stacy Shadows cheated in a First Blood Steel Cage match by pouring previously drawn blood on women's champion Selene Grey. Sadistic Madness is a type of match created by TNA. It is similar to the First Blood match, but doesn't end when the blood starts flowing—at that point, the bleeding wrestler is able to be legally pinned (until at least one wrestler bleeds, there is no way for the match to be won or lost). Last Chance Match — Usually a championship match, with an extra rider—if the challenger doesn't win, he's barred from challenging for the title again until it changes hands. Lucha de Apuestas/Wager Match — Most common in Mexico, but comes up in other countries as well. A match where both competitors put something of theirs on the line. The most common ones are the Mask vs Mask match (between two masked wrestlers), Mask vs Hair (between a masked wrestler and an unmasked wrestler), and Hair vs Hair (between two unmasked wrestlers). Occasionally, a title belt will be put on the line, either instead of or in addition to the wrestler's mask or hair (such as Rey Mysterio Jr. and Eddie Guerrero 's mask vs title match in WCW ) According to The Other Wiki at least, there is an actual law about this in Mexico, which says that, if you lose your mask in such a match, you may never wear that mask, again, which is enforced whenever Mexico's wrestling ruling bodies damn well feel like it. In the case of Mysterio, Eric Bischoff decided to unmask him because he thought that wrestlers who hid their faces weren't "marketable". Mysterio and just about everyone around him were horrified at the idea of such a career-altering (and potentially career-wrecking) move being done for such a lame reason. Worse, WCW hardly did anything to push him after he was unmasked. Rey has been allowed to wear masks in WWE with no repercussions. The mask rule is enforced in the vast majority of cases. Rey's case is unique due to a number of factors, mainly the extremely disrespectful manner in which his unmasking was handled. Rey and his uncle, the original Rey Mysterio, argued that Rey was representing his uncle's image in WWE since he dropped the Jr. from his name (the original Mysterio was a heavyweight by the way). Pure Loophole Abuse , but the commission liked his uncle and they hated Bischoff for what he did so they allowed it. Last Man Standing — A gimmick rarer than most (though with increasing frequency in WWE), this match sees two wrestlers fight in a no-disqualification match until one of them is down for a ten-second count. Tropes: the likelihood of a tie is somewhere around 50% but varying depending on the people involved. Such a match will have a lot of high spots and generally moves that would normally end a match will draw a 9 count, usually multiple times. Expect the finish to usually involve someone being thrown off or through something. In days past, this was known as a Texas (or Mexican) Death Match and one wrestler had to pin the other for a three count before the referee's ten count would start. TNA and ROH reintroduced it for audiences in the late 2000s to mid 2010s. John Cena infamously won one of these against Batista in 2010 by duct-taping Batista's ankles to the turnbuckle . Hey, no one ever said you couldn't! Alberto Del Rio must have watched that match, since when he had a Last Man Standing match against The Big Show , he resorted to taping Show's feet to the bottom rope. Randy "Macho Man" Savage won a variant at Wrestlemania X against Crush in a similar way. In this variant, falls counted anywhere, and after being pinned, the wrestler had 60 seconds to return to the ring or lose the match. Savage pinned Crush, then tied him upside-down on a forklift so he couldn't get back in time. Exploding Ring Match (or "C4 match") — Sometimes seen in Japanese Garbage Wrestling promotions like FMW , a hardcore match in a ring rigged with explosives on a timer. In some versions the idea is to finish the match before the timer runs out and detonates the ring (although this does not necessarily end the match!), while in others the explosives are concentrated in a specific area, with the wrestlers struggling not to get pushed onto it. Frequently combined with the barbed wire match. Triple Threat/Fatal Four-Way — This match is similar to the Elimination match in that more than two wrestlers are involved. However, unlike the Elimination match, only one pinfall or submission is needed to end the match, whereby the wrestler who gets the pin or submission is declared the winner. A title is (almost) always on the line for these matches, and there is a good possibility that the current title holder will lose the title without being the one getting pinned. Naturally, there will invariably be multiple near-falls where the third wrestler breaks up the pin or hold. Also, you can count on one wrestler being "knocked out" or otherwise indisposed for much of the match and win it at the last moment after both his opponents have beat the living crap out of each other. Triple Threat, specifically, is one of the most interesting type of matches when you take wrestler alignment into account: Two Heels/One Face: This match will be, for around 50% of its duration, a handicap match. Both heels will gang up on the face and beat the crap out him. However, after beating the snot out of the face, the heels quickly turn on each other. Usually, the face is the title holder in this type of match. In this particular setup, it's pretty even odds on either the face or one of the heels winning. If the title holder's the face, it's quite common for him to lose the title by one of the heels pinning the other heel, meaning he lost the title but not "cleanly." (And thus, he isn't made to look weaker to the fans.) Once in a while, a heel might consider the face an Worthy Opponent and hint a turn , especially if he really goes at it with the other heel, but it's just as likely that both heels will be as rotten as ever. Two Faces/One Heel: Much less common than Two Heels/One Face. The heel is practically GUARANTEED to win this type of matchup. While the same handicap rules apply, it's not uncommon that the faces are much more vicious to each other than if it were two heels instead, and the heel will milk this for all it's worth. It is also quite common that one of the faces will start a feud with the other face after the match, if not do a turn outright. Notably averted by the Shawn Michaels / Triple H / Chris Benoit match at WrestleMania XX, and the rematch at Backlash . No Faceï¿½Heel Turn from either Michaels or Benoit, and Triple H didn't win - Benoit did . Both times. The first by making Triple H tap out, and the second by making Shawn Michaels tap out. Another aversion was Ayako Hamada vs Sara Del Rey vs Jessie McKay on SHIMMER volume 34, with McKay pulling off a Dark Horse Victory . Three Faces: Not as uncommon as you might think, this happens usually when an evil boss wants to punish a face stable. Expect the more vicious face to win, usually by using heel tactics, and like it so much he goes full heel . Three Heels: Probably the rarest type, this one usually happens when one of the heels is already hinting turning . Win or lose, the heel in question turns face and goes against the other two heels, usually gaining an ally from one of the established faces in the process. For added drama, the face that teams up with the former heel will be his sworn rival . There is also a six pack match (six wrestlers). Shockwave Impact Wrestling in Sidney Ohio USA, perhaps took the Iron Man match to its logical extreme by combining it with a six pack match and having it last for twelve straight hours. Logan Cross, Sid Fabulous, "Lightning" Tim Lutz, American Kickboxer II, Dark Angel(Williams) and DJ Tom Sharp were the wrestlers who pulled it off. Submission Match — Exactly What It Says on the Tin , a match that can only be won by Submission. At Backlash 2001 this was combined with an Iron Man match, to create the Ultimate Submission Match where the wrestler with the most submissions in the designated 30 minute time limit won. Perhaps the most legendary Submission match, the one at WrestleMania 13, actually ended without a submission, when a bleeding "Stone Cold" Steve Austin refused to tap out to Bret Hart 's Sharpshooter, despite having no way out of it. The match ended when Austin passed out from the pain instead of tapping out, eventually leading to a Heelï¿½Face Turn out of a new respect fans had for his raw determination, and he would go on to become the face of the Attitude Era. At the same time, Bret made a Faceï¿½Heel Turn with his ruthlessness in the match, even going so far as to continue beating the unconscious Austin after the match had already been called in his favor. Yes, that's right, a Faceï¿½Heel Double-Turn ; today it is still unanimously viewed as the greatest example of this extremely rare trope in wrestling history. The Undertaker has the following signature matches: Casket Match — Involves putting the opponent inside a casket and closing it to achieve victory. Infamously, when Triple H had one of these matches, it was impossible for him to win, as Viscera was too large to fit in the casket. ('Taker had two such matches against large opponents, and had double-wide caskets made for such a purpose. He beat Kamala , but lost to Yokozuna the first time. He beat him in the rematch at Survivor Series 94.) One such match between Undertaker and Kane ended in a draw when the casket was smashed to pieces. In one such match between Undertaker and The Big Show , Show deliberately smashed the casket to pieces, declared the match over, and tried to escape. Before he could, a second casket was carried out. Show then lost. Buried Alive Match — In this match, the only way to win is to take the opponent and bury him inside a grave. While it's no longer exclusively his, he's still linked with the Hell in a Cell match, since the first five Cell matches featured him. The original but often forgotten precursor to these was the Body Bag Match which he mostly fought against The Ultimate Warrior in 91. Last Ride Match — Put your opponent in the back of a hearse and drive it out of the arena to win. Pure Wrestling Rules — Most commonly appearing in Ring of Honor (they actually had a Pure Wrestling title for a while) but occasionally seen elsewhere. Each wrestler is allowed three rope breaks - once they are used up, the wrestler cannot use the ropes to escape pins or submissions. Closed fists are illegal, and using them will cause the wrestler to be penalized a rope break - if he is out of rope breaks, he will be disqualified. It should be pointed out that closed fists are usually illegal anyway but rarely enforced. Ric Flair once disqualified The Dudley Boys for their use of closed fists but it happens so rarely in regular matches no one could remember the last time a referee had done so note as early as 1951, a year before WWE existed in any form, heels such as Carl Meyer would punch baby faces in front of the referee and only get a stern warning. Likewise illegal holds (including all those involving the ropes) can be grounds for disqualification, but a five count is usually granted. The pure wrestling stipulation simply makes enforcement mandatory. If the commentators are to be trusted, closed fists are now legal in WWE; John Bradshaw Layfield pointed this out while discussing Antonio Cesaro 's signature European uppercut. In February 2015, Wonder Ring STARDOM decreed an immediate match ending disqualification must be called on any closed fist strike in response to Yoshiko going into business for herself on the Sunday 22nd Korakuen Hall show against Act Yasukawa. This was later clarified to be limited to face punches, which meant things like Io Shirai delivering a slingshot superman punch to the back of Hudson Envy's head did not stop matches. Taped Fist Match — The wrestlers must compete with their fists taped, the idea being that this would make it harder to grab each other while at the same time protecting their hands while punching, basically encouraging the athletes to "fight" instead of wrestle. Traditionally, these would be made in response to someone receiving multiple disqualifications for closed fist strikes but as that became less of a thing, wrestlers would simply be put in them as punishment for cheating or attacking someone outside of sanctioned matches. The American Wrestling Association and a few others had a brass knuckles title belt, where punching was legal in every match it was contested for, which were often taped fist matches or made use of brass knuckles. Dramatic Dream Team skipped all pretenses and simply booked "No Grappling Allowed" matches. Garbage wrestling fed Big Japan Pro Wrestling has the "Ancient Way" Death Match — Both fighters wrap their hands in hemp rope, which is then coated in honey and dipped in broken glass. Substitute the hemp rope with tape, and the honey with glue, and you have what ECW and CZW call the "Taipei Death Match". Scaffold Match — Two wrestlers or tag teams are on a narrow metal scaffold above the ring. Victory is either by throwing the opponent off the scaffold or some sort of capture the flag situation. Very old fashioned and all-but-obsolete gimmick that has some historical value. Scaffold matches have a reputation of being the worst out of all of wrestling's classic gimmick matches. The scaffold is very narrow and VERY high, making it difficult to have a good match up there. Sometimes wrestlers are so intimidated that they crawl around on it. There's also the risk of the match ending by accidental fall! The risk factor for this terrible match involves taking a fall off the scaffold that rivals Mick Foley 's Hell in the Cell dive for danger. Jim Cornette 's knee injury from a botched scaffold fall almost crippled him. So, wrestling's worst gimmick match is also one of its most dangerous. The most recent serious scaffold match revival undertaken by a "major" was in TNA. It wasn't any better or less dangerous than the scaffold matches from decades ago. According to Jim Helm, first voice of ICW, they started out in the 1950s in Nick Gulas's promotion as "Carpenter's matches". "Scaffold matches" were codified in the 1970s. Pro Wrestling Unplugged's Crazy Eight took the ladder match concept but had the wrestlers climb a scaffold to reach the title belt instead, surrounding it with a cage wall, two trampolines and four ropes to swing on. Big Japan Pro Wrestling has the Circus Death Match, which is scaffold match with a net to catch the wrestlers. A net made of barbed wire. Inspired by another garbage fed, the Big Japan W*ING Crisis Big Born Death Match has barbed wire trampolines. TNA also had its very own X shaped scaffold for a match it called Elevation X. This was slightly better, though no less dangerous, than a plain scaffold match by giving the wrestlers more directions to move in. Strap Match — Two wrestlers tied to opposite ends of a belt, rope, steel chain, or anything similar in order to keep them in close proximity to each other. This can also be referred to as a "Dog Collar Match," when the competitors are shackled at the neck. When these matches don't have pinfall or submission stipulations, the winner is decided by who can touch all four corners of a ring first. If a wrestler is knocked down while in the process of touching the corners, he must start over. Tables Match — One wrestler or a tag team must send their opponent(s) through a table to win. Some heels cheat by putting their opponents in some table wreckage just as the referee turns around. TNA had the Ghetto match, where a pin fall was required after going through the table. Stretcher Match — One wrestler must load the other on a stretcher and pull it across a finish line to win. In one such match between Brock Lesnar and The Big Show , Lesnar loaded Show, but the stretcher broke under his weight. Lesnar picked Show and the stretcher up with a forklift and drove across the finish line . Ambulance Match — One wrestler must put the other in the back of an ambulance and shut the doors to win. John Cena defeated Ryback at one of these by throwing him so hard he crashed through the roof of the ambulance and landed inside. Move Match — The first wrestler who uses a particular move on their opponent wins. Usually a bodyslam; if so, usually one competitor is much, much larger than the other. The best known of these was Yokozuna's Bodyslam challenge, which Lex Luger won. Another famous "Move Match" was the "$15,000 Body Slam Challenge" between Andre The Giant and Big John Studd at the first WrestleMania. If Andre slammed Studd, Andre would win $15,000, though if Andre was slammed, he would have to retire. Who won? Well, Andre's last WWF match was six years later. Variation: In one match between Austin Aries and Senshi , the object was Submission, but the submission would only count if the wrestler used the Crossface Chickenwing to do it. Bull Nakano Produce Empress featured a Guillotine Drop Match with four wrestlers from four different promotionsnote Kayoko Haruyama from JWP, Ryo Mizunami from WAVE, AKINO from Oz Academy, Maki Narumiya from Ice Ribbon who each used the move, it being the finisher of the retiring Nakano. Substance Match — The wrestlers fight in a pool of some kind of substance, like mud , chocolate milk, eggnog, etc. Matches end in pinfall or submission. Naturally used with female wrestlers for comedy and fanservice. Notably, Candice Michelle defeated Melina in one of these by holding her head under the chocolate pudding until she tapped out to keep from drowning. Match of 10,000 Tacks — The only way to win is to slam your opponent onto a pile of thumbtacks. A variation called the Serengeti Survival Match allows pinfalls and submissions. Pillow Fight — Two or more female wrestlers begin the match with a bed full of pillows in the ring, and typically come to the ring in a nightgown, lingerie, or pajamas. Matches end in pinfall or submission. Again, it is typically used for comedy and fanservice. Notably, Torrie Wilson once picked up the bed with Candice Michelle on it and threw it.	i don't know
Which US composer wrote the 1976 opera, Einstein on the Beach?	Philip Glass - Einstein on the Beach (1976) - Music Sales Classical Einstein on the Beach (1976) Listen Work Notes Opera in four acts by Robert Wilson and Philip Glass which includes two large-scale dance scenes. Spoken text (English) by Christopher Knowles, Samuel M Johnson and Lucinda Childs. Text Writer spoken text by Christopher Knowles, Samuel M Johnson and Lucinda Childs Publisher Philip Glass Einstein on the Beach (1976) CAST 2 female, 1 male, and 1 male child in speaking roles (for the Wilson production) 16 person SATB chamber chorus soprano soloist smaller tenor solo part SYNOPSIS The first in Glass' trilogy of operas about men who changed the world through the power of their ideas, Einstein's sub-text is science. The opera is non-narrative in form, and the producer has two options: to reproduce the original Robert Wilson production (which exists on videotape), or to create a new series of stage and dance pictures based on themes relating to the life of Albert Einstein. The opera is structured in four ‘acts’ connected by ‘knee plays’, or intermezzi. 28 April; 4,13 May; 4 June - Dortmund, Germany 27 MAR 2014 Thalia Theater, Symphony Space, NY Dublin Guitar Quartet 21,22 January - Ann Arbour, MI 16-18 March - Montpellier, France 24,25 March - Reggio Emilia, Italy 8-10 June - Sony Centre for the Performing Arts, Toronto, Canada 14-16,19-23 September - Opera House, Brooklyn, NY 26-28 October - Zellerbach Hall, Berkeley, CA 9-11 November - Teatro del Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, Mexico 5-7,10-12 January 2013 - Het Muziektheatre, Amsterdam, Netherlands 30 SEP 2008 Stern Auditorium, Carnegie Hall, New York, USA Philip Glass Ensemble Timothy Fain, violin; Michael Riesman, conductor 10 NOV 2006 Opera National de Paris-Garnier, Paris, France Ballet de l'Opera National de Paris-Garnier Other Dates: 11,14,16-18 November - Opera National de Paris-Garnier, Paris, France 13 November - Opera National de Paris-Garner, Paris, France 01 JUN 2006 Einstein on the Beach Dunstan Playhouse, State Opera of South Australia New co-production of Einstein on the Beach (Parts 1 & 2) by State Opera of South Australia and Leigh Warren & Dancers directed by Leigh Warren, designed by Mary Moore, lighting desig by Geoff Cobham and performed by artists of Leigh Warren & Dancers and Adelaide Vocal Project ; Timothy Sexton, conductor Other Dates: 2-4 June - Dunstan Playhouse, State Opera of South Australia 22 AUG 2001	Philip Glass
Of Dvořák’s 9 symphonies, which number is subtitled, From the New World?	Philip Glass Philip Glass Please visit our sister sites: Philip Glass Born January 31, 1937, Baltimore, Maryland About Philip Glass Glass, a pioneer of the minimalist school, made his name as a composer with his first opera, Einstein on the Beach. Throughout his career, opera, along with film music, has been a major focus of his work. Operas Einstein on the Beach, opera in four acts and five 'kneeplays' Libretto by Christopher Knowles, Samuel M. Johnson, and Lucinda Childs. July 25, 1976, Avignon Festival, Avignon, France; also 21 Nov. 1976, Metropolitan Opera, New York, New York (US premiere) Attacca, madrigal opera (1980) Satyagraha: M. K. Gandhi in South Africa, opera in three acts Libretto by the composer and Constance DeJong after the Bhagavadgita . September 5, 1980, Stadsschouwburg, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; also 29 July 1981, Artpark, Lewiston, New York (US premiere) (in sanskrit) The Panther (1982) [rev. of Attacca the CIVIL warS (Rome section) (1984) the CIVIL warS (Cologne section) (1984) [additional music] Akhenaten, opera in three acts with prologue and epilogue Libretto by the composer, Shalom Goldman, Robert Israel, and Richard Riddell after historical and miscellaneous sources. March 24, 1984, Stuttgart, Germany; also 12 October 1984, Houston, Texas (US premiere) The Juniper Tree, children's opera (1985) (with Robert Moran) A Descent into the Maelstrom (1986) The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 Libretto by libretto by Doris Lessing after her novel of the same name. 1988 The Fall of the House of Usher, chamber opera in two acts with prologue Libretto by Arthur Yorinks after the short story by Edgar Allan Poe. May 18, 1988, American Rep., Cambridge, Massachusetts 1000 Airplanes On the Roof, theatre piece Libretto by David Henry Hwang. 1989 Hydrogen Jukebox, multimedia theater work (1990) The Voyage, opera in three acts with prologue and epilogue Libretto by David Henry Hwang. October 12, 1992, Metropolitan Opera, New York, New York Orphée, opera in two acts Libretto by Philip Glass after the film of Jean Cocteau. May 14, 1993, American Rep., Cambridge, Massachusetts Les Enfants Terribles, dance opera Libretto by Philip Glass and Susan Marshall after after the film of Jean Cocteau. May 18, 1996, Theatre Casino, Zug, Switzerland The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four, and Five, opera in two acts Libretto by Doris Lessing after her novel of the same name. May 10, 1997, Theater der Stadt Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany Monsters of Grace, digital opera in three dimensions Libretto by Coleman Barks after the writings of Rumi. April 15, 1998, Royce Hall, UCLA, Los Angeles, California The White Raven, opera in five acts Libretto by Luísa Costa Gomes. September 26, 1998, Julio Verne Auditorium, Teatro Camões, Lisbon, Portugal (with Robert Wilson) In the Penal Colony, chamber opera Libretto by Rudolph Wurlitzer after the story by Franz Kafka. August 31, 2000, ACT, Seattle, Washington Galileo Galilei, opera in ten scenes Libretto by Philip Glass, Arnold Weinstein and Mary Zimmerman. July 24, 2002, Albert Ivar Goodman Theatre, Chicago, Illinois The Sound of a Voice Libretto by David Henry Hwang. May 24, 2003 Waiting for the Barbarians, opera in two acts Libretto by Christopher Hampton after the novel by John M. Coetzee. September 10, 2005, Erfurt Theater, Erfut, Germany Appomattox Libretto by Christopher Hampton after the novel by John M. Coetzee. October 5, 2007, San Francisco Opera, San Francisco, California Discography	i don't know
What is the more modern name for the electrical device sometimes called a condenser?	Electronics/Voltage, Current, and Power - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Electronics/Voltage, Current, and Power Basic Understanding[ edit ] Experiments show us that electric point charges attract or repel as calculated by Coulomb's law. Integrating (summing) over a distribution of points charges as they are assembled into a specific system configuration allows us to determine a scalar value defined as the electrical potential or electric field of a specific point. This mathematical definition is very useful in electronics circuit theory. Voltage The potential difference between two test points resulting from the distribution of charge in the circuit, usually measured in volts. Current Net amount of charge (coulombs) (number of electrons x electron charge) flowing past a specified point during a time interval (seconds), usually measured in Amps (1 Amp = 1 coulomb / 1 second). In typical components and systems the quantity of electrons is quite large and the aggregate charge flow is referred to as electricity. Power Energy given in a certain amount of time, usually measured in watts. Law of Charges Opposite charges attract while similar charges repel. Inductance When electricity passes through a wire it creates a moving magnetic field around the wire. The typical unit of measure is Henrys. Capacitance When electric fields or charge distributions are created in a physical system that stores recoverable energy, characteristics of the physical components which affect calculation of the electrical quantities are defined as capacitance. The base unit of measure is Farads, however microfarads (μF), are used much more often. Resistance When potential difference creates movement of electrons between two points, some of the potential energy formerly available in the system is irreversibly transferred from the electric field or the electrons moving through the component via collisions with atoms and molecules within the material. Ohm's Law, V=IR, defines resistance as R=V/I where V is the voltage difference applied across the component, I is the resulting current flow in Amps, and R is a constant created by characteristics of the component which is calculated from the measured voltage loss of the measured current passing through the component. Electric Field[ edit ] A charged particle such as a proton or electron may "feel" an electrical force on it in a certain environment. This force is typically due to the presence of other charges nearby. The force will have a direction and magnitude, and can be represented by a vector. (A vector is simply a quantity that represents the direction and magnitude of something.) The magnitude of the force depends on the charge of the particle, the charge on the particles around it, and how close or far away they are: Highly charged particles close to each other exert heavy forces on each other; if the charges are less, or they are farther apart, the force is less. The direction of the force depends on the location of the surrounding charges. In describing the electrical environment at that location , it is said there is an electric field at that location. The electric field is defined as the force that a single unit of charge would feel at that location. In some systems of measurement, the unit of charge is the charge of a single proton; in others it is the coulomb. A coulomb is the charge of 6.24×1018 protons The relationship between force and electric field for a single charged particle is given by the following equation: E q {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {F} /q} The bold letters indicate vector quantities. This means that a charge q, in an electric field E, having a certain direction and a magnitude E, would have a force F on it, in the same direction and with a magnitude F. Considering only the magnitudes, the following would result from the definition. E = F/q these are all magnitudes or numerical quantities The net electric field E, at a location is due to the presence of all other charges nearby, similar to the net electric force F, if there was a charge q at that location. The contribution of one of these other charges to the total (or net) electric field is a vector E contribution, which for a point charge can be derived from Coulomb's Law . Distributions of charge density in various shapes may also yield vector E contributions to the total electric field, to be added in as vector quantities. Practically speaking, most electricians, electrical engineers, and other electrical circuit builders and hobbyists seldom do these sorts of electric field calculations. Electric field calculations of this sort are more of a theoretical physics or special applications problem, so these calculations are omitted here in favor of more applicable material. See Electric Field for such information on electric field formulas. There is an electrical force on a charge only if there is a charge subject to the force at a location in an electric field. However, even if there is no such charge subject to the force, there could still be an electric field at a point. This means that an electric field is a property of a location or point in space and its electrical environment, which would determine what a charge q would "feel" if it were there. Energy[ edit ] Now, a micro-physics review: Work is causing displacement (or movement) of an object or matter against a force. Energy is the ability to perform work like this. Energy can be kinetic energy or potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a mass has because it is moving. Potential energy in an object, in matter, in a charge or other situation has the ability to perform work or to be converted into kinetic energy or a different kind of potential energy. A reason why a particle or a charge may have potential energy could be because it is located at a point in a force field, such as a gravitational field, electric field, or magnetic field. In the presence of such a field, gravity or electric or magnetic forces could cause the particle or charge to move faster or move against resistive forces, representing a conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy or work. The amount of potential energy it has would depend on its location. Moving from one location to another could cause a change in its potential energy. For example, an object near the surface of the earth placed high would have a certain amount of gravitational potential energy based on its mass, location (height or altitude) in and strength of the Earth's gravitational field. If the object were to drop from this location (height) to a new lower location, at least some of its gravitational potential energy would be converted to kinetic energy, resulting in the object moving down. The difference in gravitational potential energy could be calculated from one location to another, but determining the absolute potential energy of the object is arbitrary, so ground level is chosen arbitrarily as the height where its gravitational potential energy equals zero. The potential energy at all other heights is determined from the mass of the object, location relative to the ground level, and strength of the gravitational field. All energy values are numerical or scalar quantities, not vectors. Electric Potential Energy[ edit ] Somewhat similarly, a charged particle at a certain point or location in an electrical environment (i. e. an electric field) would have a certain amount of electric potential energy based on its charge, location, and the electric field there, which could be based on quantity and locations of all other charges nearby. If the charge were to move from this location to a new location or point, it could cause a change in its electric potential energy. This difference in electric potential energy in the charge particle would be proportional to its charge and it could be an increase or a decrease. From measurements and calculations, one may be able to determine this difference in electric potential energy, but coming up with an absolute figure for its potential is difficult and typically not necessary. Therefore, in a manner somewhat similar to gravitational potential energy, an arbitrary location or point nearby, often somewhere in the electric circuit in question, is chosen to be the point where the electric potential energy would be zero, if the charge were there. Often the wiring, circuit, or appliance will be connected to the ground, so this ground point is often chosen to be the zero point. The electric potential energy at all other points is determined relative to the ground level. The SI unit of electric potential energy is the joule . Electric Potential[ edit ] Because the electric potential energy of a charged particle (or object) is proportional to its charge and otherwise simply dependent on its location (point where it's at), a useful value to use is electric potential. Electric potential (symbolized by V) at a point is defined as the electric potential energy (PE) per unit positive charge (q) that a charge would have at that given point (location). At a point a, the electric potential at a is given by: Va = (PE of charge at a)/q Somewhat analogously to an electric field, electrical potential is a property of a location and the electrical conditions there, whether or not there is a charge present there subject to these conditions. On the other hand, electric potential energy is more analogous to electric force in that for it to be present, there should be a subject charged particle or object which has that energy. Electric potential is often simply called potential by physicists. Because the SI unit of electric potential energy is the joule and because the SI unit of charge is the coulomb, the SI unit for electric potential, the volt (symbolized by V), is defined as a joule per coulomb (J/C). Because electric potential energy is based on an arbitrary point where its value is set at as zero, the value of electric potential at a given point is also based on this same arbitrary zero point (reference point where the potential is set at zero). The potential at a given point a is then the difference between potentials from point a to the zero point, often called a ground node (or just ground). Calculations of electric potential energy or electric potential based on Coulomb's Law are sometimes theoretically possible, such as might be for electric field calculations, but again these are of mostly theoretical interest and not often done in practical applications. Therefore, such calculations are also omitted here in favour of more applicable material. Often it is of interest to compare the potentials at two different points, which we may call point a and point b. Then the electric potential difference between points a and b (Vab) would be defined as the electric potential at b minus the electric potential at a. Vab = Vb - Va The unit for electric potential difference is the volt, the same as for electric potential. Electric potential difference is often simply called potential difference by physicists. Under direct current (DC) conditions and at any one instant in time under alternating current (AC), potential and potential difference are numerical or scalar quantities, not vectors, and they can have positive or negative values. Voltage[ edit ] Voltage is electric potential expressed in volts. Similarly, potential difference expressed in volts is often called voltage difference or often referred to as voltage across two points or across an electrical component. The terms electric potential, potential, and potential difference are terms more often used by physicists. Since these quantities are almost always expressed in volts (or some related unit such as millivolts), engineers, electricians, hobbyists, and common people usually use the term voltage instead of potential. Furthermore, in practical applications, electrical force, electric field, and electrical potential energy of charged particles are not discussed nearly as often as voltage, power, and energy in a macroscopic sense. Additional note: The following explains why voltage is "analogous" to the pressure of a fluid in a pipe (although, of course, it is only an analogy, not exactly the same thing), and it also explains the strange-sounding "dimensions" of voltage. Consider the potential energy of compressed air being pumped into a tank. The energy increases with each new increment of air. Pressure is that energy divided by the volume, which we can understand intuitively. Now consider the energy of electric charge (measured in coulombs) being forced into a capacitor. Voltage is that energy per charge, so voltage is analogous to a pressure-like sort of forcefulness. Also, dimensional analysis tells us that voltage ("energy per charge") is charge per distance, the distance being between the plates of the capacitor. (More discussion is on page 16 of "Industrial Electronics," by D. J. Shanefield, Noyes Publications, Boston, 2001.) Frequency[ edit ] When an electric circuit is operating in Direct Current ( DC ) mode, all voltages and voltage differences in the circuit are typically constant (do not vary) with time. When a circuit is operating under Alternating Current ( AC ) conditions, the voltages in the circuit vary periodically with time; the voltages are a sinusoidal function of time, such as V(t) = a sin (b t) with constant a and b, or some similar function. The number of times the period repeats (or "cycles") per unit time is called the frequency of V(t). Under DC conditions or at any one instant in time under AC, potential (or voltage) and potential difference (or voltage difference) are numerical or scalar quantities, not vectors, and they can have positive or negative values. However, in AC mode, the overall function of voltage with time V(t), can be expressed as a complex number or a phasor for a given frequency. The frequency can be expressed in cycles per second or simply sec-1, which is called Hertz (Hz) in SI units. Typical commercial electric power provided in the United States is AC at a frequency of 60 Hz. Ground[ edit ] Ground is shown on electronics diagrams, but it isn't really a component. It is simply the node which has been assigned a voltage of zero. It is represented by one of the symbols below. Technically, any single node can be assigned as ground, and other voltages are measured relative to it. However, the convention is to only assign it in one of two ways, related to the type of power supply. In a single supply situation, such as a circuit powered by a single battery, the ground point is usually defined as the more negative of the power source's terminals. This makes all voltages in the circuit positive with respect to ground (usually), and is a common convention. For a split-supply device, such as a circuit driven by a center-tapped transformer, usually the center voltage is defined as ground, and there are equal and roughly symmetrical positive and negative voltages in the circuit. Signal Ground Signal ground Ground for a signal. Since wires have a certain amount of resistance to them, ground points in a circuit aren't all at exactly the same voltage. It is important in practical circuit design to separate the power supply ground from the signal ground from the shielding ground, etc. In circuits where minimum noise is especially important, power regulator circuitry should have thick wires or traces connecting the grounds, in a sequence from the power supply to the "cleanest" ground at the output of the filters of the power supply, which will then be a "star point" for the grounds of the signal circuitry. Chassis ground A direct connection to the chassis of the device. This is used for EMI shielding and also for safety ground in line AC powered devices. Earth ground Used in radio or power distribution systems, a connection to the earth itself. Also the other end of the connection for the safety ground, since the power line voltage will seek a path through the earth back to the power line supply station. This was the original usage of the word "ground", and the more modern meaning of the word would have been called a "floating ground". The earth ground symbol and signal ground symbol are often interchanged without regard to their original meanings. As far as signal-level electronics (and this book) is concerned, ground almost always means a signal ground or floating ground, not connected to the earth itself. Current[ edit ] Electric current, often called just current, is the movement of charge in a conductor (such as a wire) or into, out of, or through an electrical component. Current is quantified as a rate of positive charge movement past a certain point or through a cross-sectional area. Simply put, current is quantified as positive charge per unit time. However, since current is a vector quantity, the direction in which the current flows is still important. Current flow in a given direction can be positive or negative; the negative sign means that positive charges move opposite of the given direction. The quantity of current at a certain point is typically symbolized by a capital or small letter I with a designation which direction the current I is moving. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), one of the fundamental units of physics. See ampere for the definition of ampere. Sometimes, ampere is informally abbreviated to amp. The definition of a coulomb (C), the SI unit of charge, is based on an ampere. A coulomb is the amount of positive charge passing a point when a constant one ampere current flows by the point for one second. The second is the SI unit of time. In other words, a coulomb equals an ampere-second (A·s). An ampere is a coulomb per second (C/s). Conventional Current[ edit ] Typically, current is in a metal and constitutes movement of electrons which have negative charge; however, people initially thought that current had a positive charge. The result is that even though current is the flow of negative electrons and flows from the negative to the positive terminal of a battery, when people do circuit analysis they pretend that current is a flow of positive particles and flows from the positive to the negative terminal of a battery (or other power source). Actually, it is more complicated than this, since current can be made up of electrons, holes, ions, protons, or any charged particle. Since the actual charge carriers are usually ignored when analyzing a circuit, current is simplified and thought of as flowing from positive to negative, and is known as conventional current. Analogy to pebble tossing: I have pebbles and I am throwing them into a basket. In doing this the basket gains pebbles and I lose pebbles. So there is a negative current of pebbles to the basket because it is gaining pebbles, and there is a positive current of pebbles to me because I am losing pebbles. In pebble tossing the currents have equal strength but in opposite directions. Current I is represented in amperes (A) and equals x number of y Power[ edit ] Power is energy per unit of time. The SI unit for power is the watt (W) which equals a joule per second (J/s), with joule being the SI unit for energy and second being the SI unit for time. When somebody plugs an appliance into a receptacle to use electricity to make that appliance function, that person provides electrical energy for the appliance. The appliance usually functions by turning that electrical energy into heat, light, or work — or perhaps converts it into electrical energy again in a different form. If this situation is ongoing, it is said that the receptacle or electric power company delivers power to the appliance. The current from the receptacle going in and out of the appliance effectively carries the power and the appliance absorbs the power. Multiplying a unit of power by a unit of time would result in a unit that represents a quantity of energy. Therefore, multiplying a kilowatt by an hour gives a kilowatt-hour (kW·h), a unit often used by electrical power companies to represent an amount of electrical energy generated or provided to consumers. For direct current (DC), power P can be calculated by multiplying the voltage and current, when they are known. P = V I Note that energy/charge is multiplied by charge/time to give energy/time. At any one point in time t in alternating current (AC) circuitry, power P(t) equals voltage V(t) times current I(t). P(t) = V(t) I(t) at any one time t Calculations of AC power averaged over time will be discussed under AC power. Circuit[ edit ] An electronic circuit is a system in which conventional current flows from the positive terminal of a source, through a load, to the negative terminal of the source. But the current will only flow when there is a closed path from the positive to negative terminal. If there is a discontinuity or an open circuit in its path, the current will not flow and hence the circuit will be non functional. The current does not flow since the open circuit acts like an infinite resistance. Short Circuit[ edit ] A short circuit is another name for a node, although it usually means an unintentional node. Has current through it but no voltage across it. Has potential across it but no current through it. Properties of wires[ edit ] Theoretical circuit connection (wire) has no resistance or inductance. Real wires always have voltage over them if there is current flowing through them (resistance). On high frequencies there are measurable voltage potentials over wire links if there is flowing alternating current through wires (inductance like in inductors).	Capacitor
Which drink is made from crème de cassis topped with white wine?	POINTS AND CONDENSER \| smallengineinformation.com POINTS AND CONDENSER IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL FIND THE FOLLOWING SUBSECTIONS: MAGNETO SERVICE ADJUSTING THE MAGNETO AIR GAP TRIGGER SWITCHING DEVICES MAGNETO BATTERY SYSTEMS MAGNETO SERVICE If magneto has electronic switching components, little to check. Just general visual inspection of wiring and terminals. In older systems with breaker points, points often wear out and fail. Systems that contain points must be inspected carefully. Points can be located in two locations in engine. In most two stroke engines, will be under flywheel. In four stroke engines, may be under flywheel or timing cover. If points and condenser under flywheel, first step to remove flywheel. Flywheels loosened by special tools, either a knock off tool or a flywheel puller. Type of tool will depend on engine’s construction. When flywheel removed, may as well inspect it. Check for rusting, corrosion, broken fins. If flywheel has broken fin, entire flywheel should be replaced. Test magnets in flywheel by placing metal socket against each one. Socket should stick to magnet when you shake flywheel. If magnets have lost their power, magneto won’t work; flywheel must be replaced. With flywheel removed, breaker points cover exposed. Cover protects points and condenser from liquids and dirt. Cover can be removed by removing two retaining screws, lifting off cover. If points and condenser behind timing plate cover in upper cylinder head area, remove cover screws and cover. Will usually find great deal wear, pitting in contact area of points. In first stages point contact wear, points begin to pit. Next, pit will increase in size. Material from one contact may be deposited on second. Pitting can be so bad that contacts stick or weld together. REPLACING THE POINTS If points worn, can be easily replaced. Procedure usually provided in service manual for engine. General procedure would include following: 1)Locate retaining screw. Remove screw and points. Note position of points so can reinstall them correctly. 2)As you lift out points, you’ll see wire from primary side of coil and second wire from condenser attached to points. Remove nut that holds these wires on points and remove wires. 3)Locate, remove condenser retaining screw. Remove screw and lift out condenser. After screw removed, condenser removing tool can be used to grip and remove condenser. Note position of condenser when you remove. Note that in certain systems, condenser will actually be part of stationary contact in points assembly. 4)Before installing new points and condenser, compare old parts to new. Make sure are same size, and that mounting holes in same locations. 5)Install new condenser, tighten its retaining screw. 6)Connect wire from condenser and wire from ignition coil to points and tighten down retaining nut. 7)Mount points inside enclosure. SETTING THE POINT GAP Distance between the breaker point contacts called the point gap. Is precision measurement determined by manufacturer, like spark plug gap. Point gap must be measured to ensure proper functioning of points. A blade type feeler gauge can be used to measure point gap. Determine proper gap width by checking service manual for engine. Gap will normally be in range of 0.020 inch to 0.030 inch. Rotate crankshaft of engine until points at full open position. Find feeler gauge blade that matches width specified in manual. Insert blade between point contacts. If necessary, can combine two or more blades to get specified width. If point gap width correct, should feel slight drag between contact points and gauge blade. If gap too large or too small, should be adjusted. To adjust point gap, loosen point gap adjusting screw, move points until proper gap reached. In some engines, can insert screwdriver into slot in points and twist screwdriver to open or close points as necessary. Manufacturers recommend different methods for setting point gap in their engines. May involve use of tool called dial indicator or other instruments. Techniques will be described in detail in service manuals. ADJUSTING THE MAGNETO AIR GAP Air gap of magneto is small distance between rotating magnets and armature of ignition coil. Air gap another precision measurement determined by manufacturer. Ideally should be as small as possible, because closer magnets are to armature, greater the amount of current induced in primary. Magnets should never come in contact with armature during rotation of flywheel or rotor. In some engines, magneto air gap can be adjusted. Not possible to adjust air gap on all engines, particularly those that contain electronic components. When ignition coil mounted outside flywheel, air gap easy to measure and adjust. Can measure gap with air gap gauge. Air gap gauge is index like card made of plastic or cardboard, manufactured to precise thickness. May also use nonmagnetic feeler gauge to measure magneto air gap. Won’t get accurate measurement if use steel feeler gauge because magnets in flywheel will pull on gauge blades. Instead use brass gauge to make measurement. If magneto air gap incorrect, can be adjusted by following steps: 1)Align flywheel magnets with ignition coil armature. 2)Place proper size gauge between coil and flywheel. 3)Loosen armature mounting bolts. Magnets will pull armature toward flywheel until it rests against gauge. 4)Retighten armature mounting bolts. 5)Remove gauge, check clearance. Rotate flywheel a few times to make sure no part contacts armature. If flywheel does contact armature, flywheel may be warped or loose, flywheel key or keyway may be worn, or crankshaft may be bent. If armature has no provision for adjusting air gap, any of these conditions may be cause of improper air gap. If coil located under flywheel, following steps should be taken to adjust magneto air gap: 1)Remove flywheel. 2)Place piece of electrical tape on inside rim. 3)Replace flywheel (finger tight). 4)Rotate it 10 to 12 times (removing spark plug will make engine easier to rotate by hand). 5)Remove flywheel and examine tape. 6)If tape scuffed, air gap clearance too small. 7)If tape isn’t scuffed, add another strip, repeat test. If tape still not scuffed, air gap clearance too great. 8)Adjust position of armature, until air gap clearance such that one layer tape isn’t scuffed but two layers are when flywheel rotated. TRIGGER SWITCHING DEVICES Are different types switching devices. Two basic types trigger switching devices used in small engine. Some use set of electrical contacts called breaker points and condenser as switch. Other systems use electronic components to perform switching. Breaker points are mechanical contacts that stop and start flow of current through coil. Points usually made of tungsten, a very hard metal with high resistance to heat. One breaker point stationary or fixed, the other movable. Movable contact is mounted on spring loaded arm. Spring pressure used to hold points together. When breaker points touch, ignition circuit complete and primary winding of transformer energized. When end of spring loaded movable point pressed, contact end moves apart from stationary point. Circuit thus opens and flow of current stops. Each time points move apart, spark plug fires. Movable point is moved to open position by turning lobe or plunger. Lobe may be located on flywheel or end of camshaft. Plunger device operated by crankshaft or camshaft, will move in and out to press on movable point. After spark plug fires, spring mounted under movable point returns it to original position. Cam or plunger responsible for timing of spark. Another important component of breaker points system is condenser. Each time breaker points touch, current flows through them. Unless current flow controlled, a spark or arc will occur across points as they move apart. This would burn breaker points up. They would also absorb most of magnetic energy in coil, and prevent it from producing high voltage in secondary winding. Condenser used to control current as it flows through points. As soon as points begin to separate, condenser absorbs current so it can’t jump between points and make spark or arc. When plug fires, condenser releases current back into primary circuit. Condenser is type of capacitor. Capacitor is electrical component that can store charge. When current applied to condenser, condenser absorbs current and stores it. As points open, capacitor absorbs electricity created by collapsing magnetic field in primary winding. Condenser thus prevents electricity from jumping gap between points. When magnetic field collapses in secondary, plug fires. At same instant, condenser releases charge back into primary winding. Condenser is cylinder shaped component made of two aluminum foil strips wound together, separated by insulating paper. One aluminum strip has electrical lead connected to it. Wound strips then inserted in cylindrical metal case. Grounding connection attached to outside of case. In ignition circuit, condenser connected across or parallel to points. Breaker points and condenser work together to form switching device. Breaker points and condenser combination used in both magneto and battery systems. Other type of switching device in small engine applications is electronic switch. Solid state electronic components used to turn current flow to primary winding on and off. Electronic switch eliminates breaker points and condenser. THE MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEM In magneto, permanent magnets installed in engine’s flywheel or rotor. Coil mounted in stationary position near flywheel. When flywheel spins, magnets induce voltage in primary winding of coil. Coil in magneto system may also be located on bracket at side of flywheel. Consider typical flywheel in magneto system. Flywheel often cast of aluminum alloy. During casting process, two or more magnets encased within aluminum. These magnets will pass coil as flywheel rotates. Position of magnets on flywheel very important. For magneto to work properly, voltage must be generated in primary winding of coil at correct moment of flywheel’s rotation. To generate voltage at exact time needed, magnets in flywheel must be properly aligned. This means flywheel must be located in proper position on crankshaft. Flywheel held in position on crankshaft by bar of soft metal called flywheel key. Flywheel key inserted into matching slots cut into crankshaft and flywheel. Together these slots called the keyway. Flywheel key holds crankshaft and flywheel in alignment. In modern engines, flywheel held to crankshaft with shear key. This key will break off or shear if flywheel becomes jammed. Shearing action of flywheel key disengages flywheel from crankshaft and stops engine. For magneto to work, coil must be mounted in stationary position near flywheel. All newer engines that use flywheel magneto ignition will contain electronic ignition coil. Is a small air gap between flywheel’s edge and coil. Air gap is important specification in ignition system. Engine manufacturer will determine proper width of gap in thousandths of an inch. Gap must be exact for magneto system to work properly. This specification must be checked when servicing ignition system. The breaker points system is located underneath flywheel. Remember that ignition coil is transformer containing two windings of conductor wire. Primary winding consists of about 150 turns fairly heavy copper wire, while secondary consists of about 20,000 turns of very fine copper wire. Assume flywheel turning clockwise. Flywheel will be turning at high rate of speed. As flywheel turns, magnet mounted near edge of flywheel begins to pass by coil. As magnet passes coil, magnetic lines of force from magnet move into armature of coil. Magnetic lines of force move from north pole of magnet through armature and back out south pole of magnet. The magnetic field induces voltage in primary winding of transformer. As flywheel magnet continues its rotation, magnetic lines of force from magnet suddenly move through armature in opposite direction. This happens because sudden change in position of north and south poles of magnet. Change in direction of magnetic lines of force cause current to flow in primary winding of transformer. Primary winding connected to breaker points. Since points closed at this time, current flowing through points. Voltage in primary winding will induce low voltage in secondary due to mutual inductance. Voltage in secondary, at this time, still too low to jump gap of spark plug. At this point, turning cam lobe in points assembly begins to open points. As points separate, current flow in primary circuit broken. Magnetic field around primary collapses through secondary winding of transformer. Any current left in primary absorbed into condenser. Absorbing action of condenser prevents remaining voltage in primary circuit from arcing across points. As magnetic field collapses through secondary, high voltage in secondary induced. At exact same time, charge absorbed, stored in condenser flows back into primary. This discharging action helps increase voltage in secondary. High potential of voltage induced in secondary causes current to flow through spark plug wire, arc across plug gap. After high voltage in secondary winding released as spark, flywheel continues rotation until magnet positions itself by coil again, and process repeats. Actions described here occur very very quickly. Engine may require as many as 1,800 sparks per minute to operate. THE BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM In battery system, battery used to provide power to ignition coil instead of magneto. System, however, contains same type of switching components, either points and condenser or electronic switching components, and spark plug. Battery used in this type system is lead acid storage battery, similar to type used in automobile. Battery in small engine application generally much smaller. Battery may also power lights, horn, and other accessory circuits. Typical lead acid storage battery made up of individual compartments called cells. Each cell made up of a series of lead plates. Spaces between plates filled with electrolyte solution. Electrolyte made from sulfuric acid diluted with water. Each cell produces approximately 2 volts when battery fully charged, so a 12 volt DC battery will contain 6 cells. Acid used in batteries dangerous, can cause burns or destroy clothing. Storage battery in battery ignition system has total output 12 volts direct current. Current produced by battery measured in ampere hours (Ah). In battery ignition system, a generator, alternator, or coils within flywheel may be used to recharge battery as engine operates. Consider typical battery powered ignition system that uses points assembly for triggering. Battery provides voltage to energize primary winding of coil. Voltage to coil switched on and off by ignition switch. Switch often operated by key in garden tractors. In some garden tractors and riding mowers, ignition switch may have multiple sets of contacts to engage starter solenoid and other options or accessories. When ignition switch turned on, switch contacts close and ignition circuit closes. When circuit closes, power from battery passes through ignition switch and through primary winding of ignition coil. Opposite end primary winding connected to points and condenser. Points assembly, secondary winding, spark plug all operate in exactly the same way as in magneto system. Only difference that battery energizes primary winding of coil. When ignition switch turned off, switch contacts open, flow of power from battery to primary winding stopped and, therefore, engine stops. MAGNETO BATTERY SYSTEMS Many pieces outdoor power equipment contain both magneto and battery. In such machine, magneto is power source for ignition coil. Battery used to operate electric start and accessory circuits. Electric starter is small DC motor that has movable gear on its output shaft. When key turned in ignition switch, circuit from battery to starter motor closed, and current flows from battery to motor. Starter motor’s armature turns. When armature turns, gear on armature pushes outward, mates with gear teeth of flywheel. Turning gear on motor’s armature causes flywheel to start turning. When flywheel starts turning, gear on motor armature retracts. Since this type system also contains magneto, when flywheel starts turning magneto begins working. Only difference in this system that key used to start machine instead of rope. For comments and questions, please visit our forum . Search Unleashed	i don't know
As what was Birmingham’s James Turner Street rechristened for a Channel 4 series?	Benefits Street: House for sale in James Turner Street, Birmingham \| The Independent Benefits Street: House for sale in James Turner Street, Birmingham Thursday 9 January 2014 12:33 BST Click to follow The Independent Online It's the street that’s split opinion all over Britain... and now you can buy your very own house on it. This two bedroom terraced house is for sale on James Turner street, aka Benefits Street , in Winson Green, Birmingham. Priced at £77,000, the property has been on sale for five months and has already been reduced from its original listing of £80,000. The average house price in Birmingham comes in at almost double this, at £155,000. A three-bedroom house on the same street sold for £56,000 last February. However after the way the residents were portrayed on the Channel 4 documentary Benefits Street on Monday, it is unlikely that potential buyers will be keen to snap up this mid-terrace house any time soon. The series, which films in an area where 90 per cent of residents are said to be claiming benefits, is being reviewed by West Midland Police after contributors were seen boasting about shoplifting offences and growing cannabis in their homes. Yet those who starred in the programme said they had been betrayed by the TV show and lied to by the programme makers Love Productions. Story continues below gallery Benefits Street house for sale: James Turner Street, Winson Green 1/5 A bathroom in the house on James Turner Street 2/5 A bathroom in the house on James Turner Street 3/5 There is a small paved area out the back of the house 4/5 The lounge in the mid terrace house 5/5 The front of the freehold property on sale James Turner Street resident Dee Roberts told the Birmingham Mail: “They said they wanted to film for a TV show about how great community spirit is in the street and how we all help each other out on a daily basis. "They said that ‘Britain was broken’ but that I lived in an area where the community was very close. I participated in the show on that belief. “But this programme has nothing to do with community, which you can tell from the title. It’s all about people in the street living off benefits, taking drugs and dossing around all day. It makes people out as complete scum.” Now thousands have signed a petition on change.org demanding that Channel 4 drop the remainder of Benefits Street, (next week’s episode looks into the impact of Eastern European immigrants) and make a donation to charity for the damage they caused. former bus driver Arshad Mahmood who is now out of work after having major surgery told the Independent he was worried about the effect the show would have on all people who claim benefits. The residents of Benefits Street have already been subjected to death threats themselves following the broadcast, with police investigating a number of abusive messages posted online. A Channel 4 spokesperson said the broadcaster would not be pulling the remainder of the series. “Filmed for more than a year, this fair and balanced observational documentary series is a fair reflection of the reality of life on a street where the majority of households receive benefits - and in an area of Birmingham that has had the highest rate of unemployment in the country for the last eight years,” she said. “It is a sympathetic, humane and objective portrayal of how people are coping with continuing austerity and cuts in benefits.” Benefits Street star Smoggy, an ex-convict who went door to door selling everyday items for 50p rather than claim benefits, has now been offered three jobs as a result of being in the show. Virdee estates, the agency selling the house, said they were not interested in talking to journalists. More about:	Benefits Street
Which small, remote island is known to its inhabitants as Rapa Nui?	Benefits Street, series 2 episode 1, review: 'self-absorbed' - Telegraph TV and Radio reviews Benefits Street, series 2 episode 1, review: 'self-absorbed' The return of 'Benefits Street' was an exercise in navel-gazing that was rescued by its stories of grim reality and resilience, says Tom Rowley 3 Kingston Road residents and best friends Julie Young and Sue Griffiths, featured in Channel 4's second series of Benefit's Street Photo: Channel 4 Follow It was the accolade nobody wanted. When Birmingham’s James Turner Street was rechristened Benefits Street by Channel 4 last year, hundreds of viewers complained to Ofcom, arguing that the show exploited the vulnerable and amounted to “poverty porn”. The most controversial debut series of last year made names of residents such as “White Dee” but also prompted anxious interventions in Parliament about its portrayal of benefits claimants. Little surprise, then, that the choice of location for its second series, Kingston Road in Stockton-on-Tees, would soon attract attention. More unexpected was the programme-makers’ decision to document this controversy in this first episode. At times, it was irritatingly self-absorbed. Lengthy segments were devoted not to the residents of this short, low-rise street on a council estate, but to the journalists who showed up there to report on the furore caused by the programme. Matriarch Julie Young (Photo: Channel 4) First we saw the local newspaper reporter, reluctantly asking the crew what they were filming; then the national papers turned up. Finally, when the TV reporters arrived, there was the absurd sight of one film crew interviewing another as the street became a circus of misery. • The 39 TV flops of 2015 so far The only upside of this tedious navel-gazing was the brilliant cameos by the street’s tracksuited children, patrolling the pavement on their bicycles like latter-day town criers, yelling “the press is here” and chasing journalists off with buckets of water. One of them drew a laugh from a startled photographer when he told her off for intruding. “It’s paedophile-ism!” he yelled. All of this was an unnecessary distraction from a series that remains, despite the pejorative title, pretty fair. Whatever their political bent, politicians could surely benefit from a week’s stay on Kingston Road experiencing the realities for Britain’s poorest – or should at least be prescribed the box set. Lee Nutley (Photo: Channel 4) It was difficult to watch Lee Nutley, an unemployed builder still struggling to get over the death of his partner, trying to cope as his benefits were cut and the lights went out. “I like working, me,” he told the camera. The producers did well not to cast the residents as helpless victims: they showed resilience, too, looking out for each other and lending supplies to help neighbours make ends meet. • Meet the residents of Benefits Street The undisputed star was Julie Young who, despite caring for her severely mentally and physically disabled son for the last 15 years (as well as her other five children), still managed to cook for Lee while he had no electricity supply. The rest of the series would do well to focus on this grim reality, rather than stagey interviews between reporters who live elsewhere.	i don't know

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