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What is the name of the theatre in Scarborough which has staged the premieres of Alan Ayckbourn's plays?
Stephen Joseph Theatre | Welcome Born in London. Made in Scarborough. Stephen Joseph 325 world premieres… and counting Alan Ayckbourn Reaching 110,000 people each year OutReach A creative heart to Scarborough OutReach A centre for new writing Matt Hartley ©Becky Paris
Stephen Joseph
Which multi-coloured hairstyle is one of the most recognisable attributes of Rastafarian men?
Alan Ayckbourn's Official Website Articles/Research Bedroom Farce: A Timeline The Timeline offers a chronological view of significant events in the history of the play Bedroom Farce it only lists major productions and does not include the vast majority of the many professional and amateur productions of the play. January 1974 Peter Hall, Artistic Director of the National Theatre, approaches Alan Ayckbourn about writing a play for the soon to be opened National Theatre venue in London. 30 June 1974 In an interview with the Sunday Times, Alan Ayckbourn announces he has been commissioned to write a play for the National Theatre which will be called Bedroom Farce, A Comedy (later amended to just Bedroom Farce). 21 May 1975 Alan Ayckbourn begins writing Bedroom Farce. Despite being commissioned for the National Theatre, the play will premiere at the Library Theatre, Scarborough. 24 May 1975 Alan Ayckbourn finishes writing Bedroom Farce, coincidentally on the day his and and Andrew Lloyd-Webber's flop musical Jeeves closes at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, after a month-long run. 16 June 1975 World premiere of Bedroom Farce at the Library Theatre, Scarborough, directed by Alan Ayckbourn. 1 March 1977 The National Theatre production of Bedroom Farce premieres at the Alexandra Theatre, Birmingham, directed by Alan Ayckbourn and Peter Hall. 16 March 1977 London premiere of Bedroom Farce at the Lyttelton, National Theatre, directed by Alan Ayckbourn and Peter Hall. 19 September 1977 The National Theatre production of Bedroom Farce tours to Bristol Hippodrome. 29 September 1977 The first professional regional repertory production of Bedroom Farce opens at the Nottingham Playhouse. 1977 Chatto & Windus publishes Bedroom Farce in the collection Three Plays. 17 August 1978 Bedroom Farce closes at the National Theatre, London, in preparation for a West End transfer. 7 November 1978 The National Theatre production of Bedroom Farce transfers to the Prince Of Wales Theatre, London. 1978 Samuel French Ltd publishes the acting edition of Bedroom Farce. 1 January 1979 Bedroom Farce officially released for production by repertory theatres. January 1979 The first repertory tour of Bedroom Farce is staged by Oxford Playhouse. 22 January 1979 The National Theatre production of Bedroom Farce begins a Canadian / American tour in Toronto. 29 March 1979 The National Theatre production of Bedroom Farce opens on Broadway at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre, New York, directed by Alan Ayckbourn and Peter Hall. 28 September 1980 ITV broadcasts the National Theatre’s production of Bedroom Farce, adapted and directed for television by Christopher Morahan. 1982 Alan Ayckbourn is approached about a television spin-off to Bedroom Farce entitled Ernest & Delia. A pilot script is written by Peter Tinniswood, but the series is dropped before filming begins. 13 July 1983 The television version of Bedroom Farce is repeated on British television for the first time by Channel 4. 1998 The British Film Institute screens Bedroom Farce at the National Film Theatre during the Popular Television Of The ‘70s And ‘80s Film Festival. 21 September 2000 Bedroom Farce is revived in The Round at the Stephen Joseph Theatre, Scarborough, directed by Alan Ayckbourn. 19 December 2000 Bedroom Farce is redirected by Alan Ayckbourn for the end-stage The McCarthy at the Stephen Joseph Theatre, Scarborough. 16 December 2001 The Stephen Joseph Theatre production of Bedroom Farce, directed by Alan Ayckbourn, begins a UK tour at the Yvonne Arnaud Theatre, Guildford. 26 March 2002 A West End revival of Bedroom Farce, directed by Loveday Ingram, opens at the Yvonne Arnaud Theatre, Guildford, before transferring to London's West End. 8 April 2002 Bedroom Farce opens at the Aldwych Theatre, London, directed by Loveday Ingram. 29 June 2002 Bedroom Farce closes at the Aldwych Theatre, London. 2003 Disappointment with the quality of Loveday Ingram's production of Bedroom Farce alongside the treatment of his own London production of Damsels In Distress leads Alan Ayckbourn to announce a hiatus from the West End. 2007 A tour of Bedroom Farce, directed by Robin Herford, becomes the first major UK tour since 2003 of an Ayckbourn play not directed by the playwright himself. 1 October 2009 Bedroom Farce opens at the Rose Theatre, Kingston, directed by Sir Peter Hall. 24 March 2010 Bedroom Farce opens at the Duke Of York's Theatre, London, directed by Sir Peter Hall. 10 July 2010 Bedroom Farce closes at the Duke of York's Theatre, London, before embarking on a national tour with a new cast. 2 November 2013 As part of the National Theatre's 50th anniversary celebrations, a scene from Bedroom Farce is performed in the 50 Years On Stage event. Copyright: Simon Murgatroyd. Please do not reproduce without permission of the copyright holder. All material © Simon Murgatroyd or Alan Ayckbourn except where noted. Portrait of Alan Ayckbourn by Andrew Higgins. Contact Me
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Which country are the reigning Olympic Rugby Union champions, the sport last being part of the official programme in 1924?
Rugby Football History All Blacks Barbarians Canada British & Irish Lions Ireland Scotland Springboks USA Wales Wallabies Introduction The olympics was resurrected in modern times by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator. He formed the international Olympic committee (IOC) in 1894 and introduced rugby to the second games in 1900. De Coubertin admired the ethos of Rugby Football, its moral values as well as the physical and mental skills required to play it. His biographers mention boxing, fencing, rowing and horse-riding as his main sporting interests. They however failed to underline his active interest in Rugby Football, reflected in a famous essay called' Notes about Foot-ball', which he wrote in 1896: “What is admirable in football (rugby), is the perpetual mix of individualism and discipline, the necessity for each man to think, anticipate, take a decision and at the same time subordinate one’s reasoning, thoughts and decisions to those of the captain. And even the referee’s whistle stopping a player for a ‘fault’ one team mate has made and he hasn’t seen, tests his character and patience. For all that, football is truly the reflection of life, a lesson experimenting in the real world, a first-rate educational tool.” - Baron Pierre de Coubertin The Baron was 25 when he visited Rugby School for the first time in 1888. The visit was part of a wider tour of English public schools and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge to learn from the revolutionary Victorians who put sport at the heart of education. His research from the playing fields of England was compiled in LÉducation en Angleterre (1888), in which he noted how “organised sport can create moral and social strength”. By the time he visited Rugby School de Coubertin had already read both the works of Thomas Arnold, Rugby’s great headmaster and educationalist, and Thomas Hughes’ novel, Tom Brown’s Schooldays.  Arnold's essays and the fortunes of young Tom Brown made a great impression on the young French aristocrat, in search of educational models for his country, traumatised by defeat in the French-Prussian war. Lord Coe unveiled a plaque at Rugby School in May 2009 commemorating its legendary Head Master, Thomas Arnold, as an important inspiration behind Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the Frenchman who established the modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896. Also shown:Patrick Derham - Headmaster and chair of governors Micheal Fowl. Picture credit: Rugby School De Coubertin, an educationalist like his hero, was deeply impressed by the athleticism and sportsmanship at Rugby and other British public schools he visited during the 1880s. De Coubertin wrote: “Thomas Arnold, the leader and classic model of English educators, gave the precise role of athletics in education.” Arnold was “one of the founders of athletic chivalry.” Recalling the often difficult journey to his Olympic dream, de Coubertin wrote: “it was to Arnold that we turned, more or less consciously, for inspiration.” After his return from his first visit to England, de Coubertin became an active promoter of physical education in general and Rugby Football in particular, which he managed to introduce into several school establishments in Paris, securing the long term future of the Game in the country and as one of the founders of the game in France, he set up the first French schools championship in 1890. He went on playing with his friends in Bois de Boulogne and although there is no information about his Rugby prowess, his knowledge of the Game was well respected by his peers, who elected him to referee the 1892 match between Stade Française and Racing Club de France – now regarded as the inaugural French championship. In April of that year, he was instrumental in bringing Rosslyn Park FC to Paris, to play Stade Français. This was the first time an English Club had played in continental Europe. The French educationalist became one of France's leading promoters of sport in general and Rugby in particular, and as such he played a significant role in the formation of the Union des Sociétés Français de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA) and the development of Rugby in France. He was elected to the IRB Hall of Fame in 2007. That very same year, 1892, de Coubertin made the first public call to restitute the Olympic Games. The first 'modern' games were held in Athens in 1896 but did not include Rugby. Rugby was added to the Olympic program for the second Olympiad and featured in the games held at Paris in 1900, London in 1908, Antwerp in 1920, and Paris again in 1924. In 1925, Baron de Coubertin stepped down as the President of the IOC and his successor, Count Baillet-Latour, did not share the enthusiasm of the founder for Rugby Football. The 1925 Olympic Congress, at which Baillet-Latour was elected as the second IOC President, signalled the beginning of a drive against team sports and despite the vigorous protestations of the Dutch students keen to have Rugby in the programme of the 9th Olympic Games in Amsterdam, Rugby was dropped from the Olympic programme - even though rugby had sold more tickets than the track and field events celebrated in the movie about the 1924 Olympics, "Chariots of Fire." Rugby was never again part of the Olympic Games, though its American Football cousin appeared as a demonstration sport at the 1932 Olympics in Los Angeles. It was the last time an oval ball featured in the Olympic Games, though a Pre-Olympic Rugby tournament involving France, Germany, Italy and Romania was held in Berlin before the 1936 Olympics. October 9th, 2009 Rugby Sevens will be included at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro. An overwhelming vote in favour of inclusion by the International Olympic Committee members at the 121st Session in Copenhagen - Rugby Sevens received 81 'yes' votes to only eight 'no' votes - means that the world's top men's and women's Rugby players will have the opportunity to compete for an Olympic Gold medal, the pinnacle of sporting achievement. Read more on re-instating Rugby to the Olympics Medal Summary 1 1900. Venue: Cycle-racing track of Vincennes In 1900 the Olympics was a much smaller event than we see today and only three countries entered a rugby team, France, Britain and Germany. Britain sent the Moseley Wanderers to represent them; Germany, was represented by players from FC Frankfurt 1880, and host France entered the Paris club side. The French national team played Germany represented by Frankfurt beating them 27 to 17. Teams as entered in the official olympic report October 28th, 1900 The French national team then played Great Britain represented by Mosley Wanderers RFC beating them 27 - 8. 6000 watched the game, 4,389 of them paying for entry. This was the largest crowd of the 1900 Olympic games. Teams as entered in the official olympic report No decider was played so Germany was awarded Silver and Moseley Bronze on points differential. If you want to read more about Moseley click here . October 19th, 1908. Venue: Shepherd’s Bush, London Cornwall, the champion county of the previous season, was chosen by the RFU Committee to represent the United Kingdom and play the Australians who were making their first tour of the UK during 1908/9. The Australians would end the tour with a 25-5-1 record. The decision to choose Cornwall was somewhat controversial, as the Australians had beaten Cornwall 18 - 5 on a previous occasion when ten of the same men were playing; and only three of their fifteen had ever represented England before. As expected, the Cornishmen were defeated even worse than they had been at Camborne some three weeks before, and the Australians took the gold medals, by 32 points to 3. The games could have been somewhat different if it wasn't for the fact that the Anglo-Welsh team who had been playing in New Zealand had not received a letter inviting them and the fact that the French were unable to send over a team and withdrew at the last minute. Note the name D.B.Carroll from Sidney who played for Australia, he later immigrated to the US following a tour in 1912 and then played for them as the captain/coach in the 1920 Olympics and therefore won two gold medals for two different countries. he also coached the 1924 USA side. 1920 Antwerp Olympics   Few Americans know that rugby was played in the early years of modern Olympic competition, let alone that the USA won the last two Olympic rugby gold medals up for grabs. But if the news that an American rugby team brought home Olympic gold medals in 1920 & 1924 comes as a surprise today, it was nothing less than astounding when it last happened eighty years ago. It is all the more astounding knowing that rugby hadn't been played competitively in the U.S. for more than a decade prior to the events. Rugby had been all the rage in California high at the turn of the century, but the sport had died out by the outbreak of World War I. It's no surprise then that the US Olympic committee refused to even fund the trips. 1920 US Olympic Team: (BACK, L-R) Wallace, Patrick, O’Neil, Fish, J Muldoon, Fitzpatrick, Slater, Righter. (MIDDLE): Meehan, Hazeltine, Maloney (trainer), Tilden (c), Carroll (pl/coach), W Muldoon, von Schmidt, Scholz. (FRONT): Wrenn, Doe, Hunter, Davis, Winston. Missing: Templeton, Kirksey A movement to send an Olympic rugby team to represent the US in Antwerp started after an undefeated Cal-Berkeley tour to British Columbia in 1920. The US Olympic committee (USOC) sanctioned an All American side, on condition that the enterprise be underwritten by the California Rugby Union (CRU) and the chosen players. Selection to the team was left to the California RU and its president, W Harry Maloney since US rugby was heavily concentrated in the California area. CRU officials and players, with the assistance of AAU representative Sam Goodman, created fundraisers. Dances and baseball games were held for donations; and individual contributions were gathered from throughout the local community. Selections were made from a pool of 42 players in three intra-squad trial matches. The team was composed mainly of players from Stanford, Cal-Berkeley and Santa Clara, with the remaining California club players recently graduated from the collegiate ranks. Notable players included Stanford’s Dan Carroll, an Australian gold medallist center who had scored two tries in the 1908 Games. Carroll, now a naturalized US citizen, was the player/coach of the 1920 US team and destined to win another rugby gold in Antwerp. Stanford rugger, Robert L "Dink" Templeton, was an Olympic high jumper. Morris Kirksey, another Stanford man, lost the 1920 Olympic gold in the 100 meters by 18 inches to fellow American and world record holder Charles Paddock. Kirksey then added a gold in the 4x100 relay to his silver in the 100. Cal-Berkeley’s Charles L Tilden, Jr was selected captain of the first US Olympic rugby team and served as manager as well. The accommodations provided at Antwerp for the first post-war Olympians were austere in a nation ravaged by World War I and struggling to rebuild from the carnage. The US team, including the rugby players, had to endure a trans-Atlantic crossing aboard an overcrowded Army transport ship, the Sherman, and nearly revolted when confronted with their quarters in Antwerp. After the reinstatement to the US contingent of a triple jumper who had been thrown off the team when he found better lodgings on his own, the US athletes relented, but still had to accept their poor accommodations. By the time the US Rugby team arrived in Europe, Czechoslovakia and Romania had withdrawn from the competition, France and USA were the only teams left to compete and France, as the European champions, were savoring a certain gold medal. Fifty thousand people assembled in Antwerp Stadium, Nelgium and by half time the score was 0-0. Half way through the second half they marked a kick in front of goal and Templeton kicked it over for 3 points. Action during the 1920 game Later on the forwards dribbled the ball to within 5 yards of the French goal line and when the French forwards fumbled the ball Hunter picked it up and fell over the line for a try which was converted. The shocked onlookers were numbed by an 8 – 0 victory for the United States. The Americans had won the gold medal. The stunned French suggested that the US team tour France, which they did although only sixteen players stayed on. On Sept 19th Lyon: a team representing the SE of France was beaten 26-0. On September 22nd Toulouse a Southern France team was beaten 14-3, On September 25th Bordeaux a SW French team was beaten 6-3 and finally in Paris on Oct 10th a French national team defeated the US 14-5. A gold medal and winning three out of the four follow-up matches, not bad! USA vs. France (Credit: IOC/Olympic Museum collections) 1924 Paris Olympics In September 1923, the U.S. Olympic Committee once again agreed to send an American rugby team to the 1924 Paris Olympics to defend their title. The French Olympic Committee (FOC) had scheduled the rugby event to kick off the 1924 Paris Games, and lowly Romania and the USA were to provide only token opposition for the European Champions, France the team was picked to win the gold medal in grand style. "They were looking for a punching bag," says 87-year-old Norman Cleaveland, a Stanford All-American halfback of the twenties who was one of the first athletes to respond to the call putout through the press in the Fall of 1923. "We were told to go to Paris and take our beatings like gentlemen." Nevertheless, seven players of the 1920 team together with a host of large American football players making up a 22 man squad, raised $20,000 and headed for England to prepare where they were beaten four times in practice sessions. The coach Charlie Austin was relying on his team's size, speed, stamina, and raw athletic ability to compensate for its technical deficiencies. Players from Stanford University in the 1924 USA squad were: Phillip Clark John Patrick William Rodgers The USA Olympic rugby team arrived in Paris, via England on April 27, 1924, after a 6,000 mile journey by train, bus, ship, and ferry from Oakland, California. But if these young American athletes expected to be welcomed to France with kisses on both cheeks, they were unpleasantly surprised. The team was the target of hostility even before the players set foot on French soil. French journalists branded them "streetfighters and saloon brawlers" after a brouhaha in the port of Boulogne where immigration officials mistakenly refused the team entry, and the players - many of whom had been seasick during the turbulent crossing - forced their way off the ship onto dry land. The American rugby players' reputation only deteriorated. When Paris authorities cancelled previously arranged games against local club teams and restricted American workouts to a patch of scrub land next to their hotel, the players responded by marching down to Colombes Stadium, scaling the fence, and going through their paces on the hallowed turf. "It wasn't the best way to conduct international affairs," concedes Norman Cleaveland, chuckling at the memory. "If they wanted to push us around," snarls 91-year-old Charlie Doe, who was vice-captain of the 1924 team, "then we damn well pushed back." France vs. Romania The Olympic games of 1924 opened on May 4th with a match between France and Romania. Playing its first fifteen, the French notched a 61 to 3 victory (some say 59-3) over the smaller eastern European team, scoring 13 tries including four by the fine Stade Francais winger Adolphe Jaureguy. Captains N Maresco - Romania, R Lasserre - France. After the match, another round of trouble started over the referee for the France - USA match. An earlier selection of British Admiral Percy Royds was deemed unacceptable by US team manager Sam Goodman. The dispute degraded into the French no longer providing any practice fields for the team, so the Americans found themselves a park. Fanning the flames, the French press published an article by a Paris City Counselor questioning the amateur status of the American players. The Americans invited the Frenchman to come down to the pitch to discuss the matter. To make matters worse, an argument started over the French Olympic Committee's ruling that the American side could not film their match against Romania that weekend. A French company had been awarded sole rights to filming the Olympics, and an American request to film the match was flatly denied. A meeting on the 8th did not resolve the issue, so Sam Goodman told the French organizers that the US might pull out of the Games. Adding fuel to the fire, the American players' clothes were robbed during that day's training session. Even though a French attendant had been posted, the team lost about $4,000 worth of cash and possessions. Cleaveland and his teammates were not very happy, and because of their treatment in the press, the American side was now being cursed and spat upon on in the streets of Paris. The American expatriate community in Paris was even staying well clear of them. The French press were now whipped up fierce anti-American sentiment in Paris. The next day, the French agreed to allow the Romanian match to be filmed for historical and educational purposes. A selection featuring only six of the US starting fifteen was also announced for the match. USA vs. Romania On Sunday, May 11th , the US pounded Romania 39 to 0 at Colombes Stadium. With Norman at flyhalf, Richard "Tricky Dick" Hyland at center, and Jack Patrick at flanker, the US ran rampant through the Romanians, scoring nine tries. Captains C Doe - USA, N Maresco - Romania Fullback Charlie Doe had a good day kicking, scoring 13 points. With the impressive win, though, a difficult situation was brewing. Each time the Americans touched the ball, the French crowd of about 6000 booed and hissed. Conversely, they cheered and screamed each time the Romanians gained any possession, even though the Americans never let the Romanians within kicking distance of their own goal, and won every lineout and all but one scrum. And though everyone felt that the Americans would play a harsh, physical match, both the American and French sporting press noted the lack of violence and the skilled nature of US play, coupled with their size and fitness. Some of the French press even conceded that the fans had been unfair at the match. Still the odds were set at 5 to 1 against the US with a 20 point spread in the upcoming match with France. Two days later, the issue over the final's referee was settled when Sam Freethy of Wales was selected. That day, the team also moved from their hotel to the newly constructed Olympic housing. It seems that the hotel's proprietor became upset the night before due to "a little college cheering and rollicking" by the American players. The final: USA vs. France In the days leading up to the final, the U.S. rugby players were insulted and sometimes even spat upon if they dared venture outside their hotel.   The final was played at Colombes stadium, Paris on 18 May 1924 before 50,000 screeching, drunken Frenchmen who were oblivious to the FOC's public appeal for calm. Paris bookmakers set the odds at twenty to one; the points spread was twenty and no wonder: The French national rugby team was one of the greatest ever assembled, and included on its roster the legendary Adolphe Juarraguy, said to be the fastest rugby player alive. By comparison, most of the American players hadn't touched a rugby ball until six months earlier. The mob packing Colombes Stadium fully expected an easy gold medal for France to open the Paris Olympic Games. Colombes stadium, Paris As the team entered the stadium from a tunnel, they noted that the Olympic officials had elected to install a tall wire fence around the stadium to restrain the crowd. The American side wore white uniforms, blue belts, and white stockings hooped with red and blue. An American shield was sewed to the front of their jumpers. Wearing white shorts and blue stockings, the French took the field in their famous blue jumper badged with a cock. The American captain was Colby "Babe" Slater, and his French counterpart was Rene Lasserre. The US chose 45 minute halves, betting that their fitness and stamina would outlast the French. Sam Freethy agreed to 90 minutes over French protests and started the match. France intended to take its revenge, but from the kickoff it was obvious the American players intended to avenge their treatment by the French. Two minutes after the opening whistle, Adolphe Jaureguy received a pass on the wing, and the crowd roared as its hero set off for the American line. But from out of nowhere came "Lefty" Rogers, Stanford's basketball captain, who leveled the famed Frenchman with a tooth-rattling tackle. On the next play Jaureguy's stride was broken by another Rogers tackle. Then it was the turn of All-American and Rhodes Scholar Alan Valentine who had sprinted the width of the field to hurl his 210-lb bulk into the off-balance Juarraguy. "And that was the end of him," says Charlie Doe. Oblivious even to the sound of the howling crowd, Jaureguy was carted off the field bleeding, "like a sack of potatoes," according to Doe. USA vs. France (Credit: IOC/Olympic Museum collections) At halftime the score was only 3-0 in the USA's favor, but as team manager Sam Goodman put it, they had their opponents "buffaloed." The French players were devastated by the American football-style tackling, though as they admitted after the game, the hits were within the rules of the game. In the second half the French defense crumbled in the wake of a series of ferocious American attacks. "Our men, " wrote Andre Glarner of the Exelsior newspaper, "too frail and hesitant, too fragile, could not hold up before the admirable athletes before them." The Americans, from Stanford University, scored five tries, (Farrish(2), Patrick, Rogers and Manelli), with a conversion by Doe. Gallau scored the lone French try. With a humiliating French defeat imminent, the crowd began earning its reputation for thuggery (many foreign teams refused to play in Paris because of French rugby hooliganism at that time). American supporters were being beaten up in the stands, and their bodies passed down to the field to be collected by ambulances. "I thought they were dead," says Norman Cleaveland. "We were sure it was only a matter of time before they got their hands on us." The match finished in uproar, when Gideon Nelson, one of the reserves, was flattened by a walking stick. When the final whistle blew, the score was 17-3, and the French crowd was hysterical. "They were throwing bottles and rocks and clawing at us through the fence, recalls Cleaveland. "We had no idea what was going to happen." Charlie Doe saw the band pick up their instruments and conductor waving his baton, but, like his teammates, he couldn't hear a single note because of the cacophony of booing and catcalls. "Then we saw the Stars and Stripes being raised and realized they were playing the Star Spangled Banner," says Doe. "We had completely forgotten about the medal ceremony which took place in front of tens of thousands of people who wanted to rip us to shreds." After the medal ceremony, the American rugby players were escorted to their locker room by dozens of gendarmes. The attitude of the French press changed dramatically after their national team's routing. In the interest of the remainder of the Games, French journalists began to portray the American players as heroes. "The American team is comprised of true athletes, all fast, strong, energetic, and possessing athletic qualities of which we are rarely aware in France," wrote Glarner of the Exelsior. The fickle French public responded in kind. "When you're a hero in Paris, that's something! All we had to do was walk in to a bar or restaurant and there would be free drinks all around," says Norman Cleaveland. The American victory, which marked Rugby's last appearance as an Olympic sport, was a feat then, called by UP sports Editor Henry J. Farrell "the brightest entry scored on all the pages of American international sports records." The Rugby heroes returned to the Bay Area without much fanfare. Despite the USA's spectacular 1924 Olympic rugby victory, rugby again slipped back into obscurity in the U.S. That astonishes modern observers, but as Charlie Doe points out, the Olympics were "not such a big deal" before the advent of television coverage, which today can propel an obscure sport like Olympic hockey into the public consciousness. "Our victory in '24 made the hockey win against the Soviets look like an everyday occurrence," says Doe. "If we had that kind of coverage Rugby might be the great American pastime today." VOLVOREANU 29 MAY 2004: 1924 Olympics rugby revisited To mark the 80th anniversary of when rugby was last played in the Olympic Games in front of 50,000 spectators at the Stade Colombes, Paris on 18 May 1924, the International Rugby Board and the Fédération Francaise de Rugby, organisers of the IRB Sevens' Bordeaux event, commemorated the occasion in Bordeaux with an exhibition match. Students of Bordeaux University, who first started playing 'le Jeu Anglais' more than a century ago, re-enacted the historic occasion, wearing playing kit specifically designed and manufactured for this match between France and the USA. Like on 18 May 1924, the American team wore white V-neck jerseys with the shield of All American Student Rugby, white shorts and white socks with red and blue hoops, while France wore the traditional blue jerseys with white shorts and blue socks. Rugby was one of 17 sports in the 1924 Olympics, which brought together 3,092 athletes from 44 countries.  The rugby competition started on 4 May 1924, the opening day of the eighth Olympiad, which went on to last nearly three months. The sport had previously been played at three Olympic Games; at the second Olympiads in Paris in 1900 where France won the gold, in 1908 in London where the touring Wallabies became Olympic Champions and in 1920 in Antwerp, where the USA managed to defeat France 8-0 to win the first of their Olympic golds. How the teams shaped up in 1924: USA: fullback Charles Doe (1), left wing W. Rogers (2) centre (outside) N.Cleveland (3) right wing, F.Hyland (4) 2 nd 5/8 (inside centre) G.Dixon, (5), 1 st 5/8 (fly-half) R.Devereux,(6) scrum half (half-back) G.Scholtz (7) forwards: No 8 C.Slater (8) Captain, back row (3 rd row- wing forward) J.Patrick (9), back-row (3 rd row - wing forward) D. de Groot (10), second-row  A.Valentine (11), second rown L.Farrish (12), front row (prop) G.Manelli (13), front row hooker J.O'Neill (14), front row prop E.Graff (15) France: fullback E. Bonnes (1) left wing A. Jaureguy (2), centre A Behoteguy (3) centre J.Vaysse (4) right wing R.Got (5), fly-half (outside half) H.Galau (6), scrum-half (halfback) C.Dupont (7) forwards No 8 R.Lasserre (8) Captain, back row (3rd row) A Bioussa (9), back row (3rd row) E.Piquiral (10), second row P.Lebrere-Lubin (11), second row A.Cassayet, (12), front-row (prop) J. Etcheberry (13), front-row hooker L.Beguet (14), front row-prop J.Bayard (15) Referee: Albert Freethy (Wales), Touch judges: Cyril Rutherford (France) and Norman Slater (USA) Final score: USA 17-3 France USA Tries: De Groot, J.Patrick, L.Farrish, W.Rogers, G.Manelli. Conversion: C.Doe FRANCE Try: H.Galau Nanjing Youth Olympic Games 2014 Rugby 7s NINETY YEARS AFTER BEING FOR THE LAST TIME ON THE OLYMPIC PROGRAMME, RUGBY RETURNED TO THE OLYMPIC STAGE IN NANJING IN PREPARATION FOR RIO 2016. International Olympic Committee President Thomas Bach has joined International Rugby Board President Bernard Lapasset and the global Rugby family in hailing the inaugural Youth Olympic Games Rugby Sevens event. Bach was joined by a host of IOC and NOC members at a packed venue in Nanjing to see the newest Olympic sport and witness a compelling, exciting tournament with boys and girls teams from around the globe competing for the first Olympic Rugby gold medals to be awarded in 90 years. With the festival atmosphere making the Rugby Sevens one of the must-see events in Nanjing, Australia’s girls and France’s boys made history by claiming the inaugural gold medals. China’s girls delighted the home crowd to take bronze and Fiji claimed a first-ever Olympic medal with bronze in the boys’ competition. Bach said: “It's a great competition, you can see how dynamic and fascinating Rugby Sevens can be and is, and we are looking forward to a great tournament in Rio. It is always critical to get it right at a big event like the Youth Olympics Games or Olympic Games.” It was an historic and emotional occasion for Lapasset, who is now looking forward to ensuring a successful and spectacular Rugby Sevens debut at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games. “It was a very special, emotional and historic occasion for the global Rugby family and the players and the competition was exciting and played in the shared values of the Youth Olympics and Rugby,” said Lapasset. “The future is certainly bright for global Rugby and we can now look forward to delivering a Rugby Sevens event at the Rio Games that is great for the Olympics, great for Rugby and great for Brazil.” Embraced by the host nation, the IRB has worked in partnership with the IOC and the local organising committee to deliver its Get Into Rugby participation programme. Centred on participation and enjoyment, the Get Into Rugby activity in Nanjing featured team visits and coaching clinics to local schools during the Games, capping a programme that has introduced more than 3,000 local boys and girls to Rugby in the last three years. Double Winter Olympic Games gold medallist and Rugby Canada player Heather Moyse was on hand to assist in her capacity as an IOC Athlete Role Model. “There is no doubt that Rugby Sevens will be a hit at Rio. We have witnessed a great competition that has captivated the locals, provided our young players with an incredible experience on and off the field and showcased Rugby and its character-building values to the world.” “Rio is going to be a great event. It will be massive for Rugby’s growth and there is no doubt that our top players are looking forward to it.”   Six men’s and six women’s teams participated in the Rugby Sevens competitions , the competition was held at the Youth Olympic Sports Park Rugby Field on 17-20 August, 2014.  Nanjing was the first time that Rugby Sevens has appeared on the Olympic programme and 144 players participated across the six men’s and six women’s teams with Japan, France, Argentina, Kenya, Fiji and USA going for gold in the men’s competition and Canada, China, Spain, Australia, Tunisia and USA competing for honours in the women’s event.  The six competing teams in each event were placed into a single pool, with a round robin format. Match points awarded for these matches was as follows: Win = 3 points Loss = 1 point No show = 0 points The teams were confirmed and ratified by the IRB following a qualification process based on the Rugby World Cup Sevens 2013 rankings and the selection of participating team sports by the respective National Olympic Committees. IRB Chairman Bernard Lapasset said: "This is an exciting and historic moment for our sport and also for the boys and girls who will represent Rugby in our return to the Olympic stage." "The experiences that our young players will learn in Nanjing will stretch way beyond the field of play. They will shape the character of the men and women that these players will become. They will learn to compete in the spirit of fair play, to respect their opponents and appreciate the importance of playing on an even playing field. "I am sure that the Rugby Sevens events will be a hit with players and fans around the world and in Nanjing where more than 3,000 children have been introduced to the sport via our Get Into Rugby mass participation programme. I am looking forward to attending what promises to be an exceptional Nanjing Youth Olympic Games." Olympic inclusion has played a massive role in attracting new participants with an unprecedented 6.6 million men, women and children now playing the sport across all continents. Nanjing will generate further engagement among the world’s youth as in stadia and in conversation the sport continues to reach out, engage and inspire young people to participate and have fun. Double Winter Olympic Gold Medallist and Canadian Rugby Sevens player Heather Moyse has been appointed as an IOC Athlete Role Model in Nanjing and is looking forward to the experience. She will be available to the young athletes during the Games as part of the ‘Learn and Share’ programme to offer her advice and experiences as a professional athlete. Speaking earlier this year, Moyse said: "I am honoured and excited to be selected as an Athlete Role Model at what is such an exciting time for Rugby and the Olympic movement. Rugby shares the same values as the Olympic movement and a mission to inspire young people around the world to participate in sport and to have fun." Australia became the first team to take Olympic rugby gold since 1924 as their women’s team made their way seamlessly through the rugby sevens tournament. First Olympic Gold since 1924 In the men’s competition it was France who emerged victorious, overcoming Argentina in the final. The rugby sevens took place from 17 to 20 August at the Youth Olympic Sports Park Rugby Field. Both the men’s and women’s competitions featured six teams (144 players in total, 72 men and 72 women) who played in a single pool with a round robin format. The teams played two games a day, with each one comprising two seven-minute halves with a two-minute break in between. The four top-placed teams progressed to the semi-finals. The last four in the women’s competition were Australia, China, the USA and Canada, while in the men’s it was Argentina, France, Fiji and Kenya. For the finals and third-place playoffs each half was increased to ten minutes in length.   While the Australian women proceeded with relative ease through the competition, winning each match and conceding only 27 points in the whole tournament, the French men had to suffer the scare of an opening match defeat, 19-7 to Argentina, before regrouping to win the rest of their group matches. In the semi-finals of the women’s competition Australia beat the USA 33-0 and Canada dominated against China, winning 38-10. In the men’s, France got the better of Fiji, winning 34-12, while Argentina beat Kenya 19-12.   On 20 August, 2014 the Australian women ran away with the second half of the final against Canada to end up posting an imposing 38-10 win.    Meanwhile, the French men got their revenge over Argentina, scoring three tries to nil in the last four minutes of the match to win 45-22.   “We knew that we were just about to make history whether we it was silver or gold but we were just so hungry for that gold! We’ve just made history, it’s amazing!” said Tiana Penitani, Australia’s co-captain. Dominique du Toit scored three tries for the Aussies. “I never even dreamed of scoring a hat trick,” she said. “We knew that the Canadians were really strong. We’re not the biggest players but we can count on our speed and skill.” The In the men’s competition, the French went into their final against Argentina braced for a tough contest. “After our victory over Fiji in the semis, we knew that the final would be a big one. We had to give everything – our bodies, our lives, absolutely everything!” said France’s Arthur Retière   “We wanted to get our revenge since we lost the first match and we knew that we could do it. Now that we’ve done it, it’s time to celebrate!” he added. Before the finals the third-place play-offs saw Fiji and China claim bronze medals after two very tight matches.   Fiji avenged their defeat to Kenya in the pool matches, this time winning 12-0. In the women’s competition, while Chinese prevailed over the USA by the same scoreline in the men’s competition to give the home crowd plenty to cheer.  The 1920 Olympic games - Bill Mallon & Anthony Th. Bijkerk, McFarland & Company, Inc. The History of Rugby in the Olympic Games - Richard Coppo IRB website - http://www.irb.com Rugby in the Olympics: History (2007)  
United States
The addition of what turns a Welsh Rarebit into a Buck Rarebit?
Rugby History | 1900 ; removed from programme in 1928 ; Rugby Sevens reinstated 2016 Rugby union, often simply referred to as rugby, is a full contact team sport which originated in England in the early 19th century. [2] One of the two codes of rugby football , it is based on running with the ball in hand. It is played with an oval-shaped ball with a maximum length and width of 30 centimetres (12 in) and 62 centimetres (24 in) respectfully. It is played on a field up to 100 metres (330 ft) long and 70 metres (230 ft) wide with H-shaped goal posts on each goal line. William Webb Ellis is often credited with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823 at Rugby School when he allegedly caught the ball while playing football and ran towards the opposition goal. However, the evidence for the story is doubtful. In 1845, the first football laws were written by Rugby School pupils; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club ‘s decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the split between rugby union and rugby league in 1895. Historically an amateur sport, in 1995 the International Rugby Board (IRB) removed restrictions on payments to players, making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time. The IRB has been the governing body for rugby union since its formation in 1886. The spread of rugby union grew from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland, and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with the British Empire. Early exponents of the sport included Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji, Georgia, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga and Wales. Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents and as of November 2010 118 unions were members of the IRB. The Rugby World Cup , first held in 1987, takes place every four years, with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup . The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere (the latter replacing the Tri Nations) are major international competitions held annually. Major domestic competitions include the Top 14 in France, the English Premiership in England, the Currie Cup in South Africa, and the ITM Cup in New Zealand. Other transnational competitions include the Celtic League , originally involving Irish, Scottish and Welsh teams and now Italian teams as well; Super Rugby (previously Super 12 and Super 14), involving South African, Australian and New Zealand teams; and the Heineken Cup , involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions. History   Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire , with a rugby football pitch in the foreground The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 when William Webb-Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it. [3] Although the evidence for the story is doubtful, [4] it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895. [5] Despite the anecdotal nature of the sport’s origin, the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after him. Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School, which former pupils then brought to university; Old Rugbeian Albert Pell , a student at Cambridge , is credited with having formed the first ‘football’ team. [6] During this early period different schools used different rules, with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities. [7] Significant events in the early development of rugby football were the production of the first set of written football laws at Rugby School in 1845, [8] which was followed by the ‘ Cambridge Rules ‘ drawn up in 1848. [9] Other important events include the Blackheath Club’s decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 [10] [11] and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871. [10] The code was originally known as “rugby football”; it was not until after the schism in England in 1895, which resulted in the separate code of rugby league , that the sport took on the name “rugby union” to differentiate it from the league game. [12] Despite the sport’s full name of rugby union, it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world. [13] [14] The first rugby football international took place on 27 March 1871, played between England and Scotland. [10] By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams, and in 1883 the first international competition, the Home Nations Championship had begun. 1883 was also the year the first rugby sevens tournament at Melrose , the Melrose Sevens , [15] which is still held annually. Five years later two important overseas tours took place; a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand—although a private venture, it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours; [16] and the 1888 New Zealand Native team brought the first overseas team to British spectators. [17]   James Ryan , captain of the New Zealand Army team, receiving the Kings Cup from George V Between 1905 and 1908, all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere: New Zealand in 1905, followed by South Africa in 1906 and then Australia in 1908. All three teams brought new styles of play, fitness levels and tactics, [18] and were far more successful than critics had expected. [19] The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match, leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem, Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau , as a response. After Morgan began singing, the crowd joined in: the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event. [20] In 1905 France played England in its first international match. [18] No international rugby games and union-sponsored club matches were played during the First World War, but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team . [21] During the Second World War no international matches played by most countries though Italy, Germany and Romania played a limited number of games, [22] [23] [24] and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match . [25] Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 1900s. In 1973 the first officially sanctioned international sevens tournament took place at Murrayfield, one of Scotland’s biggest stadiums, as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations. [26] In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand and Australia, and the inaugural winners were New Zealand. The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993. Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and is due to be added to the Olympic Games by 2016. [27] Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game ‘open’ in 1995, removing restrictions on payments to players. [28] [29] However, the pre-1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of “ shamateurism “, [30] including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee. [31] [32] Following the introduction of professionalism trans-national club competitions were started, with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere. [33] [34] The Tri-nations , an annual international tournament involving South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, kicked off in 1996. [34] Teams and team structures Main article: Rugby union positions A normal rugby union team formation illustrating each of the positions and their respective numbers. Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field. [35] Players in a team are divided into eight forwards (two more than in rugby league ) and seven backs . [36] Forwards The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball. [37] Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and lineout. [37] The forwards are often collectively referred to as the ‘pack’, especially when in the scrum formation. [38] Front row The front row consists of three players, two props; the loosehead prop and the tighthead prop, and the hooker. The role of the two props are to support the hooker during scrums, to provide support for the jumpers during lineouts and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls. [36] The third position in the front row is the hooker. [36] The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum. [36] Hookers normally throw the ball in at lineouts. [36] Second row The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards. Locks are usually the tallest players in the team, and specialise as lineout jumpers. [36] The main role of the lock in lineouts is to make a standing jump, often supported by the other forwards, to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side. Locks also have an important role in the scrum, binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive. [36] Sébastien Chabal (far left) in number eight position before entering the scrum Back row The back row, not to be confused with ‘Backs’, is the third and final row of the forward positions, they are often referred to as the loose forwards. [38] The three positions in the back row are made up of two flankers and the number 8. The two flanker positions, called the blindside flanker and openside flanker, are the final row in the scrum. Their main role is to win possession through ‘turn overs’. [36] The number 8 packs down between the two flankers at the back of the scrum. His role in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases. [39] Backs The role of the backs is to create and convert point-scoring opportunities, they are generally smaller but faster and more agile than the forwards. [37] Another distinction between the two positions is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking skills, especially in the positions of fly-half and full-back. [37] Half-backs The half-backs consist of two positions, the scrum-half/half-back and the fly-half/First Five-Eighth. The fly-half is crucial to a team’s game plan, orchestrating the teams performance. [39] They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum-half following a breakdown, lineout or scrum and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs. [39] Many fly-halfs are also their team’s goal kickers. The scrum-half is the link between the forwards and the backs. [39] They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum, usually passing it to the fly-half. [40] They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward. [41] Three quarters There are four three quarter positions, the inside centre/Second Five-Eighth, outside centre and left and right wings. Like the fly-half they generally possess a good kicking game and are good at reading the play and directing the attack. The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players; whilst in attack they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences. [39] The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline. Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries. [42] Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are either elusive runners, or more commonly in the modern era, big, strong and able to break tackles. [43] Fullbacks The fullback normally positions himself several metres behind the back line. He fields any opposition kicks and is often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line. [39] Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game. [44] Laws Diagram of a rugby union playing field showing the different marked lines and distances. Scoring Rugby union is played between two teams – the one that scores more points wins the game. Points can be scored in several ways: a try , scored by grounding the ball in the in-goal area (between the goal line and the dead ball line), is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points. [45] The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years. [46] Playing field The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 144m long by 70m wide. [47] In actual gameplay there should be a maximum of 100m between the two trylines, with anywhere between 10 and 22m behind each try line to serve as the in-goal area. [47] There are several lines crossing it, notably the half way line and the “twenty two,” which is 22m from the goal line. [47] Rugby goalposts are H-shaped, and consist of two poles, 5.6m apart, connected by a horizontal crossbar 3m above the ground. [48] The original pitch dimensions were in imperial units , but have since been converted to the metric system . [49] [50] Match structure At the beginning of the game, the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first. Play then starts with a drop kick, with the players chasing the ball into the opposition’s territory, and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it. If the player with the ball is tackled, frequently a ruck will result. [51] Games are divided into 40-minute halves, with a break in the middle. [52] The sides exchange ends of the field after the half-time break. [52] Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time, so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes. [52] The referee is responsible for keeping time, even when—as in many professional tournaments—he is assisted by an official time-keeper. [52] If time expires while the ball is in play, the game continues until the ball is “dead”, and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half-time or full-time; but if the referee awards a penalty or free-kick, the game continues. [53] Passing and kicking Forward passing (throwing the ball ahead to another player) is not allowed; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards. [54] The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways — by kicking, by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul . Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked. When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his/her arms, a “knock-on” is committed, and play is restarted with a scrum. [54] Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory. When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play the throw-in is taken where the ball went into touch. [54] If the player kicks directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing in-field first) from within their own 22 metre line the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch, but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22 metre line the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken. [55] Breakdowns A rugby tackle: tackles must be below the neck with the aim of impeding or grounding the player with the ball The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck), or by contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law. A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground. Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds), [56] and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to push, shoulder-charge, or to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap ). [57] [58] Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set. [38] A ruck is similar to the maul, but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball. [38] Set pieces Ireland and Georgia contesting a lineout in the 2007 Rugby World Cup Lineout Main article: Line-out (rugby union) When the ball leaves the side of the field, a lineout is awarded against the team which last touched the ball. [59] Forward players from each team line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline. [59] The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker ) from the team that did not play the ball into touch. [59] The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in. [59] Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates. [60] A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick. [61] Scrum A scrum A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement. [62] It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward, if a player takes the ball over his own try line and puts the ball down, when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved. A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty. [62] A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows. [62] The front row consists of the two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker. [62] The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation. [63] Once a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed throws the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel. [62] The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession. [62] The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half. [62] Officials and offences There are three match officials: a referee, and two assistant referees. [64] The latter, formerly known as touch judges, had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone “touch”; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas, such as watching for foul play and checking off-side lines. [64] In addition, for matches in high level competitions, there is often a television match official (TMO; popularly called the “video referee”), to assist with certain decisions, linked up to the referee by radio. [65] The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions. [66] Common offences include tackling above the shoulders, collapsing a scrum, ruck or maul, not releasing the ball when on the ground, or being off-side. [67] The non-offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty: a “tap” kick, when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand, allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it; a punt, when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand, for field position; a place-kick, when the kicker will attempt to score a goal; or a scrum. [67] Players may be sent off (signalled by a red card ) or temporarily suspended (“sin-binned”) for ten minutes ( yellow card ) for foul play or repeated infringements, and may not be replaced. [67] Occasionally, infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be “cited” by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments (usually suspension for a number of weeks) imposed on the infringing player. [68] Replacements and substitutions During the match, players may be replaced (for injury) or substituted (for tactical reasons). [35] A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily, to replace a player who has a blood injury, or permanently, if he is replacing a front-row forward. [35] In international matches, up to seven replacements are allowed; in domestic or cross-border tournaments, at the discretion of the responsible national union(s), the number may be increased to eight, of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions. [69] Equipment Main article: Rugby union equipment The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself, a rugby shirt (also known as a “jersey”), rugby shorts , socks and boots. The rugby ball is oval in shape, (technically a prolate spheroid ), and is made up of four panels. [70] The ball was historically made of leather, but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material. The IRB lays out specific dimensions for the ball, 280-300mm in length, 740-770mm in circumference of length and 580-620mm in circumference of width. [70] Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch. The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges. [71] Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated. The most common items are mouthguards , which are worn by almost all players, and are compulsory in some rugby-playing nations. [72] Other protective items that are permitted include a head gear ; thin (not more than 10 mm thick), non-rigid shoulder pads, and shin guards ; which are worn underneath socks. [73] Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks. Female players may also wear chest pads. [73] Although not worn for protection, some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip. [73] It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players’ clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game. [74] Governing bodies   Member Union   Associated Union The international governing body of rugby union (and associated games such as sevens) is the International Rugby Board (IRB). [75] The IRB headquarters are in Dublin , Ireland. [75] The IRB, founded in 1886, governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game’s laws and rankings . [75] As of November 2010 the IRB recorded 118 unions in its membership, either full members or associate member countries. [76] According to the IRB, rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries. [75] The IRB controls the Rugby World Cup , [75] the Women’s Rugby World Cup , [77] Rugby World Cup Sevens , [78] IRB Sevens World Series , [79] Junior World Championship , [80] Junior World Trophy , [81] Nations Cup [82] and the Pacific Nations Cup . [83] The IRB holds votes to decide where each of these events are be held, except in the case of the Sevens World Series for which the IRB contracts with several national unions to hold individual events. Six regional associations, which are members of the IRB, form the next level of administration; these are: Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby (South American Rugby Confederation) (CONSUR) [89] SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australia Rugby) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union , the New Zealand Rugby Union and the Australian Rugby Union that operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship (formerly the Tri Nations before the entry of Argentina). [90] Although the Argentine Rugby Union initially has no representation on the SANZAR board, it has been granted input into the organisation’s issues, especially with regard to The Rugby Championship. [91] National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries and are affiliated to the IRB. The IRB Council has 26 seats. Each of the eight foundation unions – Scotland , Ireland , Wales , England , Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France – has two seats, and Argentina, Canada , Italy , Japan and the six regional associations each have one seat. [75] Global reach Japanese and Welsh rugby fans in Cardiff , Wales   The earliest countries to adopt rugby union were England , the country of inception, followed by the other three Home Nations, Scotland , Ireland and Wales . The spread of rugby union as a global sport has its roots in the exporting of the game by British expatriates, military personnel and over-seas university students. A rugby club was formed in Sydney, Australia in 1864; while the sport was said to have been introduced to New Zealand by Charles Munro in 1870, who played rugby while a student at Christ’s College, Finchley . [10] The first rugby club in France was formed by British residents in Le Havre in 1872, while the next year Argentina recorded its first game: ‘Banks’ v ‘City’ in Buenos Aires. [92] In North America a club formed in Montreal in 1868, Canada’s first club. The city of Montreal also played its part in the introduction of the sport in the United States , when students of McGill University played against a team from Harvard University in 1874. [10] [92] In 1875 rugby was introduced to South Africa by British soldiers garrisoned in Cape Town. [92] Several island states have embraced the sport of rugby, many introduced by British service personnel, but later spread the game to neighbouring countries as they searched for international opponents. Rugby was first played in Fiji circa 1884 by European and Fijian soldiers of the Native Constabulary at Ba on Viti Levu island. [93] [94] Fiji then sent their first overseas team to Samoa in 1924, who in turn set up their own union in 1927. [95] Other countries to have national rugby teams in Oceania include the Cook Islands , Niue , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands . [96] Although the exact date of arrival of rugby union in Trinidad and Tobago is unknown, their first club Northern RFC was formed in 1923, a national team was playing by 1927 and due to a cancelled tour to British Guiana in 1933, switched their venue to Barbados ; introducing rugby to the island. [97] [98] Other Atlantic countries to play rugby union include Jamaica [99] and Bermuda . [100] The spread of rugby union in Europe has been sporadic. Historically, due to the lack of international games between the British and Irish home teams, who were more interested in facing the Southern Hemisphere giants of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the rest of Europe were forced to create a ‘second tier’ of international rugby matches. As a mainland country and during a period when they had been isolated by the British and Irish Unions, France became the only European team from the top tier to regularly play the other European countries; mainly Belgium , the Netherlands , Germany , Spain , Romania , Poland , Italy and Czechoslovakia . [87] [101] In 1934, instigated by the French Rugby Federation , FIRA (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) was formed to organise rugby union outside the authority of the IRB. [87] The founding members were Italy , Romania , Netherlands , Catalonia , Portugal , Czechoslovakia , and Sweden . Other European rugby playing nations of note include Russia , whose first officially recorded match is marked by an encounter between Dynamo Moscow and the Moscow Institute of Physical Education in 1933. [102] Rugby union in Portugal also took hold between the First and Second World Wars, with a Portuguese National XV set up in 1922 and an official championship started in 1927. [103] Although Argentina is the most well known rugby playing nation in South America, founding the Argentine Rugby Union in 1899, [104] several other countries on the continent also have a long history. Rugby had been played in Brazil from the end of the 19th century, but the game was played regularly only from 1926, when São Paulo beat Santos in an inter-city match. [105] It took Uruguay several aborted attempts to adapt to rugby, led mainly by the efforts of the Montevideo Cricket Club ; succeeding in 1951 with the formation of a national league and four clubs. [106] Other South American countries to have set up a rugby union include Chile (1948), [107] and Paraguay (1968). [108] The Calcutta Cup, the oldest international rugby trophy. Many Asian countries have a tradition of playing rugby going back to the time of the British Empire. India began playing rugby in the early 1870s, the Calcutta Football Club forming in 1872. After the withdrawal of the British military from the area at the end of the decade, rugby in India faltered. India’s lasting legacy to the sport was the presentation of the Calcutta Cup to the Rugby Football Union; the world’s oldest international rugby trophy which is played for annually between England and Scotland. [109] Sri Lanka claims to have founded their union in 1878, and although little official information from the period is available, the team won the All-India cup in Madras in 1920. [110] Malaysia also suffers from poor record keeping. Historically the first recorded match in Malaysia was in 1892, but the first confirmation of rugby is the existence of the HMS Malaya Cup which, named after the ship HMS Malaya , was first presented in 1922 and is still awarded to the winners of the Malay sevens. [111] Rugby union was introduced to Japan in 1899 by Ginnosuke Tanaka a student of Trinity Hall, Cambridge and Edward Bramwell Clarke , who studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge . [112] [113] The Japan RFU was founded in 1926 and its place in rugby history was cemented with the news that Japan will host the 2019 World Cup . [114] It will be the first country outside the Commonwealth, Ireland and France to host the event, and is viewed by the IRB as an opportunity for rugby union to extend its reach, [114] particularly in Asia. Other Asian playing countries of note include Singapore , South Korea and China , while the former British colony of Hong Kong is notable within rugby for its development of the rugby sevens game, especially the Hong Kong Sevens tournament which was founded in 1976. [115] The Ivory Coast national team before their CAN Rugby World Cup 2011 qualifier vs. Zambia on 21 July 2008. Rugby in the Middle East and the Gulf States has its history in the 1950s, with clubs formed by British and French Services stationed in the region after the Second World War. [116] When these servicemen left, the clubs and teams were kept alive by young professionals, mostly Europeans, working in these countries. The official union of Oman was formed in 1971, with His Majesty Qaboos bin Said al Said as Patron. [117] Bahrain founded its union a year later, while in 1975 the Dubai Sevens , the Gulf’s leading rugby tournament, was created by the Dubai Exiles Rugby Club. Rugby remains a minority sport in the region with Israel , as of 2011, being the only member union from the Middle East to be included in the IRB World Rankings. [118] Rugby union in Africa was spread in the late 19th and early 20th century mainly by settlers and colonials who often adopted a ‘whites-only’ policy to playing the game. This resulted in rugby being viewed as a bourgeois sport by the indigenous people with limited appeal. [119] The earliest countries to see the playing of competitive rugby include South Africa, and neighbouring Rhodesia (modern day Zimbabwe), which formed the Rhodesia Rugby Football Union in 1895. [120] With the collapse of colonial rule, the popularity of rugby waned, but in more recent times the sport has been embraced by several African nations. In the early 21st century Madagascar has experienced crowds of 40,000 at national matches, [121] while Namibia, whose history of rugby can be traced back to 1915, have qualified for the final stages of the World Cup four times since 1999. [122] Other African nations to be represented in the IRB World Rankings as Member Unions include Côte d’Ivoire , Kenya , Uganda and Zambia . [118] South Africa and Kenya are among the 12 “core teams” that participate in every event of the IRB Sevens World Series. [123] At least six countries have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport ; they are Fiji, [124] Georgia , [125] New Zealand, [126] Samoa, [127] Tonga [128] and Wales. [129] Women’s rugby union US women’s rugby: NC Hustlers vs. Midwest II Records of women’s rugby football go back to the late 19th century, with the first documented source being Emily Valentine’s writings, stating that she set up a rugby team in Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, Ireland in 1887. [130] Although there are reports of early women’s matches in New Zealand and France, one of the first notable games to prove primary evidence was the 1917 war-time encounter between Cardiff Ladies and Newport Ladies; a photo of which shows the Cardiff team before the match at the Cardiff Arms Park . [131] In the past 30 years the game has grown in popularity among female athletes, and, according to the IRB, is now played in over 100 countries. [132] The English based Women’s Rugby Football Union (WRFU), responsible for women’s rugby in England, Scotland Ireland and Wales, was founded in 1983, and is the oldest formally organised national governing body for women’s rugby. [133] This was replaced in 1994 by the Rugby Football Union for Women (RFUW) in England with each of the other Home Nations governing their own countries. [133] The premier international competition in rugby union for women is the Women’s Rugby World Cup , first held in 1991. [134] Since 1994 it has been held every four years. [134] Major international competitions A giant rugby ball is suspended from the Eiffel Tower to commemorate France’s hosting of the 2007 Rugby World Cup The most important tournament in rugby union is the Rugby World Cup , a men’s tournament that takes place every four years among the national rugby union teams. New Zealand is the current holder, winning the 2011 tournament held in New Zealand, beating France 8-7 in the final. [135] No World Cup winner has yet retained the trophy. [136] England were the first team from the Northern Hemisphere to win, the previous champions being New Zealand (1987), Australia (1991 and 1999), South Africa (1995 and 2007). [136] Major international competitions are the Six Nations Championship and the Tri Nations Series , held in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres respectively. [137] The Six Nations is an annual competition involving the European teams England , France , Ireland , Italy , Scotland and Wales . [138] Each country plays the other five once. After the initial internationals between England and Scotland, Ireland and Wales began competing in the 1880s, forming the Home International Championships. [138] France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term Five Nations first appeared. [138] However, the Home Nations (England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results, allegations of professionalism and concerns over on-field violence. [139] France then rejoined in 1939–1940, though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years. [138] France has played in all the tournaments since WWII, the first of which was played in 1947. [138] In 2000, Italy became the sixth nation in the contest and Rome’s Stadio Flaminio , where their games are played, is the smallest venue in the tournament. [140] The reigning Six Nations champions are England, who won four of their games but lost 24–8 to Ireland, and therefore failing to get the grand slam. [141] The Rugby Championship is the new name of the Southern Hemisphere’s annual international series for that region’s top national teams. From its inception in 1996 through 2011, it was known as the Tri Nations, as it featured the hemisphere’s traditional powers of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. [142] These teams have dominated world rankings in recent years, and many considered the Tri Nations to be the toughest competition in international rugby. [143] [144] The Tri Nations was initially played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice. In 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times, though in 2007 and 2011 the teams played each other only twice, as both were World Cup years. [142] Since Argentina’s strong performances in the 2007 World Cup, a number of commentators believed they should join the Tri-Nations, [145] which came closer to reality after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament, when SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australian Rugby) extended an official invitation to the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) to join an expanded Four Nations tournament in 2012. [146] The competition has been officially rechristened as The Rugby Championship beginning with the 2012 edition. The competition will revert to the Tri Nations’ original home-and-away format, but now involving four teams. Rugby tours During the early history of rugby union, a time before commercial air travel, teams from different continents rarely met. The first two notable tours both took place in 1888, the British Isles to New Zealand and Australia [147] which was followed by a New Zealand team touring Europe. [148] Traditionally the most prestigious tours were the Southern Hemisphere countries of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa making a tour of a Northern Hemisphere, and the return tours made by a joint British and Irish team. [149] Tours would last for months, due to long traveling times and the number of games undertaken; the 1888 New Zealand team began their tour in Hawkes Bay in June and did not complete their schedule until August 1889, having played 107 rugby matches. [150] Touring international sides would play Test matches against international opponents, including national, club and county sides in the case of Northern Hemisphere rugby, or provincial/state sides in the case of Southern Hemisphere rugby. [147] [151] Rugby within international tournaments Rugby union was played at the Olympic Games in 1900 , 1908 , 1920 and 1924 . [152] As per Olympic rules, the nations of Scotland, Wales and England were not allowed to play separately as they are not sovereign states. In 1900, France won the gold, beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17. [152] In 1908, Australasia defeated Great Britain, claiming the gold medal, the score being 32 points to three. [152] In 1920, the United States, fielding a team with many players new to the sport of rugby, upset France in a shock win, eight points to zero. In 1924, the United States again defeated France 17 to 3, becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport. [152] In 2009 the International Olympic Committee voted with a majority of 81 to 8 that rugby union be reinstated as an Olympic sport in at least the 2016 and 2020 games, but in the sevens, 4-day tournament format. [27] [153] This is something the rugby world has aspired to for a long time and Bernard Lapasset , president of the International Rugby Board, said the Olympic gold medal would be considered to be “the pinnacle of our sport” (Rugby Sevens). [154] Rugby sevens has been played at the Commonwealth Games since the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur. [155] The present gold medal holders are New Zealand who have won the competition on four successive occasions. [156] Rugby union has also been an Asian Games event since the 1998 games in Bangkok, Thailand. In the 1998 and 2002 editions of the games, both the usual fifteen-a-side variety and rugby sevens were played, but from 2006 onwards, only rugby sevens was retained. In 2010, the women’s rugby sevens event was introduced. The event is likely to remain a permanent fixture of the Asian Games due to elevation of rugby sevens as an Olympic sport from the 2016 Olympics onwards. The present gold medal holders in the sevens tournament, held in 2010 , are Japan in the male event and Kazakhstan in the women’s. [157] [158] Women’s international rugby Main article: Women’s international rugby union Women’s international rugby union began in 1982, with a match between France and Netherlands played in Utrecht . [159] As of 2009 over six hundred women’s internationals have been played by over forty different nations. [160] The first Women’s Rugby World Cup was held in Wales in 1991 , and was won by the United States . [134] The second tournament took place in 1994 , and since that date the competition has been held every four years. The New Zealand Women’s team have won the last four World Cups ( 1998 , 2002 , 2006 , 2010 ). [161] As well as the Women’s Rugby World Cup there are also other regular tournaments, including a Six Nations , run in parallel to the men’s competition. The Women’s Six Nations, first played in 1996 has been dominated by England , who have won the tournament on 12 occasions, including a run of six consecutive wins from 2006 to 2011 . [162] Variants Beach Rugby match The game of rugby union has spawned several variants of the full-contact, 15-a-side code. The two more common differences applied to the variants of the sport lie in either fewer players or reduced player contact. Of the variants, the oldest is Rugby sevens (7’s, or VIIs), a fast-paced variant which originated in Melrose , Scotland in 1883. In rugby sevens, there are only seven players per side, and each half is normally seven minutes. Major tournaments include the Hong Kong Sevens and Dubai Sevens , both held in areas not normally associated with the highest levels of the 15-a-side game. A more recent variant of the sport is Rugby tens (10’s or Xs), a Malaysian variant with ten players per side. [163] Due to the physical nature of playing rugby, several variants have been created to introduce the sport to children with a reduced level of physical contact. [164] Of these versions, Touch rugby , in which “tackles” are made by simply touching the ball carrier with two hands, is popular as a mixed sex version of the sport played by both children and adults. [165] [166] Tag Rugby , is a version in which the participants wear a belt with two hook-and-loop fastener tags, the removal of either counting as a ‘tackle’. Tag Rugby also varies in the fact that kicking the ball is not allowed. [167] Mini rugby is another variant of rugby union aimed at fostering the sport in children. [168] [169] It is played with only nine players and on a smaller pitch. [170] Similar to Tag Rugby, American Flag Rugby , (AFR), is a mixed gender, non-contact imitation of rugby union designed for American children entering grades K-9. [171] Both American Flag Rugby and Mini Rugby differ to Tag Rugby in that they introduce more advanced elements of rugby union as the participants age. [170] Other less formal variants include beach rugby and snow rugby . [164] [172] Influence on other sports A game of American football between the University of Michigan and the University of Minnesota (1902). Earlier forms of the game had a more obvious kinship with their rugby equivalents. Rugby union football, and its immediate ancestor rugby football, has had a strong influence on several other sports. The Gridiron codes , American football [173] [174] and Canadian football , [175] are derived from early forms of rugby. Confusingly, in Canada, Canadian football has also frequently been referred to as “ rugby football “, [175] and a number of national and provincial bodies were called “Rugby Football Unions” or “Rugby Unions”, such as the Ontario and Quebec Rugby Football Unions. [175] For example, in the Encyclopedia Canadiana, the entry Rugby Football begins by referring to “the Canadian development of rugby union or “English rugger” introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century”, but later states that “the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union”. [175] Australian rules football has been influenced by a large number of sports, including Gaelic football , rugby football and cricket . Many authors believe that the primary influence was rugby football and other other games originating in English public schools . [176] Tom Wills , who is recognised as one of the pioneers of Australian Rules, also attended Rugby School. [177] James Naismith took aspects of many sports including rugby to invent basketball . [178] The most obvious contribution is the jump ball ‘s similarity to the lineout as well as the underhand shooting style that dominated the early years of the sport. Naismith played many years of rugby at McGill University . [179] Swedish football was a code whose rules were a mix of the association football rules and the rugby football rules . Some played the game with a round ball, while others played with an oval ball. [180] It is no longer played. [181] Rugby lends its name to wheelchair rugby (also known as “quad rugby” or “murderball”), but the sport is more strongly influenced by wheelchair basketball , ice hockey and handball than rugby union. [182] Statistics and records According to a 2011 report by the Centre for the International Business of Sport at Coventry University , there are now over five million people playing rugby union or one of its variants organised by the IRB. [183] This is an increase of 19 percent since the previous report in 2007. [184] The report also claimed that since 2007 participation has grown by 33 percent in Africa, 22 percent in South America and 18 percent in Asia and North America. [184] Rugby union’s premier event, the Rugby World Cup, has continued to grow since its inception in 1987. [185] The first tournament, in which 16 teams competed for the title, was broadcast to 17 countries with an accumulated total of 230 million television viewers. [185] Ticket sales during the pool stages and finals of the same tournament was less than a million. [185] The 2007 World Cup was contested by 94 countries with ticket sales of 3,850,000 over the pool and final stage. [185] The accumulated television audience for the event, then broadcast to 200 countries, was 4.2 billion. [185] The most capped international player from the tier 1 nations is Australian halfback George Gregan with 139 caps. [186] While the top scoring tier 1 international player is New Zealand’s Dan Carter , who has amassed 1250 points during his career. [187] In April 2010 Lithuania broke the record of consecutive international wins previously held by New Zealand and South Africa,which was 17 consecutive wins against tier 1 nations, [188] with their 18th win in tier 2 in a match against Serbia . [189] The highest scoring international match between two recognised unions was Hong Kong’s 164–13 victory over Singapore on 27 October 1994 [190] While the largest winning margin of 152 points is held by two countries, Japan (a 155–3 win over Chinese Taipei) and Argentina (152–0 over Paraguay) both in 2002. [190] Rugby union in culture Henri Rousseau – The Football Players (1908) Thomas Hughes 1857 novel Tom Brown’s Schooldays , set at Rugby School , includes a rugby football match, also portrayed in the 1940s film of the same name. James Joyce mentions Irish team Bective Rangers in several of his works, including Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake (1939), while his 1916 semi-autobiographical work A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man has an account of Ireland international James Magee . [191] Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, in his 1924 Sherlock Holmes tale The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire , mentions that Dr Watson played rugby for Blackheath. [192] Henri Rousseau ‘s 1908 work Joueurs de football shows two pairs of rugby players competing. [193] Other French artists to have represented the sport in their works include Albert Gleizes ‘ Les Joueurs de football (1912), Robert Delaunay ‘s Football. L’Equipe de Cardiff (1916) and André Lhote ‘s Partie de Rugby (1917). [194] The 1928 Gold Medal for Art at the Antwerp Olympics was won by Luxembourg’s Jean Jacoby for his work Rugby. [195] In film, Ealing Studios’ 1949 comedy A Run for Your Money and the 1979 BBC Wales television film Grand Slam both centre on fans attending a match. [196] Films that explore the sport in more detail include independent production Old Scores (1991) and Forever Strong (2008). Invictus (2009), based on John Carlin ‘s book Playing the Enemy, explores the events of the 1995 Rugby World Cup and Nelson Mandela’s attempt to use the sport to connect South Africa’s people post-apartheid. [197] [198] In public art and sculpture there are many works dedicated to the sport. There is a 27 ft bronze statue of a rugby line-out by pop artist Gerald Laing at Twickenham [199] and one of rugby administrator Sir Tasker Watkins at the Millennium Stadium . [200] Rugby players to have been honoured with statues include Gareth Edwards in Cardiff and Danie Craven in Stellenbosch. [201] See also
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Which drug was first isolated in 1921, by Sir Frederick Banting and Dr C H Best, and first synthesised in 1964?
1000+ images about Sir Fredrick Banting on Pinterest | Nobel prize, Ontario and Canada Forward Dr. Frederick Banting (left) and Dr. Charles Best discovered insulin in the 1920s. Before this the life expectancy for a diabetic was 6 months to 2 years. The only treatment offered was a starvation diet. Untreated, diabetes can lead to complications such as heart attack, stroke, kidney failure, blindness and amputation of limbs. Symptoms include extreme thirst, sudden weight change, fatigue, frequent urination, blurred vision, and a slow healing process. See More
Insulin
In which city could you visit the Anne Frank House?
What Is Modern Medicine? Modern Medicine What Is Modern Medicine? Economic activity grew rapidly during the 18th Century in Western Europe and the Americas. It was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. During the 19th century economic and industrial growth gathered pace; it was also a period of scientific discovery and invention. Old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology (incidence, distribution, and control of diseases) made way to virology and bacteriology. Microbiology made advances, a science that started with Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723), who first observed microorganisms with a microscope. Enormous development s were made in identifying and preventing illnesses. However, one problem still persisted, and that was treating and curing infectious diseases. During the 19th century the world changed dramatically: Industry expanded enormously, and with it came various work-related diseases, such as "phossy jaw" (jaw necrosis among those working with phosphorous, usually in the match industry), lung diseases and dermatitis. Hygiene - Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) brought down the childbed fever death rate among new mothers by insisting that doctors wash their hands before touching women during childbirth. It was not until 1865 when Joseph Lister, a British surgeon proved the principles of antisepsis in wound treatment. Even then, it was an uphill struggle to convince all the "conservative" doctors. Cities started to grow rapidly, and so did urban sprawl. Health problems, such as typhus and cholera became more common Some European countries had empires, including the UK, Spain, Portugal, France and some others. People travelled to and from various parts of the world, bringing back with them various diseases, such as yellow fever. Scientific breakthroughs appeared all over Europe and the Americas, including the electrocardiograph. Postal services and communications in general improved, allowing medical knowledge to spread rapidly. Democracy grew in several countries in Europe and the Americas. This led to people demanding health as a human right. Innovative scientists advanced forward despite resistance from the clergy, examples include Charles Darwin (evolution) and Gregor Johann Mendel (genetics). Wars - as technology developed, wars became more devastating, causing mass injuries, which required new surgical and medical techniques. Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), a chemist and microbiologist from France, is known as one of the founders of medical microbiology. After working for several years as a teacher in Strasbourg and Dijon, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Lille in 1854. The science faculty had among other things, been asked to find solutions to some of the problems that existed in local industries, such as the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Pasteur demonstrated that bacteria caused the souring of wine and beer, and later on showed that a similar process occurred in milk. He also explained that by boiling and the cooling a liquid, such as milk, the bacteria could be removed. The process we know as pasteurization comes from his surname. He then set out to determine where these bacteria originated from, and eventually proved that they came from the environment. Initially, the scientific community disagreed with him, saying that germs could appear out of nowhere (spontaneously generate). However, in 1864, his findings were accepted by the French Academy of Sciences. Later on, as head of scientific studies at the École Normale, he was given the job deciding what to do about an epidemic among silkworms in the silk industry in the south of France. He eventually determined that parasites were the cause and that only healthy silkworm eggs (with no parasites) should be used. The epidemic was resolved and the silk industry recovered. His subsequent research convinced him further that pathogens attack the body from outside (germ theory of disease). Many scientists could not conceive that microscopic beings could harm and even kill comparatively huge ones, like us. He went a step further and said that many diseases, including TB, cholera, anthrax, and smallpox are caused by germs that come into the body from the environment. He believed they could be prevented with vaccines. He went on to develop vaccines for rabies, for which he is probably the most famous. In 1888 the Institute Pasteur was founded. He was director there until 1885, when he died. Louis Pasteur was given a state funeral. In France he is a national hero. Louis Pasteur worked closely with Claude Bernard (1813-1878) a physiologist; together they perfected pasteurization of liquids. Bernard was the first to define milieu intérieur (homeostasis - a healthy state that is maintained by the continuous adjustment of biochemical and physiological pathways). Bernard was the first to suggest using "blind" experiments when aiming for maximum objectivity in scientific observations. Harvard University Professor, Bernard Cohen says that Bernard was "one of the greatest of all men of science". Florence Nightingale Florence Nightingale Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) was a British nurse, statistician and writer. Her pioneering nursing work during the Crimean War, where she cared for wounded soldiers, brought her to prominence. Nightingale was thea daughter of wealthy parents who were in Florence, Italy, as part of a tour when she was born - hence her name. In 1837 she sensed a "calling from God", telling her to do some work, even though at the time she said she had no idea what that work was. She was interested in nursing, but well-to-do women in those days did not go into the medical professions. Her parents did not allow her to study nursing. She had been expected to marry well and have children. Nightingale eventually got her way and went to Kaiserwerth, Germany, in 1851 to do a three-month nursing course. By 1853 she became superintendent of a hospital for well-off women in Harley Street, London (a street famous for top doctors). The Crimean War broke out a year later. Nightingale read reports of dreadful lack of medical facilities for British soldiers who had been wounded in action. Nightingale, who already knew Sidney Herbert, Minister for War, was asked by Herbert her to be in charge of a team of nurses in the military hospitals in Turkey. She arrived in Scutari, Turkey in 1854 with 38 women volunteer nurses who had all been trained by her, including her aunt Mai Smith. Nightingale was shocked by what she saw at Scutari - wounded soldiers in unbearable pain, many of them dying unnecessarily, being tended by overly-tired medical staff and official indifference. There was a serious shortage of medications, hygiene standards were shocking, and there were mass infections. There was nothing to process food for the patients; no equipment at all. She sent a pleas to The Times asking the government to do something about the atrocious conditions in Scutari. A prefabricated hospital was built in England and transported to the Dardenelles. When it was built it was called the Renkioi Hospital, which had a death rate 90% lower than what existed before in Scutari. The presence of Nightingale and her team of nurses resulted in a significant drop in the mortality rate of wounded soldiers. In 1860 Nightingale founded the Nightingale Training School for nurses at St Thomas' Hospital, London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world. Nurses who trained there worked all over the UK, and spread what they had learnt. Her book Notes of Nursing was published in 1860. In it she stressed the importance of sanitation and hygiene, good hospital planning, and the best ways to achieve optimum military health - many of her practices are still in force today. Nightingale reduced death rates from 42% to 2%, according to the 1911 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography. The arrival of Florence Nightingale is seen as a turning point for women in the medical profession. Before she came onto the scene, women in hospital and medical settings possibly worked as midwives, cleaning ladies and sitters, and not much else. Timeline of medical milestones during the 19th century 1800 - Humphry Davy (1778- 1829), a British chemist and inventor, described how nitrous oxide (laughing gas) has anestheric properties. It is said he was addicted to the stuff. 1816 - Rene Laennec (1781-1826), a French doctor, invented the stethoscope. He also pioneered stethoscope use in diagnosing chest infections. 1818 - James Blundell (1791-1878) was a British obstetrician. He performed the first successful blood transfusion on a patient who had a hemorrhage. 1842 - Crawford Long (1815 -1878), an American pharmacist and surgeon, now recognized as the first doctor to have used inhaled ether anesthesia on a patient for a surgical procedure. For many years only a few colleagues in his inner circle knew about this achievement. 1847 - Ignaz Semmelweis (1818 -1865), a Hungarian doctor, known as the savior of mothers. He found that childbed fever (puerperal fever) incidence could be considerably reduced if doctors, midwives and nurses disinfected their hands before touching the mother during childbirth or a miscarriage. Childbed fever was common in the 19th century; between 10% and 35% of mothers who became infected died. 1849 - Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910), an American, was the first woman to become a fully qualified doctor in the USA, and also the first female to be on the UK Medical Register. Blackwell dedicated much of her time to promoting the education of women in medicine. 1867 - Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister OM, FRS, PC (1827-1912), a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery. He introduced phenol (then known as carbolic acid) successfully to clean wounds as well as sterilizing surgical instruments. His work contributed greatly towards a reduction in post-operative infections. He published a book Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, which was strongly influenced by Louis Pasteur's work. 1870 - The Germ Theory of Disease is established by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. 1879 - Louis Pasteur produced the first laboratory-developed vaccine - the vaccine for chicken cholera. 1881 - An anthrax vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur. Pasteur made a public demonstration with 50 sheep. He tested his vaccine, created by attenuating the anthrax bacterium with carbolic acid. All the 25 unvaccinated sheep died, while only one of the vaccinated ones perished, which was probably due to a miscarriage. 1882 - The first rabies vaccine. Louis Pasteur managed to prevent rabies in Joseph Meister, a 9-year old boy, by post-exposure vaccination. 1890 - Emil von Behring Emil Adolf von Behring (1854-1917), a German physiologist, discovered antitoxins and utilized them to develop diphtheria and tetanus vaccines. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the first time the prize was ever awarded. 1895 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923), a German physicist. He produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range; what we call today Röntgen rays or X-rays. In 1901 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry named element 111, Roentgenium after him. 1897 - Aspirin was invented. Chemists working in the German company Bayer AG produced a synthetic version of salicin, which was derived from the species Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet). This synthetically altered version was easier on the stomach than pure salicylic acid. Bayer says that the invention of aspirin should be attributed to Felix Hoffmann; however, Arthur Eichengrün, a Jewish chemist later said that he was the lead researcher, but records of his participation were erased under the Nazi regime. Bayer AG named the new drug Aspirin. Within two years Aspirin became a global blockbusting drug. Timeline of medical milestones during the 20th century 1901 - Different human blood types were discovered by Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943), an Austrian biologist and physician. He identified the presence of agglutinins in blood and developed the modern system of classifying blood groups. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930. 1901 - The first case of Alzheimer's disease was identified by Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915), a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist. He called it "presenile dementia". His colleague, Emil Kraepelin, later called the it Alzheimer's disease. 1903 - The first practical electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) was invented by Willem Einthoven (1860-1927), a Dutch doctor and physiologist. In 1924 he received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1924. 1906 - Vitamins were discovered by Frederick Hopkins (1861-1947), an English biochemist. He also suggested that scurvy and rickets were caused by a lack of vitamins. Along with Christiaan Eijkman, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. 1907 - A chemotherapeutic cure for sleeping sickness was developed by Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), a German doctor and scientist. Ehrlich's lab also discovered Arsphenamine (Salvarsan), the first treatment for syphilis that was effective, and thus initiated and named the concept of chemotherapy. 1908 - The stereotactic method (stereotactic device) was invented by Victor Horsley (1857-1916) and R. Clarke. It allows experimental and surgical intervention in deep-seated structure of the brain. 1910 - The first laparoscopy performed on a human was done by Hans Christian Jacobaeus (1879-1937), a Swedish internist. Jacobaeus became a professor at the prestigious Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, and was also a member of the Nobel Prize Committee. 1921 - Vitamin D discovered by Sir Edward Mellanby (1884-1955), a British physician. He also explained Vitamin D's role in preventing rickets. 1921 - Insulin was discovered by Sir Frederick Banting (1891-1941), a Canadian medical scientist, and Charles Herbert Best (1899-1978), an American-Canadian medical scientist. Banting received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1923 (along with John James Rickard Macleod) when he was 32 years old. He is still the youngest ever Nobel Laureate for Medicine. 1921 - The technique of epidural anesthesia was pioneered by Fidel Pagés (1886-1923), a Spanish military surgeon. 1923-1927 - The first vaccine for diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), TB (tuberculosis) and tetanus were developed and used successfully. Sir Alexander Fleming, FRSE, FRS, FRCS(Eng) 1928 - Penicillin from the mould Penicillium notatum was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945, along with Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. The discovery of penicillin changed the course of history and saved hundreds of millions of lives. Fleming said: "When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionized all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer ....... But I suppose that was exactly what I did." 1929 - Human electroencephalography was discovered by Hans Berger (1873-1941), a German doctor. He was the first to record brain waves or EEGs (electroencephalograms). He discovered the alpha wave rhythm in the brain, which is also known as "Berger's wave". 1932 - A chemotherapeutic cure for streptococcus was developed by Gerhard Domagk (1895 -1964), a German pathologist and bacteriologist. He is credited with discovering Sulfonamidochrysoidine (KI-730), the first antibiotic to go on the market (brand name: Prontosil). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1939. 1933 - Insulin shock therapy for patients with some mental illnesses was discovered by Manfred Sakel (1900-1957), a Jewish Austrian neurophysiologist and psychiatrist who later became an Austrian-American. 1935 - The first successful vaccine for Yellow Fever was developed. The yellow fever virus was isolated in West Africa in 1927; this led to the development of two vaccines in the 1930s. 17D was developed by Max Theiler, a South African microbiologist at the Rockefeller Institute. He used chicken eggs to culture the virus. Theiler was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1951. 1943 - The world's first dialysis machine was built by Willem J Kolff (1911-2009), a Dutch doctor. He is known as a pioneer of hemodialysis and artificial organs. In 1950, Kolff emigrated to the USA. 1946 - The first effective cancer chemotherapy drug - nitrogen mustard - was discovered by Alfred G. Gilman (1908-1984) an American pharmacologist, and Louis S. Goodman (1906-2000), also an American pharmacologist, while doing research together at Yale University. They discovered that the blood of soldiers who had been exposed to nitrogen mustard had exceptionally low levels of white cells. 1948 - Acetaminophen (paracetamol, Tylenol) was invented by Julius Axelrod (1912-2004), an American biochemist, and Bernard Brodie (1907-1989), an American chemist, considered by many to be the founder of modern pharmacology. 1952 - The first polio vaccine was developed by Jonas Salk (1914-1995), an American medical researcher and virologist. The vaccine came onto the market in 1955. Salk set up a field trial to test the vaccine - a trial of immense proportions; it included 20,000 doctors, 64,000 school staff, and 220,000 volunteers. More than 1,800,000 school kids took part in the study. When news of the trial's success became public in April 12th, 1955, Salk was hailed a "miracle worker". After WWII polio became a serious public health problem in the USA. In a TV interview, Salk was asked about who owned the patent for the polio vaccine. He answered "There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?" 1953 - The Heart-Lung Machine was invented by Dr John Heysham Gibbon (1903-1973), an American surgeon. He performed the first open heart surgery ever, repairing an atrial septal defect. 1953 - Medical Ultrasonography (echocardiography) was invented by Inge Edler (1911-2001), a Swedish physicist. 1954 - The first human kidney transplant (on identical twins) was performed by Joseph Murray (born 1919). During the following years, as immunosuppressive agents came onto the market and science understood the mechanisms of rejection better, Murray managed to performed transplants with donor organs from unrelated people. 1955 - Tetracycline was produced by catalytic reduction by Lloyd Conover (born 1923), an American chemist. He and his team substituted hydrogen for chlorine chlortetracycline. He was the first scientist ever to make an antibiotic by chemically modifying a naturally-produced drug. Within three years, tetracycline became the most popular broad spectrum drug in the United States. Conover has nearly 300 patents in his name. 1958 - The first implantable pacemaker was developed by Rune Elmqvist (1906-1996), a medical doctor who later worked as an engineer and inventor. Elmqvist also developed the first inkjet ECG printer. 1959 - In vitro fertilization led to the first "test tube baby", by Min Chueh Chang (1908-1991), a Chinese American reproductive biologist. M.C. Chang is also famous for contributing towards the development of the combined oral contraceptive pill ("The Pill"). 1960 - Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was invented by James Jude, Guy Knickerbocker, Peter Safar, William Kouwenhoven and Joseph S. Redding, all Americans. CPR was originally developed at Johns Hopkins University. They first tested CPR successfully on a dog. Not long afterwards, a child's life was save using the technique. 1960 - The first combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP), often referred to as the birth-control pill or informally as "The Pill" was approved by the FDA. "Combined" refers to the two hormones within it - estrogen and progestin. Hundreds of millions of women use COCP today. 1962 - The first beta blocker was invented by Sir James W. Black (1924 - 22 March 2010), a Scottish doctor and pharmacologist. After founding the physiology department at the University of Glasgow, Black became interested in how adrenaline might impact on the functioning of the human heart. While working for ICI Pharmaceuticals, he developed Propranolol, a beta blocker, which was used to treat heart disease. Black also developed Cimetidine, a medication used in a similar way for the treatment of stomach ulcers. He received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1988. 1963 - The first human liver transplant was performed by Thomas Starzl (born 1926), an American physician and researcher. 1963 - The first human lung transplant was performed by James Hardy (1918-2003), an American surgeon. 1963 - Valium (diazepam) was discovered by Leo H Sternbach (1908-2005), a Polish chemist. Sternback also discovered chlordiazepoxide (Librium), trimethaphan (Arfonad), clonazepam (Klonopin), flurazepam (Dalmane), flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) and nitrazepam (Mogadon). 1964 - The first measles vaccine came out. It was developed by Maurice Hilleman (1919-2005), an American microbiologist/vaccinologist. Hilleman developed over 36 vaccines, more than anybody else ever. 1965 - The rubella vaccine was developed by Harry Martin Meyer (1928-2001), an American pediatric virologist. 1966 - The first human pancreas transplant was performed by C. Walton Lillehei (1918-1999), an American surgeon. Lillehei also pioneered open-heart surgery, as well as new equipment, prostheses, and techniques for cardiothoracic surgery. 1967 - The first human heart transplant was successfully performed by Christiaan Barnard (1922-2001), a South African cardiac surgeon. 1970 - The first vaccine for rubella (German measles) came on the market. It was developed by Harry Martin Meyer (see 1965). 1970 - the first effective immunosuppressive drug, Cyclosporine, became used in organ transplant procedures. The active ingredient was first isolated from the fungus Tolypocladium inflatum (Beauveria nivea), which had been collected in a soil sample by Dr. Hans Peter Frey, a biologist who was working at pharmaceutical company Sandoz. Cyclosporine is also used to treat psoriasis, pyoderma gangrenosum, chronic autoimmune urticaria, and less often for severe cases of rheumatoid arthritis. 1971 - Magnetic Resonance Imaging was invented by Raymond Vahan Damadian (born 1936), an Armenian-American medical practitioner and inventor. 1971 - The CT Scan, also known as CAT scan (Computed Tomography) was invented by Sir Godfrey Hounsfield (1919-2004), an English electrical engineer. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1979 (with Allan McLeod). 1972 - The insulin pump was invented by Dean Kamen (born 1951), an American entrepreneur and inventor. 1973 - Laser eye surgery (LASIK) was performed for the first time by Mani Lal Bhaumik (born 1941), an Indian-born American physicist. Dr. Bhaumik demonstrated the world's first efficient excimer laser - this application would eventually do away with the need for contact lenses or glasses in many cases. 1974 - Liposuction was carried out successfully for the first time by Giorgio Fischer (born 1934), a gynecologist from Rome, Italy. 1978 - The last recorded fatal case of smallpox (Variola minor). 1979 - George Hitchings (1905-1998), an American doctor, and Gertrude Elion (1918-1999), an American biochemist and pharmacologist, made important breakthroughs with antiviral medications. Their pioneering works eventually led to the development of AZT, the AIDS drug. 1980 - Hepatitis B diagnostic test and vaccine developed by Dr Baruch Samuel Blumberg, an American doctor. Dr. Blumberg received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (with Daniel Carleton Gajdusek). 1981 - The first human heart-lung combined transplant procedure was successfully performed by Bruce Reitz (born 1939), an American cardiothoracic surgeon. 1985 - Kary Banks Mullis (born 1944), an American biochemist, author, and lecturer, invented improvements to the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a biochemical technology in molecular biology which amplifies one or some copies of a piece of DNA across various orders of magnitude, to generate thousands and possibly millions of copies of that particular DNA sequence. In 1993 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (with Michael Smith). 1985 - A surgical robot was created by Dr Yik San Kwoh (born 1946), a Chinese-American Bioengineer and inventor. Initial experiments were tried with a watermelon; a BB was shot into it, the robot had to locate it and remove it (which it did). 1985 - Sir Alec John Jeffreys (born 1950), a British geneticist, developed techniques for DNA fingerprinting and DNA profiling which every competent forensic department in the world uses today. The technique is also used to resolve immigration and paternity disputes. 1986 - (Prozac) (fluoxetine HCl), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class antidepressant was launched by Eli Lilly after being approved by the US FDA for the treatment of major depression. It went off patent in August 2001. Fluoxetine is also approved for pediatric depression, bulimia nervosa, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (adults and children), and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. In 2010, 24 years after fluoxetine's approval and nine years after it went off patent, it was the third most prescribed antidepressant in the USA (after sertraline and citalopram) - 24.4 million prescriptions were written that year. 1987 - The first statin ever, Lovastatin (Mevacor), was approved by the US FDA. Merck & Co had isolated the active ingredient lovastatin (mevinolin MK803) from Aspergillus terreus, a fungus. Clinical trials had shown that lovastatin reduced LDL cholesterol by 40%; far more than any other treatment at the time. 1989 - The birth of the WWW (World Wide Web); a major milestone in the way humans globally behave, gather information, express themselves, make friends,work, and go about exchanging data on medical and pharmaceutical issues and innovations. Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee, (born 1955), an English computer scientist and MIT professor invented the World Wide Web. With the help of Robert Cailliau (a student at CERN), they implemented the first successful communication between an HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) client and server through the internet. 1998 - James Alexander Thomson (born 1958), an American developmental biologist, derived the first human ES (embryonic stem) cell line. Later in 2007, he derived induced pluripotent (iPS) stem cells. Thomson's breakthrough in 1998 generated controversy because the technology involved destroying human embryos. At the same time as Dr. Shinya Yamanaka, in 2007 Thomson wrote that he had discovered a method for creating stem cells which closely resemble human embryonic stem cells from human skin cells; this breakthrough was much more widely accepted because it ended the ethical controversy regarding embryonic stem cell research. Timeline of medical milestones from 2000 to the present day 2000 - The Human Genome Project (HGP) draft was completed. The HGP is a project involving collaborators from all over the world; their main goal being to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and to identify and map the circa twenty-to-thirty thousand genes of the human genome from both a functional and physical perspective. The Human Genome Project has other objectives, apart from understanding the genetic makeup of human beings. It has also focused on other species, such as the laboratory mouse, E. coli, and the fruit fly. The HGP continues to be one of the most important single investigative projects in modern medical science. 2001 - Dr. Kenneth Matsumura, of the Alin Foundation, created the first bio-artificial liver. The liver removes toxins from blood and manufactures nearly 1,000 proteins, metabolites and other crucial substances; it is a very complex organ, and one of the most difficult to replace. Dr. Matsumura and team found a way around the liver's complexities by letting rabbit liver cells sort out the issues. Dr. Matsumura's bio-artificial liver had a two-part chamber - one side contained the patient's blood, while on the other he placed live rabbit cells suspended in a solution; there was a semi-permeable membrane separating the two chambers. The toxins from the human blood passed through the membrane and were metabolized by the rabbit cells; the resulting proteins and other needed substances were then sent back to the other side. The likelihood of the rabbit cells causing infection or being rejected were minimized because they never came into direct contact with the human blood. The artificial liver was intended as a bridge to an eventual liver transplant for people with acute liver failure, as well liver transplant recipients whose bodies have rejected the organ. There is even the possibility that damaged livers may be given time to health themselves, doing away with a transplant requirement altogether. 2001 - Jacques Marescaux, a French doctor, carried out the first ever TeleSurgery; he operated on the gallbladder of a patient who was in Strasbourg, France, while he was in New York, USA (The Lindbergh Operation). A remotely-controlled robot, guided by Dr. Marescaux, carried out the procedure. 2002 - HemCon Medical Technologies Incorporated, of Portland, Oregon, USA, invented Chitosan Bandages. Chitosan is a substance found in the shells of crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans. They have been used extensively by the American army in Iraq and have been shown to save many lives. Chitosan bandages seal massive bleeding wounds amazingly quickly, in most cases within 30 seconds. The positively charged chitosan material bonds with red blood cells, forming an artificial clot which stops bleeding. HemCon scientists pointed out that chitosan derives it superiority from nature. 2005 - A partial face transplant was performed by Jean-Michel Dubernard, a French transplant specialist. The partial face transplant was carried out on Isabelle Dinoire, whose face had been very badly mauled by a dog. Dubernard had been a Deputy in the French National Assembly. 2006 - Gardasil became the first HPV vaccine to be approved by the US FDA; by the end of 2007 it was approved in 80 countries, according to Merck & Co. In 2009, GSK's (GlazoSmithKline's) Cervaris (another HPV vaccine) was approved by the FDA. 2007 - A bionic eye (a visual prosthetic), the Argus II Retinal Stimulation System, was created. It provides visual function to blind patients with severe to profound retinitis pigmentosa. Dr. Robert Greenberg of Second Sight Medical Products Inc., Drs. Mark Humayun,and Eugene DeJuan at the Doheny Eye Institute (USC), and Dr Wentai Liu at University of California, Santa Cruz, invented the original prototype api-retinal prosthesis. The first generation implant consisted of 16 electrodes and was implanted in 6 completely blind volunteers. After implantation, they were able to perform a surprising number of tasks. A trial of its second generation, 60 electrode implant, called Argus II, was started in 2007 in Europe and the United States. Thirty volunteers took part in the studies which spanned 10 sites in four countries. Argus II was approved in Europe, and the product was launched in 2011. 2010 - the first full face transplant was carried out by Spanish doctors on a male adult who had injured himself in a shooting accident five years previously. The patient had been left unable to breathe or swallow as a result of the accident. The 20-hour operation was performed by a team of 30 doctors, led by Dr Joan Pere Barret, at Vall d’Hebron University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain. In March 2011, Dallas Wiens underwent a full face transplant at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, USA; the first such procedure ever in the USA. Wiens had had his face severely disfigured in a power line accident. The 30-strong medical team, led by Bohdan Pomahac, replaced the patient’s nose, lips, facial skin, movement muscles and nerves. In March 2012, the largest face transplant ever was successfully performed at the R. Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center at the University of Maryland Medical Center, USA. The 36-hour operation, led by Eduardo D. Rodriguez, replaced the entire face, including tongue, both jaws and teeth of Lee Norris, a 37-year old male who had been severely injured in a gun accident. Targeted Cancer Therapy - seen as a major advancement in cancer treatment. Cancer treatment had focused on destroying rapidly dividing cells, which also destroyed a number of healthy rapidly-dividing cells. Cancer patients had to endure some extremely unpleasant side effects from radiation therapy and chemotherapy because of this. Targeted cancer therapies focus just on specific molecules; the ones that cause tumors to grow. Only the cancer cells are hunted down, resulting in considerably less damage to healthy cells, and subsequently fewer and less severe side effects. At the moment, this technology is only effective for some forms of cancer. However, experts are sure that eventually most cancers will be effectively treated with Targeted Cancer Therapy. Anti-smoking legislation - several countries, initially in Western Europe and North America introduced legislation forbidding smoking in public places. Despite resistance from the smoking lobby and organizations representing bars and restaurants, there has been a considerable drop in national smoking rates in several countries, as well as non-smokers' exposure to second-hand smoke (passive smoking). A Scottish study found that since the country introduced a national comprehensive smoke-free legislation, rates of preterm deliveries and small-for-date infants have fallen dramatically . A European study found that smoking bans may even encourage smokers to consume fewer cigarettes at home. HIV survival extended with combination drug therapy - a 20-year-old AIDS patient in 1996 had an expected survival time of three to five years, today he/she is expected to live till the age of 69 years (average). This is thanks to the introduction of HAART (highly active retroviral therapy), a combination therapy, which has turned HIV/AIDS from a deadly disease into a serious but chronic one with good long-term survival. Combination drug therapy has also improved treatment outcomes for patients with cancer, heart disease and other illnesses.
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With which other shipping line did Cunard merge in 1934?
Cunard White Star Line Merger TITANIC-TITANIC.com | Cunard White Star Line Merger By the start of the 1930's, the White Star Line was in terrible financial difficulties, mainly caused by a failed takeover bid by Lord Kylsant, pictured here on the left, and his Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, which in itself nearly led to the total collapse of the White Star Line . Lord Kylsant, who had also taken over Harland & Wolff , tried to purchase the White Star Line with money he and his company just didn't have. An investigation into both this takeover and the financial affairs of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company in general led to his jailing for one year for falsifying documents and reports. Remember too that this was at the height of the Great Depression. America had TWICE drastically cut the amount of immigrants it would allow into the country in any given year, and as the mainstay of the White Star Line 's business was the transportation of immigrants, it got harder and harder to make a profit, with the result that the White Star Line ran at a loss between 1930 and 1934. In June, 1932, the White Star Line's latest vessel, Georgic II , departed Liverpool on her maiden voyage. Few, if indeed any of her crew or passengers on that trip would guess that this vessel was quite literally 'the end of the line', so to speak. White Star Line's finances were in a mess, and if it wasn't for some large loans from the Irish government primarily designed to help protect thousands and thousands of jobs at Harland & Wolff , then Georgic II might never have been constructed at all. As it was, Georgic II became the last vessel constructed by Harland & Wolff , a rather unenviable tag, but true all the same. During the late 1920s, the White Star Line's major rival, Cunard, had decided to build a new generation of superliner designed to compete primarily with the German superliners Bremen and Europa, although the White Star Line also had plans of its own to build a 60,000-ton superliner, Oceanic III, despite it's acute financial problems. John Brown & Co. of Clydebank would build the 81,000-ton Cunard vessel, and her keel was duly laid down on December 27th, 1930. The vessel's name, Queen Mary, was kept secret until the day of the launch, and the hull was always referred to as '534', her yard number at Browns. Across the Atlantic in America, and now further and further around the globe, the full force of the Great Depression was now being felt, and transatlantic passenger numbers dwindled alarmingly. So pronounced was this effect, that work on the Queen Mary completely stopped in December 1931, and thousands of workers were laid-off from John Brown's. At around the same time, construction of the White Star Line's Oceanic III at Harland & Wolff's Belfast yard also came to a halt. At this point, only the keel of Oceanic III had been laid, but unfortunately, the decision was taken to cancel the order, and what had been built so far was broken up to be reused, denying the world the chance to ever see a 60,000-ton liner of the White Star Line . In Clydebank, the hull of the Queen Mary still lay incomplete on the slipways, she was still going nowhere, even after two years. The British public, who were saddened to see this symbol of Great Britain and Great British shipbuilding slowly deteriorating in Clydebank, urged the Government to help to fund the completion of the ship. The Government looked into the project, and decided that this would be acceptable, however, there was a condition; Cunard and White Star , the two great rivals, must merge as part of the deal, to create a powerful new shipping line. In return, the Government would provide just short of £10million. The White Star Line was totally against such a drastic move, and even tried to get an injunction to stop the proposal, but it failed, no doubt because of the perilous state of its finances. On December 30th, 1933, Cunard and White Star agreed to the merger and its terms. The following year, on May 10th, 1934, the two great rivals merged, and became known from that point forward as the Cunard White Star Line. The new company received the £9.5 million promised by the British Government, £3 million of which which was allocated to fund the completion of the Queen Mary, which had been restarted on April 3rd in anticipation of the forthcoming deal. In the months following the merger, the newly-formed Cunard White Star Line began an almost ruthless campaign to seemingly dispose of as many ex- White Star vessels as it could in the shortest time possible. During 1934, both Vedic and Calgaric were sold for scrap to a ship-breakers in Rosyth, Scotland, and Ionic II , Albertic and Adriatic II were sold for scrap to a Japanese shipbreaking company in the same year. Ceramic was a little luckier, as she was sold to the Shaw Savill Line, but the fact remained that White Star Line vessels were being disposed of at a frightening rate. It wasn't just White Star Line vessels that were being disposed of in 1934. The line's head office in Liverpool, pictured here on the left, was also closed after 37 years of service to the line. Completed in 1897 for the Oceanic Steam Navigation Co., they were designed by the renowned architect Norman Shaw. The offices were, and are still to this day, probably the most symbolic part of the White Star Line not to take to sea!  
White Star
"Which magazine, founded by John Bird and Gordon Roddick in 1991, has been promoted with the slogan ""Helping the homeless help themselves""?"
Cunard line | Cunard whitestarline Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Edit Britannia of 1840 (1150 GRT), the first Cunard liner built for the transAtlantic service. The British Government started operating monthly mail brigs from Falmouth, Cornwall, to New York in 1756. These ships carried few non-governmental passengers and no cargo. In 1818, the Black Ball Line opened a regularly scheduled New York–Liverpool service with clipper ships, beginning an era when American sailing packets dominated the North Atlantic saloon-passenger trade that lasted until the introduction of steamships.[1] A Committee of Parliament decided in 1836 that to become more competitive, the mail packets operated by the Post Office should be replaced by private shipping companies. The Admiralty assumed responsibility for managing the contracts.[4] Famed Arctic explorer, Admiral Sir William Edward Parry was appointed as Comptroller of Steam Machinery and Packet Service in April 1837.[5] Nova Scotians led by their young Assembly Speaker, Joseph Howe lobbied for steam service to Halifax. On his arrival in London in May 1838, Howe discussed the enterprise with fellow Nova Scotian Samuel Cunard (1787–1865), a shipowner who was also visiting London on business.[6] Cunard and Howe were associates and Howe also owed Cunard £300.[7] (£23,568 as of 2014),[8] Cunard returned to Halifax to raise capital, and Howe continued to lobby the British government.[6] The Rebellions of 1837were ongoing and London realized that the proposed Halifax service was also important for the military.[9] That November, Parry released a tender for North Atlantic monthly mail service to Halifax beginning in April 1839 using steamships with 300 horsepower.[9] The Great Western Steamship Company, which had opened its pioneer Bristol–New York service earlier that year, bid £45,000 for a monthly Bristol–Halifax–New York service using three ships of 450 horsepower. While British American, the other pioneer transatlantic steamship company did not submit a tender,[10] the St. George Steam Packet Company, owner of Sirius, bid £45,000 for a monthly Cork-Halifax service[11] and £65,000 for a monthly Cork–Halifax–New York service. The Admiralty rejected both tenders because neither bid offered to begin services early enough.[12] Cunard, who was back in Halifax, unfortunately did not know of the tender until after the deadline.[10] He returned to London and started negotiations with Admiral Parry, who was Cunard's good friend from when Parry was a young officer stationed in Halifax 20 years earlier. Cunard offered Parry a fortnightly service beginning in May 1840. While Cunard did not then own a steamship, he had been an investor in an earlier steamship venture, Royal William, and owned coal mines in Nova Scotia.[6] Cunard's major backer was Robert Napier, who was the Royal Navy's supplier of steam engines.[10] He also had the strong backing of Nova Scotian political leaders at the time when London needed to rebuild support in British North America after the rebellion.[9] Over Great Western's protests,[13] in May 1839 Parry accepted Cunard's tender of £55,000 for a three-ship Liverpool–Halifax service with an extension to Boston and a supplementary service to Montreal.[6] The annual subsidy was later raised £81,000 to add a fourth ship[14] and departures from Liverpool were to be monthly during the winter and fortnightly for the rest of the year.[1] Parliament investigated Great Western's complaints, and upheld the Admiralty's decision.[12] Napier and Cunard recruited other investors including businessmen James Donaldson, Sir George Burns, and David MacIver. In May 1840, just before the first ship was ready, they formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company with initial capital of £270,000, later increased to £300,000.(£23,634,507 as of 2014),[8] Cunard supplied £55,000.[6] Burns supervised ship construction, McIver was responsible for day-to-day operations, and Cunard was the "first among equals' in the management structure. When MacIver died in 1845, his younger brother Charles assumed his responsibilities for the next 35 years.[10] (For more detail of the first investors in the Cunard Line and also the early life of Charles Maciver, see Liverpool Nautical Research Society's Second Merseyside Maritime History, pp. 33–37 1991.) In May 1840 the coastal paddle steamer Unicorn made the company's first voyage to Halifax[15] to begin the supplementary service to Montreal. Two months later the first of the four ocean-going steamers of the Britannia Class, departed Liverpool, arriving in Halifax after 12 days and 10 hours, averaging 8.5 knots (15.7 km/h), before proceeding to Boston. During 1840–41, mean Liverpool–Halifax times for the quartet were 13 days 6 hours to Halifax and 11 days 4 hours homeward. Two larger ships were quickly ordered, one to replace the Columbia, which sank at Seal Island, Nova Scotia in 1843 without loss of life. By 1845, steamship lines led by Cunard carried more saloon passengers than the sailing packets.[1] Three years later, the British Government increased the annual subsidy to £156,000 so that Cunard could double its frequency.[14]Four additional wooden paddlers were ordered and alternate sailings were direct to New York instead of the Halifax-Boston route. The sailing packet lines were now reduced to the immigrant trade.[1] From the beginning Cunard's ships used the line's distinctive red funnel with two or three narrow black bands and black top. It appears that Robert Napier was responsible for this feature. His shipyard in Glasgow used this combination previously in 1830 on Thomas Assheton Smith's private steam yacht "Menai". The renovation of her model by Glasgow Museum of Transport revealed that she had vermilion funnels with black bands and black top.[16] Cunard's reputation for safety was one of the significant factors in the firm's early success.[2] Both the first two transatlantic lines failed after major accidents. British and American collapsed after the President foundered in a gale and Great Western after Great Britain stranded because of a navigation error.[1] Cunard's orders to his masters were, "Your ship is loaded, take her; speed is nothing, follow your own road, deliver her safe, bring her back safe – safety is all that is required."[2] In particular, Charles MacIver's constant inspections were responsible for the firm's safety discipline.[10] New Competition: 1850–1879 Edit A captain waves aboard a Cunard Line vessel. In 1850 the American Collins Line and the British Inman Line started new Atlantic steamship services. The American Government supplied Collins with a large annual subsidy to operate four wooden paddlers that were superior to Cunard's best.[14] Inman showed that iron-hulled, screw propelled steamers of modest speed could be profitable without subsidy. Inman also became the first steamship line to carry steerage passengers. Both of the newcomers suffered major disasters in 1854.[1] The next year, Cunard put pressure on Collins by commissioning its first iron-hulled paddler, Persia, which won the Blue Riband with a Liverpool–New York voyage of 9 days 16 hours, averaging 13.11 knots (24.28 km/h).[17] During the Crimean War Cunard supplied 11 ships for war service. Every British North Atlantic route was suspended until 1856 except Cunard's Liverpool-Halifax-Boston service. While Collins' fortunes improved because of the lack of competition during the war, it collapsed in 1858 after the loss of two additional steamers. Cunard emerged as the leading carrier of saloon passengers and in 1862 commissionedScotia, the last paddle steamer to win the Blue Riband. Inman carried more passengers because of its success in the immigrant trade. To compete, in May 1863 Cunard started a secondary Liverpool-New York service with iron-hulled screw steamers that catered for steerage passengers. Beginning with China, the line also replaced the last three wooden paddlers on the New York mail service with iron screw steamers that only carried saloon passengers.[1] Persia of 1856 (3,300 GRT) When Cunard died in 1865, the equally conservative Charles MacIver assumed Cunard's role.[10] The firm retained its reluctance about change and was overtaken by competitors that more quickly adopted new technology.[14] In 1866 Inman started to build screw propelled express liners that matched Cunard's premier unit, the Scotia. Cunard responded with its first high speed screw propellered steamer, Russiawhich was followed by two larger editions. In 1871 both companies faced a new rival when the White Star Line commissioned the Oceanicand her five sisters. The new White Star record-breakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines. White Star also set new standards for comfort by placing the dining saloon midships and doubling the size of cabins. Inman rebuilt its express fleet to the new standard, but Cunard lagged behind both of its rivals. Throughout the 1870s Cunard passage times were longer than either White Star or Inman.[1] In 1867 responsibility for mail contracts was transferred back to the Post Office and opened for bid. Cunard, Inman and the German Norddeutscher Lloyd were each awarded one of the three weekly New York mail services. The fortnightly route to Halifax formerly held by Cunard went to Inman. Cunard continued to receive a £80,000 subsidy (£6,180,663 as of 2014),[8] while NDL and Inman were paid sea postage. Two years later the service was rebid and Cunard was awarded a seven-year contract for two weekly New York mail services at £70,000 per annum. Inman was awarded a seven-year contract for the third weekly New York service at £35,000 per year.[12] The Panic of 1873 started a five-year shipping depression that strained the finances of all of the Atlantic competitors.[1] In 1876 the mail contracts expired and the Post Office ended both Cunard's and Inman's subsidies. The new contracts were paid on the basis of weight, at a rate substantially higher than paid by the United States Post Office.[12] Cunard's weekly New York mail sailings were reduced to one and White Star was awarded the third mail sailing. Every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday a liner from one of the three firms departed Liverpool with the mail for New York.[18] Cunard Steamship Company Ltd: 1879–1934 Etruria of 1885 (7,700 GRT) Campania of 1893, (12,900 GRT) To raise additional capital, in 1879 the privately held British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was reorganised as a public stock corporation, the Cunard Steamship Company, Ltd.[1] Under Cunard's new chairman, John Burns (1839–1900), son of one of the firm's original founders,[10] Cunard commissioned four steel-hulled express liners beginning with Servia of 1881, the first passenger liner with electric lighting throughout. In 1884, Cunard purchased the almost new Blue Riband winner Oregon from the Guion Line when that firm defaulted on payments to the shipyard. That year, Cunard also commissioned the record-breakers Umbria and Etruria capable of 19.5 knots (36.1 km/h). Starting in 1887, Cunard's newly won leadership on the North Atlantic was threatened when Inman and then White Star responded with twin screw record-breakers. In 1893 Cunard countered with two even faster Blue Riband winners, Campania and Lucania, capable of 21.8 knots (40.4 km/h).[14] No sooner had Cunard re-established its supremacy than new rivals emerged. Beginning in the late 1860s several German firms commissioned liners that were almost as fast as the British mail steamers from Liverpool.[1] In 1897 Kaiser Wilhelm der Große of Norddeutscher Lloyd raised the Blue Riband to 22.3 knots (41.3 km/h), and was followed by a succession of German record-breakers.[17]Rather than match the new German speedsters, White Star – a rival which Cunard line would acquire later – commissioned four very profitable Celtic-class liners of more moderate speed for its secondary Liverpool-New York service. In 1902 White Star joined the well-capitalized American combine, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM), which owned the American Line, including the old Inman Line, and other lines. IMM also had trade agreements with Hamburg–America and Norddeutscher Lloyd.[1] RMS Carpathia of 1901 (13,555 GRT) became famous for rescuing the survivors of the sinking of the RMS Titanic. This was the Dreadnought era and British prestige was at stake. The British Government provided Cunard with an annual subsidy of £150,000 plus a low interest loan of £2.5 million (£235 million as of 2014),[8] to pay for the construction of the two superliners, the Blue Riband winners Lusitania andMauretania, capable of 26.0 knots (48.2 km/h). In 1903 the firm started a Fiume–New York service with calls at Italian ports and Gibraltar. The next year Cunard commissioned two ships to compete directly with the Celtic-class liners on the secondary Liverpool-New York route. In 1911 Cunard entered the St Lawrence trade by purchasing the Thompson line, and absorbed the Royal line five years later.[1] Aquitania of 1914 (45,650 GRT) served in both World Wars. Not to be outdone, both White Star and Hamburg–America each ordered a trio of superliners. The White Star Olympic-class liners at 21.5 knots (39.8 km/h) and the Hapag Imperator-class liners at 22.5 knots (41.7 km/h) were larger and more luxurious than the Cunarders, but not as fast. Cunard also ordered a new ship, Aquitania, capable of 24.0 knots (44.4 km/h), to complete the Liverpool mail fleet. Events prevented the expected competition between the three sets of superliners. White Star'sTitanic sank on its maiden voyage, both White Star's Britannic and Cunard's Lusitania were war losses, and the three Hapag super-liners were handed over to the Allied powers as war reparations.[2] In 1916 Cunard Line completed its European headquarters in Liverpool, moving in on 12th June of that year.[19] The grand neo-ClassicalCunard Building was the third of Liverpool's Three Graces. The headquarters were used by Cunard until the 1960s.[20] Due to First World War losses, Cunard began a post-war rebuilding programme including eleven intermediate liners. It acquired the former Hapag Imperator (renamed the Berengaria) to replace the lost Lusitania as the running mate for Mauretania and Aquitania, and Southamptonreplaced Liverpool as the British destination for the three-ship express service. By 1926 Cunard's fleet was larger than before the war, and White Star was in decline, having been sold by IMM.[1] Despite the dramatic reduction in North Atlantic passengers caused by the shipping depression beginning in 1929, the Germans, Italians and the French commissioned new "ships of state" prestige liners.[1] The German Bremen took the Blue Riband at 27.8 knots (51.5 km/h) in 1933, the Italian Rex recorded 28.9 knots (53.5 km/h) on a westbound voyage the same year, and the French Normandie crossed the Atlantic in just under four days at 30.58 knots (56.63 km/h) in 1937.[17] In 1930 Cunard ordered an 80,000 ton liner that was to be the first of two record-breakers fast enough to fit into a two-ship weekly Southampton-New York service. Work on hull 534 was halted in 1931 because of the economic conditions.[2] Trafalgar House years: 1971–1998 Queen Elizabeth 2 of 1969 (70,300 GRT) at Trondheim, Norway, in 2008. In 1971, when the line was purchased by the conglomerate Trafalgar House, Cunard operated cargo and passenger ships, hotels and resorts. Its cargo fleet consisted of 42 ships in service, with 20 on order. The flagship of the passenger fleet was the two-year-old Queen Elizabeth 2. The fleet also included the remaining two intermediate liners from the 1950s, plus two purpose-built cruise ships on order. Trafalgar acquired two additional cruise ships and disposed of the intermediate liners and most of the cargo fleet.[26] During the Falklands War, QE2 and Cunard Countess were chartered as troopships[27] while Cunard's container ship Atlantic Conveyor was sunk by an Exocetmissile.[28] Cunard acquired the Norwegian America Line in 1983, with two classic ocean liner/cruise ships.[29] Also in 1983, the Trafalgar attempted a hostile takeover of P&O, another large passenger and cargo shipping line, which was formed the same year as Cunard. P&O objected and forced the issue to the British Monopolies and Mergers Commission. In their filing, P&O was critical of Trafalgar's management of Cunard and their failure to correct QE2's mechanical problems.[30] In 1984, the Commission ruled in favour of the merger, but Trafalgar decided against proceeding.[31] In 1988, Cunard acquired Ellerman Lines and its small fleet of cargo vessels, organising the business as Cunard-Ellerman, however, only a few years later, Cunard decided to abandon the cargo business and focus solely on cruise ships. Cunard's cargo fleet was sold off between 1989 and 1991, with a single container ship, the second Atlantic Conveyor, remaining under Cunard ownership until 1996. In 1994 Cunard purchased the rights to the name of the Royal Viking Line and its Royal Viking Sun. The rest of Royal Viking Line's fleet stayed with the line's owner, Norwegian Cruise Line.[32] By the mid-1990s Cunard was ailing. The company was embarrassed in late 1994 when the QE2 experienced numerous defects during the first voyage of the season because of unfinished renovation work. Claims from passengers cost the company US$13 million. After Cunard reported a US$25 million loss in 1995, Trafalgar assigned a new CEO to the line, who concluded that the company had management issues. In 1996 the Norwegian conglomerate Kværner acquired Trafalgar House, and attempted to sell Cunard. When there were no takers, Kværner made substantial investments to turn around the company's tarnished reputation.
i don't know
What is celebrated in Dublin every year on June 16th?
Dublin Events and Festivals in 2014 / 2015: County Dublin, Ireland New Year's Eve / Day - there are celebrations throughout the city to welcome in the New Year Salmon and Sea Trout Season - starts January 1st and runs until September Irish Championship Hurdle - late January, major horse race at Leopardstown February Five Nations Rugby Tournament - February to April, Ireland play against England, Wales, Scotland and France. Two of these games are played in Dublin Malahide Food and Drink Festival - late February, this festival also includes cultural activities March Celtic Flame - mid-March, a national festival of contemporary and traditional music, song and dance St. Patrick's Day Festival - March 17th, numerous celebrations and street theatres fill the city, culminating in a parade Temple Bar Fleadh - mid-March, three-day festival of traditional music in honour of St. Patrick, in the lively Temple Bar area Irish Kennel Club Show - mid-March, annual championship dog show in Cloghran, County Dublin Feis Ceoil - late March, this is one of Europe's oldest and most prestigious classical musical festivals April Colours Boat Race - first weekend, a rowing race along the River Liffey between Trinity College and University College Dublin Howth Music Festival - Easter weekend, this pretty fishing village on the outskirts of the city plays host to three days of popular music Dublin Film Festival - third week, festival of new and classic films held at various Dublin cinemas, including the Irish Film Centre Opera Ireland - a week in the April, Spring run at the Gaiety Theatre. Another short season is also put on in November May May Day Parade - May 1st, celebrations and colourful parades through the city streets on this national holiday Dublin Garden Festival - late May or early June, large four-day horticultural show at Ballsbridge Laytown Beach Races - late May or early June, horse races on the beach, north of Dublin June Bloom - a gardening event held each year in Phoenix Park between late-May / early-June. Attracting approximately 60,000 people each year the event features show gardens, a food market and drinks tents amongst other entertainment Music in the Park - June to August, various city parks hold free open-air concerts at lunchtime on weekdays and also on Sundays Photography Exhibitions - June to September, changing exhibitions on different themes in the Dublin Photographic Centre County Wicklow Gardens Festival - held at both private and public gardens south of Dublin all month, including Powerscourt Bloomsday - mid-June, walks, lectures and pub talks across the city to celebrate James Joyce's greatest novel, 'Ulysses' Maracycle - mid-June, thousands of cyclists race each other from Dublin to Belfast and back again Scurlogstown Olympiad Celtic Festival - mid-June, traditional Irish music and dance fair with a selection of festival queen, in Trim Music in Great Irish Houses - second and third weeks, classical music recitals in grand settings at various venues Guitar Festival of Ireland - four day event held in June / July, event featuring guitar masterclasses and concerts July Dun Laoghaire American Week - first week, US-themed jamboree with bluegrass music, a barn dance and 4th of July fireworks South Docks Festival - third week, a community festival that centres on Pearse Street and City Quay, with shows and activities for all ages Temple Bar Blues Festival - third weekend, three days of live blues music featuring international stars August Summer Music Festival - all month, St. Stephen's Green, free lunchtime concerts of both popular and traditional music, as well as sporadic Shakespeare performances in the open air Dublin Horse Show - second week, RDS Ballsbridge, premier sporting and social event including dressage, show jumping and a chance for ladies to show off their hats People's Photographic Exhibition - last weekend, St. Stephen's Green, displays of amateur photographers work on the railings around the green September The Liffey Swim - first Saturday, since 1920 Dubliners have turned out to watch swimmers brave the River Liffey's murky waters from Watling Street Bridge to the Custom House Motorcycle Union of Ireland Killalane Road Races - second weekend, Skerries, road-racing final on the streets of this resort, north of Dublin All-Ireland Hurling Final - second Sunday, Croke Park All-Ireland Football Final - second Sunday, Croke Park, popular Gaelic football final Irish Antique Dealer's Fair - last week, RDS Ballsbridge, the country's most important antiques fair October Dublin Theatre Festival - first two weeks, features new works by Irish playwrights and many foreign productions Dublin City Marathon - last Monday, starting and finishing on O'Connell Street, the route takes in many Dublin landmarks, including Phoenix Park and Trinity College. Every year thousands participate Hallowe'en (Samhain) - October 31st, on the night when spirits rise, children wear fancy dress and celebrations include a parade and fireworks November Opera Ireland - a week in the November, Autumn run at the Gaiety Theatre. Another short season is also put on in April Toy and Train Collector's Fair - last Sunday, Rochestown Lodge Hotel, Dun Laoghaire, with model cars, dolls, comics and teddy bears. There are also other similar fairs in April and September December
Bloomsday
"The name of which moist Welsh Bread literally means ""speckled bread"" referring to the fruit it contains?"
James Joyce's "Ulysses": Why you should read this book | The Economist purchase-rights icon “THERE are two kinds of people. Those that have read "Ulysses" and those that haven't,” my best friend stated plumply one day, dropping the surprisingly compact 783-page paperback on the table with a thud. This was meant in a silly, snobbish kind of way, but he was right. Given the flood of ecstatic imagination between the covers of James Joyce's novel, its more patient readers are marked for life by having read it.   Today, June 16th, is Bloomsday, the day in which all of the action of "Ulysses" takes place in the spinning clockwork of Dublin in 1904. Joyce's devoted fans can be seen celebrating it every year. While Bloomsday events outside of Dublin tend to be nerdy affairs in Edwardian dress, I do recommend a good public reading if you can find one. (I do not, on the other hand, recommend the Bloomsday Irish breakfast of kidneys and gizzards, which is positively Cronenberg-esque.)   Perhaps that breakfast is a good metaphor; some people, not happy with saying "Ulysses" is not to their taste, must pronounce it loathsome. It was banned in America until 1934 because of its “pornographic” nature, a comical artefact of the country's prudishness. And its position atop the western canon's modernist heap has made it an all-too-tempting target for critics . I'll never forget one of my old bosses damning "Ulysses" as the phallogocentric truncheon of paternal oppression, whatever that means. (He felt Gertrude Stein was the real talent.)   Just last year, Slate published a humourless piece in which Ron Rosenbaum fulminated about the book's shortcomings, or rather its overcomings: “'Ulysses' is an overwrought, overwritten epic of gratingly obvious, self-congratulatory, show-off erudition that, with its overstuffed symbolism and leaden attempts at humor, is bearable only by terminal graduate students who demand we validate the time they've wasted reading it.” Ouch. This is the kind of wet-blanket misinformation that you will have to ignore if you want to have any fun. And "Ulysses" is fun—maybe the best book you take to the beach this summer.   It is true that full-time literature students are in the best position to read "Ulysses": it's our job, with tons of time and a support staff standing by. I had the luxury of a "Ulysses" seminar with ten other undergrads, a professor with a Joyce tattoo on his back, and a pub with Beamish on tap. That's the ideal, but you really don't need all that. The beer is important, but all you really need is a clean, well-lit room of one's own, a copy of "Ulysses", Don Gifford's "Ulysses Annotated", Harry Blamires's "The New Bloomsday Book" for chapter summaries, Joseph Campbell for some colour commentary, and some spare time.   Many readers will recoil: “I have to read three other books to read this one book? Zounds!” Trust me: you'll be glad you did. Joyce is allusive and experimental, and the helping books do indeed help the reader mine for historical and literary meanings that reward often. But even a reader who forgoes annotated help can enjoy Joyce's virtuosity. Few novelists have the ability to make the English language do whatever he wants, to make it do cartwheels and sing arias. Even when Joyce goes down (yet another) digressive rabbit hole, you love being along for the ride.  Two counts in Rosenbaum's indictment against "Ulysses" are worth examining in more detail, since they implicate not just that book but all brainy novels period in today's digital zeitgeist. The first one is pretty easy: the anti-intellectual, knee-jerk reaction to erudition, show-off or otherwise. We're all familiar with the prejudice that horse sense is better than intellect. And it's true that "Ulysses" is a clearinghouse of historical facts, religious and philosophical ephemera, and clever-boots witticisms. "Ulysses" is also a variety show of the sexual and excretory; the denouement is the book's two main characters drunkenly pissing side by side under the “heaventree of stars”, a first I'm sure. The novel is a perfect mix of highbrow and lowbrow, of poetry and patter, the very same flavour we love in our Shakespeare, who also happens to permeate much of "Ulysses". Both Shakespeare and Joyce are industrial-grade humanists who devote every page to the study and celebration of us—smart, dumb, middling, fair, no matter.     The second complaint with "Ulysses", or smart books in general, is that they are too long or too dense, or both, and we simply don't have the time to “waste”. The fear that we are becoming too distracted for big books has consumed the last decade. But what does digital have to do with novels, aside from making them more accessible? Ulysses, more than any novel, was made for the digital age . In the past decade, various projects have already begun to hyperlink the book with nifty annotations and commentary in an entertaining format to make it even easier to enjoy—in bite-sized portions—Joyce's feast of words.    Are we really too busy for one of history's great psychological novels? Many of those who scoff at the idea of reading Ulysses will tell you in the next breath of finishing the 4,000-odd pages of George R.R. Martin's "A Song of Ice and Fire" (ie, the Game of Thrones books), or consuming all four seasons of "Breaking Bad" in a meth-fuelled weekend. Let's not kid ourselves: we have the time. Find some room in your summer reading for "Ulysses" or those other loose, baggy monsters it spawned, like "Gravity's Rainbow" or "Infinite Jest". "Ulysses" is perhaps the most written about book ever after the Bible, which should tell you something. It's definitely a better read. Sláinte! Read more: We review Gordon Bowker's biography of James Joyce
i don't know
What name is given to the group of drugs which stimulate urine production, commonly known as water tablets?
Diuretics - Water Pills (Potassium-Sparing, Loop, Thiazide, Osmotic) Diuretics About About diuretics Diuretics are non-habit-forming medications that stimulate the kidneys to produce more urine, flushing excess fluids and minerals (e.g., sodium) from the body. They may be prescribed in conjunction with low-sodium diets and other lifestyle changes. The most common diuretic medications fall into four major categories: loop, osmotic, potassium-sparing and thiazide (or thiazide-like). Loop diuretics decrease the kidney’s ability to absorb sodium, causing more sodium to be eliminated through urine. Loop diuretics produce the greatest increase in urine flow. They may be administered through an intravenous (I.V.) line in the hospital to reduce swelling (edema) in patients with a variety of conditions (e.g., heart failure). They are most commonly used as oral medications. Thiazide (or thiazide-like) diuretics increase the excretion of both sodium and chloride into the urine. They are commonly prescribed for heart patients, either alone or in conjunction with a potassium-sparing version. They are also commonly used to treat high pressure blood (hypertension). These drugs have been shown to reduce calcium excretion, meaning they are attractive options for patients with kidney stones or osteoporosis. Potassium-sparing diuretics are used to protect the body from excess potassium loss, which can occur with loop and thiazide diuretics. Far less potent, potassium-sparing diuretics are commonly used in conjunction with the other forms of diuretics. They are also frequently used in patients with liver disease and ascites (fluid build-up in the abdomen due to liver damage). In addition, they can be used to treat high blood pressure and low potassium levels. Osmotic diuretics are the least used form of diuretics. They draw fluid from the cells of the brain and eyes, as well as increase the elimination of toxins introduced into the body (from legal or illegal drugs) through urine. The mechanic process involves the increase of osmotic pressure (ion concentration) in blood and blood vessels, inhibiting the reabsorption of water and dissolved substances, and causing an increase in urine flow. Diuretics are generally taken orally in tablet, capsule or liquid form. They can also be administered through intravenous injection. Urine flow usually increases within hours of the first dose, but diuretics may take several weeks to treat conditions such as high blood pressure. The increased urine flow flushes the following dissolved substances (solutes) from the body: Sodium Conditions Conditions treated Thiazide diuretics are considered to be the front-line treatment for high blood pressure (hypertension). A recently concluded large-scale study recommended they be used before other blood-pressure-lowering medications. The study, known as the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial or ALLHAT, involved more than 42,000 people aged 55 and older across the United States, Canada, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The ALLHAT study’s conclusion was based on the finding that most blood pressure medications were about equally effective (lowering blood pressure to normal levels in 30 to 50 percent of patients). Therefore, the decision on which medication to use is based on other factors, such as the drug’s potential for side effects and its cost. Diuretics are generally well tolerated and not very expensive. Another finding of the study was that, overall, most individuals need more than one drug to treat high blood pressure, and one of those drugs should be a diuretic. The study has, however, generated great controversy within the medical community, partly because of the finding that patients in the diuretic group are more likely to develop diabetes. The long-term consequences of this were not addressed in the study. In addition to high blood pressure, diuretics are used to treat the following conditions: Heart failure. By flushing excess fluids from the body, diuretics can relieve the edema (swelling from excess fluids) that commonly occurs with heart failure. Specifically, spironolactone and eplerenone have been independently shown to benefit patients with heart failure, thus reducing the workload on the heart. Most patients with heart failure are treated with a loop diuretic, in addition to a low sodium diet. In addition, spironolactone or eplerenone may be added to increase the drug's effectiveness and reduce the loss of potassium often caused by diuretics. It is important for any patients taking diuretics for heart failure to have their electrolyte levels carefully monitored. Heart failure patients who are prescribed diuretics will often be on the medications for the rest of the lives. Renal insufficiency. A condition in which the kidneys are unable to function normally. Diuretics can sometimes worsen this condition. Hepatic cirrhosis. Destruction and scarring of liver tissues, when complicated by ascites (fluid build-up in the liver caused liver cirrhosis, heart failure or nephrotic syndrome). Hypercalcemia. Too much calcium in the blood. Diabetes insipidus (thiazide diuretics only). A pituitary gland disorder marked by excessive thirst and the excretion of large amounts of urine. Thiazide diuretics actually decrease urine volume in these patients. Glaucoma (osmotic diuretics only). An eye disease in which increased pressure within the eye causes damage and gradual loss of sight. Cerebral edema (osmotic diuretics only). A potentially fatal swelling in the brain that can be caused by hemorrhage, trauma, disease or surgery. Drug intoxication (osmotic diuretics only). Osmotic diuretics increase the urinary excretion of toxins introduced into the body through the use of many legal and illegal substances. Hyperaldosteronism (potassium-sparing diuretics only). A condition in which the increased production of the hormone aldosterone causes increased blood pressure, excessive potassium loss and muscle weakness. Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). A disorder marked by irregular menstruation, obesity, increased hair growth, cystic ovaries and infertility. Conditions of concern Patients should use diuretics with caution if they have been diagnosed with any of the following conditions: Diabetes. Careful blood sugar monitoring is required when diabetics take diuretics because they increase the risk of hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). However, diabetics are commonly prescribed diuretics if the benefit (e.g., treatment of high blood pressure or heart failure) outweighs the risk. The ALLHAT study also confirmed the value of diuretics among patients with diabetes. Hyperlipidemia (for thiazide diuretics only). Excess fat (lipids) in the blood. At higher doses, thiazide diuretics are associated with elevations in cholesterol levels. Newer dosage regiments usually rely on lower doses of thiazide diuretics, which have reduced this problem. Severe liver or kidney disease or a history of kidney stones. The effect of the diuretic may be increased because of the slow removal of the drug from the body by these organs. In addition, diuretics may make some disorders worse. Patients with the following conditions should discuss the risks with their physicians: Gout. A painful inflammation of the joint caused by an excessive amount of uric acid in the blood and deposits of urates in and around joints. Hearing problems. Pancreatitis. Inflammation of the pancreas. Menstrual problems or breast enlargement (potassium-sparing diuretics only). Some studies have also suggested that diuretic therapy may actually increase cardiovascular risk because of the medication’s effect on potassium, magnesium, cholesterol and blood glucose levels. However, this risk may be lessened by using low-dose diuretics. Side effects Potential side effects of diuretics The most common side effect associated with diuretics is potassium loss. With the exception of potassium-sparing versions, all diuretics may cause a loss of potassium. Rarely, potassium-sparing diuretics can cause a build-up of potassium in the body. Symptoms of potassium loss include: Tiredness Jaundice (yellow tint to the skin or eyes) Mood change Weight changes Rarely, potassium-sparing diuretics may produce breast enlargement in males and females, causes breast tenderness, deepening of the voice, increased hair growth, irregular menstrual periods and unusual sweating. Patients on diuretics should inform their physicians if they become sick, especially with severe or continuing vomiting or diarrhea. These conditions can cause the body to lose too much water and potassium. Interactions Drug or other interactions Patients should consult their physicians before taking any additional prescriptions, over-the-counter medications or nutritional supplements. Other substances that can influence the effects of diuretics include: Antihypertensives (drugs that slow heart rate or lower blood pressure) such as ACE inhibitors. Although commonly prescribed for diabetics, these can strengthen the effects of diuretics and potentially lead to low blood pressure (hypotension). Psychiatric medications. Some diuretics can cause a build-up of these medications in the blood, increasing the chance of side effects. Licorice. Eating certain types of licorice while taking diuretics may cause excessive potassium loss. Alcohol use, exposure to heat and prolonged standing may also intensify the adverse effects of diuretics. Lifestyle Lifestyle considerations When first taking a diuretic, patients should avoid operating heavy machinery (e.g., driving) until they know how the medication will affect them. Some patients may experience fatigue when first taking this medication, but this usually passes after the patient has been on the medication for some time. Urine flow will increase and some patients may need to wake during the night to urinate. To minimize this, patients with a single daily dose should take their medication in the morning after breakfast. Patients taking more than one dose a day are advised to take their last dose before 6 p.m. In addition, some diuretics can increase the skin’s sensitivity to sunlight. Patients are advised to use sunscreen and avoid tanning booths. Furthermore, patients being treated for heart failure may need to weigh themselves frequently and report any loss or gain of more than 5 pounds in a week. Patients should drink enough liquids during exercise or in hot weather and follow their physician’s instructions regarding exercise, activity levels and diet. Physicians may instruct patients to add foods high in potassium to their diets or prescribe a potassium supplement, but patients should not attempt to change their diets without direction from their physician. Extra potassium is not necessary for every patient on diuretics and too much potassium can be harmful. In addition, patients taking loop diuretics may be advised to take magnesium supplements in addition to potassium supplements, because the reabsorption of this solute is limited by the medication. Most patients taking diuretics to treat high blood pressure (hypertension) will be using the medication for the rest of their lives, provided no serious side effects occur. Patients should remember that diuretics can help to control high blood pressure, but cannot cure it. Even if all their symptoms cease, patients should continue to take their medication exactly as directed and to keep all scheduled follow-up appointments with their physician. How to use Pregnancy use issues Use of diuretics during pregnancy is not recommended. The effects of diuretics during pregnancy have not been studied extensively. However, it has been noted that diuretics given after the first trimester of pregnancy to treat hypertension may interfere with the normal expansion of fluid seen during pregnancy. The depletion of this fluid volume could, in turn, disrupt neurodevelopment of the fetus and increase the risk of conditions such as schizophrenia in the offspring. There is also a risk of jaundice, blood problems and potassium depletion in the newborn. In lactating women, most diuretics will pass into breast milk and can cause dehydration in nursing infants. Potassium-sparing diuretics, however, have not been found to cause problems in nursing babies. Child use issues The use of diuretics in children is typically seen for the treatment of milder degrees of heart failure. There is no indication that the risk of side effects from diuretics is different in children than in adults. Dosages are lower for children and the dosage interval may be longer. Children taking potassium-sparing diuretics are more prone to developing calcium deficiencies than are adults. Safety of diuretic use in children has not been scientifically established for all forms of the medication. Parents are encouraged to discuss the potential risks and benefits with a board-certified pediatric cardiologist before their child begins taking diuretics. Elderly use issues Older adults have a higher frequency and intensity of side effects, such as lightheadedness, dizziness and fainting (syncope). They are also more susceptible to dehydration, hypovolemia (decrease in circulating blood volume), and deficiencies of calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium. Generally, older patients require lower doses of diuretics and require close observation but are routinely prescribed these medications. Symptoms of diuretic overdose Patients exhibiting any of the following should contact their physician immediately: Severe low blood pressure (hypotension) A fast or irregular heartbeat (tachycardia) Severe dizziness or fainting (syncope) Deafness or ringing in the ears Excessive thirst
Diuretic
Which measurement of length in the UK can be defined as a tenth of a nautical mile?
Common Heart Disease Drugs and Medications Heart Disease Common Heart Disease Drugs There are many drugs prescribed for heart disease . It's important for people with heart disease and those who care for them to understand the meds, follow the labels, and recognize possible side effects. The ones most people with heart disease are given by their doctor include: ACE inhibitors : These widen arteries to lower your blood pressure and make it easier for your heart to pump blood . They also block some of the unpleasant things that can happen with heart failure . Aldosterone inhibitors: Eplerenone ( Inspra ) and spironolactone ( Aldactone ) are part of a class of medicine called diuretics . They can ease the swelling and water buildup heart disease can cause. They help the kidneys send unneeded water and salt from your tissues and blood into your urine to be released. These drugs may help some symptoms, even while you take other treatments. They protect your heart by blocking a chemical in your body called aldosterone that causes salt and fluid buildup. This medicine is for folks with some types of severe heart failure. Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs): These are used to lower blood pressure for people with heart failure. They help keep your blood vessels as wide as possible so blood can flow through your body more easily. They also lessen salt and fluid buildup in your body. Beta-blockers: They block the effects of adrenaline ( epinephrine ). This helps your heart work better. These meds also drop production of harmful substances your body makes in response to heart failure. And they cause your heart to beat slower and with less force. Those both lower your blood pressure. Calcium channel blockers: These treat chest pain (your doctor may say “ angina ”) and high blood pressure . They relax blood vessels and increase blood and oxygen to your heart. That eases its workload. They treat heart failure caused by hypertension . But they’re used only when other medicines to lower blood pressure don’t work. Ask your doctor if one is right for you. Cholesterol -lowering drugs: Cholesterol helps your body build new cells, insulate nerves, and make hormones. But inflammation may force cholesterol to build up in the walls of your arteries. That buildup increases your chance of having a heart attack or stroke . Continued Some people’s genetics make it more likely that they’ll have high cholesterol . These folks may need drug therapy, like statins , in addition to a healthier diet , to lower the chance that they'll get hardening of the arteries (also called atherosclerosis). Digoxin : It helps an injured or weakened heart to send blood through the body and work more efficiently. It strengthens the force of the heart muscle's contractions. It may improve blood circulation. You may be prescribed this if you have an irregular heartbeat (your doctor may call this atrial fibrillation , or AFib ). It may help slow down your heart rate . Diuretics: You may know these as water pills. They help your kidneys get rid of unneeded water and salt from your tissues and bloodstream. That makes it easier for your heart to pump. They treat high blood pressure and ease swelling and water buildup caused by some medical problems, including heart failure. They also help make breathing easier. Inotropic therapy: This helps make an injured or weakened heart pump harder to send blood through the body. It helps strengthen the heart muscle's contractions. It also relaxes constricted blood vessels so blood can flow more smoothly. Inotropic therapy may also speed up your heart's rhythm. You may get this if you have end-stage heart failure to help relieve and control your symptoms. These medicines are used only when others have stopped working on symptoms. Potassium or magnesium : You can lose these electrolytes when you pee more while you take diuretics. That loss can cause abnormal heart rhythms. Ask your doctor if you should take supplements to make up the difference. Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors: You may get this new class of cholesterol -lowering drugs if diet and statin treatments aren’t helping. They block a liver protein called PCSK9. That protein hinders your liver ’s ability to get rid of LDL (bad) cholesterol. Vasodilators: These relax your blood vessels so blood can flow more easily through your body. You’ll get these if you can’t take ACE inhibitors. Continued Warfarin: This helps prevent clots from forming in your blood. You’ll get it if your body is making blood clots , or if you have a condition that helps cause them. This medicine won’t dissolve a blood clot. Over time, the clot may dissolve on its own. Warfarin may also prevent others from forming. Be sure to talk with your doctor if you have questions about any drugs you’re taking. WebMD Medical Reference Reviewed by James Beckerman, MD, FACC on September 14, 2016 Sources
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In Greek mythology, which favourite of Aphrodite became a hunter and died after being gored by a boar?
Greek Mythology - Unit Test - StudyBlue Good to have you back! If you've signed in to StudyBlue with Facebook in the past, please do that again. Greek Mythology - Unit Test god of the sun, music, archery, light, poetry son of zeus and leto leader of the 9 muses represents perfect, manly beauty She is wife and sister to Zeus. She is the protector of marriage. Symbols: pomegranate, peacock, lotus staff she is the goddess of the heavens, Empire, Child Birth, and marriage Advertisement ) Goddess of plants and harvests Daughter: Persephone Driven to desperation when Pluto captured Persephone Roman name: Ceres (cereal) Goddess of love and beauty Gets easily jealous She was in love with Ares but Hephaestus She was in love with Adonis So Ares turned into a boar and gored him to death She wanted to kill psyche to prevent her from marrying her son, by making her smell the sleep of death. Roman Name: Venus Symbols: Apple, Dove, Scallop shell, Heart Athena Goddess of Wisdom and stragagy Born out of Zeus head in full armor she created the olive tree for Athens and that’s why it was named Athens She blinded tiresais because she came across Her while she was bathing Symbols: Olive tree, Owl Pandora Demi-Goddess Sent by Zeus to trick Epimethius and punish mankind got accepting the gift of fire from Prometheus she opened the jar given by Zeus and released all of the evils into the world First woman who was formed out of clay by the gods No Roman Name available! head god, god of the heavens (Mount Olympus), Brothers = Hades and Poseidon, Wife = Hera, Symbols: Lightning bolt, Shield, Oak tree, Bull, Eagle and Lightning. Poseidon Symbols: the trident, sea, and horeses. God of water and sea The son of Cronus and Rhea His brothers and sisters include: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Zeus. Atalanta Speedy athlete, Good hunter, Great Fighter eventually married to Hippomenes who overcame her in a foot race Hades God and ruler of the under world Siblings: Hera, Demeter, Zeus, Poseidon, Hestia,  Very Rich and Immortal God of metals and fires, rules over volcanoes Roman Name: Vulcan Sacred objects: fire, blacksmith’s hammer He is the only ugly god; he has physical deformities. He makes the armor for all the gods Hermes God of trade and trees Messenger of the gods He  has magical winged shoes Symbols: Wings and a Wand Psyche  Lived happily with her sisters until Eros took her away She didn’t know that Eros was her invisible lover so one night shesnuck into his room while he was sleeping and shone a light on him, instantlythe palace vanished She was heartbroken so she begged at Aphrodite to let them be together, Aphrodite attempted killing her by giving her the temptation to smell some socalled beauty cream, she opened it up and It was really the sleep of death Zeus revived her and Psyche became immortal so she and Eros could be together Symbols butterfly wings Is the God of Love Roman Name: Cupid Symbols: heart, and Baby Is specialized to make people fall in love byshooting them with arrows Hewas sent to make psyche fall in love with a monster but he got grazed with hisown arrow and fell in love with her instead he ended up marrying her and psychegot turned immortal by Zeus Persephone Symbols: Spring and New Growth Captured by Pluto Ate pomegranate seeds from Pluto’s garden, so couldn't escape underworld permanently Zeus made deal that ½ o year lives with him in underworld, ½ lives with mother there fore creating seasons Advertisement God of wine celebration, and theater Roman Name: Bacchus Travels around the world teaching people how tomake wine out of grapes Fun loving and irresponsible Satyrswhen drunk chase nymphs and girls Symbols: Cup with wine Symbols: bronze tipped spear, sword and shield Parents: Zeus and Hera Took shape of a boar and killed Adonis because he thought Aphrodite loved Adonis morethan himself Is Violent and eager for a fight Echo A tree nymph who distracted Hera to let her friendsget away Herawas really angry so she made it so echo could only say the endings of otherpeoples words and could never say her own this was bad for echo because sheloved to talk and she was sad for the rest of her life Prometheus  Created the bronze race Fought with Zeus Against Cronos He tricked Zeus to give the mortals more food andhe stole fire from Zeus and gave it to the mortals He was punished by being hooked to a ROCK and have a eagle come and rip out hisliver every day but at night his liver would grow back and he would suffer thesame pain the next day Bronze Race 3rd race: Created By Prometheus, Is the race that lives today. Always growing in population. FirstHuman Shaped Life Forums On Earth Golden Race 1st Race: Lived in the day of Cronus. Happy & blessed and at death became spirits on earth, watching over and protecting mortals. Similar to life before Zeus sent down Pandora.  Silver Race 2nd race: Worse than Golden Race. A child would stay young for 100 years and then grow up, suddenly age, and die. Acted with violence and didnt respect the gods. when they died they became spirits who lived underground Medusa the most famous of three sisters, all of whom were Gorgons, which are monsters who have snakes for hair; looking directly at her would cause one to change to stone; she was slain by Perseus. Perseus Perseus was the Greek hero who killed the Gorgon Medusa, and claimed Andromeda, having rescued her from a sea monster sent by Poseidon in retribution for Queen Cassiopeia declaring herself more beautiful than the sea nymphs. Artemis Moon Goddess in charge of movement across the sky, and goddess of the hunt Roman Name: Diana
ESO 3.6 m Telescope
The Swaythling Cup for men and the Corbillon Cup for women are the World Team Championships in which racket sport?
Goddess of the Chase | Devdutt Goddess of the Chase First City, New Delhi, Mythos, Nov 2007 Just after midnight on August 31, 1997, in Paris, a car carrying Diana, Princess of Wales, went out of control in a Paris tunnel and crashed. She died in a hospital soon after. The world reacted. In his emotionally charged eulogy, Diana’s brother, the 9th Earl Spencer referred to the irony of the situation: she who was named after the goddess of the chase ended up being killed in a chase. Known in Greek mythology as Artemis, the Roman goddess Diana was the goddess of the chase. Armed with a silver bow she ran free through the forests with her hunting hounds chasing stags and bears. She represented freedom of the wilderness. She would never be chased. She would never be tamed. She was therefore a virgin goddess, with no male companion who would tie her down. Unlike Aphrodite, known to Romans as Venus, this goddess was not sexy or romantic. Unlike Athena, known to Romans as Minerva, she was not an intellectual.  Unlike Hera, known to Romans as Juno, she was certainly not homely or maternal. Among the epithets given to Artemis are: Potnia Theron (mistress of wild animals) this title was mentioned by the great poet Homer; Kourotrophos (nurse of youth’s); Locheia (helper in childbirth); Agrotera (huntress); and Cynthia (taken from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos). Artemis was worshiped in most Greek cities but only as a secondary deity. However, to the Greeks in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) she was a prominent deity. In Ephesus, a principal city of Asia Minor, a great temple was built in her honor, which became one of the “Seven Wonders of the Ancient World”. But at Ephesus she was worshiped mainly as a fertility goddess, and was identified with Cybele the mother goddess of eastern lands. The cult statues of the Ephesian Artemis differ greatly from those of mainland Greece, where she is depicted as a huntress with her bow and arrows. Those found at Ephesus show her in the eastern style, standing erect with numerous nodes on her chest. There have been many theories as to what they represent. Some say they are breasts, others that they are bulls testes which were sacrificed to her. Which is the true interpretation remains uncertain, but each represent fertility. Perhaps, she celebrated female fertility (multiple breasts) and was in favor of control of male fertility (castrated testicles), the very opposite of ancient Greek and Roman societies where the onus of remaining chaste fell on women more than men. Artemis/Diana was the elder twin of Apollo. He was the god of the sun; she was the goddess of the moon. He was a feminine man; she was a masculine woman. He was the classical Greek god whose beautiful body still inspires male models. She was the classical goddess whose attitude inspires all feminists.  Their mother was Leto,   daughter of the older gods, the Titans and their father was Zeus, king of the latter gods, the Olympians. Zeus’ wife, Hera, was not amused when she learnt that her husband was the father of Leto’s unborn child. So she forbade all land that had been touched by the sun from allowing Leto to deliver her children on them. A desperate Leto cried out to Zeus who caused an island, later named Delos, to rise from under the ocean. Untouched by the sun, this island could allow Leto to deliver her children on it, without incurring Hera’s wrath. Leto gave birth to Artemis/Diana without any pain. When Hera saw Leto’s newborn child, she was so furious that she abducted Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth. As a result, Leto’s second child, Apollo, took a long time to be born. Leto suffered the delivery pain greatly until Artemis/Diana, born just a day earlier, came to her rescue. Holding her hand, Leto give birth to her son. Some say, having witnessed her mother’s suffering during childbirth barely a day after her birth, Artemis/Diana decided never to become a mother. That is why she remained the virgin goddess. At the same time, she was not against marriage and went out of her way to help women in labor. After the birth of the children, Hera sent a python to eat the twins. The python had earlier chased Leto out of all lands touched by the sun. The twins were not afraid of the monster; though children, they were able to raise their bows and shoot the python dead. Not much is known about Leto after she gave birth to her famous children.  But she was most unhappy when a queen called Niobe mocked her saying that Leto had borne only one boy and one girl while she, a mere mortal, had given birth to six sons and six daughters. To please their mother, Apollo and Artemis/Diana attacked and killed all of Niobe’s 12 children. A distraught Niobe wept so much before she died that her tears gave rise to a river. Soon after her birth, Artemis/Diana asked her father, Zeus, that she get a silver bow, hunting hounds, a chariot pulled by a stag and nymphs as companions. Like her, they were all sworn to chastity. Some say the band of women who accompanied this goddess were not sensuous nymphs but stern amazons, warrior women who held men in great contempt. Artemis/Diana did not like her female companions mixing with men leading to conjectures that she was a lesbian goddess. According to one story, she killed Orion who tried to rape one of her companions. Another time, she caught Actaeon ogling at her from behind bushes as she bathed. She turned him into a stag that was chased and killed by his own hunting hounds. For the same crime of ogling at her secretly, the goddess turned another man called Siproites into a woman who then joined her band. One companion called Callisto once let herself be seduced by who she thought was Artemis/Diana (a tale which reaffirms the comfort of the goddess with same-sex affection and intimacy). But it was actually Zeus himself who had tricked her thus. An angry Artemis/Diana turned Callisto into a bear. Zeus, to make amends, placed her in the sky as the Great Bear constellation. The maternal side of Artemis is revealed in the tale of how she saved the infant Atlanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. The goddess sent a female bear to suckle the baby, who was then raised by hunters. Atlanta became a great runner; she could run so fast that she could sprint over waves of the sea. She was also a good hunter; part of many a hunt and adventure. Many believe, that though raised as Artemis/Diana’s daughter, she was also one of Artemis/Diana’s many female companions, and probably her lover. Artemis/Diana was very touchy in the matter of her hunting abilities. Adonis, the beautiful lover of Aphrodite, goddess of love, once boasted he was a better hunter than Artemis/Diana. The goddess sent a boar that gored the handsome man to death. She was also very possessive. When Agamemnon killer a deer in her forest, she caused a great storm that prevented Agamemnon’s ships from sailing to Troy. Only when Agamemnon apologized by sacrificing his daughter, who became priestess to the goddess, did the sea calm down again. When young Greek girls reached puberty they were initiated into her cult; but when they decided to marry (which Artemis was not against) they were asked to lay all the paraphernalia of their virginity (toys, dolls and locks of their hair) in front of the altar. They then left the domain of the virgin goddess. Share:
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Which Scottish monarch was killed at the Battle of Flodden Field in 1513?
Battle of Flodden Field 1513. Photo: Bamburgh Castle photographed by David Simpson Photo: Hadrian's Wall photographed by David Simpson The Battle of Flodden Field THE `AULD ALLIANCE' The Battle of Flodden Field, was undoubtedly the most famous battle ever fought on Northumbrian soil. It took place eight miles north west of Wooler near the village of Branxton on the 9th September 1513 during the reign of Henry VIII. In 1513 England was at war with France and it was the Queen of that country who persuaded King James IV of Scotland to renew the `auld alliance' and assist the French, by invading northern England. Money and arms were sent to Scotland from France in the following months, enabling King James to build up an army for a large scale invasion of England. In August 1513 the first minor battle took place on Milfield Plain near Wooler , in which an army of Scots under Lord Home, were heavily defeated. The English knew however, that this was only a `warm up' for a greater battle which would inevitably follow. KING JAMES INVADES On the 22nd August King James of Scotland crossed the River Tweed at Coldstream entering England with an army of between 60,000 to 100,000 men who burned the fortress of Norham on Tweed and the Tillside castles of Ford and Etal. The reason King James gave for the invasion, was revenge for the murder of Robert Kerr, a Warden of the Scottish East March who had been killed in a fray by a Northumbrian called John `the Bastard' Heron in 1508. King James made Ford Castle, (a Northumbrian stronghold of the Heron family ), his battle headquarters, where only the lady of the house Eklizabeth Heron was present. For a number of days the king remained at Ford while his men rested. During this time the king is said to have been fully occupied by the amorous attentions of Lady Heron. Whatever the King's battle intentions may have been at Ford, his actions so far had amounted to little more than a large scale border raid. In fact many of his men had already returned home to Scotland with booty of English goods and livestock. THE ENGLISH PREPARE FOR WAR Meanwhile, the English were busy preparing for battle further to the south. Thomas Howard, the Earl of Surrey, who had been left in charge of the defence of England, while Henry VIII was away fighting in France mustered forces in London and marched north to Pontefact, where he held a Council of War. Here he was joined by the fighting men of Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire. From here Surrey marched on to Durham where he prayed before the shrine of St Cuthbert in the Cathedral and collected the sacred banner of the saint, which was always good for morale in time of war. Surrey then continued north to Newcastle , where he was joined by the men of Northumberland and Durham, including the retainers of Percy, Lord Dacre, the Bishop of Durham and of William Bulmer of Brancepeth. Henry Percy, `the Magnificent' Fifth Earl of Northumberland, (a descendant of Hotspur), did not take part in the battle, since he was away in France helping the king with the siege of Therouenne and Tournay, but the Earl's brothers, Lionel and William Percy did join up with Surrey's men. Other additions to the English army included a crack regiment of archers under Sir Edward Stanley and the men of the Lord Admiral, Thomas Howard, who was Surrey's eldest son. He in turn was supported by his younger brother Edmund. Marching north Surrey's men stopped first at Alnwick and then continued north to Wooler , where they began to prepare for battle. A CAMP ON FLODDEN HILL By this time King James had moved from his headquarters at Ford Castle and had crossed to the western side of the River Till where he set up camp on the top of Flodden Hill. To here the English sent a messenger challenging the Scots to meet them in battle on Milfield Plain north of Wooler , but the Scots refused as they were not willing to vacate their advantageous lofty position for the flat levels of Milfield. For the time being at least, they remained where they were. By this stage the English and Scottish forces were roughly equal, with around 30,000 men each. THE DAY OF THE BATTLE On the following drizzly morning of Friday 9th September, 1513 the English began assembled for battle and in two parties made their way north, along the eastern flank of the River Till . The rearguard crossed the river by a ford at Heaton Castle (now gone), the vanguard crossed further north at Twizell Bridge. All this took place in full view of King James. Sir Walter Scott sets the scene; From Flodden ridge, The Scots beheld the English host Leave Barmoor Wood, their evening post And headful watched them as they crossed The Till by Twizell Bridge. High sight it is, and haughty, while They dive into the deep defile; Beneath the cavern'd cliff they fall, Beneath the castle's airy wall. By rock, by oak, by Hawthorn tree, Troop after troop are disappearing; Troop after troop their banners rearing Upon the eastern bank you see. Still pouring down the rocky glen, Where flows the sullen Till, And rising from the dim-wood glen, Standards on standards, men on men, In slow procession still, And sweeping o'er the Gothic arch, And pressing on in ceaseless march, To gain the opposing hill. Although king James could clearly see the movements of the English as they crossed the River Till , for some reason he decided against attacking them at this early stage, when the enemy was at its most vulnerable. Instead James ordered the burning of camp refuse, creating a dense wall of smoke, which temporarily blocked out the English view of his movements. When the smoke finally cleared the entire Scottish army had moved their position northward from Flodden Hill to the adjacent Branxton Hill. It is worth noting that the Battle of Flodden, was in fact known for many centuries as the `Battle of Branxton'. It was an important move by James, since the English could well have planned to occupy Branxton Hill as Sir Walter Scott suggests in the poem, but now all that lay between them and he Scots was flatter land. This meant that when the English attacked they would have to fight their way up hill, the Scots had the advantage of being able to charge down the slope against their enemy. Before the English could contemplate battle and get anywhere near the Scots they had to cross one major obstacle, a large marshy area formed by the Pallinsburn, a tributary of the River Till . James thought this would hold the English up and tire them out but he was mistaken, the English had men with knowledge of the local countryside and the mossy area was quickly negotiated by means of the Branxton Bridge, a feature unknown to King James. The English began to assemble in a field at the foot of Branxton Hill with the awesome sight of the Scots looking down upon them. THE BATTLE COMMENCES : A BORDER FRAY The time was four o' clock in the afternoon, when the Scots opened fire on the English, who looked so vulnerable down below. The battle commenced. Almost immediately the inexperience of the Scottish gunmen became apparent. Unable to handle their cumbersome artillery the Scots were missing their targets while the English fired back with much greater precission, until gradually the Scottish guns and gunmen, were blown to pieces. James was quick to react, he noticed a weakness in the right wing of the English army, a section of mainly Lancashire and Cheshire men under Edmund Howard, whose men looked rather disorganised, hungry and a long way from home. Edmund's men were supposed to have been backed up by a reserve of English borderers under Lord Dacre, but these men seemed to have fled the battle scene. James ordered the Scottish left wing, composed mainly of Scottish borderers, under the leadership of Lord Home , to attack this English `Achilles Heal'. Home's men gladly obliged and went charging down the hill towards the English right wing, causing most of Edmund's men to flee. The brave who remained were quickly slaughtrered. Fortunately for the English, Lord Dacre and his English borderers reappeared on the scene, rescued Edmund and engaged themselves in a battle with their Scottish counterparts. John Heron and his men gave added support. So the opening stages of the battle resembled a kind of grand border fray, with many of the familiar border reiving families, involved in the action. Meanwhile the remainder of the English right wing, under the leadership of Surrey's eldest son, the Lord Admiral, now came under attack from the Scottish section, led by Lords Crawford and Errol, the Battle was now well under way. KING JAMES ATTACKS King James excited by the scene before him was impatient to get involved with the action. In a moment of irrational impulse he wildly led his Scottish centre charging down the hill towards the English centre commanded by the Earl of Surrey. The sight of King James and his men must have struck terror in the English hearts, but they stood their ground and greeted the charge with an onslaught of arrows. At the base of the hill the Scottish charge was considerably slowed down and almost brought to a halt by an unexpected ridge and boggy area at the foot of the hill. This was a stroke of luck for the English, for it meant that the Scottish charge had lost is momentum. A fierce battle now began at the base of the hill. Now only the Scottish right wing and English left wings were not engaged in battle. This time the English took the initiative with Edward Stanley marching his men up Branxton Hill towards the Scots at the top. Here the Scots army was comprised of fierce looking highland clansmen, under the leadership of the Earls Lennox and Argyle, but Stanley's skilled fighting men were too much for the highlander's. Some fled for their lives, while others including the chiefs of the Campbells and the McCleans, who remained, were slain. Defeat was occuring all around for the unfortunate Scots, so the king desperately began charging towards the English banners held high where the English leaders were located. His actions proved fatal, he was felled from his horse almost unrecognised by his enemies. The following morning he was to become one of ten thousand Scottish victims who lay dead on the battle field. THE ATTITUDE OF THE BORDERERS Amidst all this slaughter, it is interesting to note the attitudes of the Border Reiver factions of the English and Scottish armies, who showed their true colours, as the fight progressed. Mosstroopers and reivers from both nations, most notably from the dales of Tyne and Teviot, gathered together under the leadership of Lord Home and began stripping the slain of their possessions and plundering the baggage of both armies as the night of fighting continued. National pride and identity were seemingly a low priority of the Borderers in those days gone by. A VICTORY FOR THE ENGLISH The Battle of Flodden was a decisive victory for the English. For the Scots it had been a disaster, with many of the most important members of Scottish society killed or slain in the conflict. The Scottish dead included twelve earls, fifteen lords, many clan chiefs an archbishop and above all King James himself. It is said that every great family in Scotland mourned the loss of someone at the Battle of Flodden. The dead were remembered in the famous Scottish pipe tune The Flowers of the Forest; We'll here nae mair lilting at our ewe milking, Women and bairns are heartless and wae, Sighing and moaning on a ilka green loaning, The flowers of the forest are a wede away. Today a large granite cross marks the site of the Battle of Flodden. It is touchingly inscribed; TO THE BRAVE OF BOTH NATIONS  
James IV of Scotland
There is one family of mammals that contains only two species: the Okapi and which other?
Battle of Flodden - definition of Battle of Flodden by The Free Dictionary Battle of Flodden - definition of Battle of Flodden by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Battle+of+Flodden Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Flod·den  (flŏd′n) A hill of northern England near the Scottish border. It was the site of the Battle of Flodden Field (September 9, 1513) in which the English defeated the Scots under James IV, who was killed there. Flodden (ˈflɒdən) n (Placename) a hill in Northumberland where invading Scots were defeated by the English in 1513 and James IV of Scotland was killed. Also called: Flodden Field Flod•den (ˈflɒd n) n. a hill in NE England, in Northumberland county: the invading Scots were defeated here by the English, 1513. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. Flodden - a hill in Northumberland where the invading Scots were defeated by the English in 1513 Northumberland - the northernmost county of England; has many Roman remains (including Hadrian's Wall) 2. Battle of Flodden Field England - a division of the United Kingdom Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: REVIEWS It's of James IV on his horse just before the Battle of Flodden. MY FAVE THINGS; JOE GIBBS PICKS OUT HIGHLIGHTS OF HIS HOME; PEEK IN YOUR PAD; RIGHT AT HOME The Battle of Flodden, near Branxton, on September 9, 1513, was the last great medieval clash in Britain and ended disastrously for the Scots, with the king and much of the nation's nobility among 10,000 killed in two hours of brutal, mostly hand-to-hand combat.
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Described in some versions of the myth as the daughter of Nyx, goddess of the night, who was the Greek goddess of divine retribution?
NEMESIS - Greek Goddess of Retribution & Indignation NEMESIS Dispenser of Dues Nemesis and Tyche, Athenian red-figure amphora C5th B.C., Antikensammlung Berlin NEMESIS was the goddess of indignation against, and retribution for, evil deeds and undeserved good fortune. She was a personification of the resentment aroused in men by those who commited crimes with apparent impunity, or who had inordinate good fortune. Nemesis directed human affairs in such a way as to maintain equilibrium. Her name means she who distributes or deals out. Happiness and unhappiness were measured out by her, care being taken that happiness was not too frequent or too excessive. If this happened, Nemesis could bring about losses and suffering. As one who checked extravagant favours by Tykhe (Tyche) (Fortune), Nemesis was regarded as an avenging or punishing divinity. In myth Nemesis was particularly concerned with matters of love. She appears as an avenging agent in the stories of Narkissos and Nikaia, whose callous actions brought about the death of their wooers. In some versions of the Trojan War, she was the mother of Helene, and is shown in scenes of her seduction by Paris pointing an accusing finger at the girl. Nemesis was often sometimes depicted as a winged goddess. Her attributes were apple-branch, rein, lash, sword, or balance. Her name was derived from the Greek words nemêsis and nemô, meaning "dispenser of dues." The Romans usually used the Greek name of the goddess but sometimes also named her Invidia (Jealousy) and Rivalitas (Jealous Rivalry). FAMILY OF NEMESIS [1.1] NYX (no father) (Hesiod Theogony 223, Pausanias 7.5.3) [1.2] EREBOS & NYX (Hyginus Preface, Cicero De Natura Deorum 3.17) [2.1] OKEANOS (Pausanias 7.5.3, Nonnus Dionysiaca 48.375, Tzetzes on Lycophron 88) [3.1] ZEUS (Homerica Cypria Frag 8) OFFSPRING [2.1] THE TELKHINES (by Tartaros ) (Bacchylides Frag 52) ENCYCLOPEDIA NE′MESIS (Nemesis), is most commonly described as a daughter of Night, though some call her a daughter of Erebus (Hygin. Fab. Praef.) or of Oceanus (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 88; Paus. i. 33. § 3, vii. 5. § 1). Nemesis is a personification of the moral reverence for law, of the natural fear of committing a culpable action, and hence of conscience, and for this reason she is mentioned along with Aidôs, i. e. Shame (Hes. Theog. 223, Op. et D. 183). In later writers, as Herodotus and Pindar, Nemesis is a kind of fatal divinity, for she directs human affairs in such a manner as to restore the right proportions or equilibrium wherever it has been disturbed; she measures out happiness and unhappiness, and he who is blessed with too many or too frequent gifts of fortune, is visited by her with losses and sufferings, in order that he may become humble, and feel that there are bounds beyond which human happiness cannot proceed with safety. This notion arose from a belief that the gods were envious of excessive human happiness (Herod. i. 34, iii. 40; Pind. Ol. viii. in fin., Pyth. x. 67). Nemesis was thus a check upon extravagant favours conferred upon man by Tyche or Fortune, and from this idea lastly arose that of her being an avenging and punishing power of fate, who, like Dike and the Erinyes, sooner or later overtakes the reckless sinner (Apollon. Rhod. iv. 1043; Sophocl. Philoct. 518; Eurip. Orest. 1362; Catull. 50, in fin.; Orph. Hymn. 60). The inhabitants of Smyrna worshipped two Nemeses, both of whom were daughters of Night (Paus. vii. 5. § 1). She is frequently mentioned under the surnames Adrasteia and Rhamnusia or Rhamnusis, the latter of which she derived from the town of Rhamnus in Attica, where she had a celebrated sanctuary (Paus. i. 33. § 2). Besides the places already mentioned she was worshipped at Patrae (Paus. vii. 20, in fin.) and at Cyzicus (Strab. p. 588). She was usually represented in works of art as a virgin divinity, and in the more ancient works she seems to have resembled Aphrodite, whereas in the later ones she was more grave and serious, and had numerous attributes. But there is an allegorical tradition that Zeus begot by Nemesis at Rhamnus an egg, which Leda found, and from which Helena and the Dioscuri sprang, whence Helena herself is called Rhamnusis (Callim. Hymn. in Dian. 232; Paus. i. 33. § 7). On the pedestal of the Rhamnusian Nemesis, Leda was represented leading Helena to Nemesis (Paus. l. c.) Respecting the resemblance between her statue and that of Aphrodite, see Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 4; comp. Paus. i. 33. § 2; Strab. pp. 396, 399.) The Rhamnusian statue bore in its left hand a branch of an apple tree, in its right hand a patera, and on its head a crown, adorned with stags and an image of victory. Sometimes she appears in a pensive standing attitude, holding in her left hand a bridle or a branch of an ash tree, and in her right a wheel, with a sword or a scourge. ADRASTEIA (Adrasteia). A surname of Nemesis, which is derived by some writers from Adrastus, who is said to have built the first sanctuary of Nemesis on the river Asopus (Strab. xiii. p. 588), and by others from the verb didraskein, according to which it would signify the goddess whom none can escape. (Valcken. ad Herod. iii. 40.) ICHNAEA (Ichnaia), that is, the tracing goddess, occurs as a surname of Themis, though in her case it may have been derived from the town of Ichnae, where she was worshipped (Hom. Hymn. in Apoll. Del. 94; Lycoph. 129; Strab. ix. p. 435 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. Ichnai), and a surname of Nemesis. (Brunck, Anal. ii. pp. 1. 86.) RHAMNU′SIA a surname of Nemesis, who had a celebrated temple at Rhamnus in Attica. (Paus. i. 33. § 2, vii. 5. § 3; Strab. ix. p. 396, &c.; Steph. Byz. s.v.) Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES Nemesis and Eutychia, Athenian red-figure hydria C5th B.C., Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe I. DAUGHTER OF NYX Hesiod, Theogony 21 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And Nyx (Night) bare hateful Moros (Doom) and black Ker (Violent Death) and Thanatos (Death), and she bare Hypnos (Sleep) and the tribe of Oneiroi (Dreams). And again the goddess murky Nyx, though she lay with none, bare Momos (Blame) and painful Oizys (Misery), and the Hesperides . . . Also she bare the Moirai (Moirae, Fates) and the ruthless avenging Keres (Death-Fates) . . . Also deadly Nyx bare Nemesis (Envy) to afflict mortal men, and after her, Apate (Deceit) and Philotes (Friendship) and hateful Geras (Old Age) and hard-hearted Eris (Strife)." Pausanias, Description of Greece 7. 5. 3 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "[The people of Smyrna in Aiolia (Aeolia) in Anatolia] believe in two Nemeses instead of one, saying their mother is Nyx." Pseudo-Hyginus, Preface (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "From Nox (Night) and Erebus : Fatum (Fate), Senectus (Old Age), Mors (Death), Letum (Dissolution), Continentia (Moderation), Somnus (Sleep), Somnia (Dreams), Amor (Love)--that is Lysimeles--, Epiphron (Prudence), Porphyrion, Epaphus, Discordia (Discord), Miseria (Misery), Petulantia (Wantonness), Nemesis (Retribution), Euphrosyne (Good Cheer), Amicitia (Friendship), Misericordia (Compassion), Styx (Hatred); the three Parcae (Fates), namely Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos; the Hesperides Aegle, Hesperie and Aerica." [N.B. The Greek name Nemesis is used by this Roman writer.] Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3. 17 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician C1st B.C.) : "Their [Aether and Hemera's] brothers and sisters, whom the ancient genealogists name Amor (Love), Dolus (Guile), Metus (Fear), Labor (Toil), Invidentia (Envy) [i.e. Nemesis], Fatum (Fate), Senectus (Old Age), Mors (Death), Tenebrae (Darkness), Miseria (Misery), Querella (Complaint), Gratia (Favour), Fraus (Fraud), Pertinacia (Obstinacy), the Parcae (Fates), the Hesperides, the Somnia (Dreams): all of these are fabled to be the children of Erebus (Darkness) and Nox (Night)." [N.B. Cicero names Nemesis Invidentia in this Latin text.] II. DAUGHTER OF OCEANUS (OKEANOS) Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 33. 4 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "Okeanos (Oceanus) is the father of Nemesis [of Rhamnos]." Pausanias, Description of Greece 7. 5. 3 : "The Athenians say that the father of the goddess in Rhamnos [Nemesis] is Okeanos (Oceanus)." III. DAUGHTER OF ZEUS Stasinus of Cyprus or Hegesias of Aegina, Cypria Fragment 8 (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th or C6th B.C.) : "Nemesis tried to escape him [Zeus] and liked not to lie in love with her father Zeus the son of Kronos (Cronus)." NEMESIS MOTHER OF HELEN OF TROY Stasinus of Cyprus or Hegesias of Aegina, Cypria Fragment 8 (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th or C6th B.C.) : "Rich-haired Nemesis gave birth to her [Helene (Helen)] when she had been joined in love with Zeus the king of the gods by harsh violence. For Nemesis tried to escape him and liked not to lie in love with her father Zeus the son of Kronos (Cronus); for shame and indignation vexed her heart: therefore she fled him over the land and fruitless dark sea. But Zeus ever pursued and longed in his heart to catch her. Now she took the form of a fish and sped over the waves of the loud-roaring sea, and now over Okeanos' (Oceanus') stream and the furthest bounds of Earth, and now she sped over the furrowed land, always turning into such dread creatures as the dry land nurtures, that she might escape him." Lycophron, Alexandra 86 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek poet C3rd B.C.) : "I see the winged firebrand [Paris] rushing to seize the dove [Helene], the hound of Pephnos, whom the water-roaming vulture [i.e. Nemesis in the form of a goose] brought to birth, husked in a rounded shell." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 127 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Nemesis, as she fled from Zeus' embrace, took the form of a goose; whereupon Zeus as a swan had intercourse with her. From this union she laid an egg, which some herdsman found among the trees and handed over to Lede (Leda). She kept it in a box, and when Helene was hatched after the proper length of time, she reared her as her own." Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 33. 4 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "I will now go on to describe what is figures on the pedestal of the statue [of Nemesis at Rhamnos], having made this preface for the sake of clearness. The Greeks say that Nemesis was the mother of Helene (Helen), while Leda suckled and nursed her. The father of Helene the Greeks like everybody else hold to be not Tyndareos (Tyndareus) but Zeus. Having heard this legend [the sculptor] Pheidias has represented Helene as being led to Nemesis by Leda, and he has represented Tyndareos and his children." Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 8 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Constellation Swan (Cygnus). When Jupiter [Zeus], moved by desire, had begun to love Nemesis, and couldn't persuade her to lie with him, he relieved his passion by the following plan. He bade Venus [Aphrodite], in the form of an eagle, pursue him; he, changed to a swan, as if in flight from the eagle, took refuge with Nemesis and lighted in her lap. Nemesis did not thrust him away, but holding him in her arms, fell into a deep sleep. While she slept, Jupiter [Zeus] embraced her, and then flew away. Because he was seen by men flying high in the sky, they said he was put in the stars. To make this really true, Jupiter put the swan flying and the eagle pursuing in the sky. But Nemesis, as if wedded to the tribe of birds, when her months were ended, bore an egg. Mercurius (Mercury) [Hermes] took it away and carried it to Sparta and threw it in Leda's lap. From it sprang Helen, who excelled all other girls in beauty." OTHER CHILDREN OF NEMESIS Bacchylides, Fragment 52 (from Tzetzes on Theogony) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric IV) (Greek lyric C5th B.C.) : "The four famous Telkhines (Telchines), Aktaios (Actaeus), Megalesios (Megalesius), Ormenos (Ormenus) and Lykos (Lycus), whom Bakkhylides (Bacchylides) calls the children of Nemesis and Tartaros." [N.B. Tartaros is the spirit of the great pit beneath the earth.] NEMESIS GODDESS OF INDIGNATION & PUNISHER OF HUBRIS Nemesis and the Dioscuri in the Underworld, Apulian red-figure volute krater C4th B.C., Staatliche Antikensammlungen Nemesis was the goddess of righteous indignation and the punisher of hubristic boasts. Hesiod, Works and Days 175 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "Would that I were not among the men of the fifth age, but either had died before or been born afterwards. For now truly is a race of iron, and men never rest from labour (kamatos) and sorrow (oizys) by day, and from perishing by night; and the gods shall lay sore trouble upon them. But, notwithstanding, even these shall have some good mingled with their evils. And Zeus will destroy this race of mortal men also when they come to have grey hair on the temples at their birth. The father will not agree with his children, nor the children with their father, nor guest with his host, nor comrade with comrade; nor will brother be dear to brother as aforetime. Men will dishonour their parents as they grow quickly old, and will carp at them, chiding them with bitter words, hard-hearted they, not knowing the fear of the gods. They will not repay their aged parents the cost their nurture, for might shall be their right: and one man will sack another's city. There will be no favour (kharis) for the man who keeps his oath or for the just (dikaios) or for the good (agathos); but rather men will praise the evil-doer (kakos) and his violent dealing (hybris). Strength will be right (dike) and reverence (aidos) will cease to be; and the wicked will hurt the worthy man, speaking false words against him, and will swear an oath upon them. Envy (zelos), foul-mouthed, delighting in evil, with scowling face, will go along with wretched men one and all. And then Aidos (Aedos, Shame) and Nemesis (Indignation), with their sweet forms wrapped in white robes, will go from the wide-pathed earth and forsake mankind to join the company of the deathless gods: and bitter sorrows (lugra algea) will be left for mortal men, and there will be no help against evil." Pindar, Olympian Ode 8. 86 ff (trans. Conway) (Greek lyric C5th B.C.) : "I pray that to their share of noble fortunes he [Zeus] send no Nemesis of jealous will, but in prosperity and free from ills, exalt them and their city." Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 932 ff (trans. Weir Smyth) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) : "Chorus : How is it that you are not afraid to utter such taunts [against Zeus]? Prometheus : Why should I fear since I am fated not to die? Chorus : But he might inflict on you an ordeal even more bitter than this. Prometheus : Let him, for all I care! I am prepared for anything. Choru s: Wise are they who do homage to Adrasteia (the Inescapable)." [N.B. Adrasteia is Nemesis. To bow down before Adrasteia means seeking to avert, by some gesture of humility, the evil consequences of boastful speech.] Aeschylus, Fragment 79 Niobe (from Strabo, Geography 12. 7. 18) : "[Tantalos (Tantalus), the father of Niobe, speaks :] ‘I sow a field twelve days' journey wide, even the Berekynthian (Berecynthian) land, where Adrasteia's seat and Ida resound with lowing oxen and bleating sheep, and the whole plain roars.’" [N.B. "Adrasteia's seat" refers to the Trojan town of that name where the goddess Adrasteia-Nemesis was worshipped. In the story of Niobe, Nemesis represents the indignation of the gods aroused by her impious boasts.] Aeschylus, Fragment 148 Ransom of Hector (from Stobaeus, Anthology 4. 57. 6) : "[Hermes commands Akhilleus (Achilles) return the body of Hektor (Hector) :] ‘And it unto the dead thou art fain to do good, or if thou wouldst work them ill--'tis all one, since they feel not or joy or grief. Nevertheless Nemesis (our righteous resentment) is mightier than they, and Dike (Justice) executeth the dead man's wrath.’" Plato, Laws 716c (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) : "Throughout all his life he must diligently observe reverence of speech towards his parents above all things, seeing that for light and winged words there is a most heavy penalty,--for over all such matters Nemesis (Rightful Indignation), messenger of Dike (Justice), is appointed to keep watch; wherefore the son must yield to his parents when they are wroth." Callimachus, Fragment 687 (trans. Trypanis) (Greek poet C3rd B.C.) : "Goddess [Nemesis], for whom the women spit on their bosoms." [N.B. It was a custom to exorcize the goddess to avert jealousy.] Callimachus, Hymn 6 to Demeter 57 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek poet C3rd B.C.) : "[The impious king Erysikhthon (Erysichthon) felled trees in the sacred grove of the goddess Demeter to build himself a banquet hall :] Demeter marked that her holy tree was in pain, and she as angered and said : ‘Who cuts down my fir tree?’ Straightway she likened her to [the priestess] Nikippe (Nicippe) . . . And she spake to soothe the wicked and shameless man and said : ‘My child, who cutest down the trees which are dedicated to the gods, stay, my child, child of thy parents' many prayers, cease and turn back thine attendants, lest the lady Demeter be angered, whose holy place thou makest desolate.’ But with a look more fierce than that wherewith a lioness looks on the hunter on the hills of Tmaros--a lioness with new-born cubs, whose eye they say is of all most terrible--he said : ‘Vie back, lest I fix my great axe in thy flesh! These trees shall make my tight dwelling wherein evermore I shall hold pleasing banquets enough for my companions.’ So spake the youth and Nemesis (Righteous Indignation) recorded his evil speech. [Demeter then cursed the king with insatiable hunger.]" Orphic Hymn 61 to Nemesis (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "Hymn to Nemesis. Thee, Nemesis, I call, almighty queen, by whom the deeds of mortal life are seen: eternal, much revered, of boundless sight, alone rejoicing in the just and right : changing the counsels of the human breast for ever various, rolling without rest. To every mortal is thy influence known, and men beneath thy righteous bondage groan; for every thought within the mind concealed is to thy sight perspicuously revealed. The soul unwilling reason to obey, by lawless passion ruled, thine eyes survey. All to see, hear, and rule, O power divine, whose nature equity contains, is thine. Come, blessed, holy Goddess, hear my prayer, and make thy mystics' life thy constant care: give aid benignant in the needful hour, and strength abundant to the reasoning power; and far avert the dire, unfriendly race of counsels impious, arrogant, and base." Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 1. 25 (trans. Conybeare) (Greek biography C1st to C2nd A.D.) : "It is here [in a palace in Babylon] that the king gives judgement, and golden wrynecks are hung from the ceiling, four in number, to remind him of Adrasteia [Nemesis] and to engage him not exalt himself not to exalt himself above humanity." Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 402 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Narkissos (Narcissus) fled from the embrace of Ekho (Echo), mocking the Nymphe :] He bolted, shouting ‘Keep your arms from me! Be off! I'll die before I yield to you.’ . . . Shamed and rejected in the woods she hides and has her dwelling in the lonely caves [her body wasted away leaving just the echo of her voice] . . . Thus had Narcissus mocked her; others too, Nymphae (Nymphs) of Hill and Water and many a man he mocked; till one scorned youth, with raised hands, prayed, ‘So may he love--and never win his love!’ And Rhamnusia [Nemesis] approved the righteous prayer . . . [She then caused Narkissos to fall in love with his own reflection and waste away.]." Ovid, Metamorphoses 14. 693 ff : "And you should fear the vengeance of the gods, Idalie [Aphrodite] who hates a stony heart [conceited pride], the wrath, the unforgotten wrath of Rhamnusis [Nemesis]." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1. 481 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[The giant Typhoeus boasts about what he will do when he has conquered Olympos :] He spoke, and Adrasteia [Nemesis] took note of his words thus far." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 15. 392 & 417 ff : "[The Nymphe Nikaia (Nicaea) callously killed Hymnos (Hymnus), a young shepherd who had falled in love with her :] Adrasteia [Nemesis] saw the murderous girl [Nikaia], Adrasteia saw the body panting under the steel, and pointed out the newly slain corpse to the Kyprian (Cyprian) [Aphrodite], and upbraided Eros himself [at the injustice] . . . Both Pan Nomios (of Shepherds) and Phoibos (Phoebus) [Apollon] cried out aloud [when they saw Nikaia's crime] : ‘A curse on the fife! Where is Nemesis? Where is Kypris (Cypris)[Aphrodite]? Eros (Love), handle not your quiver.’" Nonnus, Dionysiaca 16. 263 ff : "Eros (Love) espied her [Nikaia (Nicaea)] sleeping, and pointed her out to Bakkhos (Bacchus), pitying Hymnos; Nemesis laughed at the sight. And sly Dionysos with shoes that made no noise crept soundless to his bridal." [N.B. Nikaia's punishment for killing Hymnos was to be raped by the god Dionysos.] Nonnus, Dionysiaca 37. 423 ff : "Such were the proud words that Akhates (Achates) shouted in mockery : but Nemesis recorded that big speech." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 375 ff : "[Aura, a companion of Artemis, arrogantly mocked the goddess, declaring herself to be superior in her virginity :] Artemis betook herself to Nemesis, and found her on the heights of Tauros (Taurus) in the clouds, where beside neighbouring Kydnos (Cydnus) she had ended the proudnecked boasting of Typhon's (Typhoeus') threats. A wheel turned itself round before the queen's feet, signifying that she rolls all the proud from on high to the ground with the avenging wheel of justice, she the allvanquishing deity who turns the path of life. Round her throne flew a bird of vengeance, a Gryps (Griffin) flying with wings, or balancing himself on four feet, to go unbidden before the flying goddess and show that she herself traverses the four separate quarters of the world: highcrested men she bridles with her bit which none can shake off, such is the meaning of the image, and she rolls a haughty fellow about as it were with the whip of misery, like a self-rolling wheel. When the goddess beheld Artemis with pallid face, she knew that she was offended and full of deadly threatenings, and questioned her in friendly words: ‘Your looks, Archeress, proclaim your anger. Artemis, what impious son of Earth persecutes you? What second Typhoeus has sprung up from the ground? [Nemesis recounts some of those punished by Artemis for their arrogance :] Has Tityos (Tityus) risen again rolling a lovemad eye, and touched the robe of your untouchable mother [Leto]? Where is your bow, Artemis, where are Apollon's arrows? What Orion is using force against you once more? The wretch that touched your dress still lies in his mother's flanks, a lifeless corpse; if any man has clutched your garments with lustful hands, grow another scorpion to avenge your girdle. If bold Otos (Otus) again, or boastful Ephialtes, has desired to win your love so far beyond his reach, then slay the pretender to your unwedded virginity. If some prolific wife provokes your mother Leto, let her weep for her children, another Niobe of stone. Why should not I make another stone on Sipylos? Is your father pestering you to marry as he did with Athena? Surely Kronion (Cronion) [Zeus] has not promised you to Hermes for a wife, as he promised pure Athena to Hephaistos (Hephaestus) in wedlock? But if some woman is persecuting you as one did your mother Leto, I will be the avenger of the offended Archeress.’ She had not finished, when the puppybreeding maiden broke in and said to the goddess who saves men from evil : ‘Virgin allvanquishing, guide of creation . . . it is that sour virgin Aura, the daughter of Lelantos (Lelantus), who mocks me and offends me with rude sharp words. But how can I tell you all she said? I am ashamed to describe her calumny of my body and her abuse of my breasts. I have suffered just as my mother did: we are both alike--in Phrygia Niobe offended Leto the mother of twins, in Phrygia again impious Aura offended me. But Niobe paid for it by passing into a changeling form, that daughter of Tantalos (Tantalus) whose children were her sorrow, and she still weeps with stony eyes; I alone am insulted and bear my disgrace without vengeance, but Aura the champion of chastity has washed no stone with tears, she has seen no fountain declaring the faults of her uncontrolled tongue. I pray you, uphold the dignity of your Titan birth. Grant me a boon like my mother, that I may see Aura's body transformed into stone immovable; leave not a maiden of your own race in sorrow, that I may not see Aura mocking me again and not to be turned--or let your sickle of beaten bronze drive her to madness!’ She spoke, and the goddess replied with encouraging words : ‘Chaste daughter of Leto, huntress, sister of Phoibos (Phoebus), I will not use my sickle to chastise a Titan girl, I will not make the maiden a stone in Phrygia, for I am myself born of the ancient race of Titanes (Titans) [i.e. Nemesis was a daughter of Okeanos (Oceanus)], and her father Lelantos might blame me when he heard: but one boon I will grant you, Archeress. Aura the maid of the hunt has reproached your virginity, and she shall be a virgin no longer. You shall see her in the bed of a mountain stream weeping fountains of tears for her maiden girdle.’ So she consoled her; and Artemis the maiden entered her car with its team of four prickets, left the mountain and drove back to Phrygia. With equal speed the maiden Adrasteia [Nemesis] pursued her obstinate enemy Aura. She had harnessed racing Grypes (Griffins) under her bridle; quick through the air she coursed in the swift car, until she tightened the curving bits of her fourfooted birds, and drew up on the peak of Sipylos in front of the face of Tantalos's daughter [Niobe] with eyeballs of stone. Then she approached haughty Aura. She flicked the proud neck of the hapless girl with her snaky whip, and struck her with the round wheel of justice, and bent the foolish unbending will. Argive Adrasteia (the Unavoidable) [Nemesis] let the whip with its vipers curl round the maiden's girdle, doing pleasure to Artemis and to Dionysos while he was still indignant; and although she was herself unacquainted with love [although Nemesis was later seduced by Zeus], she prepared another love . . . Nemesis now flew back to snowbeaten Tauros until she reached Kydnos (Cydnus) again. And Eros (Love) drove Dionysos mad for the girl with the delicious wound of his arrow, then curving his wings flew lightly to Olympos." Suidas s.v. Adrasteia Nemesis (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek Lexicon C10th A.D.) : "Adrasteia Nemesis : From her, someone could not run away (apodraseien). ‘Nemesis Adrasteia follows him, avenging haughty and unrestrained words.’ So Nemesis Adrasteia [is named] from Adrastos (Adrastus). [Applied] to those first experiencing good fortune but later bad; for of the descendents of those who campaigned against the Thebans, only Aigialeus the son of Adrastos was killed." Suidas s.v. Adrasteia : "Adrasteia : Some say she is the same thing as Nemesis, and that she took the name from a particular king, Adrastos (Adrastus). Alternatively from the ancient Adrastos who suffered divine wrath (nemesis) for his boasts against the Thebans, who had established a shrine of Nemesis, which after these things acquired the name Adrasteia. Demetrios (Demetrius) of Skepsis says that Adrasteia is Artemis, [in a cult] established by one Adrastos. Antimakhos (Antimachus) says : ‘there is a certain great goddess Nemesis, who apportions out all these things to the blessed; Adrestos was the first to set up an altar for her by the flowing river [Asopos (Asopus)].’ Some, however, add that she is different from Nemesis herself: so Menandros (Menander) and Nikostratos (Nicostratus)." Suidas s.v. Nemesis : "Nemesis : Justice. Aristophanes [writes] : ‘O Nemesis, and deep-roaring thunderclaps.’" Suidas s.v. Nemesis : "Nemesis : Vengeance, justice, outrage, [divine] jealousy, fortune. ‘Perceiving Nemesis, the executioner of braggarts, who pursued them with justice.’ And again : ‘he did not escape the notice of Nemesis who opposes all the arrogant, but was compelled to be taught a lesson in his own misfortunes.’ ‘Nemesis was present, she who watches the things of the earth’; or in other words, she who watches unjust acts. Babrios (Babrius) says [this] in the Fables. And Aelian [says] : ‘palpable evidence of Nemesis the overseer, chastizing proud and disdainful ways.’ And a proverb : ‘At least Nemesis walks at your feet’; that is to say that the goddess swiftly pursues wrong-doers. 'Unnoticed she walks at your feet, snaps your haughty neck, and always holds sway over your sustenance with her forearm.'" INVIDIA ROMAN PERSONIFICATION OF JEALOUSY The Romans occasionally named Nemesis Invidia and described her as a goddess not only of the jealous indignation aroused by hubristic boasts but also as the goddess of jealousy in general. Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 760 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Athena was angry with the daughters of Kekrops (Cecrops) for betraying her trust by spying upon the infant Erikhthonios (Erichthonius) :] Straightway she [Pallas Athene] sought the filthy slimy shack where Invidia (Envy) dwelt deep in a dreary dale, a gruesome sunless hovel, filled with frost, heart-numbing frost, its stagnant air unstirred by any breeze, for ever lacking warmth of cheerful fire, for ever wrapped in gloom. Reaching the place the virgin queen of war paused by the threshold, since she might not pass beneath that roof, and struck upon the door with her spear's point. The door flew wide and there she saw foul Invidia (Envy) eating viper's flesh, fit food for spite, and turned her eyes away. Slowly the creature rose, leaving the snakes half-eaten, and approached with dragging steps, and when she saw the goddess' face so fair and gleaming mail, she scowled and groaned in grief. Her cheeks are sallow, her whole body shrunk, her eyes askew and squinting; black decay befouls her teeth, her bosom's green with bile, and venom coats her tongue. She never smiles save when she relishes the sight of woe; sleep never soothes her, night by night awake with worry, as she sees against her will successes won and sickens at the sight. She wounds, is wounded, she herself her own torture. Tritonia [Athene], filled with loathing, forced a few curt words: ‘Inject your pestilence in one of Cecrops' daughters; that I need; Aglauros is the one [i.e. to be punished for disobeying the goddess].’ That said, she soared, launched from her downthrust spear, and sped to heaven. With sidelong glance the creature saw her fly and muttered briefly, grieving to foresee Minerva's triumph; then she took her staff, entwined with thorns, and, wrapped in a black cloud, went forth and in her progress trampled down the flowery meads, withered the grass, and slashed the tree-tops, and with filthy breath defiled peoples and towns and homes, until at last, brilliant and blessed with arts and wealth and peace, Athens in happy festival appears--and tears she sheds to see no cause for tears. Into the room of Cecrops' child she went and did as she was bid. On the girl's breast she laid her withering hand and filled her heart with thorny briars and breathed a baleful blight of poison, black as pitch inside her lungs. And lest the choice of owe should stray too wide, she set before her eyes her sister's face, her fortune-favoured marriage [to Hermes] and the god so glorious; and painted everything larger than life. Such thoughts were agony: Aglauros pined in private grief, distraught all night, all day, in utter misery, wasting away in slow decline, like ice marred by a fitful sun. The happiness of lucky Herse smouldered in her heart like green thorns on a fire that never flame nor give good heat but wanly burn away. Often she'd rather die than see such sights; often she meant, as if some crime, to tell the tale to her strict father. In the end she sat herself outside her sister's door to bar the god's access. With honeyed words he pressed his prayers and pleas. [She refused to budge and Hermes transformed her into stone.]" Statius, Silvae 2. 4. 69 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman poetry C1st A.D.) : "Ill-omened Invidia (Envy), skilled to hurt, saw the vital spot and the path of harm. Just at the gate of full-grown life that the most beauteous of youths was striving to link three years to three Elean lustres [he was fifteen, three five-year Olympian cycles]. With grim frown the stern Rhamnusian [Nemesis] gave heed, and first she filled out his muscles and set a brilliance in his eyes and raised his head higher than of wont; deadly alas! to the poor lad were her favours : she tortured herself with envy at the sight, and clasping the sufferer struck death into him by her embrace, and with hooked, relentless fingers tore that pure countenance." Statius, Silvae 2. 1. 120 ff : "Truly did Lachesis [one of the Fates] touch his cradle with ill-omened hand [for he died young], and Invidia (Envy) clasped the babe and held him in her bosom: the one fondled his cheeks and luxuriant curls, the other taught him his skill and inspired those words over which we now make moan." Statius, Silvae 4. 8. 16 : "Avaunt, black Invidia (Envy), turn elsewhere thy livid breasts!" Statius, Silvae 5. 1. 13 ff : "What god joined Fortuna (Fortune) [Tykhe (Tyche)] and Invidia (Envy) [Nemesis] in truceless kinship? Who bade the cruel goddesses engage in unending war? Will the one set her mark upon no house, but the other must straightway fix it with her grim glance, and with savage hand make havoc of its gladness? Happy and prosperous was this abode, no shock assailed it, no thought of sorrow; what cause was there to have fear of Fortuna, treacherous and fickle though she be, while Caesar was favourable? Yet the jealous Fata (Fate) [Moira] found a way, and barbarous violence entered that blameless home." Apuleius, The Golden Ass 10. 24 ff (trans. Walsh) (Roman novel C2nd A.D.) : "The fatal nod of Fortuna (Fortune) [Tykhe (Tyche)], at whose instigation cruel Rivalitas (Jealous Rivalry) [Nemesis] steered her course straight for the young man's house." CULT OF NEMESIS I. RHAMNUS (RHAMNOS) Town in Attica (Attica) (Southern Greece) Strabo, Geography 9. 1. 17 (trans. Jones) (Greek geographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Rhamnos (Rhamnus) [in Attika] has the statue of Nemesis, which by some is called the work of Diodotos (DIodotus) and by others of Agorakritos (Agoracritus) the Parian, a work which both in grandeur and in beauty is a great success and rivals the works of Pheidias (Phidias)." Strabo, Geography 9. 1. 22 : "Rhamnos [in Attika] is the location of the sanctuary of Nemesis." Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 33. 4 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "A little way inland [from Rhamnos in Attika] is a sanctuary of Nemesis, the most implacable deity to men of violence. It is thought that the wrath of this goddess fell also upon the foreigners [the Persian army] who landed at Marathon. For thinking in their pride that nothing stood in the way of their taking Athens, they were bringing a piece of Parian marble to make a trophy, convinced that their task was already finished. Of this marble Pheidias (Phidias) made a statue of Nemesis, and on the head of the goddess is a crown with deer and small images of Nike (Victory). In her left hand she holds an apple branch, in her right hand a cup on which are wrought Aithiopes (Ethiopians). As to the Aithiopes (Ethiopians), I could hazard no guess myself, nor could I accept the statement of those who are convinced that the Aithiopians have been carved upon the cup because of the river Okeanos (Oceanus). For the Aithiopians, they say, dwell near it, and Okeanos is the father of Nemesis . . . Neither this nor any other ancient statue of Nemesis has wings, for not even the holiest wooden images of the Smyraneans have them, but later artists, convinced that the goddess manifests herself most as a consequence of love, give wings to Nemesis as they do to Eros (Love). I will now go on to describe what is figures on the pedestal of the statue, having made this preface for the sake of clearness. The Greeks say that Nemesis was the mother of Helene (Helen), while Leda suckled and nursed her. The father of Helene the Greeks like everybody else hold to be not Tyndareos (Tyndareus) but Zeus. Having heard this legend Pheidias has represented Helene as being led to Nemesis by Leda, and he has represented Tyndareos and his children." Suidas s.v. Rhamnousia Nemesis (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek Lexicon C10th A.D.) : "Rhamnousia Nemesis (Nemesis of Rhamnous) : She was first modelled on the appearance of Aphrodite; that is why she held a sprig from an appletree. Erekhtheus (Erechtheus) set her up, since she was his mother, but she was named Nemesis and reigned in the place. But Pheidias (Phidias) made the statue." II. PATRAE (PATRAI) Town in Achaea (Akhaia) (Southern Greece) Pausanias, Description of Greece 7. 20. 9 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "Not far from the theatre [at Patrai (Patrae) in Akhaia (Achaea)] is a temple of Nemesis . . . The images are colossal and of white marble." III. ADRASTEIA Town in the Troad (Anatolia) Aeschylus, Fragment 79 Niobe (from Strabo, Geography 12. 7. 18) (trans. Weir Smyth) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) : "Adrasteia's seat and Ida resound with lowing oxen and bleating sheep, and the whole plain roars." [N.B. "Adrasteia's seat" is the town of Adrasteia where Adrasteia-Nemesis was worshipped.] Strabo, Geography 13. 1. 13 (trans. Jones) (Greek geographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "This country [in the Troad] was called Adrasteia and Plain of Adrasteia . . . According to Kallisthenes (Callisthenes), among others, Adrasteia was named after King Adrastos (Adrastus), who was the first to found a temple of Nemesis. Now the city is situated between Priapos (Priapus) and Parion . . . Here, however, there is [now] no temple of Adrasteia, nor yet of Nemesis, to be seen, although there is a temple of Adrasteia near Kyzikos (Cyzicus). Antimakhos (Antimachus) [Greek poet C5th-4th B.C.] says as follows : ‘There is a great goddess Nemesis, who has obtained as her portion all these things from the Blessed. Adrestos (Adrastus) was the first to build an altar to her beside the stream of the Aisepos (Aesepus) River, where she is worshipped under the name of Adresteia.’" Suidas s.v. Adrasteia (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek Lexicon C10th A.D.) : "Adrasteia : Some say she is the same thing as Nemesis, and that she took the name from a particular king, Adrastos (Adrastus) . . . Demetrios of Skepsis says that Adrasteia is Artemis, [in a cult] established by one Adrastos. Antimakhos (Antimachus) says : ‘there is a certain great goddess Nemesis, who apportions out all these things to the blessed; Adrestos was the first to set up an altar for her by the flowing river.’" IV. SMYRNA City in Aiolia-Lydia (Anatolia) Pausanias, Description of Greece 7. 5. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "Alexandros [Alexander the Great] was hunting on Mount Pagos [near Smyrna], and that after the hunt was over he came to a sanctuary of the Nemeseis, and found there a spring and a plane-tree in front of the sanctuary, growing over the water. While he slept under the plane-tree it is said that the Nemeses appeared and bade him found a city there and remove into it the Smyrnaians from the old city . . . So they migrated of their own free will, and believe in two Nemeses instead of one, saying their mother is Nyx, while the Athenians say that the father of the goddess in Rhamnos is Okeanos (Oceanus)." TITLES & EPITHETS Nemesis had several titles and epithets. Greek Name
Nemesis
Terry played his most famous role in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. What part did terry play in that film?
Eris, the goddess of chaos, discord, quarrels and feuds *** Greek Gods and Goddesses Who was Eris? Eris was one of the primeval gods who was a daughter of Nyx who was believed to be the mother of everything mysterious and anything that was inexplicable and unpleasant, such as death, disease, sleep, ghosts, dreams, witchcraft and enchantments. Ancient Greek Gods and Goddesses      Her father was Erebus, who reigned in a palace in the dark regions of the Underworld. As the sister of the many of the dark gods of death, night and the Underworld, Eris personified all chaos and strife resulting in the warfare, death, unhappiness and pain. She was never invoked by mortals, except when they desired her assistance for the accomplishment of evil purposes. Eris, the Greek goddess of discord, quarrels and feuds Picture of the gods and the Golden Apple of Discord The Symbols of Eris In Greek Art the god was often illustrated with images and pictures representing the attributes and symbols associated with her. Eris is represented in Greek art as a woman of florid complexion, dishevelled hair, and an angry and menacing appearance. Her dress is torn and disorderly, and her hair entwined with venomous snakes. The symbols associated with the goddess Eris are a poniard (a small dagger) and a hissing adder which she holds in one hand, and a burning torch that she holds in her other hand. A burning torches symbolizes the devastation caused by war The poniard, a small thin dagger used for stabbing (also stabbing in the back) The Hissing adder symbolizes fear and evil Eris in Ancient Greek Mythology Eris is featured in the ancient myth relating to the legend of the Apple of Discord due to which she indirectly started the Trojan War. The conflict began when all the gods and goddesses were invited to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, save one - Eris. To avenge this slight, Eris threw the golden apple of discord to the guests of the wedding feast. The golden apple had "for the fairest" written on it and Hera and Athena and Aphrodite all claimed it. Paris, the Prince of Troy, awarded it to Aphrodite beginning a chain of events that led to the Trojan War. Eris (Roman Counterpart was Bellona) When the Roman Empire conquered the Greeks in 146BC, the Romans assimilated various elements from other cultures and civilisations, including the gods and goddesses that were worshipped by the Ancient Greeks. Many of the Greek gods and goddesses, such as Eris, were therefore adopted by the Romans but were given Latin names. The Roman counterpart of Eris was Bellona and Discordia. Family Tree and Genealogy of Eris The following Family Tree illustrates the genealogy family members and genealogy of Eris, providing an overview of the relationships between Eris and some of the principle Greek gods and goddesses of darkness and the Underworld. The Brothers and Sisters of Eris According to Greek Mythology Eris was the daughter of Nyx, the dark goddess of Night and Erebus whose province was the Underworld before the emergence of Hades. The siblings of Eris were all death spirits: Thanatos, twin of Hypnos, a god of Death, the hard-hearted, pitiless, enemy of mankind The Keres, or �Death Fates� described as 'scavengers who defiled the dead' Oizys, goddess of misery, distress, anxiety and worry Momus the evil-spirited god of blame and criticism Hypnos, the god of sleep Geras the malevolent god of loathsome Old Age Nemesis avenging goddess of Divine Retribution Charon, the Ferryman Lyssa, the goddess of mad rage and frenzy Hecate was the goddess of magic, witchcraft and ghosts The Fates, the goddesses of Destiny The Furies, the goddesses of vengeance and retribution Epiphron the demon of shrewdness Eris Family Tree The Children of Eris Such was the power of Eris that, according to ancient Greek mythology the abhorred Eris produced terrible children including the Neikea, the Hysminae, the Phonoi, the Androktasiai, the Pseudologos, the Amphilogia, the Algea, the Machae, Horkos, Ponos, Limos, Dysnomia and Ate: The Neikea: The Neikea were the goddesses of arguments The Hysminae or Hysmine, the female spirits of street fighting and rebellion The Phonoi were the evil spirits of murder, killing and slaughter outside the battlefield The Machae were the goddesses of battle and combat The Androktasiai were the female personifications of manslaughter The Pseudologos or Pseudo-Logoi were the gods of lies and forgery The Amphilogia were the female spirits of disputes and contention The the Algea were the source of weeping and tears, the spirits of pain, illnesses, suffering, sorrow, grief and distress Horkos, the avenger of perjury, those who make false oaths Ponos the god of hard labor and toil Limos the god of hunger and starvation Dysnomia the goddess of "lawlessness" Ate the goddess of ruin, folly, and delusion Eris, Goddess of Chaos Interesting information and Facts about the Greek goddess Eris Eris, the Greek goddess of discord, chaos quarrels and feuds Stories and Legends in Greek Mythology associated with the ancient Greek goddess Eris Facts and information about the Eris & the Gods and Deities of the Ancient World for schools and kids Eris, the Greek goddess of chaos, discord, quarrels and feuds  
i don't know
How many hectares are there in a square kilometre?
Square Kilometers to Hectares - How many hectares in a square km? Contact Us Home Square Kilometers To Hectares Conversion There are 100 hectares in 1 square kilometer. To find out how many hectares in square kilometers, multiply by 100, or instead use the converter below. 1 Sq. Kilometer = 100 Hectares Square kilometer and hectare are metric system area measurement units. Both units are commonly used in measuring land. The abbreviations are "km2", "sq km" and for hectare, "ha". For hectare to sq km conversion, please go to hectare to sq km For other units of area conversion, please go to Area Conversion Converter
100
Which town on the Tweed has a ruined Cistercian abbey that is supposedly the burial place of the heart, though not the rest of the remains, of Robert the Bruce?
Hectares to Square Kilometres | Kyle's Converter 1 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.01 70 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.7 2 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.02 80 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.8 3 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.03 90 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.9 4 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.04 100 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 1 5 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.05 200 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 2 6 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.06 300 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 3 7 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.07 400 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 4 8 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.08 500 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 5 9 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.09 600 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 6 10 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.1 800 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 8 20 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.2 900 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 9 30 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.3 1,000 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 10 40 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.4 10,000 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 100 50 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.5 100,000 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 1000 60 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 0.6 1,000,000 Hectares to Square Kilometres = 10000 Similar Area Units
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In modern technology SatNavs use the GPS system. For what do the letters GPS stand?
How does GPS satellite navigation work? - Explain that Stuff Tweet by Chris Woodford . Last updated: November 13, 2016. Let's Get Lost is the title of a 1940s jazz song, famously recorded by singer and trumpeter Chet Baker. Back then, getting lost was not just a romantic idea but still a realistic one. Today, it's almost impossible to get lost, no matter how hard you try. Whether you're haring down the freeway or scrabbling up Mount Everest, you're always in sight of satellites spinning through space that can tell you exactly where you are. Walking round with a smartphone in your pocket, you'll have ready access to a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver that can pinpoint your position, on a good day, to just a few meters. Take a wrong turn in your car, and a determined voice—also powered by GPS—will insist you "Take the next left," "Turn right," or "Go straight ahead" until you're confidently back on track. Even riding on a bus or train, it's barely possible to get off in the wrong place. Handy display boards scroll the name of the stop you want long before you need to rise from your seat. Apart from helping us reach our destination, satellite navigation can do all kinds of other things, from tracking parcels and growing crops to finding lost children and guiding the blind. But how exactly does it work? Let's take a closer look! Photo: Getting lost is a thing of the past thanks to mobile devices like this with built-in GPS receivers and mapping apps. What is satellite navigation? Satellite navigation ("satnav") means using a portable radio receiver to pick up speed-of-light signals from orbiting satellites (sometimes technically referred to as space vehicles or SVs) so you can figure out your position, speed, and local time. It's generally much more accurate than other forms of navigation, which have to contend with pesky problems like accurate timekeeping and bad weather. Because it's a broadcast system based on radio signals that reach all parts of our planet, any number of people can use it at once, anywhere they happen to be. The best-known satnav system, the Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS), uses about 24 active satellites (including backups). Day and night, 365 days a year, they whiz round Earth once every 12 hours on orbital planes inclined at 55 degrees to the equator. Wherever you are, you're usually in sight of at least half a dozen of them, but you need signals from only three or four to determine your position to an accuracy of just a few meters . GPS was kick-started by the US military in 1973 and its satellites are designed to last about 7.5 years, but the latest generation typically survive about 10–12 years. In total, around 60 Navstar satellites have been launched altogether, in several separate groups called blocks, though many of them have now retired; at the time of writing, the last Navstar launch was satellite IIF-9 on March 25, 2015. Photo: A NAVSTAR GPS satellite pictured during construction on Earth in 1981. You can get an idea how big the satellite is from the engineer pictured some distance beneath it. Picture courtesy of US Department of Defense. GPS has three major components, technically known as "segments": there's one part in space, one part on the ground, and one part in your pocket. The 24 satellites form what's known as the "space segment" of GPS, but the system also relies on an intricate ground-control network of antennas , monitors, and control stations (the "control segment"), centered on a Master Control Station (MCS) at Shriever Air Force Base in Colorado, USA (with a backup at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California). Apart from the space and control segments, the other essential part of satellite navigation is the "user segment"—an electronic receiver you hold in your hand or carry in your vehicle. Triangulation Finding your position using satellite signals is a hi-tech version of an age-old navigator's trick that goes by the name triangulation. Suppose you're walking through the woods, on completely flat ground, but you don't know where you are. If you can see a landmark through the trees (maybe a distant hill), and you can guess how far away it is, you can look at a map and figure out that you must be somewhere on a circle whose radius (distance from the hill) is the distance you've guessed. One landmark alone can't narrow your position any more than this. But what if you suddenly see a second landmark in another direction. Now you can repeat the process: you must be a certain distance from that object too, somewhere on a second circle. Put these two bits of information together and you know you must be somewhere where the two circles meet—one of either two places on the ground. With a third landmark, you can narrow your position to a single point. And that's the essence of simple triangulation (you'll find a longer introduction at Compass Dude ). Triangulation works with line-of-sight and a bit of guesswork, with a compass and a map, and with fancier methods like radio signals, and radar . And it also works, in a more sophisticated way, using space satellites. Photo: Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521) sailed the globe with great skill and ingenuity, proving that the "flat Earth" was, in fact, more or less spherical. It's tempting to imagine how much easier Magellan's life would have been with satellite navigation, but that gets the logic of things the wrong way round. Without Magellan's insight, we wouldn't have satellite navigation technology at all: to build it and get it working, we had to know that we lived on a round Earth to begin with! Public domain engraving courtesy of US Library of Congress . Trilateration With satellite navigation, your navigational "landmarks" are space satellites whizzing through the sky above your head. Because they're about 20,000km (12,600 miles) away, well beyond Earth's atmosphere, and because they're constantly moving (not stationary, like Earth-bound landmarks), finding your position from them is a bit more tricky. If you pick up a signal from one satellite and you know it's 20,000km away, you must be somewhere on a sphere (not a circle) of radius 20,000km, centered on that satellite. With two signals, from two different satellites, you must be somewhere where two spheres meet (somewhere in a circle of overlap). Three signals puts you at one of two points on that circle—and that's usually enough to figure out where you are, because one of the points might be up in the air or in the middle of the ocean. But with four signals, you know your position precisely. Finding your location this way is called trilateration. How GPS works Photo: An artist's impression of the 24 NAVSTAR satellites in orbit around Earth. Picture courtesy of US Department of Defense. Satellite navigation systems all work in broadly the same way. There are three parts: the network of satellites, a control station somewhere on Earth that manages the satellites, and the receiving device you carry with you. Each satellite is constantly beaming out a radio-wave signal toward Earth. The receiver "listens out" for these signals and, if it can pick up signals from three or four different satellites, it can figure out your precise location (including your altitude). How does that work? The satellites stay in known positions and the signals travel at the speed of light. Each signal includes information about the satellite it came from and a time-stamp that says when it left the satellite. Since the signals are radio waves, they must travel at the speed of light. By noting when each signal arrives, the receiver can figure out how long it took to travel and how far it has come—in other words, how far it is from the sending satellite. With three or four signals, the receiver can figure out exactly where it is on Earth. Where in the world are you? If your satellite receiver picks up a signal from the yellow satellite, you must be somewhere on the yellow sphere. If you're also picking up signals from the blue and red satellites, you must be at the black dot where the signals from the three satellites meet. You need a signal from a minimum of three satellites to fix your position this way (and four satellites if you want to find your altitude as well). Since there are many more GPS satellites, there's more chance you'll be able to locate yourself wherever on Earth you happen to be. How do satnavs calculate distance from time? Suppose you're carrying a GPS-enabled cellphone or satnav in your car. How does it know the exact distance to the three or four satellites it uses to compute your position? Every satellite constantly beams out signals that are, in effect, time-stamped records of its position at that time. Since they're carried by radio waves, the signals must be traveling at the speed of light (300,000km or 186,000 miles per second). Theoretically, then, if a receiver picks up the signals some time later, and has a clock of its own, it knows how long the signals have taken to get from the satellite, and how far they've traveled (because distance = speed × time). That sounds like a nice, simple solution, but it introduces two further problems. First, how long does the signal take to travel? Haven't we just swapped one problem for another (time for distance)? The solution to this involves a hi-tech version of "synchronizing watches": each satellite carries four extremely precise atomic clocks (two cesium and two rubidium, typically accurate to something like one second in 100,000 years), while the receivers (which have less accurate clocks of their own) receive their signals and compensate for the time it takes for them to travel down from space. That means each receiver can figure out how long each signal has taken to reach it and therefore how far it's traveled. Second, although radio waves do indeed travel at the speed of light, they only do so in a vacuum (in completely empty space). Radio signals beaming down to us from space satellites aren't traveling through empty space but through Earth's atmosphere, including the ionosphere (the upper region of Earth's atmosphere, containing charged particles, which help radio waves to travel) and the troposphere (the turbulent, uncharged region of the atmosphere, where weather happens, which extends about 50km or 30 miles above Earth's surface). The ionosphere and troposphere distort and delay satellite signals in quite complex ways, for quite different reasons that we won't go into here, and GPS receivers have to compensate to ensure they can make accurate measurements of distance. Are military and civilian GPS any different? Photo: Satellite-guided missiles and drones use the military-grade PPS version of GPS, which is theoretically more accurate than civilian GPS. Photo by Nicholas Messina courtesy of US Navy . GPS was originally conceived as a military invention that would give US forces an advantage over other nations, but its inventors soon realized the system would be just as useful to civilians. The only trouble was, if civilians (or rival forces) could pick up the same signals, where would that leave their military advantage? For that reason, they developed two different "flavors" of GPS: a highly accurate military-grade, known as Precise Positioning Service (PPS), and a somewhat degraded civilian version called Standard Positioning Service (SPS). While PPS-enabled receivers could originally locate things to an accuracy of about 22m meters (72ft), SPS receivers were deliberately made about five times less accurate (to within the length of a football field, or about 100m) using a tweak called Selective Availability (SA). That was switched off by order of US President Bill Clinton in May 2000, greatly improving accuracy for civilian users, which is largely why GPS has taken off so readily ever since. Even civilian SPS receivers are now officially accurate to within "13 meters (95 percent) horizontally and 22 meters (95 percent) vertically", though a variety of different errors (caused by the atmosphere, obstructions blocking line of sight to satellites, signal reflections, atmospheric delays, and so on) can compound to make them very much less accurate at times. Theoretically, military and civilian GPS could be as accurate as one another if we didn't have to worry about them traveling through Earth's atmosphere. According to the official website GPS.gov : "The accuracy of the GPS signal in space is actually the same for both the civilian GPS service (SPS) and the military GPS service (PPS)." In practice, while SPS signals are broadcast using only one frequency, PPS uses two. Comparing the two frequencies allows military grade GPS receivers to calculate precise corrections for radio delays and distortions caused by transmission through the atmosphere, and that still gives military GPS an edge over civilian systems. In time, civilian GPS will become increasingly accurate, especially as more satellites (and more different satellite systems) are added, but it's likely that military systems will always have an advantage, for one reason or another. GPS satellite signals Navstar satellites constantly broadcast the two different flavors of GPS, PPS and SPS, on two different radio frequencies (carrier waves) known as L1 (1575.42MHz) and L2 (1227.6MHz). L1 carries the civilian SPS code signal (also known as the C/A code or Coarse Acquisition code), which is relatively short and broadcast about 1000 times a second, and what's known as the navigation data message, which includes the date and time, satellite orbit details, and other essential data. L2 carries the military PPS code, also known as P-code (Precision code), which is very long and precise and takes an entire week to transmit. It's encrypted to form what's known as the Y-code, partly so that only authorized users can access it, and partly (because encryption is a form of signing things to confirm they're authentic) to help prevent things like "spoofing" (where third parties broadcast fake, disruptive signals purporting to be from GPS satellites). Military-grade GPS receivers pick up both frequencies, and compare them to correct for the effects of the ionosphere. Civilian receivers pick up only one frequency and have to use mathematical models to correct for the ionosphere instead. Applications of satellite navigation Most of us use satellite navigation for driving to places we've never been before—but that's a relatively trivial application. Once you can pinpoint your precise position on Earth, much more interesting things become possible. Roll time forward a few decades to the point where all cars have onboard satnav and can drive themselves automatically. Theoretically, if a car knows where it is at all times, and can transmit that information to some sort of centralized monitoring system, we could solve problems like urban congestion, finding parking places, and even auto theft at a stroke. If every car knows its location, and knows where nearby cars are too, highway driving could become both faster and safer; it will no longer rely on the vigilance of error-prone human drivers, too easily confused by tiredness and bad weather, so cars will be able to travel at much higher densities. The same goes for airplanes , where GPS is finally set to become an integral part of air traffic control—gradually reducing our historic overdependence on radar—over the next decade. Photo: Many tractors, combine harvesters, and crop dusters are now equipped with GPS. And it's not just cars and planes that will benefit from pinpoint precision. For emergency services and search and rescue workers, navigating to remote, sometimes uncharted locations, in a hurry, makes all the difference between life and death. Farmers have been using GPS systems in tractors , combines , and crop-dusters to map, plant, manage, and harvest their crops with efficiency and precision. According to an industry body called the GPS Alliance, high-precision satellite navigation boosted US crop yields by almost $20 billion from 2007 to 2010 and is now used in 95 percent of crop dusting. Meanwhile, farm animals, pets, and rare wildlife are easier than ever to track using GPS-enabled collars and backpacks. Blind people, traditionally guided by seeing-eye dogs or the elbows of friends and family, can finally gain true independence equipped with talking handheld GPS systems, such as Trekker Breeze, that can announce street names or read spoken directions from A to B. Needless to say, a system conceived by the military still enjoys many military applications, from guiding so-called "smart bombs" to their targets with pinpoint accuracy to helping troops navigate through unfamiliar terrain. GPS is as standard a part of modern military equipment as maps and compasses were 100 years ago. Rival satellite navigation systems In the United States, GPS is universally used as a synonym for any and every kind of satellite navigation; in other countries, such as the UK, "satnav" is a more familiar generic term. In fact, GPS is only one of several global satnav systems. The Soviet Union launched a rival system called GLONASS in 1982 (also using 24 satellites) and Russia continues to operate it today. Europe has been slowly building its own, more accurate 30-satellite system called Galileo, which is expected to be completed around 2020, and China is developing a global system known as Compass. The preferred umbrella term for world-spanning satnav systems is GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems). Apart from the four big global systems, there are also a few smaller regional rivals, including China's BeiDou and India's IRNSS. Although a given satellite receiver is typically designed to use only one of the global systems, there's no reason why it can't use signals from two or more at once. Theoretically, combining signals from GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo could give satnav devices something like a 10-fold increase in precision, especially in urban areas where tall buildings can block or distort signals, reducing the accuracy of any one system used alone. Using multiple systems also promises to make satellite navigation much faster: if more satellites are "in view," the so-called Time-to-First-Fix (TTFF) —the initial delay before your satnav locks onto satellites, downloads the data it needs, and is ready to start calculating your position—is reduced. Since TTFF typically varies from about 30 seconds to several minutes, it makes a big difference to casual GPS users (and is one of the first features people compare when they look at buying a new satnav receiver). Challenges and issues Knowing the absolute position of anything, anytime, anywhere brings obvious benefits in a globalized world that relies on swift, safe, and reliable transportation. But it raises issues too. If civilian transportation systems are designed to rely on satellite systems provided by the US or Russian military, doesn't that make us too vulnerable to the sudden twists of international politics, especially in times of war? Although the US military no longer routinely degrades the quality of GPS signals, and announced in September 2007 that it would be removing Selective Availability altogether from future versions of GPS satellites, currently it can still nobble the system anytime it pleases. Could a future world of driverless cars, hyper-efficient parcel shipping, and automated air-traffic control be plunged into chaos purely at the whim of the superpowers? The European Galileo project is entirely a civilian system, which should eliminate possible military interference in time. But for the moment, it remains a concern. Fast-disappearing privacy is the flipside of the same coin. If your car and your cellphone are both equipped with satnav, and you're always using one or the other (or both), your movements can be tracked at all times. That raises obvious privacy issues, especially in repressive states. But every new technology brings its pros and cons, from internal combustion engines to submachine guns, and nuclear power plants to antibiotics. Progress involves making a tradeoff between benefits and costs, in the hope of doing things better than we ever could before. Satellite navigation is no different, swapping safe and unreliable navigation for efficient and effective transportation, albeit at a cost in privacy and (for the time being) continued dependence on military infrastructure. GPS.gov : The official US Government site all about GPS and its applications. GPS Innovation Alliance : A trade coalition furthering greater use and new applications of GPS. USNO GPS Timing Operations : A variety of useful GPS data from the US Naval Observatory. Articles Protecting GPS From Spoofers Is Critical to the Future of Navigation by Mark L. Psiaki and Todd E. Humphreys. IEEE Spectrum, July 29, 2016. It's difficult but not impossible to spoof GPS signals, potentially sending ships and boats on course to disaster. What technical methods are there to protect against spoofers? What Stand-Alone GPS Devices Do That Smartphones Can't by Eric A. Taub. The New York Times, July 15, 2015. There are still good reasons to own a standalone GPS device, although now smartphones have bigger screens the gap between the two kinds of devices is closing fast. Russian Global Navigation System, GLONASS, Falling Short by James Oberg, IEEE Spectrum, February 1, 2008. Can Russia's alternative ever hope to compete with GPS? End of Flight Delays? FAA's GPS Fix Could Bust Sky Gridlock by Barbara S. Peterson, Popular Mechanics, July 19, 2007. An introduction to the use of GPS in air traffic control. Books The Global Positioning System: A Shared National Asset by Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, National Research Council. National Academies Press, 1995. A technical report evaluating the success of GPS and making recommendations for its future development as a joint civilian and military system. Technical references GPS Performance Standards : The official SPS and PPS specifications, downloadable in PDF format. GPS Factsheet : Technical details about Navstar from the US Air Force. Patents
Global Positioning System
In transport terms what is the British equivalent of the American 'Divided Highway'?
GPS Unit Buying Guide | eBay GPS Unit Buying Guide Share March 3, 2016 GPS units have been revolutionizing travel since the inception of the Global Positioning System in the 1970s. Armed with a single device, users can access the Global Positioning System to determine their precise location anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day. A GPS device can also provide the user with turn-by-turn street-level directions, real-time traffic conditions, and precise speed when in a motor vehicle, on a bike, or on foot. In short, accessing the GPS network allows the user to replace paper maps and forego handwritten directions in favor of a 24-hour, on-call navigation system. Because GPS units vary greatly in size and quality, it is important to understand the types and uses available. Those looking to buy a GPS unit should understand the history and purpose of the GPS, the general functions, applications, and benefits of GPS units, the ways in which they intend to use the desired device, and the different types of GPS units available to consumers. Overview of GPS Originally called NAVSTAR (Navigation System with Timing And Ranging), the GPS was officially launched in 1978 by the U.S. Department of Defense. It was originally a satellite system designed for military use that drew on the existing technology of the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy, and it was based on the early work and development of M.I.T. researchers in the 1950s. These satellites were used extensively by the U.S. military throughout the 1970s for surveying, tracking, and navigation, and they were made available for public use in the 1980s. Throughout the next two decades the functionality and accessibility was continuously improved to the point where the average individual can use the technology intuitively without much learning curve. The most common types of GPS units today are small handheld devices, including those in smartphones and models designed for the car, but there are many other types as well. Benefits of Using GPS Units Use of a GPS device provides the consumer with a host of benefits over traditional maps. When shopping for a device, one must be certain that it provides the basic benefits described below. Map Coverage GPS units provide detailed maps for entire countries, and some are programmed with data for all of a particular continent. Depending on the intended use of the GPS device, actual map data may vary. For example, all GPS units designed for the car provide users with very similar street maps. Car units typically also feature a three-dimensional bird's eye view that enables the user to visualize the landscape as if they were viewing it above street level. Handheld devices designed for fishing or boating , on the other hand, are obviously loaded with maps that help the user visualize other points of interest, such as lakes and rivers. Before purchasing a GPS unit, the consumer must pinpoint where they will be likely to use the device most often so they can target a device with the right type of map coverage. Travel Directions The most basic and widely used function of the GPS unit is the turn-by-turn navigation it can provide. GPS units provide accurate directions between any two points and can constantly monitor the user's position and progress. Also, GPS units provide the user with feedback on the route they are actually taking. The directions are often recalculated if the user makes a wrong turn or decides to take a different route, so the user can never get lost. GPS units designed to be mounted in the car , such as the Magellan Roadmate 1700 , usually provide both visual and audio directions so the user does not have to divert their attention from the road if they are in motion. One indirect bonus of a GPS unit is increased fuel economy, as the user can save time and money by following a direct route each time they depart for a new destination. Destination Stops Most GPS units help the user find certain points of interest, such as gas stations, coffee shops, restaurants, and hotels, along their way to a certain destination. Automotive GPS units have millions of stops programmed into their maps, and these can be a great benefit to the user who is traveling a great distance or driving in an unfamiliar town or city. Most units allow the user to search for specific points of interest by name or category, browse for those near their current location, or even look up stops in a different region for future reference. Avoiding Traffic Some GPS units are equipped with built-in traffic monitors that automatically inform the user of potential jams on the intended route. This is another feature than can allow the user to save time and money, and at the very least, the headache of having to sit in long lines on the way to a destination. Safety Regardless of the intended use of the GPS device, the ability to avoid getting lost and encountering a potentially dangerous situation is a definite plus. Rescue crews, firefighters, and tour guides use GPS units every day. The ability to provide emergency workers with a precise location in the event of an emergency or accident could be a life-saving feature. Types of GPS Units Buyers should consider their personal needs and budget before buying a GPS unit. There are many different types of GPS units available, including portable units, built-in factory systems, cell phone navigation subscriptions, and GPS smartphones. Portable Units Portable GPS units can range anywhere from about $80 to $400, and they have several key advantages over other types of devices. They are relatively inexpensive (compared to built-in systems), they can be transferred between vehicles, and their small size makes them easy to pack and store in luggage if going on a trip. Also, updating maps and traffic information is relatively inexpensive and easy. Drawbacks of portable units include the potential for the device to be lost or stolen and the small screen size, which can be difficult to read. If using a portable device in the car, it is recommended that it be stowed away out of sight when the car is locked up so it does not present a target for thieves. Built-In Systems Built - in ( or in - dash ) GPS systems are available on most new car models as an optional feature, and some can be purchased as part of a premium stereo system. They typically add at least $1,000 to the purchase price of the car and can cost much more than that. However, they have large, clear screens, easy-to-use controls, and they often respond to voice commands, which is a huge plus when operating motor vehicle. Obviously, these units cannot be transferred between vehicles, but they can certainly be a worthwhile investment if the buyer uses one vehicle exclusively. Cell Phone Navigation Subscriptions Some of the most popular cell phone carriers offer GPS navigation services by subscription. This typically costs the buyer an additional $10 per month, and some plans can be purchased for a per-diem fee as well. The key advantage with this system is the ability to use one portable device for both calling and navigating. However, the screen size of most cell phones are very small, and operating the map with keyboard controls can be cumbersome while driving. GPS Smartphones Different from cell phone navigation subscriptions, smartphones allow the user to purchase an app and use the downloaded software for navigation. This application turns the phone into a portable GPS unit. If GPS is a strong consideration when buying a smartphone, the buyer should look for a phone that has a large, colorful display and touchscreen controls for greater ease of use. How to Choose the Right GPS Unit Before deciding on a GPS unit, buyers should think about their main reasons for purchasing the device, their typical driving conditions (if planning on using the unit in the car), and the features that would be most helpful on a regular basis. Type of Driving If most of the driving is done in one neighborhood or along familiar routes, then a high-tech, expensive device may not be the most cost effective option. However, if there is usually heavy traffic or congestion on the route to or from work, a GPS device can help navigate around these problems when they occur. Frequency and Type of Use Buyers in the market for a new vehicle may find that most new cars can be purchased with GPS units built into the system. The difference between this and hand-held or mounted GPS units is obviously portability. If the buyer plans to use the GPS system exclusively when driving, then an additional GPS unit is not a necessary purchase. However, many new GPS units can be used both in the vehicle and as a hand-held device, so those who do a lot of walking or hiking in unfamiliar territory should invest in a portable unit. Since newer cell phones are also GPS compatible, the buyer should compare the features of their cell phone navigation with the unit they are planning to buy. Portable GPS units typically provide more detailed map coverage and are easier to use than cell phone navigation, but for each buyer it is a matter of balancing cost with need. Key GPS Features GPS units can come equipped with a host of features, including MP 3 players , Bluetooth compatibility , and photo viewers. Those looking to use their GPS system for fairly specific uses, for example, runners who want to use it to determine their heart rate , should make sure the unit they are buying provides that particular feature. Those who are mainly concerned with navigation should look for a unit with an appropriate screen size, spoken street names, real-time traffic reports, and predictive data entry. Screen Size The average size of a portable GPS unit is 4.3 inches , measured diagonally. This is an acceptable size for units that will be used in the car or on foot, as they provide enough room for a touchscreen keyboard to be operated without difficulty, and the screen is large enough for someone to analyze the map while driving. Those looking for a larger screen should consider the way in which they will be using the device. A 7 inch screen , for example, may be too large to mount on the windshield of a compact car and therefore impractical for some users. Spoken Street Names GPS units that speak to the user and can identify specific street names are incredibly helpful. In unfamiliar areas with confusing intersections, the ability to simply listen to the GPS and identify a street or highway by name is crucial. This is a must-have feature for those who are looking to use the GPS in the car. Many cell phone plans and smartphone apps do not have this feature, so it is something to look out for in a stand-alone unit. Traffic Reports and Detour Features GPS units that supply traffic information allow the user to detect a problem ahead of time and potentially avoid it altogether. When looking to buy a GPS unit, pay attention to the type of traffic alerts that are provided. Some units automatically alert the user to traffic, while others require the user to search for any potential delays manually. Also, some GPS packages, especially smartphone-based systems and apps, may charge extra for this particular service. Predictive Data Entry Almost all portable GPS models are equipped with predictive data entry. This is an extremely handy feature that will search the database for cities, street names, or points of interest that begin with the letters the user has typed. For example, if the user is looking for a street name that begins with the letters Bro-, it will automatically fill in Broadway and calculate the distance to this particular street. It is especially helpful when the user cannot remember the entire name of a destination. Using eBay to Purchase GPS Units The various types and prices of GPS units can make purchasing one seem like an intimidating process. Most electronics stores and big box department stores carry GPS units, so these may be appropriate places to shop. However, none of these stores can match the enormous collection of new and used GPS units that eBay provides. Only with eBay can the consumer sift through thousands of different types of GPS units without ever leaving the comfort of home. Sort Listings and Find the Right Item When visiting the eBay home page, locate the Search bar near the top of the screen. Use this space to type in the desired type of GPS unit you want. If you type in the words "GPS unit" in a general search, thousands of results will be provided. On the left-hand side of the screen is a taskbar that allows you to narrow your search by type of GPS, brand, screen size, condition, and price among other categories. After finding the desired GPS unit, such as the Garmin Nuvi 285 W , click on the blue hyperlinked text next to the item. This brings you to a page where you can purchase the item. Know the Seller A buyer should get to know the seller before making a purchase. One way to do this is to see if other customers have left positive feedback on the seller's profile. When you have zeroed in on the desired product, take a look at the seller's ratings and feedback on the right hand side of the page. You can find out if the seller has a solid track record and whether or not he or she has established themselves as someone who ships items out quickly. Conclusion GPS units are in use everywhere. Those who frequently venture into new regions, have difficulty reading paper maps, or are just looking to simplify their travel experience can use GPS units to get from point A to point B. Thankfully, the widespread use of these navigational tools has brought the price of these handy devices down so they are affordable for the average consumer. Overall, the key to purchasing the right GPS unit lies in the knowledge of how the buyer will use it most frequently and the amount that the buyer is willing to spend on the device. Also, buyers should make sure that their cellular device or smartphone is not already suitable for their needs, as most of these devices are GPS compatible or even fully GPS ready upon purchase. If this is not the case, then exploring eBay to find the right GPS unit is a user-friendly way to acquire one of these helpful devices.  
i don't know
What is the title of the presiding judge in the United States Supreme Court?
About the Supreme Court | United States Courts About the Supreme Court Supreme Court Background Article III of the Constitution establishes the federal judiciary. Article III, Section I states that "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." Although the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court, it permits Congress to decide how to organize it. Congress first exercised this power in the Judiciary Act of 1789. This Act created a Supreme Court with six justices. It also established the lower federal court system. The Justices Over the years, various Acts of Congress have altered the number of seats on the Supreme Court, from a low of five to a high of 10. Shortly after the Civil War, the number of seats on the Court was fixed at nine. Today, there is one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Like all federal judges, justices are appointed by the President and are confirmed by the Senate. They, typically, hold office for life. The salaries of the justices cannot be decreased during their term of office. These restrictions are meant to protect the independence of the judiciary from the political branches of government. The Court's Jurisdiction Article III, Section II of the Constitution establishes the jurisdiction (legal ability to hear a case) of the Supreme Court. The Court has original jurisdiction (a case is tried before the Court) over certain cases, e.g., suits between two or more states and/or cases involving ambassadors and other public ministers. The Court has appellate jurisdiction (the Court can hear the case on appeal) on almost any other case that involves a point of constitutional and/or federal law. Some examples include cases to which the United States is a party, cases involving Treaties, and cases involving ships on the high seas and navigable waterways (admiralty cases). Cases When exercising its appellate jurisdiction, the Court, with a few exceptions, does not have to hear a case. The Certiorari Act of 1925 gives the Court the discretion to decide whether or not to do so. In a petition for a writ of certiorari, a party asks the Court to review its case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear about 100-150 of the more than 7,000 cases that it is asked to review each year. Judicial Review The best-known power of the Supreme Court is judicial review, or the ability of the Court to declare a Legislative or Executive act in violation of the Constitution, is not found within the text of the Constitution itself. The Court established this doctrine in the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803). In this case, the Court had to decide whether an Act of Congress or the Constitution was the supreme law of the land. The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus (legal orders compelling government officials to act in accordance with the law). A suit was brought under this Act, but the Supreme Court noted that the Constitution did not permit the Court to have original jurisdiction in this matter. Since Article VI of the Constitution establishes the Constitution as the Supreme Law of the Land, the Court held that an Act of Congress that is contrary to the Constitution could not stand. In subsequent cases, the Court also established its authority to strike down state laws found to be in violation of the Constitution. Before the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment (1869), the provisions of the Bill of Rights were only applicable to the federal government. After the Amendment's passage, the Supreme Court began ruling that most of its provisions were applicable to the states as well. Therefore, the Court has the final say over when a right is protected by the Constitution or when a Constitutional right is violated. Role The Supreme Court plays a very important role in our constitutional system of government. First, as the highest court in the land, it is the court of last resort for those looking for justice. Second, due to its power of judicial review, it plays an essential role in ensuring that each branch of government recognizes the limits of its own power. Third, it protects civil rights and liberties by striking down laws that violate the Constitution. Finally, it sets appropriate limits on democratic government by ensuring that popular majorities cannot pass laws that harm and/or take undue advantage of unpopular minorities. In essence, it serves to ensure that the changing views of a majority do not undermine the fundamental values common to all Americans, i.e., freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and due process of law. Impact The decisions of the Supreme Court have an important impact on society at large, not just on lawyers and judges. The decisions of the Court have a profound impact on high school students. In fact, several landmark cases decided by the Court have involved students, e.g., Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District (1969) held that students could not be punished for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. In the Tinker case, the Court held that "students do not shed their rights at the schoolhouse gate."
Chief Justice
On clothing care symbols what is meant by a crossed-out triangle?
About the Supreme Court | United States Courts About the Supreme Court Supreme Court Background Article III of the Constitution establishes the federal judiciary. Article III, Section I states that "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." Although the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court, it permits Congress to decide how to organize it. Congress first exercised this power in the Judiciary Act of 1789. This Act created a Supreme Court with six justices. It also established the lower federal court system. The Justices Over the years, various Acts of Congress have altered the number of seats on the Supreme Court, from a low of five to a high of 10. Shortly after the Civil War, the number of seats on the Court was fixed at nine. Today, there is one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Like all federal judges, justices are appointed by the President and are confirmed by the Senate. They, typically, hold office for life. The salaries of the justices cannot be decreased during their term of office. These restrictions are meant to protect the independence of the judiciary from the political branches of government. The Court's Jurisdiction Article III, Section II of the Constitution establishes the jurisdiction (legal ability to hear a case) of the Supreme Court. The Court has original jurisdiction (a case is tried before the Court) over certain cases, e.g., suits between two or more states and/or cases involving ambassadors and other public ministers. The Court has appellate jurisdiction (the Court can hear the case on appeal) on almost any other case that involves a point of constitutional and/or federal law. Some examples include cases to which the United States is a party, cases involving Treaties, and cases involving ships on the high seas and navigable waterways (admiralty cases). Cases When exercising its appellate jurisdiction, the Court, with a few exceptions, does not have to hear a case. The Certiorari Act of 1925 gives the Court the discretion to decide whether or not to do so. In a petition for a writ of certiorari, a party asks the Court to review its case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear about 100-150 of the more than 7,000 cases that it is asked to review each year. Judicial Review The best-known power of the Supreme Court is judicial review, or the ability of the Court to declare a Legislative or Executive act in violation of the Constitution, is not found within the text of the Constitution itself. The Court established this doctrine in the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803). In this case, the Court had to decide whether an Act of Congress or the Constitution was the supreme law of the land. The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus (legal orders compelling government officials to act in accordance with the law). A suit was brought under this Act, but the Supreme Court noted that the Constitution did not permit the Court to have original jurisdiction in this matter. Since Article VI of the Constitution establishes the Constitution as the Supreme Law of the Land, the Court held that an Act of Congress that is contrary to the Constitution could not stand. In subsequent cases, the Court also established its authority to strike down state laws found to be in violation of the Constitution. Before the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment (1869), the provisions of the Bill of Rights were only applicable to the federal government. After the Amendment's passage, the Supreme Court began ruling that most of its provisions were applicable to the states as well. Therefore, the Court has the final say over when a right is protected by the Constitution or when a Constitutional right is violated. Role The Supreme Court plays a very important role in our constitutional system of government. First, as the highest court in the land, it is the court of last resort for those looking for justice. Second, due to its power of judicial review, it plays an essential role in ensuring that each branch of government recognizes the limits of its own power. Third, it protects civil rights and liberties by striking down laws that violate the Constitution. Finally, it sets appropriate limits on democratic government by ensuring that popular majorities cannot pass laws that harm and/or take undue advantage of unpopular minorities. In essence, it serves to ensure that the changing views of a majority do not undermine the fundamental values common to all Americans, i.e., freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and due process of law. Impact The decisions of the Supreme Court have an important impact on society at large, not just on lawyers and judges. The decisions of the Court have a profound impact on high school students. In fact, several landmark cases decided by the Court have involved students, e.g., Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District (1969) held that students could not be punished for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. In the Tinker case, the Court held that "students do not shed their rights at the schoolhouse gate."
i don't know
Haematite is an oxide of which metallic element?
Hematite: Hematite mineral information and data. Hematite Group . The iron analogue of Corundum , Eskolaite , and Karelianite . Hematite is rather variable in its appearence - it can be in reddish brown, ocherous masses, dark silvery-grey scaled masses, silvery-grey to black crystals, and dark-grey masses, to name a few. What they all have in common is a rust-red streak. Black crystals may be confused with ilmenite . NOTE: The 'hematite' used in jewelery, and often sold as magnetized items, is nothing of the sort and is an artificially created material, see Magnetic Hematite . In an experimental volcanic gas condensation by Africano et al. (2002) it deposited in high fO2 conditions during cooling from ca. 800oC down to ca. 650oC. 6 Morphology: Crystals generally thick to thin tabular {0001}, rarely prismatic [0001] or scalenohedral; also rarely rhombohedral {1011}, producing pseudo-cubic crystals. Often found in sub-parallel growths on {0001} or as rosettes ("iron roses.") Sometimes in micaceous to platy masses. May be compact columnar or fibrous masses, sometimes radiating, or in reniform masses with a smooth fracture ("kidney ore"), and botryoidal and stalactic. Frequently in earth masses, also granular, friable to compact, concretionary and oolitic. Twinning: Penetration twins on {0001}, or with {1010} as a composition plane. Frequently exhibits a lamellar twinning on {1011} in polished section. Crystallographic forms of Hematite
Scunthorpe United F.C.
"By what name do the British know First World War battle that became known as the ""Victory of the Skaggerrak""?"
Iron Oxides Iron Oxides Stoichiometry of Iron Oxides The law of definite proportion in action Iron rusts. We all know that. But the chemical reactions behind rust are surprisingly complicated! We will return to them at the end of the course when we discuss corrosion (see section 11.6 in the text). Here, we focus simply on the main compounds formed between iron and oxygen. That there is more than one may surprise you. That there are not an infinite number of them (and in fact, there almost is, as well shall see!) is an example of the law of definite proportion, an idea so central to chemistry it is almost taken for granted today. If iron, Fe, and oxygen, O2, are in contact at high enough temperatures (and with plenty of oxygen around), the grey or reddish compound that forms is called iron(III) oxide with the formula Fe2O3 and the common name (used to identify the natural mineral on Earth and, for that matter, Mars, where its presence is a striking chemical clue to the past history of Mars) hematite. We can write a balanced net reaction for this synthesis very simply: Note that the number of atoms of each element is the same on each side of the reaction: four iron atoms and six oxygen atoms. This is required by the law of mass conservation and the immutability of elements (in the absence of nuclear reactions, which we will not consider in Chem 5). That the ratio (iron atoms)/(oxygen atoms) is 4/6, or 2/3, and nothing else is an example of the law of definite proportions. If iron is heated in the presence of less oxygen, it is possible to synthesize another iron oxide, Fe3O4, called magnetite. This is the magnetic "loadstone" known for centuries as a naturally occurring mineral. It is black in color, and its balanced net synthesis reaction is much like for hematite, but with different combining proportions: 3/4 instead of 2/3, but still a simple ratio of small integers. Two other points about net reactions are worth mentioning here. First, note that the physical state of each element or compound is indicated in parentheses after the formula: (s) for solid and (g) for gas here. (Other common options include (l) for pure liquid and (aq) for "aqueous solution".) Next, note that we could multiply each of the so-called stoichiometric coefficients by any number and still be OK. (These coefficients are the integers written in front of each compound.) So instead of 3, 2, and 1 in the reaction above, we could multiply by two and write and still express mass conservation and definite proportion ideas correctly. But why 2/3 or 3/4? Why not 1/1, or 7/12, or any of a zillion other possibilities? The answer is couched in the detailed atomic structure of Fe and O atoms, a topic for Chem 6; for now, we can state that oxygen atoms in these types of compounds (an non-metal like oxygen combined with a metal like iron) exist in the compound to a very good approximation as discrete ions with the formula O2–, a dianion: di- because there is an excess of two negative charges and anion to indicate that the excess charge is negative rather than positive. The law of conservation of charge tells us something about the charge on the iron atoms. Consider Fe2O3 first. It is electrically neutral: no net charge. If the three oxygen anions each carry a charge of –2e, then the total for the three is –6e. This must be balanced by the two iron atoms, which, therefore, must be cations, ions with a net positive charge. This is really as far as we can go with conservation laws alone. It could be that one of the two irons is neutral and the other is +6e, or maybe both are +3e, or maybe even one is –10e and the other is +16e, for all we know now. Other evidence is needed to decide the case, and when that other evidence is invoked (we will see some of it in Chem 5 and more in Chem 6), we find that both iron ions have a +3e charge: Fe3+. This charge is the origin of the (III) part of the name iron(III) oxide. So what about Fe3O4? Again, the oxygens all together have 4(–2e) = –8e net charge. But we cannot give the three irons equal positive charges to balance this: 8/3 isn't an integer! Again, further information is needed, and the answer turns out to be that in magnetite, two irons are iron(III), but one is iron(II), Fe2+. Now we're balanced: 3e + 3e + 2e = +8e. Finally, we must mention the curious third common mineral containing iron and oxygen known as wüstite. Since oxygen is O2– and since we have found Fe2+ in magnetite, it would seem that a simple FeO compound should exist. In fact, it almost does, but pure FeO cannot be synthesized. Instead, wüstite is an example of a nonstoichiometric compound. It has a variable composition from sample to sample that spans the atomic ratios of roughly 85 to 95 iron atoms per 100 oxygen atoms. We write this as the formula Fe0.85O1.00, for example, with the curious fractional subscripts. In wüstite, almost all irons are Fe2+, but some are Fe3+. This is an example of a so-called mixed valence compound, as is magnetite (i.e., the same element has two distinct charge forms in one compound), but because the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio is continuously variable (and here is why there is "almost an infinite number of iron oxides"), the compound is nonstoichiometric. Problem set 1 lets you think about these ideas further. If you would like to learn more about these minerals (hematite is a common mineral used in jewelry, and powdered hematite is red rouge used in polishing applications), here are some links you might enjoy along with a couple of pictures. Note the iron nails and iron filings on the magnetic magnetite!
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"From which 1945 novel does the quote ""All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others"" come?"
What is significant about the quotes, "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others" and "Four legs good, two legs better"? | eNotes What is significant about the quotes, "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others" and "Four legs good, two legs better"? dalepowell1962 | College Teacher | (Level 2) Assistant Educator Posted on June 10, 2009 at 9:54 AM In George Orwell's Animal Farm, the animals started with seven commandments that were the laws of the farm.  Originally, they concluded with Old Major's claim that all animals are equal.  Little by little, throughout the novel, the commandments are eroded until they conclude with the "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."  This is, of course, absurd and an oxymoron since equal means equal; therefore, nothing can be more equal. This serves as a conclusion because the ultimate absurdity has occurred. What has been stated indirectly is,"All animals are not equal." The novel also concludes with an idea different from the original in "Four legs good, two legs bad" which becomes "Four legs good, two legs better." (Both of these lines were uttered by the sheep.)  This also represents a complete turn around from the beginning.   pmiranda2857 | High School Teacher | (Level 1) Educator Emeritus Posted on June 10, 2009 at 9:43 AM The events that precede the new philosophy include: Napoleon executing animals who dare to question his authority.  Animals are torn to pieces by his attack dogs right in front of the other animals so that they will be afraid of him and not question anything he does or says. Four legs good, two legs bad comes from the speech made by Old Major in the beginning of the book that is one of the principles of the theory of animalism that is at the heart of the rebellion.  Old Major is instructing the animals to never trust anything that walks on two legs, he, of course, is referring to man, who he says is evil.  Old Major would be very surprised that by the end of the book, pigs are walking on two legs and have taken on all the traits of man in direct opposition to his philosophy. The conclusion of the novel depicts how the rebellion worked to get rid of the farmer, but did not succeed in equality for all animals.  Instead of sharing equality, the animals are now under the rule of a harsh tyrant, Napoleon, who is cruel and violent in ways that Farmer Jones never was.  In fact, he is so severe in his treatment of the animals that the phrase, all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others, applies to the new rules that govern the farm. "In chapter one, Old Major interrupts his speech appealing to the animals for a Rebellion against the humans by asking for a vote on whether "wild creatures, such as rats and rabbits" should be included in the statement "All animals are comrades." Although at this point, the animals vote to accept the rats, later distinctions between different types of animals become so commonplace that the seventh commandment of Animalism is officially changed to read, "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others." Napoleon and the pigs are the ruling class, they and their cronies and associates live well, while the animals, the horses, sheep, etc, work and work and work, are fed very little and are carted off to the slaughterhouse once they can no longer work hard.  
Animal Farm
"""It was the best of times, it was the worst of times ..."" are the opening words of which novel by Charles Dickens?"
In Animal Farm, explain the deeper meaning of "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others." | eNotes In Animal Farm, explain the deeper meaning of "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others." Ashley Kannan | Middle School Teacher | (Level 3) Distinguished Educator Posted on July 24, 2011 at 5:48 PM This commandment appears that the end of the novel.  It is at a point where there is a definite hierarchy in the animal life on the farm.  Pigs exist at the top of this structure, with dogs next, and then all the other animals. The challenge, of course, is that one of the principles of Animalism, the guiding philosophy of Animal Farm, is that "all animals are equal."  Led by Squealer, the pigs are masters at being able to rewrite and reinterpret the commandments of the farm to ensure their benefit and control.  In this, Squealer modifies this commandment to read that while there is general equality, some animals are "more equal than others."  The other interesting element about this commandment is that all the other commandments that started Animalism are now gone.  Only this remains as a testament to the control that the pigs have now and for the foreseeable future of the farm.  Given how most of the animals on the farm are illiterate or so obedient to the system that they would never question it, the commandment stands as an example of both the lengths of the pigs' power and how their rule is an unquestioned one.  Other commandments have been rewritten in the book such as killing other animals or drinking alcohol.  Yet, it is this one that speaks to both how far the revolution has come and how little has changed as a result of it. The fact it is the only one standing of all reflects what the Status Quo wants and what it gets.  This particular commandment embodies such a reality on Animal Farm. like 1 dislike 0
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Which model has recently modelled his own underwear range for H&M ?
David Beckham launches his underwear range at H&M - Telegraph Latest Beauty News David Beckham launches his underwear range at H&M Footballer David Beckham made an appearance at a London H&M store to mark the launch of his collaboration with the Swedish retailer. BY Olivia Lidbury | 01 February 2012 David Beckham at the launch of his fashion range for H&M Photo: GETTY Hundreds of David Beckham fans queued outside the H&M store on London's Regent Street this afternoon to catch a glimpse of the footballing superstar. Related articles See David Beckham's style evolution Perhaps to the disappointment of the L.A Galaxy star's legion of female fans, the 36-year-old did not arrive wearing just a pair of briefs - but covered up in a casual combination of stonewash jeans and chunky, cream cardigan. The H&M flagship store's windows did however feature life-size silver Beckham mannequins in silver, clad in boxer shorts. Beckham has teamed up with the affordable Swedish retailer to create an eponymous range of vests, briefs, T-shirts and pyjamas, inspired by his own casual attire - and a few tips picked up along the way from when he modelled briefs for Emporio Armani. The marriage is thought to be an ongoing one, unlike the unique collaborations produced by designer labels Lanvin, Stella McCartney and Jimmy Choo in the past. See David Beckham's style evolution "I always want to challenge myself and this was such a rewarding experience for me. I'm very happy with the end result and I hope H&M's male customers will be as excited as I am" Beckham has said of the tie-up with H&M. The window display shows the silver David Beckham mannequins as people queue outside H&M to see his new underwear collection. Photo: EPA
David Beckham
Which Italian vehicle takes its name from the Italian for wasp?
David Beckham and James Corden model underwear for The Late Late Show sketch | Metro News David Beckham and James Corden team up for new underwear range ‘available in no stores anywhere’ Rebecca Tyrrell Monday 30 Mar 2015 12:50 pm David Beckham and his close pal James Corden have teamed up to create a new range of men’s underwear in a hilarious sketch for The Late Late Show with James Corden. The retired footballer and underwear model showed his support for the new host of the late night US chat show by stripping down to a pair of tiny white boxers in a fake commercial for their new underwear range named D&J. In a clear parody of some of David’s past adverts, the pair model the pants while being filmed in black and white with a somewhat serious backing track playing while they read meaningless quotes about needing to feel ‘supported’ and ‘alive’. David Beckham and James Corden do their best ‘blue steel’ poses (Picture: CBS) James Corden joked the underwear is for men with great bodies… and David Beckham (Picture: CBS) At one point James, who is clearly not embarrassed by his fuller figure, comments that he needs to feel ‘sexually aroused’, which David responds to by saying ‘Excuse me?’ before the shameless host adds ‘You heard’. In a final joke directed at David, who has his own line of underwear at H&M and has previously modelled for Emporio Armani, Corden leaps across the screen before poking fun at his pal’s impressive physique. He adds: ‘D&J briefs, underwear for a man with a great body… and David Beckham.’ David Beckham and James Corden team up for underwear range (Picture: CBS)
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Who, in the Bible, was the wife of King Ahab?
Who is KING AHAB in the Bible? Who is King Ahab in the Bible? Submit questions   -   New Articles QUESTION: Who is King Ahab in the Bible? ANSWER: King Ahab, according to the Bible, was the son of King Omri. He was one of Israel's most powerful rulers . He was King of the Northern Ten Tribes of Israel from 874 to 853 B.C. Many consider him the WORST ruler that ancient Israel ever had. His wife Jezebel was so evil that she has come to symbolize revengeful, malicious, immoral and cruel women throughout history. When Ahab married Jezebel , he became the first Israelite king in the Bible who allied himself to heathenism through marriage. Jezebel was a pagan princess of a man from Tyre named Ethbaal, who was a priest of the god Astarte (also called by the name Eastre). Persuaded by his wife, Ahab built an altar in Samaria (capital city of the northern ten tribes of Israel) dedicated to the false god Baal. Needless to say, God was not happy with him (1Kings 16:30 - 33). What Ahab wanted, he got, especially with the help of his evil wife Jezebel. One day he offered his neighbor, Naboth, a choice of either a better vineyard somewhere else or money for the land he owned. Naboth refused. When he could not buy Naboth's land from him he went home and pouted like a little child! When Jezebel found out what happened she "arranged" for her husband to own the land by having the land owner killed (1Kings 21:7 - 10, 15). This king of Israel was SO evil that Elijah the prophet prophesied the extermination of him and his entire family. When he repented, however, God let him live and postponed the punishment on his posterity (1Kings 21:17 - 29). Jezebel experienced no such repentance like her husband. The Eternal proclaimed that after her death the dogs would fight to eat her flesh by Jezreel's wall (1Kings 21:23).
Jezebel
Who composed the Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis ?
How Bad Was Jezebel? - Biblical Archaeology Society Reviews How Bad Was Jezebel? Read Janet Howe Gaines's full article about Jezebel in the Bible and later depictions as it appeared in Bible Review Janet Howe Gaines   •  09/17/2016 Read Janet Howe Gaines’s article “Jezebel” as it originally appeared in Bible Review, October 2000. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily in 2010.—Ed.   Who Was Jezebel? Israel’s most accursed queen carefully fixes a pink rose in her red locks in John Byam Liston Shaw’s “Jezebel” from 1896. Jezebel’s reputation as the most dangerous seductress in the Bible stems from her final appearance: her husband King Ahab is dead; her son has been murdered by Jehu. As Jehu’s chariot races toward the palace to kill Jezebel, she “painted her eyes with kohl and dressed her hair, and she looked out of the window” (2 Kings 9:30). Image: Russell-Cotes Art Gallery and Museum, Bournemouth, UK/Bridgeman Art Library. For more than two thousand years, Jezebel has been saddled with a reputation as the bad girl of the Bible, the wickedest of women. This ancient queen has been denounced as a murderer, prostitute and enemy of God, and her name has been adopted for lingerie lines and World War II missiles alike. But just how depraved was Jezebel? In recent years, scholars have tried to reclaim the shadowy female figures whose tales are often only partially told in the Bible. Rehabilitating Jezebel’s stained reputation is an arduous task, however, for she is a difficult woman to like. She is not a heroic fighter like Deborah, a devoted sister like Miriam or a cherished wife like Ruth. Jezebel cannot even be compared with the Bible’s other bad girls—Potiphar’s wife and Delilah—for no good comes from Jezebel’s deeds. These other women may be bad, but Jezebel is the worst. 1 Yet there is more to this complex ruler than the standard interpretation would allow. To attain a more positive assessment of Jezebel’s troubled reign and a deeper understanding of her role, we must evaluate the motives of the Biblical authors who condemn the queen. Furthermore, we must reread the narrative from the queen’s vantage point. As we piece together the world in which Jezebel lived, a fuller picture of this fascinating woman begins to emerge. The story is not a pretty one, and some—perhaps most—readers will remain disturbed by Jezebel’s actions. But her character might not be as dark as we are accustomed to thinking. Her evilness is not always as obvious, undisputed and unrivaled as the Biblical writer wants it to appear. In the free eBook Paul: Jewish Law and Early Christianity , learn about the cultural contexts for the theology of Paul and how Jewish traditions and law extended into early Christianity through Paul’s dual roles as a Christian missionary and a Pharisee. Ahab and Jezebel in the Bible The story of Jezebel, the Phoenician wife of King Ahab of Israel, is recounted in several brief passages scattered throughout the Books of Kings. Scholars generally identify 1 and 2 Kings as part of the Deuteronomistic History, attributed either to a single author or to a group of authors and editors collectively known as the Deuteronomist. One of the main purposes of the entire Deuteronomistic History, which includes the seven books from Deuteronomy through 2 Kings, is to explain Israel’s fate in terms of its apostasy. As the Israelites settle into the Promised Land, establish a monarchy and separate into a northern and a southern kingdom after the reign of Solomon, God’s chosen people continually go astray. They sin against Yahweh in many ways, the worst of which is by worshiping alien deities. The first commandments from Sinai demand monotheism, but the people are attracted to foreign gods and goddesses. When Jezebel enters the scene in the ninth century B.C.E., she provides a perfect opportunity for the Bible writer to teach a moral lesson about the evil outcomes of idolatry, for she is a foreign idol worshiper who seems to be the power behind her husband. From the Deuteronomist’s viewpoint, Jezebel embodies everything that must be eliminated from Israel so that the purity of the cult of Yahweh will not be further contaminated. As the Books of Kings recount, the princess Jezebel is brought to the northern kingdom of Israel to wed the newly crowned King Ahab, son of Omri (1 Kings 16:31). Her father is Ethbaal of Tyre, king of the Phoenicians, a group of Semites whose ancestors were Canaanites. Phoenicia consisted of a loose confederation of city-states, including the sophisticated maritime trade centers of Tyre and Sidon on the Mediterranean coast. The Bible writer’s antagonism stems primarily from Jezebel’s religion. The Phoenicians worshiped a swarm of gods and goddesses, chief among them Baal, the general term for “lord” given to the head fertility and agricultural god of the Canaanites. As king of Phoenicia, it is likely that Ethbaal was also a high priest or had other important religious duties. According to the first-century C.E. historian Josephus, who drew on a Greek translation of the now-lost Annals of Tyre, Ethbaal served as a priest of Astarte, the primary Phoenician goddess. Jezebel, as the king’s daughter, may have served as a priestess as she was growing up. In any case, she was certainly raised to honor the deities of her native land. The legacy of Jezebel. “In the last days, the daughters of Jezebel shall rule over nations,” warns the scrawling inscription that surrounds the face of Jezebel in this 1993 painting by American folk artist Robert Roberg. The apocalyptic message seems to associate the Biblical queen with the “mother of whores and of abominations” who “rules over the kings of the earth” and who has committed fornication with them (Revelation 17:2, 5, 18). Jezebel’s name appears once in the New Testament Book of Revelation, where it is attached to an unrepentant prophetess who has beguiled the people “to practice fornication and to eat food sacrificed to idols” (Revelation 2:20). Yet the Book of Kings offers no hint of sexual impropriety on Queen Jezebel’s part, argues author Gaines. She is, if anything, a too-devoted wife, willing even to commit murder in order to help her husband maintain his authority as king. Image: Robert Roberg When Jezebel comes to Israel, she brings her foreign gods and goddesses—especially Baal and his consort Asherah (Canaanite Astarte, often translated in the Bible as “sacred post”)—with her. This seems to have an immediate effect on her new husband, for just as soon as the queen is introduced, we are told that Ahab builds a sanctuary for Baal in the very heart of Israel, within his capital city of Samaria: “He took as wife Jezebel daughter of King Ethbaal of the Phoenicians, and he went and served Baal and worshiped him. He erected an altar to Baal in the temple of Baal which he built in Samaria. Ahab also made a ‘sacred post’” a (1 Kings 16:31–33). 2 Jezebel does not accept Ahab’s God, Yahweh. Rather, she leads Ahab to tolerate Baal. This is why she is vilified by the Deuteronomist, whose goal is to stamp out polytheism. She represents a view of womanhood that is the opposite of the one extolled in characters such as Ruth the Moabite, who is also a foreigner. Ruth surrenders her identity and submerges herself in Israelite ways; she adopts the religious and social norms of the Israelites and is universally praised for her conversion to God. Jezebel steadfastly remains true to her own beliefs. Jezebel’s marriage to Ahab was a political alliance. The union provided both peoples with military protection from powerful enemies as well as valuable trade routes: Israel gained access to the Phoenician ports; Phoenicia gained passage through Israel’s central hill country to Transjordan and especially to the King’s Highway, the heavily traveled inland route connecting the Gulf of Aqaba in the south with Damascus in the north. But although the marriage is sound foreign policy, it is intolerable to the Deuteronomist because of Jezebel’s idol worship. The Bible does not comment on what the young Jezebel thinks about marrying Ahab and moving to Israel. Her feelings are of no interest to the Deuteronomist, nor are they germane to the story’s didactic purpose.     To learn more about Biblical women with slighted traditions, take a look at the Bible History Daily feature Scandalous Women in the Bible , which includes articles on Mary Magdalene and Lilith.     We are not told whether Ethbaal consults his daughter, if she departs Phoenicia with trepidation or enthusiasm, or what she expects from her role as ruler. Like other highborn daughters of her time, Jezebel is probably a pawn, packed off to the highest bidder. Israel’s topography, customs and religion would certainly be very different from those of Jezebel’s native land. Instead of the lushness of the moist seacoast, she would find Israel to be an arid, desert nation. Furthermore, the Torah shows the Israelites to be an ethnocentric, xenophobic people. In Biblical narratives, foreigners are sometimes unwelcome, and prejudice against intermarriage is seen since the day Abraham sought a woman from his own people to marry his son Isaac (Genesis 24:4). In contrast to the familiar gods and goddesses that Jezebel is accustomed to petitioning, Israel is home to a state religion featuring a lone, masculine deity. Perhaps Jezebel optimistically believes that she can encourage religious tolerance and give legitimacy to the worship habits of those Baalites who already reside in Israel. Perhaps Jezebel sees herself as an ambassador who could help unite the two lands and bring about cultural pluralism, regional peace and economic prosperity. What spurs Jezebel to action is unknown and unknowable, but the motives of the Deuteronomist come through plainly in the text. Jezebel is a bold and impious interloper who has to be stopped. From her own point of view, however, she is no apostate. She remains loyal to her religious upbringing and is determined to maintain her cultural identity. According to the Deuteronomist, however, Jezebel’s desire is not merely confined to achieving ethnic or religious parity. She also seems driven to eliminate Israel’s faithful servants of God. Evidence of Jezebel’s cruel desire to wipe out Yahweh worship in Israel is reported in 1 Kings 18:4, at the Bible’s second mention of her name: “Jezebel was killing off the prophets of the Lord.” The threat of Jezebel is so great that later in the same chapter, the mythic prophet Elijah summons the acolytes of Jezebel to a tournament on Mt. Carmel to determine which deity is supreme: God or Baal. Whichever deity is capable of setting a sacrificial bull on fire will be the winner, the one true God. It is only then that we learn just how many followers of Jezebel’s gods and goddesses are near her at court. Elijah challenges them: “Now summon all Israel to join me at Mount Carmel, together with the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal and the four hundred prophets of Asherah who eat at Jezebel’s table” (1 Kings 18:19). Whether the grand total of 850 is a symbolic or literal number, it is impressive. Glass jewels and glitter adorn the veiled crown of Jezebel and twisted branches speckled with paint form the queen’s body in this sculpture by Bessie Harvey. Photo by Ron Lee, The Silver Factory/The Arnett Collection, Atlanta, GA Detail of veiled crown of Jezebel (compare with photo of veiled crown of Jezebel). Photo by Ron Lee, The Silver Factory/The Arnett Collection, Atlanta, GA. Yet their superior numbers can do nothing to ensure victory; nor can petitions to their god. The prophets of Baal “performed a hopping dance about the altar” and “kept raving” (1 Kings 18:26, 29) all day long in a vain attempt to rouse Baal. They even gash themselves with knives and whoop it up in a heightened emotional state, hoping to incite Baal to unleash a great fire. But Baal does not respond to the ecstatic ranting of Jezebel’s prophets. At the end of the day, it is Elijah’s single plea to God that is answered.         Standing alone before Jezebel’s host of visionaries, Elijah cries out: “O Lord, God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel! Let it be known today that You are God in Israel and that I am Your servant, and that I have done all these things at Your bidding. Answer me, O Lord, answer me, that this people may know that You, O Lord, are God; for You have turned their hearts backward” (1 Kings 18:36–37). At once, “fire from the Lord descended and consumed the burnt offering, the wood, the stones and the earth;…When they saw this, all the people flung themselves on their faces and cried out: ‘The Lord alone is God, the Lord alone is God!’” (1 Kings 18:38–39). Elijah’s solitary entreaty to Yahweh serves as a foil to the hours of appeals made by Baal’s followers. Jezebel herself is absent during this all-male event. Nevertheless, her presence is felt and the Deuteronomist’s message is clear. Jezebel’s deities and the huge number of prophets loyal to her are powerless against the omnipotent Yahweh, who is proven by the tournament to be ruler of all the forces of nature. Ironically, at the conclusion of the Carmel episode, Elijah proves capable of the same murderous inclinations that have previously characterized Jezebel, though it is only she that the Deuteronomist criticizes. After winning the Carmel contest, Elijah immediately orders the assembly to capture all of Jezebel’s prophets. Elijah emphatically declares: “Seize the prophets of Baal, let not a single one of them get away” (1 Kings 18:40). Elijah leads his 450 prisoners to the Wadi Kishon, where he slaughters them (1 Kings 18:40). Though they will never meet in person, Elijah and Jezebel are engaged in a hard-fought struggle for religious supremacy. Here Elijah reveals that he and Jezebel possess a similar religious fervor, though their loyalties differ greatly. They are also equally determined to eliminate one another’s followers, even if it means murdering them. The difference is that the Deuteronomist decries Jezebel’s killing of God’s servants (at 1 Kings 18:4) but now sanctions Elijah’s decision to massacre hundreds of Jezebel’s prophets. Indeed, once Elijah kills Jezebel’s prophets, God rewards him by sending a much-needed rain, ending a three-year drought in Israel. There is a definite double standard here. Murder seems to be accepted, even venerated, as long as it is done in the name of the right deity. After Elijah’s triumph on Mt. Carmel, King Ahab returns home to give his queen the news that Baal is defeated, Yahweh is the undisputed master of the universe and Jezebel’s prophets are dead. Jezebel sends Elijah a menacing message, threatening to slaughter him just as he has slaughtered her prophets: “Thus and more may the gods do if by this time tomorrow I have not made you like one of them” (1 Kings 19:2). The Septuagint, a third- to second-century B.C.E. Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, prefaces Jezebel’s threat with an additional insult to the prophet. Here Jezebel establishes herself as Elijah’s equal: “If you are Elijah, so I am Jezebel” (1 Kings 19:2 b ). 3 In both versions the queen’s meaning is unmistakable: Elijah should fear for his life. These are the first words the Deuteronomist records from Jezebel, and they are filled with venom. Unlike the many voiceless Biblical wives and concubines whose muteness reminds us of the powerlessness of women in ancient Israel, Jezebel has a tongue. While her verbal acuity shows that she is more daring, clever and independent than most women of her time, her withering words also demonstrate her sinfulness. Jezebel transforms the precious instrument of language into an evil device to blaspheme God and defy the prophet. So frightened is Elijah by Jezebel’s threatening words that he flees to Mt. Horeb (Sinai). Despite what he has witnessed on Carmel, Elijah seems to falter in his faith that the Almighty will protect him. As a literary device, Elijah’s sojourn at Horeb gives the Deuteronomist an opportunity to imply parallels between the careers of Moses and Elijah, thus reinforcing Elijah’s exalted reputation. Nevertheless, the timing of Elijah’s flight south makes him look suspiciously like he is afraid of a mere woman. Jezebel indeed shows herself as a person to be feared in the next episode. The story of Naboth, an Israelite who owns a plot of land adjacent to the royal palace in Jezreel, provides an excellent occasion for the Deuteronomist to propose that Jezebel is not only the foe of Israel’s God, but an enemy of the government. In 1 Kings 21:2, Ahab requests that Naboth give him his vineyard: “Give me your vineyard, so that I may have it as a vegetable garden, since it is right next to my palace.” Ahab promises to pay Naboth for the land or to provide him with an even better vineyard. But at 1 Kings 21:3, Naboth refuses to sell or trade: “The Lord forbid that I should give up to you what I have inherited from my fathers!” The king whines and refuses to eat after Naboth’s rebuff: “Ahab went home dispirited and sullen because of the answer that Naboth the Jezreelite had given him…He lay down on his bed and turned away his face, and he would not eat” (1 Kings 21:4). Apparently perturbed by her husband’s political impotence and sulking demeanor, Jezebel steps in, proudly asserting: “Now is the time to show yourself king over Israel. Rise and eat something, and be cheerful; I will get the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite for you” (1 Kings 21:7). Naboth is fully within his rights to hold onto his family plot. Israelite law and custom dictate that his family should maintain their land (nachalah) in perpetuity (Numbers 27:5–11). As a Torah-bound king of Israel, Ahab should understand Naboth’s legitimate desire to keep his inheritance. Jezebel, on the other hand, hails from Phoenicia, where a monarch’s whim is often tantamount to law. 4 Having been raised in a land of absolute autocrats, where few dared to question a ruler’s wish or decree, Jezebel might naturally feel annoyance and frustration at Naboth’s resistance to his sovereign’s proposal. In this context, Jezebel’s reaction becomes more understandable, though perhaps no more admirable, for she behaves according to her upbringing and expectations regarding royal prerogative.     Four outstanding scholars look closely at a number of prominent women in the Bible and the men to whom they relate in Feminist Approaches to the Bible , published by the Biblical Archaeology Society. Learn more >>     Elijah’s challenge of “the 450 prophets of Baal and the 400 prophets of Asherah who eat at Jezebel’s table” (1 Kings 18:19) is depicted in two scenes on the walls of the third-century C.E. synagogue at Dura-Europos in modern Syria. According to 1 Kings 18, Elijah proposed that both he and the prophets of Baal lay a single bull on an altar and then pray to their respective deities to ignite the sacrificial animal. Whichever deity responded would be deemed the more powerful and the one true God. In the painting shown here, the priests of Baal gather around their altar, crying out, “O, Baal, answer us,” but their sacrifice remains untouched. The small man standing inside the altar in this painting does not appear in the Biblical story, but rather in a later midrash. According to this midrash, when the prophets of Baal realized they would fail, a man named Hiel agreed to hide within the altar to ignite the heifer from below. The Israelite God foiled their plan by sending a snake to bite Hiel, who subsequently died. Image: E. Goodenough, Symbolism in the Dura Synogogue (Princeton Univ. Press) Without Ahab’s direct knowledge, Jezebel writes letters to her townsmen, enlisting them in an elaborate ruse to frame the innocent Naboth. To ensure their compliance, she signs Ahab’s name and stamps the letters with the king’s seal. Jezebel encourages the townsmen to publicly (and falsely) accuse Naboth of blaspheming God and king. “Then take him out and stone him to death,” she commands (1 Kings 21:10). So Naboth is murdered, and the vineyard automatically escheats to the throne, as is customary when a person is found guilty of a serious crime. If Naboth has relatives, they are now in no position to protest the passing of their family land to Ahab. Yet the details of Jezebel’s underhanded plot against Naboth do not always ring true. The Bible maintains that “the elders and nobles who lived in [Naboth’s] town…did as Jezebel had instructed them” (1 Kings 21:11). If the trickster queen is able to enlist the support of so many people, none of whom betrays her, to kill a man whom they have probably known all their lives and whom they realize is innocent, then she has astonishing power. The fantastical tale of Naboth’s death—in which something could go wrong at any moment but somehow does not—stretches the reader’s credulity. If Jezebel were as hateful as the Deuteronomist claims, surely at least one nobleman in Jezreel would have refused to assist in the nefarious scheme. Surely one individual would have had the courage to expose the detestable deed and become the Deuteronomist’s hero by spoiling the plan. 5 Shown here, Elijah and his followers have easily conjured up a blazing fire, which engulfs their white bull. Seeing the flames, the Israelites call out, “Yahweh alone is God, Yahweh alone is God” (1 Kings 18:39). Jezebel herself is not present during the event. And yet Elijah’s contest is a direct challenge to the queen who has brought the worship of Baal to the forefront in Israel by inviting the pagan prophets to the palace (compare with painting of the priests of Baal). Image: The Jewish Mesuem, NY/Art Resource, NY. Perhaps the Biblical compiler is using Jezebel as a scapegoat for his outrage at her influence over the king, meaning that she herself is being framed in the tale. Traditionally thought to be a narrative about how innocent Naboth is falsely accused, the story could instead be an exaggeration of fact, fabricated to demonstrate the Deuteronomist’s continued wrath against Jezebel. As a result of this incident, Elijah reappears on the scene. First Yahweh tells Elijah how Ahab will die: “The word of the Lord came to Elijah the Tishbite: ‘Go down and confront King Ahab of Israel who [resides] in Samaria. He is now in Naboth’s vineyard; he has gone down there to take possession of it. Say to him, “Thus said the Lord: Would you murder and take possession? Thus said the Lord: In the very place where the dogs lapped up Naboth’s blood, the dogs will lap up your blood too”’” (1 Kings 21:17–19). But when Elijah confronts Ahab, the prophet predicts instead how the queen will die: “The dogs shall devour Jezebel in the field of Jezreel” (1 Kings 21:23). c Poetic justice, as the Deuteronomist sees it, demands that Jezebel end up as dog food. Ashamed of what has happened and fearful of the future, Ahab humbles himself by assuming outward signs of mourning, fasting and donning sackcloth. Prayer accompanies fasting, whether the Bible explicitly says so or not, so we may assume that Ahab raises his penitential voice to a forgiving Yahweh. For once, Jezebel does not speak; her lack of repentance is implicit in her silence. After the Death of Ahab: The Ill Repute of Jezebel in the Bible When Jezebel’s name is mentioned again, the Bible writer makes his most alarming accusation against her. Ahab has died, as has the couple’s eldest son, who followed his father to the throne. Their second son, Joram, rules. But even though Israel has a sitting monarch, a servant of the prophet Elisha crowns Jehu, Joram’s military commander, king of Israel and commissions Jehu to eradicate the House of Ahab: “I anoint you king over the people of the Lord, over Israel. You shall strike down the House of Ahab your master; thus will I avenge on Jezebel the blood of My servants the prophets, and the blood of the other servants of the Lord” (2 Kings 9:6–7). Four paleo-Hebrew letters—two just below the winged sun disk at center, two at bottom left and right—spell out the name YZBL, or Jezebel, on this seal. The Phoenician design, the dating of the seal to the ninth or early eighth century B.C.E. and, of course, the name, have led scholars to speculate that the Biblical queen may once have used this gray opal to seal her documents. In the Phoenician language, Jezebel’s name may have meant “Where is the Prince?” which was the cry of Baal’s subjects. But the spelling of the Phoenician name has been altered in the Hebrew Bible, perhaps in order to read as “Where is the excrement (zebel, manure)?”—a reference to Elijah’s prediction that “her carcass shall be like dung on the ground” (2 Kings 9:36). Collection Israel Museum/Photo Zev Radovan. King Joram and General Jehu meet on the battlefield. Unaware that he is about to be usurped by his military commander, Joram calls out: “Is all well, Jehu?” Jehu responds: “How can all be well as long as your mother Jezebel carries on her countless harlotries and sorceries?” (2 Kings 9:22). Jehu then shoots an arrow through Joram’s heart and, in a moment of stinging irony, orders the body to be dumped on Naboth’s land. From these words alone—uttered by the man who is about to kill Jezebel’s son—stems Jezebel’s long-standing reputation as a witch and a whore. The Bible occasionally connects harlotry and idol worship, as in Hosea 1:3, where the prophet is told to marry a “wife of whoredom,” who symbolically represents the people who “stray from following the Lord” (Hosea 1:3). Lusting after false “lords” can be seen as either adulterous or idolatrous. Yet throughout the millennia, Jezebel’s harlotry has not been identified as mere dolatry. Rather, she has been considered the slut of Samaria, the lecherous wife of a pouting potentate. The 1938 film Jezebel, starring Bette Davis as the destructive temptress who leads a man to his death, is evidence that this ancient judgment against Jezebel has been transmitted to this century. Nevertheless, the Bible never offers evidence that Jezebel is unfaithful to her husband while he is alive or loose in her morals after his death. In fact, she is always shown to be a loyal and helpful spouse, though her brand of assistance is deplored by the Deuteronomist. Jehu’s charge of harlotry is unsubstantiated, but it has stuck anyway and her reputation has been egregiously damaged by the allegation. When Jezebel herself finally appears again in the pages of the Bible, it is for her death scene. Jehu, with the blood of Joram still on his hands, races his chariot into Jezreel to continue the insurrection by assassinating Jezebel. Ironically, this is her finest hour, though the Deuteronomist intends the queen to appear haughty and imperious to the end. Realizing that Jehu is on his way to kill her, Jezebel does not disguise herself and flee the city, as a more cowardly person might do. Instead, she calmly prepares for his arrival by performing three acts: “She painted her eyes with kohl and dressed her hair, and she looked out of the window” (2 Kings 9:30). The traditional interpretation is that Jezebel primps and coquettishly looks out the window in an effort to seduce Jehu, that she wishes to win his favor and become part of his harem in order to save her own life, such treachery indicating Jezebel’s dastardly betrayal of deceased family members. According to this reading, Jezebel sheds familial loyalty as easily as a snake sheds its skin in an attempt to ensure her continued pleasure and safety at court. This ivory comes from Arslan Tash, in northern Syria. The most common motif found on Phoenician ivories, the woman at the window may represent the goddess Astarte (Biblical Asherah) looking out a palace window. Perhaps this widespread imagery influenced the Biblical author’s description of Jezebel, a follower of Astarte, looking out the palace window as Jehu approached (2 Kings 9:30). Photo: Erich Lessing Ivory fragment discovered in Samaria (compare with photo of ivory from Arslan Tash). Photo: Israel Antiquities Authority. Applying eye makeup (kohl) and brushing one’s hair are often connected to flirting in Hebraic thinking. Isaiah 3:16, Jeremiah 4:30, Ezekiel 23:40 and Proverbs 6:24–26 provide examples of women who bat their painted eyes to lure innocent men into adulterous beds. Black kohl is widely incorporated in Bible passages as a symbol of feminine deception and trickery, and its use to paint the area above and below the eyelids is generally considered part of a woman’s arsenal of artifice. In Jezebel’s case, however, the cosmetic is more than just an attempt to accentuate the eyes. Jezebel is donning the female version of armor as she prepares to do battle. She is a woman warrior, waging war in the only way a woman can. Whatever fear she may have of Jehu is camouflaged by her war paint. Her grooming continues as she dresses her hair, symbol of a woman’s seductive power. When she dies, she wants to look her queenly best. She is in control here, choosing the manner in which her attacker will last see and remember her. The third action Jezebel takes before Jehu arrives is to sit at her upper window. The Deuteronomist may be deliberately conjuring up images to associate Jezebel with other disfavored women. For example, contained within Deborah’s victory ode is the story of the unfortunate mother of the enemy general Sisera. Waiting at home, Sisera’s unnamed mother looks out the window for her son to return: “Through the window peered Sisera’s mother, behind the lattice she whined” (Judges 5:28). Her ladies-in-waiting express the hope that Sisera is detained because he is raping Israelite women and collecting booty (Judges 5:29–30). In truth, Sisera is already dead, his skull shattered by Jael and her tent peg (Judges 5:24–27). King David’s wife Michal also looks through her window, watching her husband dance around the Ark of the Covenant as it is triumphantly brought into Jerusalem, “and she despised him for it” (2 Samuel 6:16). Michal does not understand the people’s euphoria over the arrival of the Ark in David’s new capital; she can only feel anger that her husband is dancing about like one of the “riffraff” (2 Samuel 6:20). Generations later, Jezebel also appears at her window, conjuring up images of Sisera’s mother and Michal, two unpopular Biblical women.     Not a BAS Library member yet? Join the BAS Library today .     The image of the woman at the window also suggests fertility goddesses, abominations to the Deuteronomist and well known to the general public in ancient Israel. Ivory plaques, dating to the Iron Age and depicting a woman peering through a window, have been discovered in Khorsabad, Nimrud and Samaria, Jezebel’s second home. 6 The connection between idol worship, goddesses and the woman seated at the window would not have been lost on the Deuteronomist’s audience. Sitting at her window, Jezebel is seemingly rendered powerless while the active patriarchal world functions beyond her reach. 7 But a more sympathetic reading of the situation suggests that Jezebel has determined the superior angle from which she will be viewed by Jehu, thus giving the queen mastery of the situation. Positioned at the balcony window, the queen does not remain silent as the usurper Jehu arrives into town. She taunts him by calling him Zimri, the name of the unscrupulous predecessor of Omri, Jezebel’s father-in-law. Zimri ruled Israel for only seven days after murdering the king (Elah) and usurping the throne. “Is all well, Zimri, murderer of your master?” Jezebel asks Jehu (2 Kings 9:31). Jezebel knows that all is not well, and her sarcastic, sharp-tongued insult of Jehu disproves any interpretation that she has dressed in her finest to seduce him. She has contempt for Jehu. Unlike many Biblical wives, who remain silent, Jezebel has a distinct voice, and she is unafraid to articulate her view of Jehu as a renegade and regicide. To demonstrate his authority, Jehu orders Jezebel’s eunuchs to throw her out of the window: “They threw her down; and her blood spattered on the wall and on the horses, and they trampled her. Then [Jehu] went inside and ate and drank” (2 Kings 9:33–34). In this highly symbolic political action, the once mighty Jezebel is shoved out of her high station to the ground below. Her ejection from the window represents an eternal demotion from her proper place as one of the Bible’s most influential women. Jezebel’s body is left in the street as Jehu celebrates his victory. Later, perhaps because the new monarch does not wish to begin his reign with such a disrespectful act against a woman, or perhaps because he realizes the danger in setting a precedent for ill treatment of a dead ruler’s remains, Jehu orders Jezebel’s burial: “Attend to that cursed woman and bury her, for she was a king’s daughter” (2 Kings 9:34). Jezebel is not to be remembered as a queen or even as the wife of a king. She is only the daughter of a foreign despot. This is intended as another blow by the Deuteronomist, an attempt to marginalize a formidable woman. When the king’s men come to bury Jezebel, it is too late: “All they found of her were the skull, the feet, and the hands” (2 Kings 9:35). Jehu’s men inform the king that Elijah’s prophecies have been fulfilled: “It is just as the Lord spoke through His servant Elijah the Tishbite: The dogs shall devour the flesh of Jezebel in the field of Jezreel; and the carcass of Jezebel shall be like dung on the ground, in the field of Jezreel, so that none will be able to say: ‘This was Jezebel’” (2 Kings 9:36–37). With its green hills, fecund grapevines and abundant flowers, the scene depicted in this early-17th-century silk embroidery would appear peaceful—if not for the gruesome detail at left, which shows a woman being pushed out the palace window to a pack of hungry dogs. According to 2 Kings 9, Jehu orders the palace eunuchs to throw Jezebel out a window. When he later commands his men to bury her, little remains: “All they found of her were the skull, the feet and the hands” (2 Kings 9:35). Jehu’s men inform the new king that Elijah’s prophecies have been fulfilled: The queen’s corpse has been devoured by dogs; her body is mutilated beyond recognition, so that “none will be able to say ‘This was Jezebel’” (2 Kings 9:37). Death of Jezebel/Holburne Museum, Bath, UK/Bridgeman Art Library How Bad Was Jezebel? While the Biblical storyteller wants the final images of Jezebel to memorialize her as a brazen hussy, a sympathetic interpretation of her behavior has more credibility. When all a person has left in life is the way she faces her death, her final actions speak volumes about her character. Jezebel departs this earth every inch a queen. Now an aging grandmother, it is highly unlikely that she has libidinous designs on Jehu or even entertains the notion of becoming the young king’s paramour. As the daughter, wife, mother, mother-in-law and grandmother of kings, Jezebel would understand court politics well enough to realize that Jehu has far more to gain by killing her than by keeping her alive. Alive, the dowager queen could always serve as a rallying point for anyone unhappy with Jehu’s reign. The queen harbors no illusions about her chances of surviving Jehu’s bloody coup d’état. How bad was Jezebel? The Deuteronomist uses every possible argument to make the case against her. When Ahab dies, the Deuteronomist is determined to show that “there never was anyone like Ahab, who committed himself to doing what was displeasing to the Lord, at the instigation of his wife Jezebel” (1 Kings 21:25). It is interesting that Ahab is not held responsible for his own actions. 8 He goes astray because of a wicked woman. Someone has to bear the writer’s vituperation concerning Israel’s apostasy, and Jezebel is chosen for the job. Every Biblical word condemns her: Jezebel is an outspoken woman in a time when females have little status and few rights; a foreigner in a xenophobic land; an idol worshiper in a place with a Yahweh-based, state-sponsored religion; a murderer and meddler in political affairs in a nation of strong patriarchs; a traitor in a country where no ruler is above the law; and a whore in the territory where the Ten Commandments originate. Yet there is much to admire in this ancient queen. In a kinder analysis, Jezebel emerges as a fiery and determined person, with an intensity matched only by Elijah’s. She is true to her native religion and customs. She is even more loyal to her husband. Throughout her reign, she boldly exercises what power she has. And in the end, having lived her life on her own terms, Jezebel faces certain death with dignity.     “How Bad Was Jezebel?” by Janet Howe Gaines originally appeared in Bible Review, October 2000. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily in June 2010.     Janet Howe Gaines is a specialist in the Bible as literature in the Department of English at the University of New Mexico. She recently published Music in the Old Bones: Jezebel Through the Ages (Southern Illinois Univ. Press).     Notes 1. For a fuller treatment of Jezebel, see Janet Howe Gaines, Music in the Old Bones: Jezebel Through the Ages (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1999). 2. All references to the Bible, unless otherwise noted, are to Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew Text (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1985). 3. The translation of the Greek text is my own. According to Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton (The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English, 3rd ed. [Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1990], p. 478), the translation of the entire line is “And Jezabel sent to Eliu, and said, If thou art Eliu and I am Jezabel, God do so to me, and more also, if I do not make thy life by this time tomorrow as the life of one of them.” 4. For a discussion of Phoenician customs, see George Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia (London: Longmans, 1889). 5. As corroborating evidence, see the story of David’s plot to kill Uriah the Hittite in 2 Samuel 11:14–17. Like Jezebel, David writes letters that contain details of his scheme. David intends to enlist help from the entire regiment as confederates who are to “draw back from” Uriah, but Joab makes a shrewd and subtle change in the plan so that it is less likely to be discovered. 6. Eleanor Ferris Beach, “The Samaria Ivories, Marzeah, and Biblical Text,” Biblical Archaeologist 56:2 (1993), pp. 94–104. 7. For an excellent, detailed discussion of Biblical imagery concerning women seated at windows, see Nehama Aschkenasy, Woman at the Window (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1998).
i don't know
Who plays the aged waitress in Victoria Wood's classic 'Two Soups' sketch?
Two Soups - YouTube Two Soups Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Mar 18, 2008 Julie Walters in a Victoria Wood sketch playing an elderly waitress Category
Julie Walters
What is the highest mountain in New Zealand?
Victoria Wood: 'I don't want a toyboy - he wouldn't get my jokes!' | Daily Mail Online Victoria Wood: 'I don't want a toyboy - he wouldn't get my jokes!' comments   Victoria Wood is resolutely un-starry, which is a blessing because the hotel where we meet is hosting an 'exclusive-use' wedding party and we're not allowed in. Instead we convene on the terrace in a thin drizzle. As Victoria herself would observe, in England, you can put chairs and tables outside as much as you like but it'll never be Tuscany. We wrestle up a sun-shade to shelter from the rain. It collapses. The waitress brings the tea tray but forgets the cups. We holler after her. Five minutes later she's back with the crockery but the tea is cooling.  My tale: Victoria's fascinating life story has been turned into an hilarious new play, aptly called Talent, which comes to London next week 'Sorry about that but it's hell on toast in there,' she observes with dry Northern phlegmatism, as she sets down the cups with a clatter. Two things strike me. First, all the elements of a potential Wood comedy sketch - the rich scope for social satire; even the haphazard waitress - are here. Second: the hotel does not accord Victoria any special treatment in deference to her celebrity. She has been awarded a CBE, won countless 'Funniest Woman of All Time' polls and enough BAFTAs to stock a trophy shop. Her talents are diverse - comic, singer/ songwriter, pianist, playwright, actor, director - yet we approach her with companionable chumminess. Why, I wonder? 'If you behave normally, people treat you normally. It's only when you act as if you're someone special that they feel obliged to stand on ceremony,' she says. Victoria, who looks toned and fit in a lumberjack shirt, jeans and trainers, pours the tea. We're in the Lake District, only an hour or so away from her Lancashire birthplace, so she is almost on home ground. It is light years away from the effusive 'luvvieness' of London; a place in which only the rivers and becks gush. 'If they like you in the North of England they won't say, "You were wonderful, darling!" They'll say, "You weren't bad" or "I didn't mind it",' she points out. She is here after directing the award-winning play, Talent, which she wrote in 1978 when she was 25. It has just ended a run at Bowness on Windermere where friends, who are directors of the theatre there, suggested she revive it. Next week it opens in London with Leanne Rowe and Suzie Toase as Julie and Maureen, the roles originally taken by Julie Walters and Victoria. Talent: Suzie Toase as Maureen and Leanne Rowe as Julie in the new play about Victoria's life 'The play is 31 years old, so it's a period piece,' says Victoria. 'I had to spend quite a bit of time explaining to the younger members of the cast the appeal of the Black and White Minstrels and who Mike and Bernie Winters were ('Mike wasn't funny - and he was the funny one,' runs one line). 'The play is set on talent contest night at the fictional Bunter's Niteclub, Manchester. 'So I also added a couple of songs just to open up the world of the cabaret club to those who are too young to remember the days of the Batley Variety Club, the Sheffield Fiesta and the Talk of the Town in London,' she explains. Victoria mined the rich seam of her own life's experiences for subject matter. Maureen, the chubby, down-trodden friend of contestant Julie, shares some qualities with the young Victoria. 'There are bits of me there,' she says. 'In my 20s I was going round seeing agents who were patronising because I was fat and a girl, which was a double whammy. I knew what it was to feel out-of-the-loop.' Julie's character is based on a girl Victoria met at a talent contest who was so nervous she talked incessantly. Then she threw in a magician because she was living with one in a flat in Morecambe at the time. He was Geoffrey Durham, alias The Great Soprendo, whom she later married. They had two children together - Grace (21) and Henry (17) - but the marriage ended after 22 years when they separated in 2002. Marriage break-up: Victoria Wood and husband Geoffrey Durham, alias The Great Soprendo Victoria speaks of Geoff with fondness. 'I wrote Talent in longhand in our flat in Morecambe at night after the telly had closed down; there was no 24-hour viewing in those days. I'd go to bed in the day and Geoff would type up what I'd written, which really was a sign of devotion because he couldn't actually type.' When their children were still small they moved from Morecambe - where Victoria's celebrity marked the family out for special interest - to Highgate in North London, where it didn't. 'It was our way of having an ordinary life,' she says. 'In London it's easy not to be the focus of attention, especially when Sting lives in the house just behind you.' Since the break-up with Geoff they have remained amicable neighbours, allowing their children easy access to them both. There has, she insists, been no new man in her life. 'I haven't noticed anyone lurking,' she laughs. 'Sometimes you think it would be nice to have a bit of lurkage, but you just have to deal with things as they are. 'I certainly haven't been out looking; I wouldn't know what to do. I haven't been internet dating either. The thing is, at my age, I've got so much baggage. So would this supposed gent if he was also in his 50s. And I wouldn't want a younger man because they've no idea what you're making jokes about.' So the past few years have been spent in nun-like abstinence? 'Afraid so,' she says. 'Life's been tied-up with the children but I'll have more time when Henry leaves home. 'I do slightly dread him going off, because I really enjoy spending time with him. But of course, like Grace (who is at Cambridge University), he has to go.' She has always relished parenthood, unlike her mum, who, although having had four children, seemed to resent the constraints family and housework imposed on her life. 'I was never close to her,' Victoria concedes. 'She had a lot of problems which weren't apparent to us at the time. She was depressive and slightly odd. 'She was terribly clever and she felt wasted at home and frustrated by motherhood. I'm the youngest and, looking back, I think I was a mistake. There are five years between each of my siblings then I came along two-and-a-half years after she'd had her third child. 'It was part of her strange controlfreakery to get each child dispatched to school before she had the next one. So I'm sure I disrupted her plan. 'I did feel she'd lost interest by the time I came along. 'But I always loved children and babies and knew I wanted them, so being a mum came easily to me. 'I speak to my kids on a regular basis. I know their names. I even hug them occasionally,' she laughs. Looking back, however, she realises there were times when the demands of career, parenthood, sustaining a marriage and running a home almost overwhelmed her. In 1993, when her children were five and one, her stand-up tour culminated in a 15-night, sell-out run at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Her career was at a zenith. 'But I think it was hard on me and hard on Geoff because I was working at such a pitch. 'When you look back it was all hands to the pump: demanding job, little children and your own life and marriage in the middle of it. 'I think I did strike the right balance between work and family, but of course I'll never know until the children write their autobiographies! 'I went to every concert, parents' evening, appointment and baby clinic and when I toured, which was only once every two years, the children sometimes came with me. 'I pushed myself hard and I'd lose my rag at times. 'I found myself becoming a replica of my mother with her short temper. From the minute Grace was born I was in overdrive. 'Then suddenly the children reach an age when they're independent and you look back and think, "How on earth did I do it all?" 'My temper hasn't materialised much at all lately, which makes me realise that a lot of my irritability was to do with having a tough career coupled with the stresses and strains of doing so many things at once. 'I pushed myself to do as much as possible with the children; I pushed myself with work, so of course I'd yell at times.' Serious: A scene from BAFTA award-winning wartime costume drama, Housewife 49. She struggled, too, with depression. 'It just drained the enjoyment out of life. It was very low grade but it made each day feel like a struggle. 'Instead of waking up and thinking, "How lucky! The whole day's ahead of me", it felt like an ordeal. 'I'm sure my depression was linked to eating; in particular sugar-dependency. Sugar was my drug of choice. 'It was in my bloodstream and it caused me so many problems. 'It took me years to recognise I had an intolerance to it and to make the link between eating it and feeling low. I'm very careful now. 'I do have sugar once in a while but I limit it.' She has always caricatured herself as a fat young woman, to the extent that she looms in our visual memories, swathed in capacious jacket and baggy trousers; large to the point of obesity. Actually she never was. 'I was only a stone or two overweight and I didn't massively over- eat, but I was constantly thinking about food. 'There was a lot of mental debating, making rules and breaking them and feeling dominated by that. Food was a solace. 'It was my answer to everything. I ate if I felt lonely, tense or tired. Every question was met with the same answer: food. That's what was wrong.' Therapy helped her - although she hasn't had recourse to it for many years - and with it came a recognition of the sort of activities that lift her mood. 'Being out in the fresh air always makes me feel good,' she says, 'which is why I love coming up here.' She gestures towards the lakes and fells. 'Music, reading, spending time on my own and, of course, having a great job: they all help.' Exercise - with its dual benefits of weight loss and improved health - usurped the compulsion to eat. The comedian, who once observed that jogging was for people who weren't intelligent enough to watch television, now runs occasional marathons and adheres to the sort of strict fitness regime she would have once mocked as risibly draconian. 'I have a treadmill at home for my cardio-workout and then I go to gym for a proper big workout with weights. 'I do it under supervision - one-to-one - or I wouldn't work hard enough,' she says. She has diversified professionally: three years ago she played wartime housewife Nella Last in the television drama Housewife, 49. It was a rare departure into a straight role and earned her two of her many BAFTAs Winner: Victoria poses with her two BAFTAs for 'Housewife, 49' at the Palladium, in London, in May 2007 She has also written her first film script - she has yet to find funding for its production - about a woman in her 50s who inherits an isolated farm in the Lake District that is chock-full of junk. There are echoes of Wood's childhood home here: her mother was an inveterate hoarder. 'When she died we discovered she'd been madly ordering useless things from catalogues - like fleeces with detachable blood-pressure cuffs in the sleeves - and the garage was crammed with mouldy books.' Consequently, her own home is deliberately clutterfree; she guards against becoming 'barmy or smelly or filling the house with balls of wool.' Her efforts, it seems, are strenuously channelled into not becoming the woman her mother was. She says she might well do more stand-up and a Christmas Special will unite her with her old friend Julie Walters. Their careers have diverged. Walters starred in last summer's massive hit Mamma Mia! Did Wood enjoy it? She is not fulsome in her praise. 'Musicals are not particularly my thing, but of course Julie was really funny in it,' she says. Although they do not meet often, the spark of their shared sense of humour ignites instantly when they're together. 'It's rare that you meet someone you just feel really bonded to. There's something with Julie I don't have with anyone else and it's an understanding of how we both work. I really love her and love working with her,' she says. Their Christmas show will feature (among many other treats) a homage to Lark Rise To Candleford and the Midlife Olympics from Brentford, Middlesex, in which one of the female competitors is drug-tested for sugar. If that sounds familiar it is because Wood's comedy continues to emanate from her own life and experience. 'It's all I have,' she says. Meanwhile the drizzle upgrades to a shower; a light mist veils the view. We finally capitulate and retreat into the hotel lounge, mingling - to their evident surprise - with the wedding guests. Does Wood ever fear that she'll run out of ideas? 'That's something I never worry about,' she smiles. 'They're all around me.' • TALENT, written and directed by Victoria Wood, is at the Menier Chocolate Factory Theatre from September 17, box office 020 7907 7060.
i don't know
The name for which Victorian invention is derived from the Latin for 'Darkened Chamber'?
History and Careers of Photography From it’s origins to the digital age, featuring innovations, inventions, people, and careers. By: Sheila Boester and. - ppt download Download Presentation is loading. Please wait. History and Careers of Photography From it’s origins to the digital age, featuring innovations, inventions, people, and careers. By: Sheila Boester and. Published by Poppy White Modified about 1 year ago Embed Similar presentations More Presentation on theme: "History and Careers of Photography From it’s origins to the digital age, featuring innovations, inventions, people, and careers. By: Sheila Boester and."— Presentation transcript: 1 History and Careers of Photography From it’s origins to the digital age, featuring innovations, inventions, people, and careers. By: Sheila Boester and Lisa Collard MVHS Photography By: Sheila Boester and Lisa Collard MVHS Photography 2 Photography… Is a science and an art. It combines the sciences of physics, chemistry, and optics with the craftsmanship of printmaking and the aesthetic values of drawing and painting. 3 What is photography? The name or term photography was coined by Sir John Herschel in He also coined the terms “negative” and “positive” to photographic images, and the word “snap-shot” Photography is derived from the Greek words for light and writing~ writing with light (Sir John Herschel) 4 Camera Obscura Latin for “dark chamber” The Camera Obscura, first camera, with a pin hole for viewing scenes was invented in First drawing of Camera Obscura was made by Leonardo da Vinci. 5 Camera Obscura Go into a very dark room on a bright day. Make a small hole in a window cover and look at the opposite wall. What do you see? Magic! There in full color and movement will be the world outside the window, upside down! This magic is explained by a simple law of the physical world. Light travels in a straight line and when some of the rays reflected from a bright subject pass through a small hole in thin material they do not scatter but cross and reform as an upside down image on a flat surface held parallel to the hole. 6 First Successful Photograph First photograph was produced in 1826 by Joseph Niepce. First photograph used silver halide salts on a metal sheet instead of film. Took 8 hours to expose! World’s first camera image by Joseph Niepce. Photo from an apartment building window. 7 Photographic Chemicals Procedure for chemical photo development was developed by Schulze in Etched plates were first shown in public by Daguerre in Daguerre's prints called daguerreotypes. Daguerre was the first to widely use chemical photo development. 8 Daguerreotypes were positive images, one of a kind Gold rush daguerreotype 9 Photographic Paper Process to produce negative pictures on paper developed in 1840 by William Fox Talbot. A positive was made on another sheet of paper chemically sensitized with silver salts. Talbot’s negative/positive approach formed the basis for all the photographic processes that followed. He called it the Calotype. A woodcut showing Henery Talbot Talbot’s first photograph on paper 10 Photographic Paper Calotype- Latin for “good paper” Make multiple copies of a single image The paper was washed over with a solution of silver nitrate and dried by gentle heat. When nearly dry, it was soaked in a solution of potassium iodide for two or three minutes, rinsed and again dried. 11 Collodion Process 1851 Fredrick Scott Archer- improves photographic resolution by spreading a mixture of collodion (nitrated cotton dissolved in alcohol) and chemicals on sheets of glass. Wet plate collodion photography was much cheaper than daguerreotypes, the negative/positive process permitted unlimited reproductions, and the process was published but not patented. Wet-plate featuring President Theodore Roosevelt 12 Carte de Visite Adolphe Disderi – introduced a rotating camera which could reproduce eight exposed images on a single negative. After printing on Albumen paper, the images were cut apart and glued to business card sized mounts. These tiny portraits were traded between friends. Thus began the worldwide boom (Cardomania) in portrait studios for the next decade. 13 Albumen paper The albumen print was the first commercially exploitable method of producing a photographic print on a paper base from a negative. It used the albumen found in egg whites to bind the photographic chemicals to the paper and became the dominant form of photographic positives from 1855 to the turn of the century, with a peak in the period. 14 Ambrotypes and tintypes : Direct positive images on glass (ambrotypes) and metal (tintypes or ferrotypes) popular in the US. Compared with other processes the tintype tones seem uninteresting. They were often made by unskilled photographers, and their quality was variable. However, they are significant in that they made photography available to working classes, not just to the more well-to-do. Until then the taking of a portrait had been more of a special event. After the introduction of tintypes, we see more relaxed, spontaneous poses. 15 War popularizes photography The Civil War( ) was the first war recorded with photography by Matthew Brady. He became one of the first photographers to use photography to chronicle national history. He brought “home to us the terrible reality and earnestness of war.” His war scenes demonstrated that photographs could be more than posed portraits, and his efforts represent the first instance of the comprehensive photo-documentation of a war. Photo of Matthew Brady taken in 1864. 16 Motion Pictures Zoopraziscope- produced a series of still images that make a subject move. Eadweard Muybridge took the first sequence of photos of action in It was to settle a bet as to whether or not running horses lifted all four hooves off the ground at one time. Leads to motion picture industry. 17 Photography for the masses George Eastman founded Eastman Kodak Company in first mass-market, point-and-shoot camera, called the Kodak. Simple box camera preloaded with enough film to make 100 exposures. Sold 100,000 cameras in first 2 years of the company. “You press the button, we do the rest.” 18 Photography for the masses George Eastman founded Eastman Kodak Company in first mass-market, point-and-shoot camera, called the Kodak. Simple box camera preloaded with enough film to make 100 exposures. Sold 100,000 cameras in first 2 years of the company. “You press the button, we do the rest.” 19 Color Photography Autochrome – The first color process marketed Invented in France by the Lumiere brothers in 1907 Color photography not widely available until the 1950s due to cost of film development. Autochrome of WW I biplane 20 The SLR Camera SLR- single lens reflex 1924 : The "Leica", the first high quality 35mm camera introduced. Uses and automatic moving mirror system which permits the photographer to see exactly what will be captured by the film Non-SLR cameras- the view through the viewfinder could be significantly different from what was captured on film Kodacolor, Kodak’s first print film Old school SLR Camera with a zoom telephoto lens 21 Polaroid Camera 1947, Edwin Land- invention of first instant camera Founds Polaroid Corporation 1957 Utilized “pack film,” which required the photographer to pull the film out of the camera for development, then peel apart the positive from the negative at the end of the developing process. February no longer making Polaroid cameras The Polaroid Land Camera model J66 The Polaroid SX-70 Model 2 22 Careers during the early years War Photographer- documentary Photojournalist- newspaper, magazine Portrait Photographer- family, weddings Freelance- product photography, fashion Architecture Photographer Landscape Photographer 23 Photography as Social Change People who wanted to bring about social change began to use photography for their causes. Jacob Riis- New York newspaper reporter- wrote and photographed desperate living conditions of immigrants in slums. Book- How the Other Half Lives 24 Photography as Social Change Lewis Hines- used Photography to change child labor laws in the U.S. Produced images of the many dangers of working in mines and factories. Because of his photography, the laws were changed. 25 FSA Farm Security Administration hires Roy Stryker to run a historical section. Stryker would hire Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange, Arthur Rothstein, et al. to photograph rural hardships over the next six years. 26 Photojournalists of the 20th Century… Walker Evans- Great Depression 1935 Dorothea Lange Migrant Mother 1936 27 Photojournalist of the 20th Century Robert Capa- Falling Soldier, 1936 Margaret Bourke-White War Photographer Concentration Camp- Buchenwald, Germany Life Magazine, the most prestigous for photographers at the time 28 Portrait Photography Nadar- first great portrait photographer Produced formal, eloquent portraits of the artists, writers, and actors of the time patented the idea of using aerial photographs in mapmaking and and surveying Nadar 29 Portrait Photography Photography would replace painting as the primary medium of portraits. Photography was inexpensive and became common place portrait of Sarah Bernhardt, the most famous actress in the history of the world.- Nadar 30 Landscape Photographers Ansel Adams: Tetons and the Snake River Brett Weston: Dunes 1946 31 Recent advances 1985: Minolta markets the world's first autofocus SLR system (called "Maxxum" in the US 1987: The popular Canon EOS system introduced, with new all-electronic lens mount 32 History of Digital Photography Two inventions made the miniaturization of computers a reality: transistors integrated circuits These advances paved the way for computers to become smaller. 33 History of Digital Photography Invention of the imaging chip CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) invented by George Smith and Willard Boyle at Bell Laboratories. They were trying to invent a solid-state camera phone Their invention became the basis for all video cameras and eventually digital cameras, copiers, fax machines, and scanners. 34 First film-less cameras Were electronic Video cameras that captured still images Sony Mavica Cannon RC-701 35 First film-less cameras first black and white only digital camera with a small, one-tenth of a mega pixel (MP) sensor. Also first year Photoshop was released. Logitech Photoman Logitech Dycam Model 1 36 Consumer oriented cameras Apple QuickTake 100 Could record up to eight color images (640 X 480 pixels) in its internal memory. At the time, over 12 billon was spent on photography in the U.S. Logitech Photoman 37 Digital SLR’s Nikon came out with the first totally original digital SLR (DSLR) Nikon D1 SLR, 2.74 megapixel for $6000, 2004: Kodak ceases production of film cameras 2005: Canon EOS 5D, first consumer- priced full-frame digital SLR, for $3000 Nikon D1 38 And the rest is History! 39 Careers Related to Photography Today Editorial Photographer Camera Equipment Repairers Film editing Photo Imaging careers Photographic Equipment Technicians Photographic Processor Photojournalist Professional Photographer Scientific Photographer Special Effects Technician Fashion Photographer Wedding Photographer … and much, much more. Follow the link…
Camera obscura
Which actor's creations include Nice-but-dim Tim and Loadsamoney?
Photography - Art or Science? | Photography Part I -History of Photography Camera ObscuraReflex MirrorOptical Glass and Lenses Part II -Technology of Photography Light Sensitive MaterialsDaguerreotypesRoll FilmColorDigital Photography Part III -Photography as Art Pictorialism and ImpressionismNaturalismStraight PhotographyNew Vision of the 20th Century Part IV -Photographic Techniques
i don't know
What was the original title of Radio's The Goon Show'?
RADIO: THE GOON SHOW | Laughterlog.com RADIO: THE GOON SHOW by PETER TATCHELL (copyright 2010)    Arguably the most influential radio series in British comedy, THE GOON SHOW began on the B.B.C. Home Service May 28 1951 under the title of CRAZY PEOPLE “featuring radio’s own Crazy Gang*, The Goons”.   Starring Peter Sellers, Harry Secombe, Michael Bentine and Spike Milligan (with musical support from The Ray Ellington Quartet, Max Geldray and The Stargazers) and Andrew Timothy as the announcer, the scripts were written by Milligan and Larry Stephens (and edited by Jimmy Grafton). The seventeen episodes were made up of unrelated sketches featuring a handful of regular characters. By the second series, the following January, the B.B.C. allowed the programme to be retitled THE GOON SHOW with the participants as before. The Stargazers left after the first six shows and Michael Bentine departed at series end (though remaining friends with the team, and in fact guest-starring in a fourth season episode). By the third season, scriptwriting pressures caused Milligan to have a nervous breakdown and he was absent for eleven of the programmes (Dick Emery and Graham Stark took turns at filling in). Series four saw the collection of sketches evolve into the familiar continuous storyline and Wallace Greenslade take over as the announcer. None of the first four seasons of THE GOON SHOW was broadcast outside Britain and nearly all the original recordings were destroyed. All that survives are off-air acetate copies of two incomplete editions from series 2, an episode from series 3 and about half of series 4 (many of which were discovered in recent years). However, from the fifth season (starting September 1954) the B.B.C. Transcription Service began offering the show to broadcasters in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States and elsewhere. Eventually 107 editions were made available, plus specially-recorded remakes of 14 fourth season episodes. Most were slightly edited to remove topical references or material thought unsuitable for overseas listeners. Happily nearly everything survives from this point onwards. These were the episodes of THE GOON SHOW repeated over the past half century and issued on LP, cassette and CD to fans in Britain and around the world. By the mid-1950s, Eric Sykes began contributing to the scripts (either solo or with Milligan) and his work may be found in season five and at the start of season six. (Sykes, Milligan, Alan Simpson and Ray Galton had formed a scriptwriting co-operative called Associated London Scripts and were regularly supplying material to the B.B.C. and London’s recently-opened commercial television channels). In 1956 and 1957, Sellers, Secombe and Milligan were signed by Decca Records to record eight studio vocals featuring their popular characters (originally issued as four 78rpm discs). (Prior to this, the trio had done two songs for Parlophone which for reasons relating the composer copyrights were not released at the time). THE GOON SHOW concluded its run after a short tenth series (on January 28 1960). There were then two seasons of THE TELEGOONS (totalling twenty-six 15-minute remakes, using puppets and dialogue re-recorded by the cast) plus a handful of revival editions. The only newly-scripted edition was The (aptly titled) Last Goon Show Of All, produced for the B.B.C.’s 50th anniversary in 1972. (A Decca 45rpm single containing two new Goon vocals was also recorded in honour of the occasion). Apart from the original 121 editions of THE GOON SHOW made available by the Transcription Service in the late-1950s, a “best-of” selection titled Pick Of The Goons was issued in the mid-1960s. This comprises 84 programmes , eight of which had not previously been available. Coupled with the final 21 editions of the original package, these are the 105 episodes which have been airing on A.B.C. Radio for the past thirty-five years. As we enter the twenty-first century, over a hundred GOON SHOWs are available via radio or on commercial compact disc (many originally issued on LP or cassette). There have also been collections of scripts and cartoons inspired by the original plots. Listed below is an itemisation of the episodes that are commercially available on disc or part of the packages made available by the B.B.C. Transcription Service. *The original Crazy Gang was formed in the 1930s at the London Palladium when the double acts Flanagan & Allen, Nervo & Knox and Naughton & Gold appeared together in a succession of shows. They also appeared in several movies and (minus Allen) reformed in April 1947 for a number of productions at the Victoria Palace, eventually disbanding in May 1962. Beloved by the public and participating in many Royal Variety performances, they were renowned for their zany antics, good-natured fun and adlibbing.   (see Bud Flanagan’s MY CRAZY LIFE, Frederick Muller 1961 and Maureen Owen’s THE CRAZY GANG, Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1986) THE GOON SHOW CHRONOLOGY with Peter Sellers, Harry Secombe, Michael Bentine (series 1 & 2), Spike Milligan, Max Geldray, Ray Ellington Series 1 (titled CRAZY PEOPLE): Home Service Monday 7-45pm May 28 to July 23 1951, Thursday 8-00pm August 2 to September 20 1951 *** CINDERELLA: Light Programme Wednesday 8-15pm December 26 1951 (45 min) Series 2: Home Service Tuesday 9-30pm January 22 to July 15 1952 (not Feb 12) Series 3: Home Service Tuesday 9-30pm November 11 1952 to May 5 1953 (not Dec 23) *** ROBIN HOOD: Light Programme Friday 8-15pm December 26 1952 (45 min) *** CORONATION EDITION: Home Service Wednesday 9-30pm June 3 1953 (40 min) Series 4: Home Service Friday 9-30pm October 2 1953 to February 12 1954,  Monday 8-30pm February 15 to April 19 1954 *** CHRISTMAS CRACKERS: Home Service Friday 1-10pm December 25 1953 (featured a Goons sketch) *** ARCHIE IN GOONLAND: June 11 1954 *** THE STARLINGS: Home Service Tuesday 9-45pm August 31 1954 Series 5: Home Service Tuesday 9-30pm September 28 1954 to March 22 1955 Series 6: Home Service Tuesday 8-30pm September 20 1955 to March 20 1956 (Nov 22 episode delayed until Apr 3) *** THE MISSING CHRISTMAS PARCEL (15 min segment): December 8 1955 (part of 1 hour broadcast) *** THE GOONS HIT WALES (5 min segment): Home Service Thursday 9-00pm March 1 1956 (60 min) *** CHINA STORY: August 29 1956 Series 7: Home Service Thursday 8-30pm October 4 1956 to March 27 1957 (Nov 8 episode delayed until Feb 14) *** THE REASON WHY: Home Service Thursday 9-15pm August 22 1957 (repeat on Feb 14) Series 8: Home Service Monday 8-30pm September 30 1957 to March 24 1957 Series 9: Home Service Monday 8-30pm November 3 1958 to February 23 1959 Series 10: Home Service Tuesday 7-30pm December 24 1959 to January 28 1960 *** THE LAST GOON SHOW OF ALL: R4 Thursday 8-00pm October 5 1972 (40 min) * The BBC Transcription Service also recorded 15 remakes for overseas listeners only on … Dec 2 1956 and Oct 6 & 20, Nov 3 & 17, Dec 1, 15 & 29 1957, Jan 12, Feb 16 & 23, Mar 2, 9, 16 & 23 1958 * The BBC General Overseas Service broadcast on shortwave a special edition (for troops) on … Dec 24 1956   TELEVISION VERSIONS OF GOON SHOWS The Telegoons (15 min, b/w) (BBC-TV) October 5 1963             The Ascent Of Mount Everest October 12 1963           The Lost Colony October 19 1963           The Fear Of Wages October 26 1963          Napoleon’s Piano November 2 1963       The Last Tram November 16 1963     China Story November 23 1963     The Canal December 7 1963        The Hastings Flyer December 14 1963      The Mystery Of The Marie Celeste – Solved! December 21 1963      The International Christmas Pudding December 28 1963      The Choking Horror March 28 1964           Scradje April 4 1964                The Booted Gorilla April 11 1964              The Greatest Mountain In The World April 18 1964              The Dreaded Batter-Pudding Hurler Of Bexhill-On-Sea April 25 1964              Tales Of Old Dartmoor May 2 1964                  Lurgi Strikes Britain May 9 1964                  The Personal Narrative Of Captain Seagoon R.N. May 16 1964                The First Albert Memorial To The Moon May 23 1964                The Whistling Spy Enigma May 30 1964               Tales Of Montmatre June 6 1964                 The Africa Ship Canal June 13 1964               The Affair Of The Lone Banana June 27 1964               The Nadger Plague July 18 1964                The Seige Of Fort Knight August 1 1964             The Terrible Revenge Of Fred Fu Manchu Secombe And Friends (Associated-Rediffusion) October 16 1966         The Whistling Spy Enigma (17 minute segment) August 8 1968             Tales Of Men’s Shirts (Thames, 25 min) December 26 1972    The Last Goon Show Of All (BBC1, 40 min)   The first four seasons of THE GOON SHOW were aired only in Britain … from series 5 the BBC’s Transcription Service began issuing episodes to radio stations around the world. SURVIVING EPISODES of THE GOON SHOW (A = in BBC Archives TS = 1950s Transcription Service issue PG = Pick of the Goons reissue BCD = issued on BBC compact discs ECD = issued on EMI compact discs BC = issued on BBC cassette s = featured in script books c = featured in cartoon books) 2/1 c1 THE REMAKES OF SERIES 4 (starting October 1953, the show was now being recorded on tape, instead of 16″ 33⅓ips discs) None of these shows was issued overseas (by the Transcription Service) but BBC Archives kept an extract of show 13 and show 23 complete. Amateur off-air recordings survive of shows 2, 3, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26 and 29. Fourteen of the scripts were performed again in 1958, specifically for issue by the Transcription Service (all of these remakes survive). 4/1       The Dreaded Piano Clubber   remade as V12 4/2       The Man Who Tried to Destroy London’s Monuments   exists 4/3       The Ghastly Experiments of Dr. Hans Eidelberger   exists 4/4       The Building of Britain’s First Atomic Cannon 4/5       The Gibraltar Story 4/6       Through the Sound Barrier in an Airing Cupboard 4/7       The First Albert Memorial to the Moon   remade as V14 4/8       The Missing Bureaucrat 4/10     The Flying Saucer Mystery 4/11     The Spanish Armada 4/13     The Giant Bombardon  A (2 min extract)   remade as V4 4/14     Ten Thousand Fathoms Down in a Wardrobe 4/15     The Missing Prime Minister   exists   remade as V3 4/16     Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Crun 4/17     The Mummified Priest   remade as V1 4/18     The History of Communications   exists 4/19     The Kippered Herring Gang   exists   remade as V5 4/20     The Toothpaste Expedition   exists 4/21     The Case of the Vanishing Room   exists   remade as V6 4/22     The Great Ink Drought of 1902   remade as V7 4/23     The Greatest Mountain in the World   BCD8   A   exists   remade as V2 4/24     The Collapse of British Railway Sandwich System   BCD23 exists   remade as V8 4/25     The Silent Bugler   exists   remade as V10 4/26     Western Story   exists 4/27     The Saga of the Internal Mountain   remade as V9 4/28     The Invisible Acrobat 4/29     The Great Bank of England Robbery   exists   remade as V11 4/30     The Siege of Fort Knight   remade as V13 VINTAGE GOONS – Transcription Service remake package, recorded during series 8. Seven of these versions were included in the 1960s Pick of the Goons reissue package. (noted PG) V/1      The Mummified Priest   BCD12 V/2      The Greatest Mountain in the World   PG original also exists V/3      The Missing Ten Downing Street   ECD3 original also exists V/4      The Giant Bombardon   BCD18 PG original also exists V/5      The Kippered Herring Gang   original also exists V/6      The Vanishing Room   BCD13 PG original also exists V/7      The Ink Shortage V/8      The Mustard and Cress Shortage  original also exists V/9      The Internal Mountain   BCD25 PG V/10    The Silent Bugler   BCD17 PG original also exists V/11    The Great Bank of England Robbery   BCD26 PG original also exists V/12    The Dreaded Piano Clubber   BCD24 V/13    The Siege of Fort Night   BCD26 V/14    The First Albert Memorial to the Moon   PG     Discography all episodes originally released on LP (by Parlophone, EMI and BBC Records) have now been reissued on the following compact discs … B.B.C. CDS v1: Moriarty, Where Are You? (ZBBC 1864) The Dreaded Batter Pudding Hurler The Histories Of Pliny The Elder The Jet-Propelled Guided NAAFI The Evils Of Bushey Spon v2: Enter Bluebottle (ZBBC 1865) Lurgi Strikes Britain v6: Have A Gorilla (ZBBC 1869) Rommel’s Treasure I Was Monty’s Treble The Seagoon Memoirs v7: Ying Tong Iddle-I Po (ZBBC 1870) The Whistling Spy Enigma The Affair Of The Lone Banana The Great Tuscan Salami Scandal Scradje v8: You Have Deaded Me Again (ZBBC 1871) The Greatest Mountain In The World The Mystery Of The Marie Celeste (Solved!) The Spanish Suitcase The Last Tram (From Clapham) v9: What Time Is It, Eccles? (ZBBC 1887) Under Two Floorboards The Sinking Of Westminster Pier The Yehti v10: You Can’t Get The Wood You Know! (ZBBC 1513) The White Box Of Great Bardfield Tales Of Montmatre The Mystery Of The Fake Neddie Seagoons The Great Bank Robbery v11: He’s Fallen In The Water! (ZBBC 1602) The String Robberies v23: The Collapse Of The British Rail Sandwich System (ISBN 0563 527978) The Collapse Of The British Rail Sandwich System The Lost Gold Mine Of Charlotte The Canal v24: The Case of the Missing Heir (ISBN 18460 71941) The Case of the Missing Heir The Secret Escritoire The Pam’s Paper Insurance Policy v25: The Saga of the Internal Mountain (ISBN 9781 4056 77721) The Fireball of Milton Street The End, or Confessions of a Secret Senna-Pod Drinker The Terrible Revenge of Fred Fu-Manchu The Saga of the Internal Mountain v26: Bank Statement no. 349 (ISBN 9781 408 410455) The Lost Year The Great Bank of England Robbery The Siege of Fort Night The Chinese Legs v27: Check the Yuckabakaka Gauges (ISBN: 978-1408427279) The Greatest Mountain in the World (Vintage Goons remake) The Kippered Herring Gang (Vintage Goons remake) The First Albert Memorial to the Moon (Vintage Goons remake) Robin’s Post v28: The Indigestion Waltz (ISBN: 9781 4084 68555) The Great Regent’s Park Swim The Space Age ***  The Last Goon Show Of All + At Last The Go On Show (documentary) (ZBBC 2014) E.M.I. CDs volume 1 (CDECC 4 , 7 90796 2) Tales Of Old Dartmoor Tales Of Men’s Shirts The Scarlet Capsule volume 2 (CDECC 6, 7 94587 2) China Story The Macreekie Rising Of ’74 Six Charlies In Search Of An Author Insurance – The White Man’s Burden volume 3 (CDECC 9, 7 95298 2) The Missing No. 10 Downing Street The Red Fort Robin Hood And His Mirry Mon The Goons (28597 2) reissues of Tales Of Old Dartmoor, Dishonoured Again & Tale Of Men’s Shirts The Goons – Volume 2 (34755 2) reissues of The Missing 10 Downing Street, The Red Fort & Robin Hood 78rpm STUDIO VOCALS RECORDED BY THE GOONS Parlophone 1955                Dance With Me, Henry (both vocals eventually issued on the EMI 4CD set A CELEBRATION OF SELLERS) Decca May 1956        The Bluebottle Blues May 1956        I’m Walking Backwards For Christmas August 1956   Bloodnok’s Rock ‘n’ Roll Call August 1956   The Ying Tong Song 1957                Eeh! Ah! Oh! Ooh! 1957                I Love You 1957                Whistle Your Cares Away 1957                A Russian Love Song 1972                The Raspberry Song (all ten Decca vocals reissued on the LP/CD THE WORLD OF THE GOONS) additional reissue The Best of the Goons One Day Music 2CD DAY2CD 115 (2011) Tales of Old Dartmoor I’m Walking Backwards for Christmas Bluebottle Blues Bloodnok’s Rock ‘n’ Roll Call Tales of Men’s Shirts The Scarlet Capsule The Goon Show Scripts s1 by Spike Milligan (Woburn Press, 1972) More Goon Show Scripts s2 by Spike Milligan (Woburn Press, 1973) The Book Of The Goons s3 by Spike Milligan, Harry Secombe and Peter Sellers (Robson Books, 1974) The Goon Show Companion by Roger Wilmut and Jimmy Grafton (Robson Books, 1976. Sphere ppk, 1977) The Story Of The Goons by Alfred Draper (Everest Books ppk, 1976) The Goon Cartoons c1 by Spike Milligan (Michael Joseph/M & J Hobbs, 1982) More Goon Cartoons c2 by Spike Milligan (M & J Hobbs/Michael Joseph, 1983) The Lost Goon Shows s4 by Spike Milligan (Robson Books, 1987) The Goon Show – The Story (edited) by Norma Farnes (Virgin Books, 1997) The Essential Spike Milligan s5 by Spike Milligan (Harper Collins/Fourth Estate, 2003) Spike & Co. by Graham McCann (Hodder & Stoughton, 2006)   The Goon Show Scripts (Woburn Press, 1972) The Dreaded Piano Clubber The Affair Of The Lone Banana The Canal The Siege Of Fort Knight The Tree Maniac (not performed) The Essential Spike Milligan (Harper Collins / Fourth Estate, 2003) Crazy People (episode #1) The Mystery Of The Fake Neddie Seagoons The Fear Of Wages OTHER RADIO SERIES BY THE GOONS PETER SELLERS Home Service Monday 8-00pm November 22 to December 20 1948 Third Division Third Programme Wednesday 8-00pm January 26 to March 2 1949 Ray’s A Laugh Home Service Monday 7-30pm April 4 to May 30 1949 and Tuesday 8-00pm June 7 1949 to June 27 1950 Home Service Thursday 8-30pm September 21 1950 to July 26 1951 Home Service Thursday 8-30pm November 1 1951 to July 17 1952 (not Feb 7, 14) Home Service Thursday 8-30pm December 25 1952 to June 25 1953 Home Service Thursday 8-30pm September 25 1953 to April 29 1954 Variety Bandbox Light Programme Sunday 7-30pm (fortnightly) April 16 to July 23 1950 Paradise Street Light Programme Tuesday 9-30pm June 2 to July 13 1954 Happy Holiday Light Programme Thursday 8-00pm July 15 to October 21 1954 Calling Miss Courtneidge Home Service Wednesday 7-00pm March 16 to May 4 1955 Finkel’s Cafe Light Programme Wednesday 8-30pm July 4 to August 29 1956 Curiouser And Curiouser Home Service Tuesday 8-30pm August 14 to September 18 1956 HARRY SECOMBE Home Service Tuesday 8-30pm June 1 to July 20 1948 Third Division Third Programme Wednesday 8-00pm January 26 to March 2 1949 Welsh Rarebit Light Programme Thursday 9-00pm January 26 to June 29 1950 Light Programme Thursday 9-00pm September 28 1950 to February 8 1951 Educating Archie Light Programme Thursday 7-30pm September 18 1952 to February 12 1953 and Thursday May 21 to June 25 1953 Light Programme Thursday October 15 1953 to April 1 1954 SPIKE MILLIGAN Light Programme Wednesday 7-30pm October 5 to December 28 1949 Bumblethorpe Home Service Monday 7-45pm November 12 to December 31 1951 Paradise Street Light Programme Tuesday 9-30pm April 20 to May 26 1954 The Idiot Weekly ABC RADIO Tuesday 7-15pm June 3 to August 18 1958 ABC RADIO Tuesday 7-30pm June 30 to September 22 1959 ABC RADIO Tuesday 7-30pm August 29 to November 20 1962 The Omar Khayham Show Home Service Friday 9-30pm December 27 1963 to January 24 1964 and Tuesday 9-00pm May 5 1964 Milligna – Or Your Favourite Spike Radio 4 Tuesday 6-15pm December 12 1972 to January 23 1973 The Milligan Papers Radio 4 Wednesday 6-30pm January 28 to March 4 1987 MICHAEL BENTINE Third Programme Wednesday 8-00pm January 26 to March 2 1949 Come To Char-lee Light Programme Thursday 7-30pm February 26 to May 14 1953 Three’s A Crowd MELBOURNE RADIO 3DB September 9 1956 to March 3 1957 Round The Bend Light Programme Sunday 6-30pm October 13 1957 to January 5 1958 Home Service Friday 7-00pm December 26 1958 to March 20 1959 Home Service Friday 9-45pm May 20 to August 12 1960 The Best Of Bentine Radio 2 Sunday 12-30pm January 22 to February 26 1984 Radio 2 Sunday 12-30pm April 15 to May 27 1984 The Reluctant Jester Radio 2 Tuesday 7-00pm September 7 to October 12 1993 The Reluctant Jester Strikes Back Radio 2 Tuesday 8-30pm November 1 to December 6 1994  
Crazy People
In the NATO phonetic alphabet, which word represents the letter Y ?
The Goon Show Site - History and Background of The Goons About The Goons History The Goons met in the 1940s before going on to create the most influential comedy show of their era. Like many of the post war entertainers, they all began performing whilst serving in the forces. Here is a brief history of the show and its cast. 1939 WAR. All 4 founder members of the Goons were involved in World War 2 (as was most of the world). Individually, the Goons get involved in entertaining the armed forces. 1945 WAR ends. Score 2-0 to the allies. The atomic bomb stops play. 1949 By now all 4 original Goons are in London carving out individual careers on stage and radio and Spike is getting into script writing. They begin to gather at a pub called 'Graftons' which becomes a popular watering hole for them and other up and coming stars. Jimmy Grafton, the Landlord of the pub (and scriptwriter) is instrumental in getting the Goons started at the BBC. He will also edit the early series of the show. 1950 The BBC are approached by the Goons with their ideas for a new radio show. They are eventually given a chance. 1951 A pilot episode was made in early February and the first series started on the BBC in May. The first series was titled 'Crazy People' as the BBC did not like the name 'The Goon Show'. These early shows contained a number of short sketches and musical interludes. Many of the characters to be loved later pop up in these early shows. By the end of the year the show finally gets its intended title 'The Goon Show'. 1952 At the end of the second series, 4 becomes 3 as Michael Bentine leaves to pursue other aspects of his life and career. The shows become more developed with the same characters appearing each week. The madcap comedy, characters and sound effects become more ined. 1953 The original announcer (Andrew Timothy) leaves, saying he 'feared for his sanity'. He is replaced by Wallace 'Bill' Greenslade. During series 3 Spike suffers his first nervous breakdown and misses 12 programs. Larry Stephens and Maurice Whiltshire do most of the writing, with Sellers and other actors playing Milligan's characters during this period. With the next (4th) series, the show begins to have a single plot giving the show its well known format. 1954 The BBC Transcription service starts to record shows, making them available to organisations in other countries. This gives the show an international audience. Eric Sykes starts to assist in writing some shows. 1954 to 1959 The show becomes hugely sucessful with large listening figures. All 3 Goons become established household names both for The Goon Show and in their own right. 1959 Milligan announces that the 9th series will be the last. At the end of one recording session a group of girls hand over a petition signed by 1,030 listeners pleading with him to carry on writing The Goons. Harry Secombe also misses the recording of the final episode. One more series was made. 1960 The tenth and last series ends with the shows popularity still high. 'It's better to go out on top'. 1960 Onwards (After the Goons) Harry Secombe continues to be a popular and well loved entertainer and singer. Spike performs on stage, writes books, plays, poetry and TV comedy including the acclaimed 'Q' series. Peter becomes an international film star with classics such as Dr Strangelove, The Pink Panther, Being There and many more (plus a few terrible ones that we don't like to talk about!). The Goons occasionally appear together in film and TV etc. 1961 Announcer Wallace Greenslade dies unexpectedly at his home in Weybridge, Surrey, UK. 1963/64 The Telegoons is shown on BBC-TV. These are 15 minute puppet shows using some re-worked Goon Show scripts. This leads to a cartoon version of The Telegoons appearing in various comic strips. 1972 The Goons reunite to do a one off special called 'The Last Goon Show of All'. 1980 Peter Sellers dies aged 54 after years of worsening heart problems. 1996 Michael Bentine dies aged 74. 2001 Harry Secombe dies aged 79. 2002 Spike Milligan dies aged 83. That's all folks! Want to know more? A lot of the above details are sourced from the book 'The Goon Show Companion' by Wilmut and Grafton. If you want to find out more about the history of The Goons and the show, it is well worth a read. CD Compendiums Goon Show Compendiums are CD box sets, each containing a dozen or more remastered episodes, plus some great bonus features.
i don't know
What is the title of the first Sherlock Holmes novel, published in 1887?
1887: Profile by Gaslight. Sherlock Holmes The Casebook of Sherlock Holmes (1927) --the fifth collection of Sherlock Holmes short stories This web page hasn't touched on the history and development of the Holmes stories in detail yet. Accompanying articles discuss it more thoroughly. But Sir Arthur Conan Doyle created a market for detective short stories, particularly when he killed off Sherlock Holmes at the Reichenbach Falls (in the famous death-struggle between Holmes and Professor Moriarty). No more Sherlock Holmes stories caused a proliferation of other writers to appear to fill the void! Some of these are Arthur Morrison (and his detective Martin Hewitt), Baroness Orczy (The Old Man in the Corner), and many others discussed below. Buy The Complete Sherlock Holmes from Amazon! (Click below.) William Gillette As I do the research for this web site, I find myself catching up on volumes that are in my collection but which I've never quite gotten around to reading until now. William Gillette's novel The Astounding Crime on Torrington Road (1927) is one of these and, were it not for the pure delight of my finally being introduced to Gillette's wit and literary style, I regret having put it off for so long. I've been somewhat familiar with Mr. Gillette's work as a playwright -- at least in regard to his work about Sherlock Holmes (e.g., Sherlock Holmes: A Play and the one-act parody The Painful Predicament of Sherlock Holmes ) but I was quite unaware of his considerable talent as a novelist. He is able to employ his considerable penchant for drama -- and, yes, melodrama -- as an author. Here, let me quote from the book just to give you a taste of Mr. Gillette's style: "Mr. Cripps had, about middle life, made a pretty good 'deal' -- for those days -- when he suddenly got on to the way things were going in the suburbs and made a few choice investments. As a result, he became what was then called a millionaire. Of course he'd have been a mere piker now, but as he couldn't read the future, he was well satisfied. At last he could do something. And the first thing was to get some sort of a family about him. "You see, this Cripps was naturally a lonely man -- actually suffered unless he had people in the house with him; and he hadn't had anybody since the death of his parents some years before. "What I've said shows you that he had no family of his own -- wife and all that. He wasn't at all a woman hater, but he was a merciless woman critic. Odd thing, too, for he liked them first off, but every time he got within striking distance of matrimony he saw what a tiresome thing it was likely to be, and thereupon fled for his life. "All the same, his ideal was to live in the midst of a family -- to have about him those who would be company for him and yet not have 'claims'; and things like that, that would make life a wretched bore. "Now that he'd made his haul, his first thought was to advertise for a family to come and live with him. But really nice people wouldn't answer such an ad, and that was the only kind he wanted. Along here the thought of his own relatives occurred to him. That wasn't a bad idea. He'd get some of them to come. "His only near relative was a widowed sister, Cynthia Findlay, living with her two children in St. Louis. Mr. Cripps had been supporting them for a number of years, both before and after her husband -- a poor, disreputable fish -- died of drink. She inherited nothing of value from Mr. Findlay except his absence, which was priceless but couldn't be turned into money. She wouldn't have parted with it, anyway. "He'd always liked Cynthia, and she'd had a tough life of it. He'd have her as a starter for his adopted-family enterprise. Yes, and the children would come in nicely, too. He'd always heard that children kept things lively. Well, that was the way he wanted them." --(Excerpt from The Astounding Crime on Torrington Road by William Gillette.) Lest you wonder from this brief excerpt whether this is indeed a murder mystery, let me quote the advertising blurb from the back of my copy: "The murder of Michael Haworth, just after he has sold the rights in an invention to a shady company is a mystery that will puzzle the most seasoned reader of detective thrillers." As I read The Astounding Crime on Torrington Road, I find myself experiencing the same feelings I enjoy when I watch some early, melodramatic, silent movie serials -- such as The Mystery of the Double Cross or The Wolves of Kultur. And now that I've finished reading it, I can disclose that someone scrawled in pencil "Fairly good" on the end papers in front of my copy. My own opinion is somewhat higher than that. Okay, it's not Dickens or Shakespeare, but it really is quite good Every Sherlockian is aware of the impact William Gillette (July 24, 1853 to April 29, 1937) made in helping to make the name of Sherlock Holmes a household world. Gillette was a renowned actor who, among other things, introduced a naturalistic method of acting on the stage to audiences of his time, created a way of delivering his lines that made it seem like he was saying them for the first time, and mentored a young Helen Hayes. On stage, Gillette starred as Sherlock Holmes. His intention was to do a short run and then move on to other projects. But popular demand kept him repeating the role for more than forty years. Vincent Starrett says, "An absurd, preposterous, and thoroughly delightful melodrama, Gillette's Sherlock Holmes is possibly the best realization of a novelist's conception ever produced on the stage....The play opened at the Garrick Theatre, in New York, on November 6, 1899, and ran for 230 performances. Subsequently it played a year on the road, and finally (in 1901), it went to England for a triumphant session at Sir Henry Irving's Lyceum. Since that far time there have been revivals in number, not all of them conducted by Gillette, and the play has been seen in stock. In the detective's role only Gillette is thinkable, if one ardent oldtimer may be permitted to be dogmatic" (The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes). Arthur Conan Doyle, the creator of Sherlock Holmes, made the following comment to Gillette: "May I add a word to those which are addressed to you on the occasion of your return to the stage?...That this return should be in Sherlock Holmes is, of course, a source of personal gratification, my only complaint being that you make the poor hero of the anaemic printed page a very limp object as compared with the glamour of your own personality which you infuse into his stage presentment" (The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes). Starrett points out, "The gratitude of America was expressed by [novelist] Booth Tarkington in a memorable sentence: 'Your return to the stage is a noble and delightful event, and, speaking for myself, I would rather see you play Sherlock Holmes than be a child again on Christmas morning" (The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes). Gillette became the first great standard for Sherlock Holmes, long before Basil Rathbone, Jeremy Brett, and others (most of whom I love in the role), and those who came immediately after him emulated his inflection. I know this because a scrap of Gillette delivering two scenes of his play has been recorded and preserved, and has found its way into the collections of Holmes enthusiasts (my own collection included). Orson Welles did a classic rendition of Gillette's play for radio audiences with his Mercury Theatre of the Air episode, titled The Immortal Sherlock Holmes . Clive Brook, in the film The Return of Sherlock Holmes, also emulated Gillette's voice, as did Richard Gordon on radio. His home in Connecticut, known as " Gillette Castle ," is now a state park. Buy William Gillette: America's Sherlock Holmes confidently from Amazon.com by clicking below. Vincent Starrett Vincent Starrett's (October 26, 1886 to January 4, 1974) The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes has already been quoted above. The book is one of the classics of "higher criticism" regarding the Sherlock Holmes canon and is immensely readable. Dr. Julian Wolff, of The Baker Street Irregulars -- that stalwart group of Sherlockian luminaries which forms, along with the Sherlock Holmes Society of London, a central hub of worldwide Sherlockian activity -- called it "The greatest book about Sherlock Holmes that has ever been written." Other quotes from the world of Sherlockian aficianados about the book include the following: "A masterpiece! No one can surpass it for richness of phrase, depth of observation, and superb sardonic delight." -- Christopher Morley "Vincent Starrett has done more than any other historian to capture the deep philosophical and poetic truth that lies behind the saga of Sherlock." -- Will Oursler "The best piece of work written on the most memorable fictional detective." -- Ben Hecht "A wry, thoroughly authoritarian and extremely fascinating chronicle." -- Carl Sandburg "My father would approve..." -- Adrian Conan Doyle "An honest, authoritative work: a labor, most obviously, of love. . . [but] leaves much to be desired to the Holmes fanatic. . . ." --Ellery Queen (Ray Betzner reviews EQ's review here .) Whether examining the details in the life of Sherlock Holmes or Dr. Watson, or revealing details that enable one to compare Holmes to Conan Doyle, cases that Doyle himself actually investigated (such as those of Oscar Slater and George Edalji), or examining writers who have written parodies and burlesques about the Holmes-Watson relationship (such as Bret Harte, John Kendrick Bangs, Mark Twain, and a long list of others), or discussing Holmes as portrayed on stage and screen, or sharing secrets about the early dinners of the Baker Street Irregulars, The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes is a delight to read. We are privy to learn other secrets, as well, such as Starrett's statement that "The original of Moriarty was Adam Worth, who stole the famous Gainsborough in 1876 and hid it for a quarter of a century; this revealed by Sir Arthur in conversation with Dr. Gray Chandler Briggs, whose discovery of the Baker Street digs already has been noted." Occasionally, Vincent Starrett tackles a literary problem in the canon itself, such as why Mrs. Hudson is the landlady throughout the stories and is associated with Holmes even in his retirement -- except for one story in which Mrs. Turner appears as the landlady. Mr. Starrett's solution is this: "Once in the early days Holmes called her Turner -- Mrs. Turner. So Watson, at any rate, sets forth in A Scandal in Bohemia. 'When Mrs. Turner has brought in the tray I will make it clear to you,' said the detective, as alleged by Watson; meaning that he would make clear what service he demanded of the doctor. The remark has been anything but clear to students of the record. That Holmes actually made it may be doubted; it is too obviously the sort of error Watson would commit in the throes of composition. No doubt, at the moment of writing, a patient named Turner was waiting in his consulting room -- was in some fashion, anyway, on his mind. the story was written by the doctor in 1891, after the supposed death of Holmes in Switzerland, about an adventure dated in 1888; that is, it was written during the early weeks of his mourning for his friend, at a time when he was distraught. It is not for a moment to be supposed that Watson forgot the name of his old landlady, but it is a bit to his discredit, one thinks, that not once during the three years of Holmes's absence did he call upon her." (Vincent Starrett, The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes) (Starrett adds a footnote that the story "...appeared in the Strand Magazine for July 1891.) Other writers have given varying solutions to this puzzle, as well. In a recent BBC radio dramatization of A Scandal in Bohemia with Clive Merrison and Michael Williams as Holmes and Watson, Mrs. Turner appears in the story with Mrs. Hudson. In their version, Mrs. Hudson was recovering from an illness and Mrs. Turner was filling in. But Starrett's discussion was much earlier and undoubtedly was a result of his own observations as well as discussion with other Sherlockians, who often become animated when discussing the same detailed trivialities which would have non-Sherlockians looking for the exits. (I can say this as a Sherlockian who has immersed himself in heated discussion and debate with fellows of the same breed.) In the quote above, Starrett uses the phrase that Watson would commit an error "in the throes of composition." This is precisely the phrase that Conan Doyle uses to describe a character he wrote about in The Mystery of Uncle Jeremy's Household -- a non-Sherlock Holmes story published in 1887 (the same year A Study in Scarlet found publication). This makes it appear quite likely that Starrett was reading a lot of Doyle at the time, including his non-Sherlockian writings, and may well have been subtly influenced. Such phrases are eminently quotable and are likely to remain in the consciousness of a devoted Sherlockian, only to slip out and find its way into one's own conversation or writing. When discussing Holmes's exploits on the screen, Starrett writes (in the paperback version, that is!), "On the screen the Holmes saga has been prodigiously exploited. Most famous perhaps of motion picture Sherlocks, until the advent of Basil Rathbone, was John Barrymore, who appeared, however, in only one picture. Clive Brook was also good in one picture, and the only complaint registered against Raymond Massey was that he failed to look Sherlockian. In England there has been Eille Norwood and Arthur Wontner, who looked the part to perfection and turned in sparkling performances; but in America, until the coming of Mr. Rathbone, there had been only one face, Gillette's, to stamp the coinage as authentic. It was the face that Conan Doyle applauded, the face which for the most part illustrators drew, the face with which a world of admiring Watsons was familiar. "Basil Rathbone changed all that. His, one supposes, is almost the most familiar male profile of our day. Inevitably he is associated with the role he played so often that he may be said to have made a career of it. He has given us a believable, an unforgettable Holmes, a creation as authentic as that of Gillette, which paradoxically it does not resemble. If, as I like to think, Gillette was born to play the part of Sherlock Holmes, so also was Basil Rathbone. One played him for the nineteenth century, the other for the twentieth." But this is in the paperback edition. The blurb on my copy of this edition says, "Note: This work has long been out of print. In fact, those few copies found in the last decade have often brought prices usually attached to rare books and curiosa. The original edition was first published by Macmillan in 1933. Mr. Starrett revised and enlarged the work for a University of Chicago edition in 1960. This is the first paperback edition. Throughout the world this book is still recognized as the definitive study of Sherlock Holmes." Some time after I purchased this edition, and read it through a number of times, I discovered a book about the Sherlock Holmes films. In it, the author quoted from this passage. But something stirred in my memory when I saw the name of Arthur Wontner where I expected to see that of Basil Rathbone. I hurriedly retrieved my copy of The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes from the shelf, only to have my memory validated. Sure enough, the paperback edition which I had in my collection stated the name of Basil Rathbone very clearly! It was only some years later that I came across a copy of the original hardcover edition for sale, and of course acquired it for my collection, that I confirmed the author of the book on Holmes' films had correctly quoted Starrett. So the paperback edition had indeed been "revised and enlarged!" Starrett also added a much-sought-after pastiche called "The Adventure of the Unique Hamlet," which had been privately printed and not included in the original edition of Private Life. Also added were some illustrations which had not appeared in the previous edition. Other territory which Starrett traverses includes a discussion of "...the Sherlock Holmes movement in America and the fantastic career of the Baker Street Irregulars." Christopher Morley, a driving force behind the Baker Street Irregulars, worked out early ideas for meeting on a somewhat regular (ahem!) basis. Starrett writes, "To return to our irregular history, the original plan of the Irregulars called for an annual dinner on the anniversary of Sherlock's birth, which Morley (with the aid of the stars) had worked out as falling on January 6; but in fact this date is seldom observed. The Baker Street Irregulars, as Morley himself noted, are 'too wise to hold stated meetings, which would belie their name and take the fun out of their indoctrinated irregularity.'" Starrett provides a detailed description of the dinner and all the luminaries who were in attendance, and his account is fascinating. He also includes the constitution and buy-laws and the original menu. Some scion societies are listed (including The Speckled Band of Boston). Whether discussing stories which are canonical or uncanonical, or in Starrett's words, "un-Conanical,"The Private Life of Sherlock Holmesis an indispensable volume that should be represented in every Sherlockian's library. Billy Wilder made a film with the same title -- The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes -- not to be confused with Starrett's book. Wilder took some "unwritten stories" of Sherlock Holmes that Dr. Watson had referred to and developed them into an integrated series of anecdotes. The film appeared much later. Wilder may well have been inspired by the title, though, and it is at once evident when one watches his film that he was somewhat of a Sherlock Holmes devotee himself. Reviewer Tom Keogh calls it "one of the finest films of the decade." One scene in particular, however, drew sharp criticism from at least some of the Baker Street Irregulars. Watson, always the ladies' man, was backstage with some actresses. He was just making headway building rapport with them when Holmes took his hand in a manner that implied their relationship was, perhaps, more than that of just friends. The progress Watson was making with the women dissipated as they drew back, apparently shocked and repulsed -- yes, the phrase "Gay nineties" meant something different in the 1890s than it came to mean in the 1990s. And when the Billy Wilder film came out, the topic was still considered shocking, and the very idea offended some -- even though it was clear that Holmes was only using it as a clever diversion to make a quick escape. Well, not to dwell on that because it's such a minor scene in the whole film that one wonders why the film was panned by any Sherlockian. It is a fun film, the cast is terrific (including Robert Stephens as Holmes, Christopher Lee as Holmes's brother Mycroft, Colin Blakely as Dr. Watson, and Genevieve Page), and it touches on numerous and seemingly unconnected mysteries (including spies, missing midgets, the Loch Ness monster, Queen Victoria, Trappist monks, ballerinas, the Victorian era, cocaine use, cemeteries, castles, canaries (several hundred in fact), submarines, trains, sulphuric acid and more -- (I mean, could one find a more disparate set of themes in one film!) and it brings them all together and shows how they relate. Buy The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes from Amazon
A Study in Scarlet
Which brother of Sherlock Holmes - supposedly even smarter - was first introduced in the story entitled The Greek Interpreter ?
Sherlock: The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes : Sir Arthur Conan Doyle : 9781849904063 Historical Crime About Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh in 1859. He trained as a doctor at Edinburgh University and it was during this time that he witnessed methods of diagnosis that would later inspire Sherlock Holmes' astonishing methods of deduction. A Study in Scarlet was Conan Doyle's first Sherlock Holmes novel, published in 1887, but it was The Sign of Four, published in 1890, that catapulted him to worldwide fame. From 1891 he wrote short stories about the immortal detective for The Strand magazine. He attempted to kill off Sherlock Holmes in 1893, in The Final Problem, but was forced to revive him after thousands of complaints. Conan Doyle died in 1930 having written two more Sherlock Holmes novels, The Hound of the Baskervilles and The Valley of Fear, both serialized in The Strand, and a total of 56 short stories. Not only the master of popular crime fiction, he also wrote the best-selling science fiction novel, The Lost World from the Professor Challenger series. show more Review quote "Eleven adventures from the crowded life of Sherlock Holmes, including 'The Final Problem', with which the author intended to close the career of his famous detective. But Holmes was a match for his creator, and 12 more stories follow in 'The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes'." Kirkus UK show more Follow us
i don't know
Who composed the march-like tune 'St Gertrude' used for the hymn 'Onward Christian Soldiers' ?
Onward, Christian Soldiers: Arthur Sullivan’s greatest hit - Telegraph Religion Onward, Christian Soldiers: Arthur Sullivan’s greatest hit Sacred Mysteries: how the hurriedly written words of 'Onward, Christian Soldiers' gained an equallly rushed tune, making it unforgettable Sir Arthur Sullivan, pictured in his Chapel Royal dress Photo: Alamy Comments Arthur Sullivan did not want to be remembered for his comic operas with W S Gilbert. “My sacred music is that on which I base my reputation as a composer,” he wrote. “These works are the offspring of my liveliest fancy, the children of my greatest strength.” Perhaps, but even among his sacred pieces, it is not his oratorios, The Prodigal Son or The Light of the World, that are sung. By far the most popular sacred music that came from Sullivan’s pen is the tune for Onward, Christian Soldiers. Ian Bradley tells the story of its composition in his new book on Sir Arthur Sullivan’s sacred music, Lost Chords and Christian Soldiers (SCM Press, £25). Sullivan was staying with a couple called Ernest and Gertrude Clay Ker Seymer at their large house at Hanford, Dorset, and, by his own account, dashed it off in a few minutes in the drawing-room, naming the tune “St Gertrude” after his hostess. “We sang it in the private chapel,” she recalled, “Sir Arthur playing the harmonium.” As Dr Bradley notes, Sullivan’s rapid facility for composition was not limited to his hymn tunes, which bear no evidence of more perfunctory treatment than any other class of his work. Indeed, a high proportion of Sullivan’s 50 or so hymn tunes have retained their popularity, though none so strongly as “St Gertrude”. Onward, Christian Soldiers, the hymn for which it was first published, in 1871, had also been written in a rush, by that remarkable figure Sabine Baring-Gould. In 1866 at Horbury Bridge on the rRver Calder outside Wakefield, he was to meet the 16-year-old factory girl Grace Taylor who became his wife. They had 15 children. Related Articles Held in a blanket between dragons 13 Sep 2013 But in 1864, he was a 30-year-old curate starting out in his efforts to organise a church “mission” in the rough neighbourhood of Horbury Bridge. Horbury itself had a parish church, but at Horbury Bridge, Sunday meetings were in what is now the Post Office. Twenty years later, the parish was able to build the church of St John, with its little stone bell-cote. But, for Whitsun 1864, Baring-Gould had arranged for the local children (who perhaps included, unknown, his future wife) a procession behind a cross and banners. The Saturday before, he sat down for 10 minutes and “knocked off” a hymn for them to sing. To begin with, Onward, Christian Soldiers used the tune “St Alban”, taken from the slow movement of Haydn’s Symphony 53. It wouldn’t provoke a very quick march. Sullivan’s “St Gertrude” seemed made for Onward, Christian Soldiers. When he introduced musical references to “St Gertrude” in his Boer War Te Deum, the audience would naturally have thought of the hymn. Sullivan’s father had been a sergeant bandmaster at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, and his son did not object to soldiers. Yet the hymn itself is not literally bellicose. The “foe” is the army of Satan, against which Christ leads his followers: “Forward into battle see His banners go.” Baring-Gould, who was of an historical cast of mind, would have had in mind the celebrated Good Friday hymn Vexilla Regis written by Venantius Fortunatus in the sixth century and in use ever since. There, the banners of the king are nothing else than the saving Cross, “from which in the flesh the creator of all flesh is suspended”. But that didn’t stop Baring-Gould’s less informed public from taking his stirring hymn as a mere celebration of Christian militarism. As Dr Bradley notes, there have been several attempts to rescue the hymn while retaining its popular tune, such as the version by David Wright, after the Falklands war, beginning: Onward Christian pilgrims,
Arthur Sullivan
Grenouille is the Frenchfor which creature?
Reflection – Onward, Christian Soldiers: Arthur Sullivan’s greatest hit | Church News Ireland Reflection – Onward, Christian Soldiers: Arthur Sullivan’s greatest hit August 14, 2013 Christopher Howse writes in the Daily Telegraph how the hurriedly written words of ‘Onward, Christian Soldiers’ gained an equallly rushed tune, making it unforgettable. Arthur Sullivan did not want to be remembered for his comic operas with W S Gilbert. “My sacred music is that on which I base my reputation as a composer,” he wrote. “These works are the offspring of my liveliest fancy, the children of my greatest strength.” Perhaps, but even among his sacred pieces, it is not his oratorios, The Prodigal Son or The Light of the World, that are sung. By far the most popular sacred music that came from Sullivan’s pen is the tune for Onward, Christian Soldiers. Ian Bradley tells the story of its composition in his new book on Sir Arthur Sullivan’s sacred music, Lost Chords and Christian Soldiers (SCM Press, £25). Sullivan was staying with a couple called Ernest and Gertrude Clay Ker Seymer at their large house at Hanford, Dorset, and, by his own account, dashed it off in a few minutes in the drawing-room, naming the tune “St Gertrude” after his hostess. “We sang it in the private chapel,” she recalled, “Sir Arthur playing the harmonium.” As Dr Bradley notes, Sullivan’s rapid facility for composition was not limited to his hymn tunes, which bear no evidence of more perfunctory treatment than any other class of his work. Indeed, a high proportion of Sullivan’s 50 or so hymn tunes have retained their popularity, though none so strongly as “St Gertrude”. Onward, Christian Soldiers, the hymn for which it was first published, in 1871, had also been written in a rush, by that remarkable figure Sabine Baring-Gould. In 1866 at Horbury Bridge on the river Calder outside Wakefield, he was to meet the 16-year-old factory girl Grace Taylor who became his wife. They had 15 children. But in 1864, he was a 30-year-old curate starting out in his efforts to organise a church “mission” in the rough neighbourhood of Horbury Bridge. Horbury itself had a parish church, but at Horbury Bridge, Sunday meetings were in what is now the Post Office. Twenty years later, the parish was able to build the church of St John, with its little stone bell-cote. But, for Whitsun 1864, Baring-Gould had arranged for the local children (who perhaps included, unknown, his future wife) a procession behind a cross and banners. The Saturday before, he sat down for 10 minutes and “knocked off” a hymn for them to sing. To begin with, Onward, Christian Soldiers used the tune “St Alban”, taken from the slow movement of Haydn’s Symphony 53. It wouldn’t provoke a very quick march. Sullivan’s “St Gertrude” seemed made for Onward, Christian Soldiers. When he introduced musical references to “St Gertrude” in his Boer War Te Deum, the audience would naturally have thought of the hymn. Sullivan’s father had been a sergeant bandmaster at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, and his son did not object to soldiers. Yet the hymn itself is not literally bellicose. The “foe” is the army of Satan, against which Christ leads his followers: “Forward into battle see His banners go.” Baring-Gould, who was of an historical cast of mind, would have had in mind the celebrated Good Friday hymn Vexilla Regis written by Venantius Fortunatus in the sixth century and in use ever since. There, the banners of the king are nothing else than the saving Cross, “from which in the flesh the creator of all flesh is suspended”. But that didn’t stop Baring-Gould’s less informed public from taking his stirring hymn as a mere celebration of Christian militarism. As Dr Bradley notes, there have been several attempts to rescue the hymn while retaining its popular tune, such as the version by David Wright, after the Falklands war, beginning: Onward Christian pilgrims, Day by day we’re praying That all wars may cease. Such inability to discern the metaphor of Baring-Gould’s lyrics is like rewriting “Crown him with many crowns” because a republic has been declared.
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In the Bible, which son of Cush and grandson of Ham is described as 'a mighty hunter before the Lord'?
NETBible: Nimrod NIMROD, son of Cush. "A mighty hunter before the Lord,'' Gen. 10:8 , 9 ; 1 Chr. 1:10 . Founder of Babylon. See: Babylon . NIMROD [SMITH] (rebellion; or the valiant), a son of Cush and grandson of Ham. The events of his life are recorded in ( Genesis 10:8 ) ff., from which we learn (1) that he was a Cushite; (2) that he established an empire in Shinar (the classical Babylonia) the chief towns being Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh; and (3) that he extended this empire northward along the course of the Tigris over Assyria, where he founded a second group of capitals, Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah and Resen. NIMROD [ISBE] NIMROD - nim'-rod (nimrodh; Nebrod): A descendant of Ham, mentioned in "the generations of the sons of Noah" ( Gen 10 ; compare 1 Ch 1:10 ) as a son of Cush. He established his kingdom "in the land of Shinar," including the cities "Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh" ( Gen 10:10 ), of which only Babel, or Babylon, and Erech, or Uruk, have been identified with certainty. "The land of Shinar" is the old name for Southern Babylonia, afterward called Chaldea ('erets kasdim), and was probably more extensive in territory than the Sumer of the inscriptions in the ancient royal title, "King of Shumer and Accad," since Accad is included here in Shinar. Nimrod, like other great kings of Mesopotamian lands, was a mighty hunter, possibly the mightiest and the prototype of them all, since to his name had attached itself the proverb: "Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before Yahweh" ( Gen 10:9 ). In the primitive days of Mesopotamia, as also in Palestine, wild animals were so numerous that they became a menace to life and property ( Ex 23:29 ; Lev 26:22 ); therefore the king as benefactor and protector of his people hunted these wild beasts. The early conquest of the cities of Babylonia, or their federation into one great kingdom, is here ascribed to Nimrod. Whether the founding and colonization of Assyria ( Gen 10:11 ) are to be ascribed to Nimrod will be determined by the exegesis of the text. English Versions of the Bible reads: "Out of that land he (i.e. Nimrod) went forth into Assyria, and builded Nineveh," etc., this translation assigning the rise of Assyria to Nimrod, and apparently being sustained by Mic 5:5,6 (compare J. M. P. Smith, "Micah," ICC, in the place cited.); but American Revised Version, margin renders: "Out of that land went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh," which translation is more accurate exegetically and not in conflict with Mic 5:6 , if in the latter "land of Nimrod" be understood, not as parallel with, but as supplemental to, Assyria, and therefore as Babylon (compare commentaries of Cheyne, Pusey, S. Clark, in the place cited.). Nimrod has not been identified with any mythical hero or historic king of the inscriptions. Some have sought identification with Gilgamesh, the flood hero of Babylonia (Skinner, Driver, Delitzsch); others with a later Kassite king (Haupt, Hilprecht), which is quite unlikely; but the most admissible correspondence is with Marduk, chief god of Babylon, probably its historic founder, just as Asshur, the god of Assyria, appears in verse 11 as the founder of the Assyrian empire (Wellhausen, Price, Sayce). Lack of identification, however, does not necessarily indicate mythical origin of the name. See ASTRONOMY, sec . II, 11; BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, RELIGION OF, IV, 7; MERODACH; ORION. Edward Mack
Nimrod (computing)
In the NATO phonetic alphabet, which word represents the letter H ?
King James Bible Dictionary - Reference List - Nimrod King James Bible Dictionary Easton's Bible Dictionary Nimrod Firm, a descendant of Cush, the son of Ham. He was the first who claimed to be a "mighty one in the earth." Babel was the beginning of his kingdom, which he gradually enlarged ( Genesis 10:8-10 ). The "land of Nimrod" ( Micah 5:6 ) is a designation of Assyria or of Shinar, which is a part of it. Hitchcock's Names Dictionary rebellion (but probably an unknown Assyrian word) Naves Topical Index Smith's Bible Dictionary Nimrod (rebellion; or the valiant), a son of Cush and grandson of Ham. The events of his life are recorded in ( Genesis 10:8 ) ff., from which we learn (1) that he was a Cushite; (2) that he established an empire in Shinar (the classical Babylonia) the chief towns being Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh; and (3) that he extended this empire northward along the course of the Tigris over Assyria, where he founded a second group of capitals, Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah and Resen.
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Who on radio had the catchphrase 'Right Monkey'?
The Al Read Show The Al Read Show The immortal Al Read, sausage maker from Salford, made his radio debut in 1950. His humorous 'pictures of life' were based on his working-class Lancashire experiences. His catchphrase was "Right Monkey!".
Al Read
Which car manufacturer produced models including the XJS and the E-type?
The Al Read Show The Al Read Show The immortal Al Read, sausage maker from Salford, made his radio debut in 1950. His humorous 'pictures of life' were based on his working-class Lancashire experiences. His catchphrase was "Right Monkey!".
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What is an immature dragonfly known as?
Dragonfly - CreationWiki, the encyclopedia of creation science Dragonfly Petaluridae Unidentified Dragonflies are species of predatory insects belonging to the taxonomic suborder Epiprocta. It is characterized by large multifaceted eyes, two pairs of strong transparent wings, and an elongated body. Dragonflies typically eat mosquitoes , midges and other small insects like flies , bees , and butterflies . They are usually found around lakes, ponds, streams and wetlands because their larvae , known as "nymphs", are aquatic. Dragonflies do not normally bite or sting humans, though they will bite in order to escape, if grasped by the abdomen. They are valued as predators that help control populations of harmful insects. [1] Contents Anatomy Dragonfly anatomy Immature dragonflies have six spindly legs, and a body that is only a few times longer than it is wide. They have two fairly big eyes. Some of their mouthparts are modified to shoot forward and grab prey. They breathe water through gills in their abdomen, and can squirt this water out fast to give themselves a quick jet-propelled movement. Adult dragonflies are easy to recognize. They have long thin bodies, very large eyes, and they hold their 2 pairs of wings out flat on either side. Their legs sometimes have many long stiff hairs. Immature dragonflies are usually brown or greenish, and sometimes have algae growing on them. Adult dragonflies can be very colorful, some are red, blue, yellow, or green. [2] Reproduction Dragonflies undergo incomplete metamorphosis with the female dragonfly typically laying eggs water. They mate in a circular or "wheel" position. The male dragonfly transfers sperm from its primary set of genitalia at the tip of its abdomen to the secondary set at the base of its abdomen. When the male finds a female it grasps it by the top of its head. The female then reaches the tip of her abdomen around to male's penis. Sperm is transferred to the female's ovipositor and the eggs are fertilized. This can be a long process. Because the female can mate more than once, part of the time is spent while the male removes the sperm of other males with specialized organs called hamules. Only then can it be sure that it is his sperm that has fertilized the eggs. Many species remain linked together until the female is finished laying her eggs. In others, the male hovers nearby to guard the female until she is finished. Dragonflies always perch with their wings flat and spread apart, while Damselflies (close relatives) usually hold their wings together over the body when they are at rest. The exceptions to this rule are the Damselflies known as spreadwings, which keep their wings angled away from their bodies at rest. Dragonflies regulate body temperature by assuming different postures, its a way of holding their bodies, and selecting specific perching sites. In cool weather they land on sun-facing perches. In hot weather they avoid overheating by sticking the abdomen almost straight up in the air to expose the least possible body surface area to the hot sun. [3] Ecology Dragonflies specialize in different kinds of hunting techniques. The larva stage is characterized by three basic strategies. Some stalk their prey in vegetation (climbers). Others lie in the mud and debris at the bottom of a pond and wait for prey (sprawlers). One species burrows itself completely in the mud (burrower). While the prey of the larvae is mostly other aquatic insects, some of the larger nymphs attack tadpoles and small fish. The adult dragonfly is a formidable hunting insect. Incredibly agile, it uses the basket formed by its legs to catch insects on the fly. It eats mainly mosquitoes, midges, and other small flying insects. Dragonflies eat several different kinds of insects. They catch their prey with their six legs. Their favorite prey are flies and mosquitoes. They are high in protein and very good for the dragonfly. The dragonfly will most likely be hunting on sunny days. If there is a day that the dragonfly needs food, and is not sunny, then it may eat a dead fly or mosquito. [4] Color Males are frequently more brilliant than females and often have different colors and patterns as well. They come not only in red, fuchsia, orange, pink, blue, gold, saffron, black, emerald, maroon, earth tones, and more, but also in metallic colors. Some have colored, spotted or banded wings; others may have clear wings but clubbed abdomens or a spike on their tail. And, no, they do not sting or bite. They have mouths that they do use to bite their prey (mostly mosquitoes and gnats) The newly emerged adult (commonly referred to as teneral) may take up to 1-2 weeks to develop its full color. [5] Gallery
The Nymph
What item of marine equipment may comprise a stock, a shank and a fluke?
Anatomy of a Dragonfly Stigma | Education - Seattle PI Anatomy of a Dragonfly Stigma Education by Demand Media Each dragonfly wing has a stigma toward the tip. Related Articles How to Simulate a Tsunami for a Science Project Dragonflies not only are visually beautiful, they’re also agile fliers and helpful insect eaters. To get to know these Odonata order insects, you should examine the various parts of their anatomy, including not only the head, thorax and abdomen -- which make up the three main sections of the adult dragonfly’s body -- but the smaller components such as the stigma. Even though the adult dragonfly’s stigma, also known as pterostigma, may seem like an insignificant dot, it’s actually a vital component to the dragonfly’s anatomy. Where to Find It To examine the stigma’s anatomy, you have to know where to look. You can’t find the stigma on an immature dragonfly, as the stigma is hidden. You will find an adult dragonfly’s stigma on the leading edge of each wing, toward the wingtip. If you are facing the dragonfly head-on while its wings are positioned vertically, the stigma would be pointed at you and near the upper tip of each wing. A Word on Wings Before a dragonfly reaches adulthood, the veins in the wings are flat, hollow tubes, and the wings are compact and tightly folded inside the immature naiad, also called a nymph. This is because an immature dragonfly lives in the water until it goes airborne after transformation. When the nymph transforms into an adult dragonfly, the wings unfold as the tubes fill with hemolymph, the dragonfly’s equivalent of blood. The stigma is filled with this hemolymph and it resembles a blood blister. This blister is in the shape of a solid rectangle Size and Color The actual size and color of the stigma varies between dragonfly species, although the general location remains the same. The stigma is e a contrasting color to the rest of the wing, which makes it easier for you to spot. For instance, it may appear black against its clear wings. Some stigmas are long, thin rectangles, while others are shorter rectangles. What It Does The stigma is a multipurpose component of a dragonfly’s body. The stigma can be used to signal a mate or rival. It can act as a tiny weight that affects the wings’ vibrations, as the Minnesota Odonata Survey Project points out. The stigma works with the nodus, the midway notch area on the center leading edge of the wing where several large veins intersect, to increase flexibility and prevent fatigue fractures of the wings. References
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How frequently does the photograph on your driving licence need to be renewed?
Renew your driving licence | nidirect Apply for a new or updated licence Renew your driving licence Your ordinary driving licence entitlement will expire every 10 years, unless your driving licence has been medically restricted. There are also exceptions for drivers over 60, and for drivers with lorry and bus entitlements. Find out about these exceptions and how to renew you licence on this page. Changes made to the format of the Great Britain driving licences effective from 8 June 2015 have no effect on licences issued by the Driver & Vehicle Agency in NI. Northern Ireland licences continue to be composed of two parts, a plastic photocard and paper counterpart. Applying to DVA The Driver & Vehicle Agency (DVA) will send you a form entitled DL1R ‘Application for Renewal of a Driving Licence' approximately two months before your licence expires. This will be sent to the address held in their records, so it is important that you tell DVA when you change address. You will need to: complete the DL1R form and enclose the appropriate fee return your photocard driving licence and counterpart (for lorry or bus licences only) include a new passport type certified colour photograph send it to DVA Driver Licensing Your photograph must be signed and dated on the back by one of the following: MP Lay Magistrate or Justice of the Peace minister of religion professionally qualified person - for example an engineer, lawyer, teacher librarian local business person or shopkeeper local councillor bank official or building society officer established civil servant police officer someone of similar standing to the above who has known you for at least two years, and must not be related to you in any way, and must hold a Northern Ireland driving licence You will also need to enclose original identity documentation if your name has changed since your last licence was issued. Please remember to be alert to unofficial websites offering online driver licensing. You cannot apply for a Northern Ireland driving licence online. Renewing without a DL1R form If, for any reason, you don’t receive the reminder application form, you can use the DL1 Driving Licence Application form. This form is available from Post Offices or test centres. You’ll also need to include a new passport type certified photograph. Test centre locations Return of supporting documents The driving licence fee includes return of your supporting documents (where applicable) by second class post. If you would like your supporting documents returned by secure delivery, please supply an appropriate pre-paid Royal Mail Special delivery envelope. Please note - DVA will not provide compensation for any loss or delay resulting from the use of second class post. DVA cannot guarantee to return your documents by a specified date, for example, a holiday. When to expect your licence DVA aims to deliver your licence within three weeks of receiving a completed application but this turnaround time may be longer during the busy summer period or if your health or personal details have to be checked. Driver Licensing will accept applications for renewal licences up to two months before they are due to expire, giving you time to plan ahead and ensure that your licence is ready in good time for your holiday. If your licence has been lost, stolen, defaced, or damaged you can make an application for a replacement at any time.  Driving on holiday? Thinking about going on holiday and hiring a car? If so, check that your driving licence will be valid well before you are due to travel. If you do not receive your licence If your driving licence has not been delivered within four weeks you should contact DVA Driver Licensing . If you do not inform DVA within eight weeks that your licence has not arrived, you must apply for a duplicate licence and pay the relevant fee. Driving before your licence is returned Once DVA has received your valid application, you can drive before you receive your licence as long as you: have held a Northern Ireland or Great Britain licence issued since 1 January 1976 or another exchangeable licence have made a qualifying application for a licence aren't disqualified from driving haven't been refused a licence for medical reasons or for failing to comply with medical enquiries wouldn't be refused a licence for medical reasons (if in doubt, check with your doctor) keep to any special conditions which apply to the licence Exceptions Drivers over 60 Drivers over 60 whose licences expire before their 70th birthday, will be issued a licence valid until age 70 or for a period of three years, whichever is the longer. A fee applies, even if the period granted is for the minimum of three years.  Renew your driving licence at 70 plus Lorry and bus entitlement If you drive a lorry or a bus, your entitlement to these categories will be valid for a maximum of five years, up to age 65. At age 65 and over, the maximum is one year. Renew your vocational licence at age 65 Medical conditions You must tell the DVA if you’ve ever had, or currently suffer from a medical condition that may affect your driving.
every 10 years
What is the maximum number of characters or spaces permitted in the name of a racehorse?
Renew your driving licence | nidirect Apply for a new or updated licence Renew your driving licence Your ordinary driving licence entitlement will expire every 10 years, unless your driving licence has been medically restricted. There are also exceptions for drivers over 60, and for drivers with lorry and bus entitlements. Find out about these exceptions and how to renew you licence on this page. Changes made to the format of the Great Britain driving licences effective from 8 June 2015 have no effect on licences issued by the Driver & Vehicle Agency in NI. Northern Ireland licences continue to be composed of two parts, a plastic photocard and paper counterpart. Applying to DVA The Driver & Vehicle Agency (DVA) will send you a form entitled DL1R ‘Application for Renewal of a Driving Licence' approximately two months before your licence expires. This will be sent to the address held in their records, so it is important that you tell DVA when you change address. You will need to: complete the DL1R form and enclose the appropriate fee return your photocard driving licence and counterpart (for lorry or bus licences only) include a new passport type certified colour photograph send it to DVA Driver Licensing Your photograph must be signed and dated on the back by one of the following: MP Lay Magistrate or Justice of the Peace minister of religion professionally qualified person - for example an engineer, lawyer, teacher librarian local business person or shopkeeper local councillor bank official or building society officer established civil servant police officer someone of similar standing to the above who has known you for at least two years, and must not be related to you in any way, and must hold a Northern Ireland driving licence You will also need to enclose original identity documentation if your name has changed since your last licence was issued. Please remember to be alert to unofficial websites offering online driver licensing. You cannot apply for a Northern Ireland driving licence online. Renewing without a DL1R form If, for any reason, you don’t receive the reminder application form, you can use the DL1 Driving Licence Application form. This form is available from Post Offices or test centres. You’ll also need to include a new passport type certified photograph. Test centre locations Return of supporting documents The driving licence fee includes return of your supporting documents (where applicable) by second class post. If you would like your supporting documents returned by secure delivery, please supply an appropriate pre-paid Royal Mail Special delivery envelope. Please note - DVA will not provide compensation for any loss or delay resulting from the use of second class post. DVA cannot guarantee to return your documents by a specified date, for example, a holiday. When to expect your licence DVA aims to deliver your licence within three weeks of receiving a completed application but this turnaround time may be longer during the busy summer period or if your health or personal details have to be checked. Driver Licensing will accept applications for renewal licences up to two months before they are due to expire, giving you time to plan ahead and ensure that your licence is ready in good time for your holiday. If your licence has been lost, stolen, defaced, or damaged you can make an application for a replacement at any time.  Driving on holiday? Thinking about going on holiday and hiring a car? If so, check that your driving licence will be valid well before you are due to travel. If you do not receive your licence If your driving licence has not been delivered within four weeks you should contact DVA Driver Licensing . If you do not inform DVA within eight weeks that your licence has not arrived, you must apply for a duplicate licence and pay the relevant fee. Driving before your licence is returned Once DVA has received your valid application, you can drive before you receive your licence as long as you: have held a Northern Ireland or Great Britain licence issued since 1 January 1976 or another exchangeable licence have made a qualifying application for a licence aren't disqualified from driving haven't been refused a licence for medical reasons or for failing to comply with medical enquiries wouldn't be refused a licence for medical reasons (if in doubt, check with your doctor) keep to any special conditions which apply to the licence Exceptions Drivers over 60 Drivers over 60 whose licences expire before their 70th birthday, will be issued a licence valid until age 70 or for a period of three years, whichever is the longer. A fee applies, even if the period granted is for the minimum of three years.  Renew your driving licence at 70 plus Lorry and bus entitlement If you drive a lorry or a bus, your entitlement to these categories will be valid for a maximum of five years, up to age 65. At age 65 and over, the maximum is one year. Renew your vocational licence at age 65 Medical conditions You must tell the DVA if you’ve ever had, or currently suffer from a medical condition that may affect your driving.
i don't know
Which highly alcoholic spirit, historically referred to as 'the green fairy' was linked with Bohemian culture?
ABSINTHE, The Drink of some Famous Creatives. - YouTube ABSINTHE, The Drink of some Famous Creatives. Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Nov 22, 2014 Absinthe (i/ˈæbsɪnθ/ or /ˈæbsænθ/; French: [apsɛ̃t]) is historically described as a distilled, highly alcoholic (45–74% ABV / 90–148 U.S. proof) beverage.[1][2][3][4] It is an anise-flavoured spirit derived from botanicals, including the flowers and leaves of Artemisia absinthium ("grand wormwood"), together with green anise, sweet fennel, and other medicinal and culinary herbs.[5] Absinthe traditionally has a natural green colour but may also be colourless. It is commonly referred to in historical literature as "la fée verte" (the green fairy). Although it is sometimes mistakenly referred to as a liqueur, absinthe is not traditionally bottled with added sugar; it is therefore classified as a spirit.[6] Absinthe is traditionally bottled at a high level of alcohol by volume, but it is normally diluted with water prior to being consumed. Absinthe originated in the canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland in the late 18th century. It rose to great popularity as an alcoholic drink in late 19th- and early 20th-century France, particularly among Parisian artists and writers. Owing in part to its association with bohemian culture, the consumption of absinthe was opposed by social conservatives and prohibitionists. Ernest Hemingway, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Amedeo Modigliani, Pablo Picasso, Vincent van Gogh, Oscar Wilde, Aleister Crowley, Erik Satie and Alfred Jarry were all known absinthe drinkers.[7] Absinthe has often been portrayed as a dangerously addictive psychoactive drug.[8] The chemical compound thujone, although present in the spirit in only trace amounts, was blamed for its alleged harmful effects. By 1915, absinthe had been banned in the United States and in much of Europe, including France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and Austria-Hungary. Although absinthe was vilified, it has not been demonstrated to be any more dangerous than ordinary spirits. Recent studies have shown that the absinthe's psychoactive properties (apart from that of the alcohol) have been exaggerated.[8] A revival of absinthe began in the 1990s, following the adoption of modern European Union food and beverage laws that removed longstanding barriers to its production and sale. By the early 21st century, nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries, most notably in France, Switzerland, Australia, United States, Spain, and the Czech Republic. Category
Absinthe
Who is creditied with coining the phrase 'lateral thinking'?
The Big Apple: Green Fairy or Green Lady (absinthe nickname) Entry from April 16, 2009 Green Fairy or Green Lady (absinthe nickname) The “green fairy” (also called the “green lady” and the “green muse") has been a Paris nickname for the drink absinthe since the 1880s. The “green hour”—often starting at 5 p.m. and lasting until midnight—was when the citizens of Paris began to drink the green alcoholic beverage. Wikipedia: Absinthe Absinthe is historically described as a distilled, highly alcoholic (45%-74% ABV) beverage. It is an anise-flavored spirit derived from herbs, including the flowers and leaves of the herb Artemisia absinthium, commonly referred to as “grande wormwood”. Absinthe traditionally has a natural green color but can also be colorless. It is commonly referred to in historical literature as “la fée verte” (the Green Fairy). Although it is sometimes mistakenly called a liqueur, absinthe was not bottled with added sugar and is therefore classified as a spirit. Absinthe is unusual among spirits in that it is bottled at a very high proof but is normally diluted with water when drunk. Absinthe originated in the canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. It achieved great popularity as an alcoholic drink in late 19th- and early 20th-century France, particularly among Parisian artists and writers. Due in part to its association with bohemian culture, absinthe was opposed by social conservatives and prohibitionists. Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Vincent van Gogh, Oscar Wilde, and Aleister Crowley were all notorious ‘bad men’ of that day who were (or were thought to be) devotees of the Green Fairy. Absinthe was portrayed as a dangerously addictive psychoactive drug. The chemical thujone, present in small quantities, was singled out and blamed for its alleged harmful effects. By 1915, absinthe had been banned in the United States and in most European countries except the United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Denmark and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although absinthe was vilified, no evidence has shown it to be any more dangerous than ordinary spirit. Its psychoactive properties, apart from those of alcohol, have been much exaggerated. A revival of absinthe began in the 1990s, when countries in the European Union began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale. As of February 2008, nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries, most notably in France, Switzerland, Spain, and the Czech Republic. Commercial distillation of absinthe in the United States resumed in 2007. Absinthe Fever Green Fairy: The symbol of liberté The Green Fairy is the English translation of La Fee Verte, the affectionate French nickname given to the celebrated absinthe drink in the nineteenth century. The nickname stuck, and over a century later, “absinthe” and “Green Fairy” continue to be used interchangeably by devotees of the potent green alcohol. Mind you, absinthe earned other nicknames, too: poets and artists were inspired by the “Green Muse”; Aleister Crowley, the British occultist, worshipped the “Green Goddess”. But no other nickname stuck as well as the original, and many drinkers of absinthe refer to the green liquor simply as La Fee - the Fairy. The symbol of transformation But Green Fairy isn’t just another name for absinthe: she is a metaphorical concept of artistic enlightenment and exploration, of poetic inspiration, of a freer state of mind, of new ideas, of a changing social order. To the ignorant drunk, absinthe will forever remain but potent alcohol, perhaps with a bit of thujone “high” thrown in. To the original bohemians of 1890s Paris, the Fairy was a welcomed symbol of transformation. She was the trusted guide en-route to artistic innovativation; she was the symbol of thirst (for life) to Arthur Rimbaud, the first “punk poet”: it was the Fairy who guided him—and his fellow poet and partner Paul Verlaine—on their quest to escape the conventional reality of their time into the sanctuary of the surreal. Nouveau supplément du Dictionnaire historique d’argot, avec le Vocabulaire ... By Étienne Lorédan Larchey Paris: Libraire de la Société des gens de Lettres 1889 Pg. 78: DAME VERTE : Absinthe. — Allusion à sa couleur et à la passion qu’on a trop souvent pour elle.—“On a un peu calomnié la pauvre dame verte.” (Razona, 66.) “Tombé dans la misére par suite d’un trop grand amour pour la dame verte.” (Coffignard, 87.) New York, NY: National Book Company 1890 Pg. 265: Love, however, or the passion they called by that name, proved much too weak and inadequate a rival to cope with Absinthe,—the “green fairy” had taken a firm hold of our friend the actor’s mind,—... 1 June 1893, Perry (Iowa) Reporter, pg. 8, col. 3: THE GREEN LADY. That Is What Frenchmen Call the Spirit of Absinthe. The devil of absinthe, the “Green Lady,” as they call her, may be the muse of the poor poet. She gives him inspiration for his rich rhymes; she pours out emeralds for him, so he says. She bears him away to his fantastic paradise—but he does not stop to feel his pulse en route. When his little intoxication is over and finished—that is to say, within an hour or so—he does not seek to keep it up, and so does not make himself disgraceful. (...) To the “green hour,” however, succeeds the black hour of midnight and somber returns on the sticky asphalt pavement, with turned-up collar and shrugged shoulders and hands sunk in the pockets. (...) -- New York Sun. 13 June 1893, Sioux County Herald (Orange City, Iowa), pg. 3, col. 3: (The 1893 Chicago World’s Fair—ed.) ...like the green fairy of absinthe, is not to be looked upon and resisted. 21 July 1893, Idaho Register, pg. 3: DRUNKARDS OF PARIS THEY ARE MAINLY OF THE LOWEST CLASS. Tippling in the Gay French Capital Reduced to a Science b ythe Better Classes—The Haute Monde and Mor- phine. (...) The devil of absinthe, the “Green Lady,” as they call her, may be the muse of the poor poet. She gives him inspiration for his rich rhymes; she pours out emeralds for him, so he says. She bears him away to his fantastic paradise—but he does not stop to feel his pulse enroute. When his little intoxication is over and finished—that is to say, within an hour or so—he does not make himself disgraceful. This is the difference between Parisian intoxication and the Anglo-Saxon idea of a big spree. In Paris this limited kind of drunkenness is widely spread. It is not mistrusted, and favor is shown to it in every way. It has even its consecrated hour. The hour of absinthe is at 5 o’clock in the afternoon. It is the “green hour,” and gives the signal to forget the cares of business and the harsh struggle for life. It is a poison to kindle short-lived enthusiasms, and in its opaline vapor it builds up visions of fortune. It even lets loose a sort of nervous appetite for food. To the “green hour,” however, succeeds the black hour of midnight and sombre returns on the sticky asphalt pavement, with turned-up collar and shrugged shoulders and hands sunk in the pockets. Google Books June 1894, Atlantic Monthly, “The End of Tortoni’s,” pg. 751, col. 1: The spirit which drove the glass of paris fashion and the mould of literary form to this central point of the Grand Boulevard, there to admire themselves at the green hour over their absinthe, has grown weak and failed before its hundred years are over. 20 July 1895, Baltimore (MD) Sun, “Professor Taft’s Final Impressions of the Paintings,” pg. 7: a Green Lady. A muse of another kind is the Green Lady, who in Maignan’s picture, “L’Absinthe,” has seized her wretched victim and maddened him with her traitorous caress. It is a powerful work, artistic in every respect, yet giving food for thought. 26 February 1905, Duluth (MN) News-Tribune, section II, pg. 6: HOW ABSINTHE MAKES WRECKS The National Vice of France Brings Degradation and Death In Its Wake—Victims of the “Green Fairy.” (...) Yet “the green fairy” it is called by poetical Frenchmen, “green been” (sic) by sporty Americans, and “most deadly and insidious poison” by doctors and savants whose scientific investigations on the subject have given them the right to speak with authority. 1 June 1907, Baltimore (MD) American, pg. 4: The “Green Fairy” in Switzerland. [From the London Globe.] 15 August 1909, New York (NY) Sun, pg. 6, col. 6: Absinthe, the green fairy of too many poets and artists, was no stranger to Guys. (Illustrator Constantin Guys—ed.) The Art of the Bar: Cocktails Inspired by the Classics By Jeff Hollinger, Georgeanne Brennan, Rob Schwartz Photographs by Frankie Frankeny
i don't know
What name did the alchemists give to the hypothetical substance that would convert all base metals into gold?
Alchemy - definition of alchemy by The Free Dictionary Alchemy - definition of alchemy by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/alchemy  (ăl′kə-mē) n. 1. A medieval chemical philosophy having as its asserted aims the transmutation of base metals into gold, the discovery of the panacea, and the preparation of the elixir of longevity. 2. A seemingly magical power or process of transmuting: "He wondered by what alchemy it was changed, so that what sickened him one hour, maddened him with hunger the next" (Marjorie K. Rawlings). [Middle English alkamie, from Old French alquemie, from Medieval Latin alchymia, from Arabic al-kīmiyā' : al-, the + kīmiyā', chemistry (from Late Greek khēmeia, probably alteration of khumeia, from Greek khein, khu-, to pour; see gheu- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots (influenced, owing to the reputation of Egyptian alchemists, by Greek Khēmiā, Egypt, from Egyptian kmt, Egypt, from feminine of km, black, in reference to the black soil of the Nile valley)).] al·chem′i·cal (ăl-kĕm′ĭ-kəl), al·chem′ic adj. al·chem′i·cal·ly adv. alchemy (ˈælkəmɪ) n, pl -mies 1. (Alchemy) the pseudoscientific predecessor of chemistry that sought a method of transmuting base metals into gold, an elixir to prolong life indefinitely, a panacea or universal remedy, and an alkahest or universal solvent 2. a power like that of alchemy: her beauty had a potent alchemy. [C14 alkamye, via Old French from Medieval Latin alchimia, from Arabic al-kīmiyā', from al the + kīmiyā' transmutation, from Late Greek khēmeia the art of transmutation] alchemic, alˈchemical, ˌalchemˈistic adj (ˈæl kə mi) n., pl. -mies. 1. a form of chemistry and speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages that attempted to discover an elixir of life and a method for transmuting base metals into gold. 2. any seemingly magical process of transmuting ordinary materials into something of true merit. [1325–1375; Middle English alkamye < Old French alquemie < Medieval Latin alchymia < Arabic al the + kīmiyā' < Late Greek chēmeía,chymeía alchemy] al•chem′ic (-ˈkɛm ɪk) al•chem′i•cal, al`che•mis′tic, al`che•mis′ti•cal, adj. al•chem′i•cal•ly, adv. al·che·my (ăl′kə-mē) A medieval philosophy and early form of chemistry whose aims were the changing of common metals into gold, the discovery of a cure for all diseases, and the preparation of a potion that gives eternal youth. The imagined substance capable of turning other metals into gold was called the philosopher's stone. Did You Know? Because their goals were so unrealistic, and because they had so little success in achieving them, the practitioners of alchemy in the Middle Ages got a reputation as fakers and con artists. But this reputation is not fully deserved. While they never succeeded in turning lead into gold (one of their main goals), they did make discoveries that helped to shape modern chemistry. Alchemists discovered and purified a number of chemical elements, including mercury, sulfur, and arsenic. They invented early forms of some of the laboratory equipment used today, including beakers, crucibles, filters, and stirring rods. And they developed methods to separate mixtures and purify compounds by distillation and extraction that are still important. Alchemy
Philosopher's stone
"Which singer won the TV contest ""How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria""?"
Fact or Fiction?: Lead Can Be Turned into Gold - Scientific American Scientific American Fact or Fiction?: Lead Can Be Turned into Gold Particle accelerators make possible the ancient alchemist’s dream—but at a steep cost By John Matson on January 31, 2014 Is the ancient dream of alchemy--lead into gold--possible? Credit: Flickr / John Louis Advertisement | Report Ad For hundreds of years alchemists toiled in their laboratories to produce a mythical substance known as the philosopher’s stone. The supposedly dense, waxy, red material was said to enable the process that has become synonymous with alchemy—chrysopoeia, the metamorphosis, or transmutation, of base metals such as lead into gold.   Alchemists have often been dismissed as pseudoscientific charlatans but in many ways they paved the way for modern chemistry and medicine. The alchemists of the 16th and 17th centuries developed new experimental techniques, medicines and other chemical concoctions, such as pigments. And many of them "were amazingly good experimentalists,” says Lawrence Principe, a chemist and science historian at Johns Hopkins University. “Any modern professor of chemistry today would be more than happy to hire some of these guys as lab techs.” The alchemists counted among their number Irish-born scientist Robert Boyle, credited as one of the founders of modern chemistry; pioneering Swiss-born physician Paracelsus; and English physicist Isaac Newton.   But despite the alchemists’ intellectual firepower and experimental acumen, the philosopher’s stone lay forever out of reach. The problem, Principe says, is that the alchemists did not yet know that lead and gold were different atomic elements—the periodic table was still hundreds of years away. Believing them to be hybrid compounds, and therefore amenable to chemical change in laboratory reactions, the alchemists pursued the dream of chrysopoeia to no avail.   With the dawn of the atomic age in the 20th century, however, the transmutation of elements finally became possible. Nowadays nuclear physicists routinely transform one element to another. In commercial nuclear reactors, uranium atoms break apart to yield smaller nuclei of elements such as xenon and strontium as well as heat that can be harnessed to generate electricity. In experimental fusion reactors heavy isotopes of hydrogen merge together to form helium. (An element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus whereas an isotope of a given element is determined by the quantity of neutrons.)   But what of the fabled transmutation of lead to gold? It is indeed possible—all you need is a particle accelerator, a vast supply of energy and an extremely low expectation of how much gold you will end up with. More than 30 years ago nuclear scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) in California succeeded in producing very small amounts of gold from bismuth, a metallic element adjacent to lead on the periodic table. The same process would work for lead, but isolating the gold at the end of the reaction would prove much more difficult, says David J. Morrissey, now of Michigan State University, one of the scientists who conducted the research. “We could have used lead in the experiments, but we used bismuth because it has only one stable isotope,” Morrissey says. The element’s homogeneous nature means it is easier to separate gold from bismuth than it is to separate gold from lead, which has four stable isotopic identities.   Using the LBNL’s Bevalac particle accelerator, Morrissey and his colleagues boosted beams of carbon and neon nuclei nearly to light speed and then slammed them into foils of bismuth. When a high-speed nucleus in the beam collided with a bismuth atom, it sheared off part of the bismuth nucleus, leaving a slightly diminished atom behind. By sifting through the particulate wreckage, the team found a number of transmuted atoms in which four protons had been removed from a bismuth atom to produce gold. Along with the four protons, the collision-induced reactions had removed anywhere from six to 15 neutrons, producing a range of gold isotopes from gold 190 (79 protons and 111 neutrons) to gold 199 (79 protons, 120 neutrons), the researchers reported in the March 1981 issue of Physical Review C.   The amount of gold produced was so small that Morrissey and his colleagues had to identify it by measuring the radiation given off by unstable gold nuclei as they decayed over the course of a year. In addition to the several radioactive isotopes of gold, the particle collisions presumably produced some amount of the stable isotope gold 197—the stuff of wedding bands and gold bullion—but because it does not decay the researchers were unable to confirm its presence. “The stable isotope would have to be observed in a mass spectrometer,” Morrissey says, “but I think that the number of atoms was, and is still, below the level of detection by mass spec.”   Isolating the minute quantities of gold would be even more difficult using lead as a starting material, but smashing high-speed nuclei into a lead target would indeed complete the long-sought transmutation. Some of the collisions would be expected to remove three protons from lead, or one proton from mercury, to produce gold. “It is relatively straightforward to convert lead, bismuth or mercury into gold,” Morrissey says. “The problem is the rate of production is very, very small and the energy, money, etcetera expended will always far exceed the output of gold atoms.”   In 1980, when the bismuth-to-gold experiment was carried out, running particle beams through the Bevalac cost about $5,000 an hour, “and we probably used about a day of beam time,” recalls Oregon State University nuclear chemist Walter Loveland, one of the researchers on the project. Glenn Seaborg, who shared the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with heavy elements and who died in 1999, was the senior author on the resulting study. “It would cost more than one quadrillion dollars per ounce to produce gold by this experiment," Seaborg told the Associated Press that year. The going rate for an ounce of gold at the time? About $560. Advertisement |
i don't know
In films, which actress was the object of the original King Kong's affections?
King Kong: The women in his life - LA Times King Kong: The women in his life Fay Wray in the 1933 'King Kong' Warner Bros. Entertainment The famed actress, who began working in the silent era, played unemployed actress Ann Darrow in the 1933 original. The famed actress, who began working in the silent era, played unemployed actress Ann Darrow in the 1933 original. (Warner Bros. Entertainment)
Fay Wray
Which band member is organising this year's Diamond Jubilee concert at Buckingham Palace?
King Kong Reviews & Ratings - IMDb IMDb 35 out of 39 people found the following review useful: The First King Kong Still Going Strong from United States 29 November 2005 With the recent DVD release of this film, and the latest version on the big screen being released two days from this writing, I hope more people take the opportunity to check this movie out, the original King Kong, if they've never seen it. This movie must have been astounding to the people watching it over 70 years ago. I doubt they'd ever seen anything like this, action-wise, and monster-wise. It is still fascinating today, even with the great advancements in special effects. Most action films from the classic years, from 1920 to the late 1960s had corny mostly unrealistic special effects but this film still holds up, extraordinarily so considering its age. The film also had a tremendous amount of action. Young people today are usually bored watching old black-and-white movies but they wouldn't be bored with this one. Once the "girl," Fay Wray gets captured by King Kong, the rest of the movie is one long action scene. Kong was not the only beast in the movie, either, which surprised me the first time I ever saw this. Protecting Wray, Kong battles a dinosaur, a giant snake, a giant bird and then human beings firing bullets and bombs at him. Wray also was fun to watch, but I''m a male so a pretty woman like her - shockingly exposing her breasts in one scene, too - makes it easier to enjoy the film. Her screaming, however, can get on your nerves. She must have been hoarse for a month after filming this movie. Robert Armstrong, as the film director, and Bruce Cabot, as the ship crewman and Wray''s rescuer, also are interesting to watch and hear. As I said, once the action kicks in, the his a very entertaining movie and impossible to put down. Was the above review useful to you? 27 out of 32 people found the following review useful: The 8th Wonder of the Movies *** This review may contain spoilers *** What can be said? (Possible spoilers, though doubtful) One of the most imaginative, creative, and spectacular action/horror films ever made. It was decades ahead of its time in many ways. It influenced Spielberg, Jackson, you name it; a whole generation of filmmakers. As a kid in pre-Star Wars days, it was breathtaking to watch on TV (a station always showed it every year on Thanksgiving night after Miracle on 34th Street, go figure). Yes, by today's standards, the effects aren't perfect. But HEY! this was about 5 or 6 years after films began talking! Considering it would be some 30 years before effects would come near it, and another 15 or so before they passed it, that is something. Consider today, effects are primarily computerized, and let's not forget, something that looks like a computerized monster is no less fake (something I hope filmmakers figure out, and fast), and that is after 70 years of technological development. And after all that, they are rendered obsolete within a couple years. The fight between Kong and the T-Rex (or allosaurus) can almost stand against effects out there even today. But I digress. I shouldn't have to defend the special effects; those who say they look cheesy need only remember that our greatest triumphs today – of which there are few – will be laughed at years from now just the same. The acting is at times tough, but this was the first generation of talking film actors. They had nobody to learn from. Not to mention that it was the acting style of the day. Some have said the movie was about subtle in-jokes, maybe so. But it remains always a film ride that – unless you are ignorant enough to expect 21st century production values – will take your breath away. The segment from when the men run into the jungle after Kong up to the break after the T-Rex fight is about as breathtaking as you get. As a child, I was almost exhausted by the time that part was done. The atmosphere, the scale of adventure, the scope of story telling: all first rate. Also, it so wonderfully blended the mindset of the age with its inspired story telling. It was the last era of innocence before WWII and the modern nuclear age. It was a time when little – though some – of the world was unexplored. A time when industrialization was taking over, and there seemed no limit to what humanity could accomplish, and no price we were not willing to pay. Dinosaurs and tribal witchdoctors, ancient stone walls and forgotten islands. And on the other side: the Empire State Building (the ultimate expression of industrial might and ingenuity), airplanes (only around for a decade and a half as weapons – the most 'modern' weapon available), movies (still only a couple decades old for all practical purposes), and New York City, the largest and most advanced city in the world. What contrasts! And all right at hand for the writers. In short, it made its point without having to make it obvious. It will be a long time before there are so many symbols at hand for a new story to fall into place so smoothly. And of course, the iconic image of Kong on the Empire State Building – enough said. One other observation. Note that there isn't much overt morality. Nobody is really 'the bad guy'(and thus deserving of a terrible, gruesome death). The sailors killed are not 'bad' , or made bad for (horror of horrors) suggesting that they shoot at Kong first, or even daring to consider killing a helpless 50 foot gorilla. Carl Denham is not 'bad', the natives on the island are not 'bad', the victims in New York aren't bad, even Kong isn't bad, he's just doing his thing. Everyone is just doing their thing, sometimes good, sometimes bad, but never inherently bad people or animals. Today, of course, you would have the stereotypical lawyer/corporate exec/fanatic politician/religious extremist/merciless hunter; all who deserve death, because they are 'bad people' because of their ideals or beliefs (the modern acceptable prejudice). Kong would be misunderstood, a victim of horrible western heartlessness or corporate greed, and those who die deserve it for messing with his life and the purity of nature. And the soon-to-be-deceased would meet their deserved demise after a scene demonstrating their evil hearts by doing and/or saying something blatant to drive the point of their badness home to any that might have missed it. Ah, but the good old days, when a film could actually make you wonder who the bad guy really is, and if there isn't, make you wonder even more about what you have seen and why things had to happen that way. King Kong is considered a classic. It earned it. The remake in the 1970s, flagrant in its moral sermonizing, struggled at best. Who knows, maybe Peter Jackson will navigate modern expectations with the elements of the original to produce a remake worthy of the first without turning it into a floppy CGI based morality play. Let's hope. But in all of its glory or bumbling, whichever the case will prove, let the 2005 remake never overshadow the original and its unique impression it left for generations to come. I give it a 10 only because there is not a higher score to assign. Was the above review useful to you? 21 out of 23 people found the following review useful: King Kong - One small step for man. One giant leap for film making! from Faroe Islands 25 April 2010 It's a shame that young people these days, don't know how to enjoy a black & white movie! I'm 14, and I love black & white movies. We saw this movie at school, and everyone hated it. They said it sucked, because it was in black & white, and the effects were hilariously bad! I disagreed! This movie is nearly 80 years old, and it's still a hit! The cinematography is incredibly beautiful. One of the greatest shots of all time is when Kong is on the top of the building! The acting is fine. The story is great, but my friends found it stupid. They thought it was unrealistic because there were dinosaurs and a giant gorilla on the island etc. This movie is entertaining throughout the whole movie! Most black & whites movies got a lot of dialog and long scenes with no editing, but not in this one! There are plenty of scenes in this movie where there are no dialog, but great editing and entertainment! The effects are so fantastic! Young people may find Kong hilarious when they see a close-up picture of him. But I was absolutely blown away! Imagine that you're in 1933. You go to the movies and you've never seen something like this before! King Kong is a one small step for man. One giant leap for film making! 10/10 from New Jersey, USA 26 December 2005 Released at the height of the Great Depression, "King Kong" was the ultimate great escape for audiences. Its greatest legacy is that over seventy years later, it still has that uncanny ability to completely transport the viewer into its fantasy world. This amazing adventure film is still one of the most viscerally exciting spectacles ever made and changed the course of movie history. The stop-motion animation was the most amazing special effects of its day and still hold up pretty well. The amazing sense of spectacle they created have inspired some of the greatest filmmakers of their generations. Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, James Cameron, and Peter Jackson wouldn't have been inspired to make the films they made had Kong not brilliantly paved the way. Aside from the technical innovations, you have a great music score from Max Steiner (who later scored "Gone With the Wind") that created the template for what movie scoring could do. He paved the way for the likes of John Williams and James Horner. Movie music, too, could be an art, and Steiner was the first to realize that with "King Kong." Finally, you have the story, which is so much more than just a B-movie serial. It's amazing to find a special effects film that works on so many complex levels aside from the visuals. On one level this a innovative riff on the classic "Beauty and Beast" story with screen legend Fay Wray pitch perfect as actress Ann Darrow, the object of Kong's unrequited affections. On another level, this is gentle satire on movie making, with the reckless actions and sense of adventure and spectacle of director Carl Denham mirroring the real life adventures and desires of Kong's producer and co-director, the mythic-sized Merrion C. Cooper. Still, on a third level, this can be seen as a fable about the greatest jungle of them all, modern civilization, brilliantly realized through New York City. Not many films of this nature could be so rich. This iconic classic was "modernized" egregiously in 1976, and redone as a loving, period-piece homage in 2005. Was the above review useful to you? 27 out of 41 people found the following review useful: Gods and monsters from Saffron Walden, UK 22 August 2004 Forty years before Raquel Welsh, and a whole era before 'Jurassic Park', 'King Kong' was the world's first dinosaur movie. But it wasn't the dinosaurs it featured, but rather the eponymous giant ape, who became perhaps cinema's most enduring icon. The recent death of Fay Wray, the film's star, provides a good opportunity to re-evaluate this classic movie. The most remarkable thing is how exactly this film, made when talkies themselves were less than a decade old, defines the blockbuster to this day. All the elements are there: a ludicrous plot (among the many improbables we have to swallow is the fact that the discovery of living tyranousauri is regarded unremarkable by all); bad acting; a quasi-racist world-view, non-stop action tempered by a little love interest; and stunning special effects. The plot has a surprisingly mature structure, though, and unlike most of its successors, thankfully does not see the need for pyrotechnics right at the start, instead allowing the tension to build before the monster's first appearance. The scene composition is also frequently truly brilliant, especially the scenes of Kong in New York, and also the scene where he bursts through the gates. It's also interesting to catch certain cinematic conventions in an early state of evolution: one is that if characters are shot from a distance, we hear their voices more quietly. Also of note is the very static camera, pre-dating Orson Welles, of course, but additionally constrained by the need to accommodate the special effects: the scenes with the monster do feel more like a silent movie, or a primitive video game (indeed, the first computer game I ever owned was inspired by this movie, which, owing to a surreal Japanese spelling error, was known as 'Donkey Kong'!). 'King Kong' is certainly no donkey of a film; but in some ways it's a little disappointing to see how little the action adventure movie has advanced from its template in 71 years. Was the above review useful to you? 12 out of 15 people found the following review useful: A Classic from Isle Of Bute, Scotland 14 January 2006 I watched this a couple of days after Peter Jackson's KING KONG hit the cinemas . I had planned to go to the cinema to see the new version but just found out that it lasted for three hours which is far too long for someone who's addicted to caffeine and nicotine . I much prefer watching a movie with a cup of tea in one hand and a filthy cigarette in the other . Which reminds me that my new year resolution is to give up smoking . Sorry I digress Perhaps the other thing stopping me is a fear of disappointment . I do confess I was disappointed after seeing THE TWO TOWERS at the cinema probably because I loved FELLOWSHIP so much , a film I didn't really expect much from . You see the original KING KONG is regarded as possibly the greatest monster movie ever made and after seeing it again I can see where it got its reputation from . This is a great Hollywood epic One thing you must do however is ignore the failings of special effects from a modern day perspective . Yes we know that the title monster is a giant puppet , yes we know those dinosaurs are bloody laughable but that's not what you should be looking at . What makes the movie so enjoyable is the strength of the storytelling , the emotional depth and most important of all the imagination involved , it has a true sense of scale and wonder . I really hated the 1976 remake simply because it featured no giant reptiles on Skull Island ( Though there's other reasons to hate the dire remake too ) and you might bite your lip to stop yourself laughing as the expedition are attacked by a whole host of prehistoric monsters but you've got to admit it's very , very enjoyable as are the scenes in New York at the end Was the above review useful to you? 10 out of 12 people found the following review useful: To sleep, perchance to dream from United States 28 October 2006 This film has been compared to a dream quite a bit over the years; I didn't know if I could add to that. But reading some of the reviews here, especially from younger writers, it occurred to me that maybe the problem here is that with the arrival of a totalitarian television culture, cheap imitation computer games and gaudy CGI special effects,and with an economy that offers little more than nightmare for the future, perhaps the fascination with dreams that this film evokes for us has itself become out-of-date. Perhaps the age of human dreaming is over. How vivid are our dreams? How vivid are they when we're not sure what we're dreaming about? I've seen mint-condition prints of this film, and I've seen scratchy gray television prints; surprisingly, the effect is always the same. In fact, it's been ten years since I saw this film last, and as I write, the images appear to me as a stronger memory than anything I actually lived through. The images are dark, and a bit murky in spots - so are my dreams. The torches of the natives on Skull Island flicker as stars that have fallen to earth. Fay Wray hangs on threads from the posts like an angel with clipped wings. Suddenly, the music stops (and I didn't even notice it playing); then the thunder beats through the jungle's permanent night, except the beating isn't thunder, it's footsteps, and the foliage begins to shake, not from wind, but from the quake of an earth suddenly off its axis - yet no earth could ever be as solid and immovable as this island, for there are no other planets, no other earth but this island - unknowable, dense, impossibly claustrophobic. Then the jungle parts the dark exploding in the dark, and a primal force, vaguely simian, fills the night, extinguishing stars, and Wray's weirdly whisper-like scream still pierces the air, before a dark hand reaches for her.... Kong breathes; no special fx creature seems able to do that, anymore. Kong's fur ripples along the taut lines of his muscles - no fx beast has demonstrated this since. Kong moves more swiftly than any of his offspring; Kong's eyes radiate a pre-rational intelligence; Kong's fury is passionate and implacable. I've never had any doubt as to who Kong really is: he is everything human still inarticulate, set free to dream in perpetual sleep. His death is swift - painfully realistic - exactly as one wakes to daylight. 'Twas not beauty killed the beast; rather, the beast is beautiful, and so it must die. Only in dreams can beauty live eternal. But humans are not immortal; everything beautiful passes, and every dream must have its end. Was the above review useful to you? 10 out of 12 people found the following review useful: Still the Eighth Wonder from Melbourne, Australia 1 June 1999 It would be pointless to pretend that this film hasn't aged at all. In just about every respect it shows its years; the special effects, the acting, the dialogue. And yet "King Kong" is a film which definitely survives the passage of time. It is simply above the sort of criticism that applies to most movies. It would be wrong to think of "King Kong" as camp or quaint. It packs a lot of primordial energy into its 100 minutes. What it has in abundance is heart, an element that every sequel, remake and spinoff has pretty much lacked. The richly textured visuals are truly unsurpassed - the nightmare of Kong's island always reminds me of one of Goya's more opulent fantasies. Visually "King Kong" is a true masterpiece. At the risk of a lynching, I feel I should point out that "King Kong" offers one of Fay Wray's lesser performances. This very sympathetic actress has been justly rediscovered by later generations; in her own time I suspect she was rather taken for granted. "King Kong" is responsible for this reappraisal, and she is certainly very appealing and rises to the (not very high) demands of the role. But if you really want to see her at her best, take a look at Von Stroheim's "The Wedding March" or Walsh's "The Bowery". She could do more than scream - though "Kong" proves that she could do that magnificently. "King Kong" is a true masterpiece, and I have to laugh at those who imply racist overtones. Clearly there was no such intent on the part of the producers, and I'm very hard pressed to see them even when they have been pointed out. I must have seen this film hundreds of times, and I always look forward to seeing it again. To quote Carl Denham, "Holy Mackerel! What a show!" Was the above review useful to you? 9 out of 11 people found the following review useful: Larger Than Life. from Deming, New Mexico, USA 3 May 2007 *** This review may contain spoilers *** The thing has become an icon of vernacular culture. A decade or so ago an artist arranged to have a huge balloon of King Kong blown up and attached to the top of the Empire State Building. It didn't work. The consarned thing kept deflating and flapping around in the unanticipated wind. No matter. The image of Kong beating his chest, stripping off Fay Wray's clothes, fighting the Tyrannosaurus, shaking the men off the log into the spider pit, and finally being killed by those damned planes will survive Cristo's -- or anybody else's -- attempt to turn Kong into a work of art. Mainly, it's a work of technology. It was, to say the least, a labor-intensive project under people like Willis O'Brien, Meriam C. Cooper, and Ernest Shoedsack. What gets me about it is that it's so much more than that. King Kong, who was no more than a fourteen-inch puppet, let's face facts, was turned into a genuine actor. Look at his facial expressions. When he's enraged he LOOKS enraged. When he's sad, he looks sad. Now, those are easy expressions to form on a plastic, sculpted face. Blind people have sculpted accurate impressions of emotions like "rage" or "fear", not to mention Edvard Munch, who was nuts. But "puzzlement"? Check out Kong's expression when he's been seriously wounded by the constant shooting of the nasty airplanes and he picks at his wounds and looks at the blood on his fingertips. We sense that the animal is perfectly comfortable with fighting dinosaurs but has no idea of what he's now dealing with. I'm telling you, when he fell from the building to the ground I cried. I cried like a baby. By the way, when Fay Wray surfaces after the long plunge into the water, her garments slip off her shoulder and you can see what she's got. Was the above review useful to you? 9 out of 11 people found the following review useful: 10 out of 10? This deserves 10,000 out of 10. Author: G.Spider 14 June 1999 Ignore the cranks who seem to look for subliminal messages and underlying hidden meanings in everything. This is a monster movie and a love story and never pretends to be everything else. Hollywood film-makers of today could certainly learn a few things from watching it with its well-written characters, fast-paced and dynamic script which contains barely a dull moment, excellent dialogue and hauntingly memorable music. Willis O'Brien's animation is at its best and Kong himself comes across as a genuine character and not an unsympathetic one. Scenery is also imaginative, with marvellous attention paid to detail, and the monsters are well-designed. Still the best monster film ever made, if not the best film. Was the above review useful to you? Page 2 of 43:
i don't know
What was the fifth classical element after earth, fire, water and air?
SYMBOLISM: The 4 ELEMENTS. Earth,water,air,fire | INKSPIRATION Following the Black line. All things inky for death heads & leather lovers SYMBOLISM: The 4 ELEMENTS. Earth,water,air,fire May 20, 2013 The 4 elements refer to ancient beliefs inspired by natural observation of the phases of matter; with the classical elements: earth is equivalent to solid, water is equivalent to liquid, air is equivalent to gas and fire is equivalent to plasma. The 4 elements are physical components, of which the entire world is made up from http://www.puncturedartefact.com/flash/4580382563 Sometimes they may include a fifth element or quintessence (after “quint” meaning “fifth”) called Aether or spirit, which describes that which was beyond the material world. The symbol for either is a circle The 4 elements can also be found as decorative motifs… but I prefer the simplicity of the geometric traingles and lines     Heres a version of the 4 elements I have created for my .ready.to.wear.collection. of inky art Click here to go to the website ! I have also done a post on triangles in my ‘Wear your ink’ section called ‘triangulated’. Its here if anyone wants to take a look
Aether
How many aircrew formed the complement of a Lancaster Bomber in World War II ?
Aether | Guardianship Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Edit Quintessence, also known as Aether , or energy, was the fifth known classical element, like water , fire , earth , or air , However, Aether was described as being the power of life. The life force. Aether is the strongest and most magical element. Aether is almost like an extension to magic . Aether is the magical essence of the universe. This element is represented through electricity, lightning, light, and cosmic, solar and any form of energy. Information According to ancient and medieval science , aether (Greek αἰθήρ aithēr [1 ]), also spelled æther or ether, is the material that fills the region of the Universe above the terrestrial sphere . Mythological origins Edit Main article: Aether (mythology) The word αἰθήρ (aithēr) in Homeric Greek means "pure, fresh" or "clear", imagined in Greek mythology to be the pure essence where the gods lived and which they breathed, analogous to the air breathed by mortals (also personified as a deity, Aether , the son of Erebus and Nyx ). It corresponds to the concept of आकाश (akasha) in Hindu philosophy and is linked to Brihaspati (or the planet Jupiter) and the center direction of the compass. It is related to αἴθω "to incinerate" [2 ], also intransitive "to burn, to shine" (related is the name Aithiopes ( Ethiopians )), meaning "people with a burnt (black) visage". See also Empyrean . Fifth element Edit Aristotle included aether in the system of the classical elements of Ionian philosophy as the "fifth element" (the quintessence), on the principle that the four terrestrial elements were subject to change and moved naturally in straight lines while no change had been observed in the celestial regions and the heavenly bodies moved in circles. In Aristotle's system aether had no qualities (was neither hot, cold, wet, or dry), was incapable of change (with the exception of change of place), and by its nature moved in circles. [3 ] Medieval scholastic philosophers granted aether changes of density, in which the bodies of the planets were considered to be more dense than the medium which filled the rest of the universe. [4 ] Robert Fludd stated that the aether was of the character that it was "subtler than light". Fludd cites the 3rd century view of Plotinus , concerning the aether as penetrative and non-material. [5 ] See also Arche . Legacy Main article: Aether theories While special relativity showed that Maxwell's equations do not require the aether, there are still some viable aether theories . References Edit General FAQ - The Ancient Elements of Nature Ancient proto-scientific conceptualisations of the domain of nature into its constituent elements ... Earth, Water, Air, Fire and the Aether. Abilities: Wield Absolute Energy, which could be from the very source of one's power. Projects a force-field of pure energy. Release blinding light from the heart of the universe Summon energy from the heart of the universe, gaining powers that could cover the universe itself. Channel the magic of the Aurameres into the Heart and enter the Guardians. Create lightning bolts (Quintessence) Bring electrical appliances to life through Quintessence Open and close holes in the veil which could possibly enter and escape entire dimensions. Open folds in time and space Track down the other guardians via the aurameres Superhuman Strength Reveal the true form of another Magical phemonena Empathic abilities that would easily go out of the range of normal Empaths. Read minds, comunicate and contact the same personality from animals Create water out of thin air Manipulate water Use water to grab hold of objects Create force-fields through water Create shapes that can manipulate at will Freeze objects Create water bubbles that can travel underwater Create physical embodiments of herself Evaporate beings at will Change the colour of fabric foresee the future in various fluids and liquid dreams conjour rain from clouds change the physical appearance on anyone Create balls of fire Throw blasts of heat energy (Heat Waves) Extinguish fire Throw whirling discs of fire and heat Absorb the heat of her opponents Use pure thermal energy as a defensive barrier that vaporizes nearly all projectiles Shoot pinpoint flames with her finger Sense sources of heat Melt objects by multiplying it's heat Contact the other guardians through telepathy Contact ex-guardians through telepathy Read, Project and Perceive thoughts of others Control plants, trees, grass and their growth and structure Throw bolts of green energy Manipulate the earth and all related materials such as paper, wood, silt, minerals, crystal, gems, sand, mud, etc. Create earthquakes Communicate the location of vegetation Manipulate metal Hold telekinetic barriers and throw fire pulses of energy heal wounds make metal soft and melt change from normal self to guardian self without having wings and costume Wishing Manipulate aspects of said element Convert breath into weapons Create air bubbles for traveling underwater Super-Hearing abilities Read the history of an object by touching it and closing your eyes Become invisible Use Empathic Precognition (Also seen as Premonitions) Energy Creation & Manipulation
i don't know
Which U.S. actor has recently criticised Britain for it's 'colonial' ownership of the Falkland Islands?
'Sean Penn's an idiot and a fool': Falklands hero Simon Weston hits back | Daily Mail Online comments Falklands hero Simon Weston yesterday branded Sean Penn an 'idiot' and a 'fool' over his comments about Britain's ownership of the islands. Former Welsh Guardsman Weston, 50, hit back at the Hollywood actor's criticism of Prince William's deployment to the Falklands. The father-of-three, who was terribly injured in an Argentine bomb attack that killed 48 people in 1982, said: 'Sean Penn is living, breathing proof that just because you are famous doesn't mean you know what you are talking about. War of words: Simon Weston, left, today came out fighting in support Britain in the row involving Sean Penn, right, over the Falklands Making a point: Actor Sean Penn wears a poncho as he shakes hands with Evo Morales, the president of Bolivia, during a meeting yesterday He told The Sun: 'Penn is an idiot. It's bad for people to think you're a fool. You don't need to open your mouth to prove it. By opening his mouth on this, Sean Penn proves he is a fool.' The attack by Penn was the second time in two days he has criticised the UK's involvement in the islands. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share Meanwhile TV adventurer Ben Fogle - who is a close friend of Prince William - also attacked Penn for criticising the Royal's deployment to the Falklands. Fogle, who - with his wife Marina - was a guest at William and the Duchess of Cambridge's wedding, said he wanted to place Penn in the mouth of crocodiles over his comments. Brave: Fogle (pictured) has recently dived with crocodiles for a new television series - describing it as the 'scariest, most terrifying thing' he has ever done Fogle told followers on Twitter: 'I would like to take Sean Penn and place him in the jaws of one of those crocodiles.' He also challenged Penn to a public debate on the Falklands Fogle has recently dived with crocodiles for a new television series - describing it as the 'scariest, most terrifying thing' he has ever done. But he told followers on Twitter: 'I would like to take Sean Penn and place him in the jaws of one of those crocodiles.' He also challenged Penn to a public debate on the Falklands. WAR OF WORDS - PENN V WESTON Sean Penn: 'My oh my, aren't people sensitive to the world colonialism, particularly those who implement colonialism 'It's unthinkable that the United Kingdom can make a conscious decision to deploy a prince within the military to the Malvinas, knowing the great emotional sensitivity both of mothers and fathers in the United Kingdom and in Argentina who lost sons and daughters in a war of islands with a population of so few. 'There are many places to deploy the prince. It's not necessary, when the deployment of a prince is generally accompanied by warships, to send them into the seas of such shared blood.' Simon Weston: 'Sean Penn is living, breathing proof that just because you are famous doesn't mean you know what you are talking about. 'Penn is an idiot. It's bad for people to think you're a fool. You don't need to open your mouth to prove it. By opening his mouth on this, Sean Penn proves he is a fool. 'His views are irrelevant and it only serves to fuel the ire of the Argentinians and get them more pumped up.' 'Let us not forget that 253 airmen, soldiers and sailors lost their lives protecting the Falklands,' wrote Fogle on Twitter. 'We are all entitled to our own political opinion on the Falklands but it's up to the islanders not actors to decide their future.' Penn, Madonna's ex-husband, was condemned as 'moronic' by Tory MP and former Army officer Patrick Mercer for claiming Britain's continuing hold on the Falklands was 'colonialist, ludicrous and archaic'. But the left-leaning actor showed he cannot keep his mouth shut over the islands by accusing the UK of 'insensitivity' for posting William to the disputed South Atlantic territory and labelling Britain a colonial dinosaur for the second day running. The double Oscar winner went on the attack again after a meeting with Uruguayan president Jose Mujica in Montevideo - less than 24 hours after he savaged Britain over the Falklands during his visit to Buenos Aires to see the Argentine president Cristina Kirchner. Penn, who once called for U.S. president George W. Bush to be impeached over the Iraq War, met both state leaders in his role as Ambassador-at-large for Haiti. He condemned criticism of his attack on 'colonial' Britain as 'hyperbole' and again insisted on calling the islands by their Spanish name of Las Malvinas. Grinning smugly as he praised Uruguay as a 'model of development in the world' he added: 'My oh my, aren't people sensitive to the world colonialism, particularly those who implement colonialism. 'It's unthinkable that the United Kingdom can make a conscious decision to deploy a prince within the military to the Malvinas, knowing the great emotional sensitivity both of mothers and fathers in the United Kingdom and in Argentina who lost sons and daughters in a war of islands with a population of so few. Controversial: Actor Sean Penn meets with Bolivian President Evo Morales at the government palace in La Paz today. He has been criticised by Ben Fogle for his controversial comments on the Falklands issue Angry: Double Oscar winner Sean Penn (left) went on the attack against Britain for a second day running yesterday after a meeting with Uruguayan president Jose Mujica (right) in Montevideo Controversial: Actor Sean Penn, pictured here with Argentina's President Cristina Kirchner on Monday, has branded Britain 'colonialist' for its refusal to hand over the Falkland Islands Annoyed: Sean Penn said that the deployment of Prince William (left) to the Falklands was 'unthinkable' 'There are many places to deploy the prince. It's not necessary, when the deployment of a prince is generally accompanied by warships, to send them into the seas of such shared blood.' Penn, who has received praise from crackpot Venezuelan leader Hugo Chavez, insisted he was proud of America's long-standing alliance with the UK but felt he had the responsibility to criticise when criticism was due. And he said that while he understood and respected the wish of people living in the Falklands Islands to remain British, they should also understand the need for Argentina and Britain to negotiate the sharing of the islands' natural resources. The international row which has erupted since Penn made his outspoken views has become a national talking point. Such is the anger Penn raised with his opinions that as of Thursday afternoon, MailOnline had received close to 5,000 comments on the story - a record number for our site. Graffiti: A mural in the Argentine capital of Buenos Aires commemorates its soldiers who fell in the Falklands Conflict Protest: Stencilled graffiti across Buenos Aires saying 'They are not British, they are Argentine' (left) and 'English out of the Malvinas, we will return!' (right) Demonstration: A Buenos Aires street daubed in pro-Argentine graffiti, with a sign that says: 'The Malvinas were, are and will be Argentine' Inspection: Actor Sean Penn (right) alongside Argentina's Social Developer Minister Alicia Kirchner (left) during a visit to a factory in Berazategui, on the outskirts of Buenos Aires on Monday Disputed: Argentina calls the Falkland Islands (pictured) Las Malvinas and claims they were 'stolen' by Britain 180 years ago In an ugly attack on the press before ending his address to newsmen after his meeting with Uruguay's president, he added: 'Good journalism saves the world. Bad journalism destroys it so to all of you good journalists in the room I thank you. And the rest I will leave you to your own reflections.' ARGENTINIAN POLICE CLASH WITH FALKLANDS WAR VETERANS Argentine police clashed with a group of Falklands War veterans in Buenos Aires yesterday, demanding inclusion in a pension plan for war vets. The protesting veterans, who were deployed in the 1982 Falklands War when Argentina invaded the British-ruled South Atlantic islands, are disqualified from a Falklands war veterans package because they never actually deployed on the islands. The demonstrators were blocking a major downtown thoroughfare when riot police, led by a massive water cannon truck, moved in on them to break up the demonstration. The ex-soldiers, who began their protest on Monday night, resisted the police and hurled rocks, sticks and other projectiles. The police responded with batons and riot shields. The police finally fired tear gas and advanced against the demonstrators chasing them through the streets and detaining several. The protesting veterans say they want the government to recognize them as 'continental combatants' and afford them a 'minimal pension'. Penn, who had no previous knowledge or connection with the Falklands, later left by a side door of the skyscraper where he had met Jose Mucija, disappointing fans who had travelled miles to see him. His comments have incensed Falkland veterans and islanders ahead of the 30th anniversary of the Falklands conflict. Patrick Mercer added: 'What on earth has this got to do with Sean Penn? He’s neither British nor Argentine and seems to know nothing about the situation judging by this moronic comment. ‘A good number of his movies have been turkeys, so I suppose we shouldn’t expect much better coming out of his mouth.’ Penn waded into the row over the disputed territory’s future after he met President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner in Buenos Aires on Monday, by insisting he was ‘firmly’ on the side of the South Americans. Tensions between the UK and Argentina have been running higher than usual after Prince William’s deployment to the islands as a search-and-rescue helicopter pilot. Penn’s remarks will further inflame relations as the anniversary of the start of the Falklands War approaches on April 2. A total of 255 British soldiers were killed retaking the islands after an Argentinian military junta invaded the ‘Malvinas’, as the Falklands are known in Spanish, in 1982, while 649 Argentine troops died. Tory MP Andrew Rosindell, secretary of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on the Falkland Islands, attacked the actor’s comments as ‘nonsense’. He said: ‘He shows complete ignorance of the issue if he comes out with nonsensical statements like that. In the 21st century people have a democratic right to their own future. A HOLLYWOOD REBEL WITH EVERY LEFT-WING CAUSE As the acknowledged king of Hollywood’s liberals, there is scarcely a single fashionable Left-wing cause Sean Penn has not championed in recent years. Vehemently anti-Republican and achingly trendy, he counts Fidel Castro and Venezuela’s hardline president Hugo Chávez among his friends. He has also made anti-American propaganda visits to Iran and post-war Iraq. Penn has met Chávez at least twice and defended the Left-wing leader, arguing that anyone calling him a 'dictator' should face jail. He has also said: 'Chávez may not be a good man. But he may well be a great one.' Penn even once took out a £40,000 full-page newspaper advertisement to attack President George W Bush for his ‘simplistic and inflammatory view of good and evil’. Friends: Sean Penn (right) who has been labelled a 'communist' for his friendship with Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez (left) who he met in 2008 Later he would call for Bush and former vice president Dick Cheney to be jailed for 'deceiving the American people into a war (Iraq) that was murdering young men and women'. Last October Penn visited ‘inspirational’ post-Gaddafi Libya. The 51-year-old actor, who was married to Madonna from 1985 to 1989 and has two children from his second marriage to Robin Wright which has also now ended, was reported to have flashed a V for Victory sign as he arrived in Tripoli fresh from visiting Egypt. Amid even Tinseltown’s numerous famous bleeding hearts then, Penn stands out. But despite his tough political posturing the Oscar-winning star of Milk and Mystic River is also famously sensitive to criticism. When he was lampooned as a naive egotist in the 2004 satirical puppet movie Team America: World Police, he complained bitterly. In the film, written by South Park creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker, a puppet of Penn made outlandish statements about how happy Iraqis were before the war. But while Alec Baldwin, George Clooney and Matt Damon all saw the funny side to the film, in which they too were parodied, Penn sent Parker and Stone an angry letter inviting them to tour Iraq with him and signing it off with '**** you'. Parker explained: 'In the movie we were making fun of him for always saying "I’ve been to Iraq, you don’t know what you’re talking about, I’ve been there", and then he writes in the letter "I’ve been to Iraq...".' More recently, Penn set up a charity in Haiti following the 2010 earthquake in the country. It led to him being named 'ambassador-at-large' by President Michel Martelly, which is why the actor was visiting Buenos Aires. He has also championed causes such as gay-rights and America's poor, as well as supporting countries most Americans would consider to be enemies. On screen he won an Oscar for his portrayal of homosexual politician Harvey Milk and appeared in a promotional advert for the Occupy movement. In 2005 he helped rescue people in New Orleans, Louisiana, who had been injured by Hurricane Katrina. But some thought it was merely a PR stunt. The Mystic River star has also visited Iran, Iraq, and Cuba - and most recently has been seen in Libya (following the fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime) and Egypt (after Hosni Mubarak was ousted). 'It is Argentina that is trying to impose its wishes on the people of the Falklands. As an American he should remember that freedom is precious, and it is something his countrymen have defended around the globe. FALKLANDS OIL 'WORTH £111BN' Drilling within the 200 mile territory surrounding the Falklands could yieldb tax windfalls of £111bn from oil and gas exploration, a major report claimed today. Several companies have been prospecting for oil within the exclusion zone set up during the 1980s Falklands War. UK-listed companies are involved in exploring four major prospects this year, with the biggest, Loligo, potentially holding more than 4.7bn barrels of oil. The riches available are put in perspective when it is considered that Catcher, the biggest discovery in the North Sea, is thought to hold only around 300m barrels. According to a new report by oil and gas analysts Edison Investment Research, if all four prospects were drilled the potential tax funds would net close to $180bn. Ian McLelland, who co-wrote the report, said: 'With current tax and fishing incomes in the region of $40m , the islands look set to be transformed by the oil industry.' 'The proverbial spanner in the works that remains is the ongoing political dispute between Britain and Argentina regarding sovereignty of the Falklands.' ‘He must understand that the UK is equally entitled to defend the freedom of the people of the Falklands, even if they are 8,000 miles away.’ Dick Sawle, a member of the Falklands Legislative Assembly, said: ‘I don’t know Sean Penn’s films or what he looks like so I know as much about him as he does about the islands. His remarks are ridiculous.’ Even comedian Jim Davidson weighed in. Davidson, patron of the Falkland Veterans Foundation, said: ‘The fact of the matter is Argentina broke all the laws of the UN and attacked the Falkland Islands. What’s next? Do we expect the French to land on the Channel Islands and do nothing about it? ‘I think the world today is not going to tolerate any kind of ludicrous and archaic commitment to colonialist ideology.’ Britain has said repeatedly that those living on the Falklands – which have been in British hands since 1833 – have the right to decide under which country they want to be governed. The 3,000-strong population has declared its wish to remain under British rule. Argentina has made a formal complaint to the UN over the UK’s supposed ‘militarisation’ of the South Atlantic, based on the Type 45 destroyer Dauntless being ordered to the region, as well as Prince William’s deployment in his RAF role. The MoD says the deployments are ‘routine’. The Royal Navy is also sending a nuclear-powered submarine to patrol the islands. In a fresh development, it was announced yesterday that all  British-flagged ships will be boycotted by Argentina’s transport workers’ union. 'Should we give Gibraltar back to Spain because Spain is nearer or do you think the Gibraltarians  have a say?’ Penn, who called on Britain to join UN-sponsored talks over the islands, said: ‘I hope that diplomats can establish true dialogue between the UK and Argentina in order to solve the conflict as the world today cannot tolerate ridiculous demonstrations of colonialism. Telex from Falklands reporting Argentine surrender set to fetch up to £3,000 at auction A copy of the original telex announcing to the British government that Argentina had surrendered in the Falklands War is to go under the hammer. Sent by the commander of the British land forces, Major-General Jeremy Moore, it states that the junta’s forces have laid down their arms and the Falkland Islands are 'once more under the government desired by their inhabitants”. The document is expected to sell for between £2,000 and £3,000 when it is auctioned by Bonhams on April 3, a day after the 30th anniversary of the start of the war. The telex, sent by Major-General Jeremy Moore, Commander of British land forces in the Falklands, which is to be sold at Bonhams in April It reads: 'In Port Stanley at 9 o’clock pm Falkland Islands Time tonight 14th June 1982, Major General Menendes (sic) surrendered to me all the Argentine Forces in East and West Falkland, together with all their impedimenta. 'Arrangements are in hand to assemble the men for return to Argentina, to gather in their arms and equipment, and to mark and make safe their munitions. 'The Falkland Islands are once more under the government desired by their inhabitants. God Save the Queen. Signed JJ Moore.” The message was sent via special forces to the Government Communications Headquarters on June 14 1982 - six days before the hostilities officially ceased. It came to the auctioneer from what was described as a naval-related source. Bonhams chairman Robert Brooks said: 'This remarkable document encapsulates perfectly the very moment of total capitulation by Argentina’s 12,000-strong occupying forces in the Falklands. 'It is a rare find of great historical importance and will excite considerable interest from around the world.' VIDEO: Sean Penn's comments on Prince William's deployment to Falkland Islands   
Sean Penn
The adjective 'Punic' refers to which ancient city?
'Sean Penn's an idiot and a fool': Falklands hero Simon Weston hits back | Daily Mail Online comments Falklands hero Simon Weston yesterday branded Sean Penn an 'idiot' and a 'fool' over his comments about Britain's ownership of the islands. Former Welsh Guardsman Weston, 50, hit back at the Hollywood actor's criticism of Prince William's deployment to the Falklands. The father-of-three, who was terribly injured in an Argentine bomb attack that killed 48 people in 1982, said: 'Sean Penn is living, breathing proof that just because you are famous doesn't mean you know what you are talking about. War of words: Simon Weston, left, today came out fighting in support Britain in the row involving Sean Penn, right, over the Falklands Making a point: Actor Sean Penn wears a poncho as he shakes hands with Evo Morales, the president of Bolivia, during a meeting yesterday He told The Sun: 'Penn is an idiot. It's bad for people to think you're a fool. You don't need to open your mouth to prove it. By opening his mouth on this, Sean Penn proves he is a fool.' The attack by Penn was the second time in two days he has criticised the UK's involvement in the islands. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share Meanwhile TV adventurer Ben Fogle - who is a close friend of Prince William - also attacked Penn for criticising the Royal's deployment to the Falklands. Fogle, who - with his wife Marina - was a guest at William and the Duchess of Cambridge's wedding, said he wanted to place Penn in the mouth of crocodiles over his comments. Brave: Fogle (pictured) has recently dived with crocodiles for a new television series - describing it as the 'scariest, most terrifying thing' he has ever done Fogle told followers on Twitter: 'I would like to take Sean Penn and place him in the jaws of one of those crocodiles.' He also challenged Penn to a public debate on the Falklands Fogle has recently dived with crocodiles for a new television series - describing it as the 'scariest, most terrifying thing' he has ever done. But he told followers on Twitter: 'I would like to take Sean Penn and place him in the jaws of one of those crocodiles.' He also challenged Penn to a public debate on the Falklands. WAR OF WORDS - PENN V WESTON Sean Penn: 'My oh my, aren't people sensitive to the world colonialism, particularly those who implement colonialism 'It's unthinkable that the United Kingdom can make a conscious decision to deploy a prince within the military to the Malvinas, knowing the great emotional sensitivity both of mothers and fathers in the United Kingdom and in Argentina who lost sons and daughters in a war of islands with a population of so few. 'There are many places to deploy the prince. It's not necessary, when the deployment of a prince is generally accompanied by warships, to send them into the seas of such shared blood.' Simon Weston: 'Sean Penn is living, breathing proof that just because you are famous doesn't mean you know what you are talking about. 'Penn is an idiot. It's bad for people to think you're a fool. You don't need to open your mouth to prove it. By opening his mouth on this, Sean Penn proves he is a fool. 'His views are irrelevant and it only serves to fuel the ire of the Argentinians and get them more pumped up.' 'Let us not forget that 253 airmen, soldiers and sailors lost their lives protecting the Falklands,' wrote Fogle on Twitter. 'We are all entitled to our own political opinion on the Falklands but it's up to the islanders not actors to decide their future.' Penn, Madonna's ex-husband, was condemned as 'moronic' by Tory MP and former Army officer Patrick Mercer for claiming Britain's continuing hold on the Falklands was 'colonialist, ludicrous and archaic'. But the left-leaning actor showed he cannot keep his mouth shut over the islands by accusing the UK of 'insensitivity' for posting William to the disputed South Atlantic territory and labelling Britain a colonial dinosaur for the second day running. The double Oscar winner went on the attack again after a meeting with Uruguayan president Jose Mujica in Montevideo - less than 24 hours after he savaged Britain over the Falklands during his visit to Buenos Aires to see the Argentine president Cristina Kirchner. Penn, who once called for U.S. president George W. Bush to be impeached over the Iraq War, met both state leaders in his role as Ambassador-at-large for Haiti. He condemned criticism of his attack on 'colonial' Britain as 'hyperbole' and again insisted on calling the islands by their Spanish name of Las Malvinas. Grinning smugly as he praised Uruguay as a 'model of development in the world' he added: 'My oh my, aren't people sensitive to the world colonialism, particularly those who implement colonialism. 'It's unthinkable that the United Kingdom can make a conscious decision to deploy a prince within the military to the Malvinas, knowing the great emotional sensitivity both of mothers and fathers in the United Kingdom and in Argentina who lost sons and daughters in a war of islands with a population of so few. Controversial: Actor Sean Penn meets with Bolivian President Evo Morales at the government palace in La Paz today. He has been criticised by Ben Fogle for his controversial comments on the Falklands issue Angry: Double Oscar winner Sean Penn (left) went on the attack against Britain for a second day running yesterday after a meeting with Uruguayan president Jose Mujica (right) in Montevideo Controversial: Actor Sean Penn, pictured here with Argentina's President Cristina Kirchner on Monday, has branded Britain 'colonialist' for its refusal to hand over the Falkland Islands Annoyed: Sean Penn said that the deployment of Prince William (left) to the Falklands was 'unthinkable' 'There are many places to deploy the prince. It's not necessary, when the deployment of a prince is generally accompanied by warships, to send them into the seas of such shared blood.' Penn, who has received praise from crackpot Venezuelan leader Hugo Chavez, insisted he was proud of America's long-standing alliance with the UK but felt he had the responsibility to criticise when criticism was due. And he said that while he understood and respected the wish of people living in the Falklands Islands to remain British, they should also understand the need for Argentina and Britain to negotiate the sharing of the islands' natural resources. The international row which has erupted since Penn made his outspoken views has become a national talking point. Such is the anger Penn raised with his opinions that as of Thursday afternoon, MailOnline had received close to 5,000 comments on the story - a record number for our site. Graffiti: A mural in the Argentine capital of Buenos Aires commemorates its soldiers who fell in the Falklands Conflict Protest: Stencilled graffiti across Buenos Aires saying 'They are not British, they are Argentine' (left) and 'English out of the Malvinas, we will return!' (right) Demonstration: A Buenos Aires street daubed in pro-Argentine graffiti, with a sign that says: 'The Malvinas were, are and will be Argentine' Inspection: Actor Sean Penn (right) alongside Argentina's Social Developer Minister Alicia Kirchner (left) during a visit to a factory in Berazategui, on the outskirts of Buenos Aires on Monday Disputed: Argentina calls the Falkland Islands (pictured) Las Malvinas and claims they were 'stolen' by Britain 180 years ago In an ugly attack on the press before ending his address to newsmen after his meeting with Uruguay's president, he added: 'Good journalism saves the world. Bad journalism destroys it so to all of you good journalists in the room I thank you. And the rest I will leave you to your own reflections.' ARGENTINIAN POLICE CLASH WITH FALKLANDS WAR VETERANS Argentine police clashed with a group of Falklands War veterans in Buenos Aires yesterday, demanding inclusion in a pension plan for war vets. The protesting veterans, who were deployed in the 1982 Falklands War when Argentina invaded the British-ruled South Atlantic islands, are disqualified from a Falklands war veterans package because they never actually deployed on the islands. The demonstrators were blocking a major downtown thoroughfare when riot police, led by a massive water cannon truck, moved in on them to break up the demonstration. The ex-soldiers, who began their protest on Monday night, resisted the police and hurled rocks, sticks and other projectiles. The police responded with batons and riot shields. The police finally fired tear gas and advanced against the demonstrators chasing them through the streets and detaining several. The protesting veterans say they want the government to recognize them as 'continental combatants' and afford them a 'minimal pension'. Penn, who had no previous knowledge or connection with the Falklands, later left by a side door of the skyscraper where he had met Jose Mucija, disappointing fans who had travelled miles to see him. His comments have incensed Falkland veterans and islanders ahead of the 30th anniversary of the Falklands conflict. Patrick Mercer added: 'What on earth has this got to do with Sean Penn? He’s neither British nor Argentine and seems to know nothing about the situation judging by this moronic comment. ‘A good number of his movies have been turkeys, so I suppose we shouldn’t expect much better coming out of his mouth.’ Penn waded into the row over the disputed territory’s future after he met President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner in Buenos Aires on Monday, by insisting he was ‘firmly’ on the side of the South Americans. Tensions between the UK and Argentina have been running higher than usual after Prince William’s deployment to the islands as a search-and-rescue helicopter pilot. Penn’s remarks will further inflame relations as the anniversary of the start of the Falklands War approaches on April 2. A total of 255 British soldiers were killed retaking the islands after an Argentinian military junta invaded the ‘Malvinas’, as the Falklands are known in Spanish, in 1982, while 649 Argentine troops died. Tory MP Andrew Rosindell, secretary of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on the Falkland Islands, attacked the actor’s comments as ‘nonsense’. He said: ‘He shows complete ignorance of the issue if he comes out with nonsensical statements like that. In the 21st century people have a democratic right to their own future. A HOLLYWOOD REBEL WITH EVERY LEFT-WING CAUSE As the acknowledged king of Hollywood’s liberals, there is scarcely a single fashionable Left-wing cause Sean Penn has not championed in recent years. Vehemently anti-Republican and achingly trendy, he counts Fidel Castro and Venezuela’s hardline president Hugo Chávez among his friends. He has also made anti-American propaganda visits to Iran and post-war Iraq. Penn has met Chávez at least twice and defended the Left-wing leader, arguing that anyone calling him a 'dictator' should face jail. He has also said: 'Chávez may not be a good man. But he may well be a great one.' Penn even once took out a £40,000 full-page newspaper advertisement to attack President George W Bush for his ‘simplistic and inflammatory view of good and evil’. Friends: Sean Penn (right) who has been labelled a 'communist' for his friendship with Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez (left) who he met in 2008 Later he would call for Bush and former vice president Dick Cheney to be jailed for 'deceiving the American people into a war (Iraq) that was murdering young men and women'. Last October Penn visited ‘inspirational’ post-Gaddafi Libya. The 51-year-old actor, who was married to Madonna from 1985 to 1989 and has two children from his second marriage to Robin Wright which has also now ended, was reported to have flashed a V for Victory sign as he arrived in Tripoli fresh from visiting Egypt. Amid even Tinseltown’s numerous famous bleeding hearts then, Penn stands out. But despite his tough political posturing the Oscar-winning star of Milk and Mystic River is also famously sensitive to criticism. When he was lampooned as a naive egotist in the 2004 satirical puppet movie Team America: World Police, he complained bitterly. In the film, written by South Park creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker, a puppet of Penn made outlandish statements about how happy Iraqis were before the war. But while Alec Baldwin, George Clooney and Matt Damon all saw the funny side to the film, in which they too were parodied, Penn sent Parker and Stone an angry letter inviting them to tour Iraq with him and signing it off with '**** you'. Parker explained: 'In the movie we were making fun of him for always saying "I’ve been to Iraq, you don’t know what you’re talking about, I’ve been there", and then he writes in the letter "I’ve been to Iraq...".' More recently, Penn set up a charity in Haiti following the 2010 earthquake in the country. It led to him being named 'ambassador-at-large' by President Michel Martelly, which is why the actor was visiting Buenos Aires. He has also championed causes such as gay-rights and America's poor, as well as supporting countries most Americans would consider to be enemies. On screen he won an Oscar for his portrayal of homosexual politician Harvey Milk and appeared in a promotional advert for the Occupy movement. In 2005 he helped rescue people in New Orleans, Louisiana, who had been injured by Hurricane Katrina. But some thought it was merely a PR stunt. The Mystic River star has also visited Iran, Iraq, and Cuba - and most recently has been seen in Libya (following the fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime) and Egypt (after Hosni Mubarak was ousted). 'It is Argentina that is trying to impose its wishes on the people of the Falklands. As an American he should remember that freedom is precious, and it is something his countrymen have defended around the globe. FALKLANDS OIL 'WORTH £111BN' Drilling within the 200 mile territory surrounding the Falklands could yieldb tax windfalls of £111bn from oil and gas exploration, a major report claimed today. Several companies have been prospecting for oil within the exclusion zone set up during the 1980s Falklands War. UK-listed companies are involved in exploring four major prospects this year, with the biggest, Loligo, potentially holding more than 4.7bn barrels of oil. The riches available are put in perspective when it is considered that Catcher, the biggest discovery in the North Sea, is thought to hold only around 300m barrels. According to a new report by oil and gas analysts Edison Investment Research, if all four prospects were drilled the potential tax funds would net close to $180bn. Ian McLelland, who co-wrote the report, said: 'With current tax and fishing incomes in the region of $40m , the islands look set to be transformed by the oil industry.' 'The proverbial spanner in the works that remains is the ongoing political dispute between Britain and Argentina regarding sovereignty of the Falklands.' ‘He must understand that the UK is equally entitled to defend the freedom of the people of the Falklands, even if they are 8,000 miles away.’ Dick Sawle, a member of the Falklands Legislative Assembly, said: ‘I don’t know Sean Penn’s films or what he looks like so I know as much about him as he does about the islands. His remarks are ridiculous.’ Even comedian Jim Davidson weighed in. Davidson, patron of the Falkland Veterans Foundation, said: ‘The fact of the matter is Argentina broke all the laws of the UN and attacked the Falkland Islands. What’s next? Do we expect the French to land on the Channel Islands and do nothing about it? ‘I think the world today is not going to tolerate any kind of ludicrous and archaic commitment to colonialist ideology.’ Britain has said repeatedly that those living on the Falklands – which have been in British hands since 1833 – have the right to decide under which country they want to be governed. The 3,000-strong population has declared its wish to remain under British rule. Argentina has made a formal complaint to the UN over the UK’s supposed ‘militarisation’ of the South Atlantic, based on the Type 45 destroyer Dauntless being ordered to the region, as well as Prince William’s deployment in his RAF role. The MoD says the deployments are ‘routine’. The Royal Navy is also sending a nuclear-powered submarine to patrol the islands. In a fresh development, it was announced yesterday that all  British-flagged ships will be boycotted by Argentina’s transport workers’ union. 'Should we give Gibraltar back to Spain because Spain is nearer or do you think the Gibraltarians  have a say?’ Penn, who called on Britain to join UN-sponsored talks over the islands, said: ‘I hope that diplomats can establish true dialogue between the UK and Argentina in order to solve the conflict as the world today cannot tolerate ridiculous demonstrations of colonialism. Telex from Falklands reporting Argentine surrender set to fetch up to £3,000 at auction A copy of the original telex announcing to the British government that Argentina had surrendered in the Falklands War is to go under the hammer. Sent by the commander of the British land forces, Major-General Jeremy Moore, it states that the junta’s forces have laid down their arms and the Falkland Islands are 'once more under the government desired by their inhabitants”. The document is expected to sell for between £2,000 and £3,000 when it is auctioned by Bonhams on April 3, a day after the 30th anniversary of the start of the war. The telex, sent by Major-General Jeremy Moore, Commander of British land forces in the Falklands, which is to be sold at Bonhams in April It reads: 'In Port Stanley at 9 o’clock pm Falkland Islands Time tonight 14th June 1982, Major General Menendes (sic) surrendered to me all the Argentine Forces in East and West Falkland, together with all their impedimenta. 'Arrangements are in hand to assemble the men for return to Argentina, to gather in their arms and equipment, and to mark and make safe their munitions. 'The Falkland Islands are once more under the government desired by their inhabitants. God Save the Queen. Signed JJ Moore.” The message was sent via special forces to the Government Communications Headquarters on June 14 1982 - six days before the hostilities officially ceased. It came to the auctioneer from what was described as a naval-related source. Bonhams chairman Robert Brooks said: 'This remarkable document encapsulates perfectly the very moment of total capitulation by Argentina’s 12,000-strong occupying forces in the Falklands. 'It is a rare find of great historical importance and will excite considerable interest from around the world.' VIDEO: Sean Penn's comments on Prince William's deployment to Falkland Islands   
i don't know
Who played both Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers on film in the 1930s?
Flash Gordon and the 1930s and 40s Science Fiction Serial Flash Gordon and the 1930s and 40s Science Fiction Serial Wheeler Winston Dixon Motion picture serials, the forerunner of today’s serialized television dramas, have been around since the earliest days of the narrative cinema. Exhibitors rapidly realized that in order to assure continued audience attendance, open ended “cliff hangers” were sure to keep viewers returning week after week, to find out the latest plot twists, character developments, and of course, how the hero or heroine had escaped from the previous week’s peril. The first real serial, with multiple episodes and a running weekly continuity, was Charles Brabin’s What Happened to Mary? (1912), starring Mary Fuller as an innocent young woman who inherits a fortune, while the villain of the piece tries to separate her from her newfound wealth. There was even a sequel to the serial, Who Will Mary Marry? (1913), as proof of the new format’s success. But the real breakthrough came in 1914, with Louis Gasnier’s The Perils of Pauline, starring Pearl White. Pauline established the hectic, action-packed formula that would persist until the production of the very last serial, Spencer Gordon Bennet’s Blazing the Overland Trail in 1956. Fistfights, non-stop action, minimal character exposition and a sense of constant, frenetic danger permeated The Perils of Pauline, and it generated a host of imitators. Soon the “damsel in distress” format used in Perils of Pauline was being employed by a number of other serials, including Francis J. Grandon’s The Adventures of Kathlyn (1913), starring an equally athletic Kathlyn Williams, and Louis Feuillade’s epic mystery Fantômas (1913). Early serials were shown in weekly installments, a practice that continued throughout the lifetime of the genre, but early serial chapters could run as long as an hour, particularly in the case of Feuillade’s Les Vampires (1915), one of the most popular of the silent serials. These weekly screenings usually took place as a major part of the cinema program, and early serials were aimed at both adults and children. Occasionally, an enterprising entrepreneur would run a serial chapter throughout the week, to maximize attendance. But by the late teens and early 20s, a fairly rigid structure had been defined through trial and error. Serials ran 12 to 15 episodes, with the first episode usually running a half hour, to set up the situation, and introduce the protagonists (and their adversaries) to viewers. Subsequent episodes clocked in at roughly 20 minutes. Each episode ended with what the industry termed a “take-out” – a scene of violent peril from which the hero or heroine could not possibly escape. The next chapter would pick up the action at the same point, but offer a “way out” for the lead character; a trap door offering a convenient escape, jumping from a moving car, or breaking free from some sort of fiendish device created by the serial’s chief villain. The central characters in serials were more often types, rather than fully fleshed-out characters. In the early silent days, women were the protagonists of many of the action serials, thrown into situations of continual danger until the final reel unspooled. With the advent of women’s voting rights in 1920, the lead character became, more often than not, a heroic male; blindingly handsome, often endowed with above average mental acuity (as an investigator, adventurer, or soldier of fortune). A female companion was then introduced to support the hero’s efforts, with the possible addition of a young boy or girl “sidekick” to encourage adolescent identification with the serial’s characters. The hero was aided by a number of associates, who usually worked as a team to support the lead’s efforts. Lastly, and most importantly (for the leads in serials were usually rather bland), there was the chief villain, often masked, whose identity was not disclosed until the final moments of the last chapter. Known in the trade as the “brains” heavy, the villain, in turn, would be aided by a variety of henchmen, or “action” heavies, who would unquestionably carry out the orders of their leader in a campaign of mayhem and violence that kept the serial’s narrative in constant motion. Indeed, though the serial format would serve as the template for weekly television series starting in the early 1950s, serials were far more violent than early television fare, noted for their extreme, non-stop action, their propulsive music scores, and seemingly impossible stunt work. And, unlike contemporary television series, which are open-ended – concluding only when audience interest has evaporated – serials were designed as a “closed set,” fifteen episodes and out, shot on breakneck schedules of 30 days or fewer, for completed films that could run as long as four hours in their final, chapter-by-chapter format. Serials embraced nearly every genre – jungle serials [Jungle Menace [1937], with Frank Buck); crime serials (Alan James’ Dick Tracy [1937] with Ralph Byrd); the supernatural (Normal Deming and Sam Nelson’s Mandrake the Magician [1939], with Warren Hull); westerns (William Witney and John English’s The Lone Ranger Rides Again [1939], with Robert Livingston); and, of course, science fiction. Some of the earliest serials made were sci-fi efforts, including Robert Broadwell and Robert F. Hill’s The Great Radium Mystery (1919), Otto Rippert’s Homunculus (1916), and Harry A. Pollard’s The Invisible Ray (1920); all were successful with the public, who clamored for more. Note that in almost all these cases, two directors were assigned to a serial, because of the sheer bulk of material involved. Sometimes directors worked on alternate days, to keep from becoming burnt out; in other instances, one director would handle all the action scenes, while another would shoot all the narrative exposition sequences. Serial scripts were immense, often running to 400 pages or more (or four times the length of an average feature), yet shooting schedules and budgets were often miniscule, and directors were expected to shoot as many as 70 “set ups” (a complete change of camera angle and lighting) a day to stay on schedule. Nat Levine, head of Mascot Studios, a prime purveyor of serial fare until his company merged with Republic Pictures, arguably the most accomplished of the sound era serial makers, used ruthless cost-cutting to bring in such films as The Phantom Empire (1935), a 12 chapter science-fiction/western hybrid serial directed by Otto Brower and B. Reeves “Breezy” Eason, starring a young Gene Autry. Pushing his directors and crews to the limit, Levine also cut corners on actors’ salaries and other production costs, so that every dime he spent showed up on the screen. Actors, directors, and stunt men were left to fend for themselves; all that Levine cared about was finishing on time and on schedule. In between setups, Levine had an improvised dormitory set up on the Mascot lot in some vacant studio space, where exhausted stuntmen, actors and technicians could catch a few minutes sleep, and then grab a cup of coffee and some doughnuts to wake up, before being dragged back to the set. This arrangement also allowed Levine to keep an eye on his employees at all times, something like the production system used by the Shaw Brothers studios in Hong Kong in the 1970s.  If you stayed on the lot all the time, Levine always knew where to find you. As veteran serial director Harry Fraser recalled in his memoirs (Fraser would go on to co-script the first Batman serial in 1943, which was directed by Lambert Hillyer), Nat Levine was “the real Simon Legree without a whip” (102). Wrote Fraser: I recall doing a Rin-Tin-Tin for him, released under the title The Wolf Dog [1933, co-directed with Colbert Clark], as I recall. I had an eighty scene [emphasis added] schedule one day, with the dog as the star and involved in most of the scenes. In addition to [former D.W. Griffith stock company member] Henry B. Walthall playing the human lead, there was a long list of supporting actors and actresses. Well, I came out with seventy scenes at the end of the day, but pushing everyone to the limit. But when the Serial King heard I was behind schedule by ten scenes, he practically accused me of causing the company to go bankrupt. My Scottish ire aroused, I listened to Nat rave on, then finally threw the script on the table and walked out of his office. (102) Conditions at the other studios were little better. By now firmly consigned to the “kiddie trade,” where before they had also attracted adult audiences, serials were seen as being bottom-of-the-barrel product, and the major studios that churned them out (Columbia, Republic and Universal) saw them as strictly bottom line propositions. However, in many cases, viewers went to the theater each week not to see the feature attraction, but rather the serial, which kept them coming back for the next thrilling installment. Always cost conscious, serials would usually spend most of their production budget on the first three or four chapters, to entice exhibitors to book the serial, and capture audience attention; subsequent episodes were then ground out as cheaply as possible. To top it off, the 7th or 8th chapter of many serials would be a “recap” chapter, in which expensive action sequences from earlier episodes were recycled for maximum cost benefit. Then, too, stock footage from earlier serials, as well as newsreel sequences, were often employed to keep costs down. Thus, most serials were compromised from the start. But occasionally, a serial hero would emerge who would rate slightly better treatment than usual, often a comic book hero transferred to the screen. Dick Tracy was one of the first of these; Flash Gordon was another, the star of three Universal serials produced between 1936 and 1940. Flash Gordon began its life as a comic strip with a lavish, full color Sunday episode on January 7, 1934, as created by Alex Raymond. The strip proved popular almost immediately and in 1936, Universal decided to gamble a significant amount of time and money bringing Flash to the screen. While estimates range widely, the serial was roughly budgeted at $350,000, which was far more than the average serial at the time, usually brought in for $100,000 or less. Despite the generous budget, Flash Gordon was an ambitious project, requiring spectacular sets (many of them borrowed from other Universal productions), a plethora of special effects, and a fairly large cast of principal actors. Director Frederick Stephani, who also co-wrote the film’s script, was given a six-week schedule, but the circumstances surrounding the production were by no means luxurious. Even with an uncredited assist from co-director Ray Taylor, Stephani faced a daunting challenge. As Buster Crabbe, the star of the serial, and for many the archetypal, iconic Flash Gordon, remembered years later: they started shooting Flash Gordon in October of 1935, and to bring it in on the six-week schedule, we had to average 85 set-ups a day. That means moving and rearranging the heavy equipment we had, the arc lights and everything, 85 times a day. We had to be in makeup every morning at seven, and on the set at eight ready to go. They’d always knock off for lunch, and then we always worked after dinner. They’d give us a break of a half-hour or 45 minutes and then we’d go back on the set and work until ten-thirty every night. It wasn’t fun, it was a lot of work! (as qtd. in Kinnard, 39) In addition to Crabbe in the leading role, Jean Rogers was cast as Dale Arden, Flash’s nominal love interest; Charles Middleton, then in his 60s, made an indelible impression as Ming the Merciless, perhaps the most memorable of all serial villains for his pure cruelty and sadism; Frank Shannon portrayed Dr. Zarkov, Flash’s scientific advisor and mentor; and Priscilla Lawson appeared as Princess Anna, Ming’s daughter, who vacillates between loyalty to her father and a more than passing interest in Flash. Buster Crabbe, who as Clarence Linden Crabbe won a gold medal for swimming in the 1932 Olympics, was only 26 when he took on the role of Flash; while others, including future Ramar of the Jungle star Jon Hall tried out for the part, Crabbe was seemingly destined for the role. As he told Karl Whitezel in 2000, Crabbe went to the audition for the role purely as a lark, with no real interest in the part. Watching Hall and others try out for the role from the sidelines, Crabbe was noticed by the serial’s producer, Henry MacRae. After a brief conversation, and with no audition at all, MacRae surprised Crabbe by offering him the part. Under contract to Paramount at the time, and not happy about it, Crabbe expressed polite disinterest: “I honestly thought Flash Gordon was too far-out, and that it would flop at the box office. God knows I’d been in enough turkeys during my four years as an actor; I didn’t need another one.” But MacRae persisted, and finally Crabbe told him that it was up to Paramount; “if they say you can borrow me, then I’d be willing to play the part” (Whitezel 52). The two men shook hands on it, and a month later Crabbe found himself on a Universal sound stage, tackling the role that would become his lifetime calling card. His dark hair bleached blonde for the role, Crabbe dived into the hectic production schedule with a sense of cheerful fatalism; fate had given him the role, so he tried to make the best of it. As filming progressed, Crabbe grew more confident, and the cast and crew realized that they were working on something that was, to say the least, a notch above the usual serial fare. When production wrapped a few days before Christmas, 1936, there was no wrap party; that would have cost money. A few actors went across the street to a local bar for drinks, and director Stephani patted Crabbe on the back, thanking him for a “nice job,” and that was all. At the time, Flash Gordon seemed like just another assignment for the young actor, who made six other features in 1936 alone as part of his Paramount contract. But, to Crabbe’s surprise, Flash Gordon made him a star overnight when it was released in March of that year. As the pseudonymous “Wear” in Variety enthused: Universal’s serialization of the Flash Gordon cartoon character in screen form is an unusually ambitious effort. In some respects it smacks of old serial days when story and action, as well as authentic background, were depended upon to sustain their vigorous popularity. Here, instead, feature production standard has been maintained as to cast, direction, writing and background. [. . .] Buster Crabbe is well fitted for the title role, a robust, heroic youth who dares almost any danger. Character calls for plenty of action, which places him in a favorable light. Charles Middleton, best known of late for his western character portrayals, is a happy choice as the cruel Ming, [and] brings a wealth of histrionic ability to the part. Jean Rogers and Priscilla Lawson, besides being easy on the eyes, are entirely adequate, former as Dale Arden and Miss Lawson as Emperor Ming’s daughter. Frank Shannon indicates promise from his portrayal of the wild-eyed inventive genius [. . .] Flash Gordon should be a top grosser in serial field. (as qtd. in Willis, 49) The die was cast, and as Flash, Crabbe achieved a certain sort of cinematic immortality, although to the end of his days he maintained a love/hate relationship with the role, convinced (perhaps correctly) that it had typecast him permanently as an action hero, when he longed for more serious parts. When the original film proved a box-office bonanza, Crabbe was called back for two sequels, the first of which was Ford Beebe and Robert Hill’s Flash Gordon’s Trip to Mars (1938), but for his second outing, the production was no longer a first class affair. As Crabbe remembered: We started the routine of long days and short nights again, to grind out what would become a lesser product than the first had been, quality-wise. The producer took short-cuts, such as reusing some of the rocket ship footage filmed earlier, and replaying some of the landscape shots, assuming that audiences wouldn’t know the difference. [. . .] I never attempted to learn how well it did for Universal. Judging from the fact that, two years later, I would be called back for a third Flash Gordon serial [Ford Beebe and Ray Taylor’s Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe, 1940], I assume it was almost as successful as the first had been. (as qtd. in Whitezel 56) In between these three iconic serials, in an attempt to break away from the Flash Gordon character, Crabbe also portrayed Buck Rogers in a 1939 Universal serial that was cranked out quickly on a modest budget, directed by Ford Beebe and Saul A. Goodkind. All the while, Crabbe kept appearing in “B” feature fare at Paramount, much to his chagrin, hoping for more substantial roles. But Paramount apparently saw little potential in the actor, and to Crabbe’s shock, despite his success with Flash Gordon, dropped him as a contract player in late 1939. Screen tests at other studios, including 20th Century Fox, yielded nothing. 20th Century Fox studio head Darryl F. Zanuck, after seeing Crabbe’s test, dismissed him with the words “he’s a character actor. We can hire all of them we need” (as qtd. in Whitezel 57). Crabbe’s next film would seal his fate in Hollywood; he agreed to appear in a string of no-budget westerns for PRC, aka Producers’ Releasing Corporation, arguably the cheapest studio in Hollywood. Of all the studios, only PRC would agree to put Crabbe in a starring role, as astonishing as it seems today. His salary was roughly $1,000 a week for each six-day picture, with star billing, such as it was, thrown in as an added inducement. From there, it was all downhill. Crabbe had achieved lasting fame as Flash Gordon, but he would be forever identified with the role; now, the future seemed to promise only bottom-of-the-barrel action pictures. But the die had been already been cast even with the cost-conscious production of Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe. Most of the cast was replaced by lesser-known actors for reasons of economy, with only Charles Middleton and Frank Shannon reprising their roles as Ming and Zarkov. As Crabbe remembered, with evident sadness: I didn’t like the final Flash Gordon serial. We used a lot of scenes that we’d done before, the uniforms were the same, [and] the scenery was the same. Universal had a library full of old clips: Flash running from here to there, Ming going from one palace to another, exterior shots of flying rocket ships and milling crowds. It saved a lot of production time, but I thought it was a poor product that was nothing more than a doctored-up script from earlier days. (as qtd. in Whitezel, 59) And yet, for all the compromises and production short cuts, the Flash Gordon trilogy stands as a major achievement in science fiction cinema history; indeed, the first Flash Gordon serial was selected in 1996 by the Library of Congress National Film Registry as being “culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.” No matter that it used recycled sets and costumes; nor that its score was comprised almost entirely of stock music from other Universal films, such as James Whale’s The Invisible Man (1935), Whale’s Bride of Frankenstein (1935), Lambert Hillyer’s Dracula’s Daughter (1936), Edgar G. Ulmer’s The Black Cat (1934), or Rowland V. Lee’s Son of Frankenstein (1939), interspersed with snippets of new music by house composer Clifford Vaughan, and “lifts” from Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky and Wagner (this last music cue from Parsifal, fitting in quite nicely). The trio of serials had made an indelible impact on popular culture. The rocket ships were generally ineffective miniatures, the plots were predictably preposterous, and the special effects were often primitive, but somehow, none of this mattered. For the first two serials, at least, as Variety noted in their review, the cast performed with a sense of conviction and cohesion that lifted the project out of the ordinary and into the realm of myth and wonder. There is a genuine chemistry between Crabbe and Jean Rogers, and although the first serial, in particular, is clearly geared towards a juvenile audience, it nevertheless has an adult feel to it, perhaps because all the principals took their roles seriously, and didn’t condescend to the audience. Charles Middleton, for example, had been a song and dance man earlier in his career, and had worked in films with everyone from Laurel and Hardy to director Cecil B. De Mille (in The Sign of the Cross, 1932), as well as providing a memorable foil for the Marx Brothers in Leo McCarey’s Duck Soup (1933), as well as appearing in a typically villainous role in John Ford’s adaptation of John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath (1940). In all, Middleton appeared in more than 190 films, and worked in every imaginable role right up to his death in 1948. As with the other actors, Middleton played his role with conviction and sincerity, and as Ming, lent a certain gravitas to the entire enterprise. The world of Flash Gordon is at once fantastic, and yet real; one feels for the characters, who are drawn with greater depth than traditional serial protagonists, so that they seem to be actual personages, in an actual world, albeit one far removed from our own. In the wake of the Flash Gordon trilogy, other science fiction serials would follow, mostly from Republic Studios. Many of the Republic efforts were quite effective, with high production values and superb special effects by Howard and Theodore Lydecker, including Spencer Gordon Bennett and Fred C. Brannon’s dystopic The Purple Monster Strikes (1945), dealing with an alien invasion from Mars; William Witney and Brannon’s memorably sinister The Crimson Ghost, in which the titular villain attempts to steal a counteratomic weapon known as a Cyclotrode, in order to achieve the (somewhat predictable) aim of world domination; Spencer Gordon Bennet, Wallace A. Grissell and stuntman extraordinaire Yakima Canutt’s Manhunt of Mystery Island (1945) with its plot device of a “transformation chair” to bring to life the serial’s villain, one Captain Mephisto (Roy Barcroft, Republic’s go-to heavy in residence), and a plot centering on the theft of a “radioatomic power transmitter”; and Harry Keller, Franklin Adreon and Fred C. Brannon’s Commando Cody: Sky Marshall of the Universe (1953), the only serial directly designed as a syndicated television series, thus providing a link between the non-stop frenzy of the serial format, and the more intimate domain of domestic TV fare. Using recycled footage from Brannon’s King of the Rocket Men (1949), Radar Men From the Moon (1952), and Zombies of the Stratosphere (1952), Commando Cody’s format was a definite departure from the usual serial template; each 30-minute episode was self-contained, and yet the series maintained continuity, so that each episode could be run as a “stand alone,” or as a group. Released theatrically in 1953, the series of 12 episodes was picked up by NBC as a network series, running from July 16, 1955 to October 8, 1955 (Hayes 124). However, despite this attempt to move into television, Republic’s operation was winding down; the company’s last serial was Franklin Adreon’s non-descript King of the Carnival (1955). Republic officially closed its doors on July 31, 1959 as a production entity, although it still exists today as a holding company and a distributor of past product (Flynn and McCarthy, 324). But though the later Republic, Columbia and Universal sci-fi serials provided predictably pulse-pounding entertainment, there seemed at length to be a perfunctory air about many of the serials in the mid-to-late 1940s. They were predictable, their plots unfolded like clockwork, they did the job, and got out. All nuances and much of the human element were gone. The serials had become a well-oiled machine, delivering predicable thrills on an assembly line basis, with characters that lacked depth, personality, or individuality. Serial leads were utterly replaceable, as were serial heroines; they did their job, and went home; dialogue was confined to exposition, with more and more repetition and recapitulation creeping in as the years passed by. The Flash Gordon serials created a world in which its characters lived, and took on definite human shape; subsequent serials, no matter how well crafted, lacked this three-dimensional quality. Universal had been producing serials since 1914, with 137 productions in all to their credit, more chapter plays than any other company, until the ignominious end finally came with 1946’s Lost City of the Jungle, directed by Ray Taylor and Lewis D. Collins, which was shot almost simultaneously with The Mysterious Mr. M, directed by Collins and Vernon Keays. Lost City of the Jungle has achieved a certain notoriety as famed character actor Lionel Atwill’s last film; the actor was fighting what would ultimately prove to be fatal bronchial cancer and pneumonia, and was forced to leave the film in the midst of production. Ironically, Atwill agreed to film his “death scene” for Lost City of the Jungle as his last work in front of the camera, leaving much of his role in the serial incomplete. Atwill then departed the Universal lot, never to return, and died on April 22, 1946. To finish Lost City of the Jungle, Universal used a double, created a new subplot to make Atwill’s character an underling instead of the “brains” heavy, and used outtakes for Atwill’s reaction shots. It didn’t work. Lost City of the Jungle was released the day after Atwill’s death, on April 23, 1946, to generally dismal results. When The Mysterious Mr. M, a nondescript science fiction serial was released to a similarly lukewarm reception, Universal called it quits. Columbia fared little better. Lambert Hillyer’s incredibly racist Batman (1943), for example, the first appearance of the caped crusader on the screen, had a strong sci-fi element in the “mad lab” of Dr. Daka (J. Carrol Naish), a Japanese spy working to sabotage the allied war effort. While it was a solid enough effort, it relied on characters who were sketched in broad, charcoal strokes, with little shading or detail. The Superman serials from producer Sam Katzman’s Columbia unit, 1948’s Superman, directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet and Thomas Carr, and 1950’s Atom Man vs. Superman, directed by Bennet alone, also have strong sci-fi elements, including disintegrator rays, teleportation machines, and, of course, the person of Superman himself, played in both serials by Kirk Alyn, as “a strange being from another planet who came to Earth with powers and abilities far beyond those of mortal men,” as the narrative introduction for the subsequent Superman TV series would have it, in which George Reeves took over the title role. But in the two Columbia serials, whenever Superman was called upon to fly to the rescue, the legendarily cost-conscious Katzman switched to two-dimensional animation rather than using live action footage, which would have been more expensive, seriously compromising the production as a whole. The television incarnation of Superman ultimately served the franchise much more effectively, with vastly improved live action special effects. Thomas Carr, for example, whose career as an actor stretched back to the silent era, and who actually played the role of Captain Rama of the Forest People in Flash Gordon’s Trip to Mars, switched to directing program westerns in the 1940s, and would go on to direct a number of the early episodes of the Superman TV series, bringing much of the serial sensibility with him. But many viewers criticized the first season of the TV Superman series for its “excessive,” serial-like violence; it took a regime change at the producer level to create a more “user-friendly” Superman for home consumption. What had worked in the theaters, usually out of the view of parents and guardians on a Saturday morning, raised eyebrows when mom or dad watched along with their children in the family den. Thus, a “softer” Commando Cody and Superman paved the way for 1950s Saturday morning children’s sci-fi; including a filmed West German half-hour version of Flash Gordon, Captain Video and His Video Rangers, Tom Corbett, Space Cadet, Captain Midnight, and Rocky Jones, Space Ranger, which arguably had the best production values of the lot (see Dixon). These Saturday morning teleseries would soon lead to more adult sci-fi, with The Twilight Zone, The Outer Limits, Star Trek and Battlestar Galactica, all in prime time, and the children’s serial, as it had flourished in the past, would fade into the mists of our collective memory. Yet of all these serials, it is the Flash Gordon trilogy that still commands our attention today. Its scrolling titles and futuristic gadgetry clearly inspired George Lucas’s Star Wars series, particularly the initial episode, released in 1977. It has inspired a host of remakes; after the 1954-1955 West German series, there was an animated series entitled The New Adventures of Flash Gordon in 1979-1980, Mike Hodges’ 1980 feature film featuring Max von Sydow as Ming the Merciless, which failed to live up to expectations, as well as Michael Benveniste and Howard Ziehm’s X-rated parody Flesh Gordon (1974), and a sequel, Ziehm’s Flesh Gordon Meets the Cosmic Cheerleaders (1989). As of this writing, director Breck Eisner has announced that plans are in the works for a new 3-D version of Flash Gordon, which will bypass the 1980 film and the Universal serials, and go straight back to Alex Raymond’s comic strip for inspiration. So it seems that Flash will always be with us, and that the original serials, tacky and art deco in design though they may be, will remain talismans of our cinematic past. As for the sci-fi serial format itself, the serial truly paved the way for the television series of the 1950s and beyond; it offered compact thrills and a continuing storyline within the confines of a twenty-to-thirty minute template, and, just like contemporary television serials, kept audiences coming back for more week after week. Today’s teleseries are considerably more sophisticated, both in their technology and in their narrative structure, and the characters that inhabit them are, for the most part, fully dimensional human beings, not cardboard archetypes. And yet they owe a considerable debt to the serials, which inhabited a world of constant action, peril, and imagination, but were ultimately too simplistic for contemporary audiences. The half-hour television series format simply erased the serial from public consciousness; the theatrical serial had become obsolete. People didn’t have to go out anymore to see the latest adventures of their favorite sci-fi heroes and heroines; they could watch them on TV. And so, just as Flash Gordon and its sci-fi serial brethren predicted much of our future technology (rockets, telescreens, the possibility of interplanetary travel), it also paved the way for the medium of television, with its chaptered format, rigorous schematic structure, and cliff-hanging plot lines. The future of sci-fi television, as well as theatrical series (the Star Wars and Star Trek feature films are two obvious examples) would play out in the 60s, 70s, 80s and continues up to the present day; many of the plots are as fantastic as the early science fiction serials, even if the special effects have markedly improved. But the Flash Gordon serials played an important part in the creation of contemporary televisual formats, as well the serial-like sequel formats of many contemporary theatrical science fiction franchises, and offered to audiences a sense of wonder and amazement that still resonates today, and continues to gesture towards the future. Works Cited and Consulted Ackerman, Forrest J. “The Ace of Space.” Spacemen 4 (July 1962): 34-41. Barbour, Alan G. Cliffhanger: A Pictorial History of the Motion Picture Serial. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel, 1984.          . Days of Thrills and Adventure. New York: Macmillan, 1970. Barshay, Robert. “Ethnic Stereotypes in ‘Flash Gordon.’” Journal of the Popular Film, Winter 1974: 15-30. Behlmer, Rudy. “The Saga of Flash Gordon.” Screen Facts, 2, 4, 1965: 53-62. Dixon, Wheeler Winston. “Tomorrowland TV: The Space Opera and Early Science Fiction Television,” The Essential Science Fiction Television Reader. J. P. Telotte, ed. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008: 93-110. Ellis, John. Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Video. London: Routledge, 1982. “Flash Gordon’s Trip to Mars.” Look Magazine, 15 Mar. 1938: n. pag.; 29 Mar. 1938: n. pag.; 12 Apr. 1938: n. pag. Fraser, Harry L. I Went That-A-Way: The Memoirs of a Western Film Director. Wheeler Winston Dixon and Audrey Brown Fraser, eds. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1990. Grossman, Gary H. Saturday Morning TV. New York: Delacorte, 1981. Hayes, R. M. The Republic Chapterplays: A Complete Filmography of the Serials Released by Republic Pictures Corporation, 1934-1955. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2000. Henderson, Jan Alan and Burr Middleton. “Behind the Ming Dynasty: Revelations from the Emperor’s Grandson, Burr Middleton,” Filmfax 85 (2001): 50-58, 87. Kinnard, Roy. Science Fiction Serials. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1998. Kinnard, Roy, Tony Crnkovich and R. J. Vitone. The Flash Gordon Serials: A Heavily Illustrated Guide. Jefferson, NJ: McFarland, 2008. Lahue, Kalton C. Bound and Gagged: The Story of the Silent Serials. New York: A. S. Barnes, 1968. Mitchell, Robert. “Flash Gordon.” Magill’s Survey of Cinema: English Language Films. Second Series, Vol. II. Ed. Frank N. Magill. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, 1981: 796-799. Parish, James Robert, and Michael R. Pitts. “Flash Gordon.” The Great Science Fiction Pictures. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976: 125-127. Rainey, Buck. Serials and Series: A World Filmography 1912-1956. Jefferson, NJ: McFarland, 1999. Rovin, Jeff. “Flash Gordon.” From Jules Verne to Star Trek. New York & London: Drake Publishers, 1977: 44-45. Schutz, Wayne. The Motion Picture Serial: An Annotated Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1992. Steinbrunner, Chris, and Burt Goldblatt. “Flash Gordon.” Cinema of the Fantastic. New York: Galahad Books, 1972: 125-150. Turner, George. “Making the Flash Gordon Serials.” American Cinematographer, June 1983: 56-62. Vermilye, Jerry. Buster Crabbe: A Biofilmography. Jefferson, NC: 2008. Whitezel, Karl. “Buster Crabbe: An All-American in Outer Space,” Filmfax 79 (2000): 59-59. Willis, Donald, ed. Variety’s Complete Science Fiction Reviews. New York: Garland, 1985. Witney, William. In A Door, Into A Fight, Out A Door, Into A Chase: Moviemaking Remembered by the Guy at the Door. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1996. About the Author
Buster Crabbe
Covering some 30 acres, which is the largest castle in Wales?
Super-Hero Films: Flash Gordon Flash Gordon Greatest Super-Hero Films: Flash Gordon (chronological by time period and film title) Flash Gordon - was a super-hero derived from the science-fiction adventure comic strip by Alex Raymond, first published as a King Features syndicated Sunday comic strip on January 7, 1934. Cartoonist Austin Briggs began a daily Flash Gordon strip beginning on May 27, 1940. Raymond's authoring of the Sunday comic strip lasted until April 30, 1944, although the strip (both daily and Sunday) continued to exist with new stories until March 16, 2003. First Flash Gordon Comic Strip January 7, 1934, Sunday comic strip Earth Bombarded by Meteors Another Example of Flash Gordon Sunday Strip February 25, 1934 Reprints of the Austin Briggs Comic Strip Dailies Flash Gordon Dailies Flash Gordon Dailies (1940-42) Many iterations of the character were developed (to compete with Buck Rogers) in the adventurous, sci-fiction/fantasy Flash Gordon serials of the late 1930s (with Buster Crabbe as Flash Gordon and Jean Rogers as blonde Dale Arden). Flash fought daring intergalactic battles to save mankind. The action-oriented episodes were filled with fantastic spaceships, androids, death rays, futuristic scenes and cities, monsters, exotic enemies and other imaginative creations. Title Screen Poster Flash Gordon (1936) - Theatrical Serial A 13-installment serial from Universal, the first Flash Gordon screen adventure, and the first pure science-fiction serial. The original and the best of its type, with Buster Crabbe as adventurer Flash Gordon, Jean Rogers as girlfriend Dale Arden, Frank Shannon as scientist Dr. Zarkov, and Charles Middleton as Planet Mongo tyrant Ming the Merciless. Later retitled for its home video release in the mid-1950s as Flash Gordon's Space Soldiers, to differentiate it from the same-titled TV series. It was condensed from the 245-minute serial into two feature films (cutting out the repetitive opening titles, duplicate footage, etc.), both released in 1966: Rocket Ship (1966), 66 minutes, released theatrically, and Spaceship to the Unknown (1966) (aka Atomic Rocketship), 97 minutes, released to TV and non-theatrical rental markets: Theatrical release - 1966 TV feature film - 1966 Flash Gordon's Trip to Mars (1938) - Theatrical Serial A 15-episode serial from Universal, the sequel to the 1936 serial, with Jean Rogers as a brunette. It was the final appearance of Jean Rogers as Dale Arden. Later retitled for TV viewing in the mid-1950s as Space Soldiers' Trip to Mars, to differentiate it from the same-titled TV series. There were two edited or condensed versions of the 15-part 1938 Universal serial, both released in 1966: the 99 minute The Deadly Ray From Mars (1966) released to TV in a syndication package, without the cliffhangers, the repetitive openings, etc. Another version that condensed the 15 parts of the 1938 serial into a 68 minute theatrically-released film was Mars Attacks the World (1966). TV feature film - 1966 Theatrical release - 1966 Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe (1940) - Theatrical Serial A 12-part serial from Universal, the third of three serials in the late 1930s, and the last of the trilogy of serials. With Carol Hughes as Dale Arden. Later retitled for TV viewing in the mid-1950s as Space Soldiers Conquer the Universe, to differentiate it from the same-titled TV series. The multi-part serial from 1940 was edited into two halves, for two feature films shown on TV: the 88-minute The Purple Death from Outer Space (1966) (the feature-length edited version of Chapters 1-6), and the 85-minute The Peril from Planet Mongo (1966) (the feature-length edited version of Chapters 7-12). Two TV movies in 1966 Flash Gordon (1954-1955) (aka The Space Adventures of Flash Gordon) - TV series This was a syndicated, live-action TV version produced in Germany. Steve Holland portrayed the superhero Flash Gordon. It aired throughout the US - and specifically was broadcast by the DuMont TV Network on the East Coast. Set in the year 3203, Flash was joined by pretty Dale Arden (Irene Champlin) and bearded Dr. Zarkov (Joe Nash). They journeyed to the planet Mongo to defeat Emperor Ming. There was one season of half-hour TV shows, for a total of 39 episodes, running from October 1, 1954 to July 15, 1955. The premier episode was titled: "Flash Gordon and the Planet of Death." The New Adventures of Flash Gordon (1979-1982) Flash Gordon: The Greatest Adventure of All (1982) The New Adventures of Flash Gordon (1979-1982) (aka The Adventures of Flash Gordon, or Flash Gordon) - TV series Flash Gordon: The Greatest Adventure of All (1982) - TV movie Filmation's Saturday morning cartoon TV series was notable as the first Flash Gordon animated TV series. In the familiar story, Flash Gordon (Robert Ridgely was the voice of Flash) rocketed to the planet Mongo with girlfriend Dale Arden and scientist Hans Zarkov to prevent evil dictator Ming the Merciless from dominating the universe. It was broadcast on NBC-TV for two seasons (a total of 24 episodes) from September 22, 1979 to November 6, 1982. Season 1: 16 episodes, Sept. 22, 1979 to January 5, 1980 Season 2: 8 episodes, Sept. 18, 1982 to Nov. 6, 1982 The first 16 episodes of the first season were serialized the same way as the old 1930's Alex Raymond comic strips. The second season suffered when NBC decided to change the format of the show by cutting them down to 12 minute chapters (2 unrelated stories per episode), dumbed-down the story for younger audiences, and introduced a kid-friendly, comic-relief character, a squeaking pink dragon named Gremlin. After the TV series was cancelled, the footage was re-edited and assembled as a full-length, 95 minute made-for-TV animated film that aired in 1982, titled: Flash Gordon: The Greatest Adventure of All (1982). Flash Gordon (1980, UK/US) This feature-length Flash Gordon film revived interest in the super-hero, following in the wake of the immensely-successful space opera Star Wars (1977). Now a major cult film. Director Mike Hodges' campy, sometimes witty, and cartoonish super-hero film starred Sam Jones as the heroic space warrior (with Melody Anderson as his attractive female companion Dale Arden). They fought against Emperor Ming the Merciless (Max von Sydow) on the planet Mongo and his plans for world domination - with cliff-hanger action. Accompanied by a rock musical score from the band Queen.
i don't know
In Devonshire and Cornwall, what items are traditionally made at harvest-time from the last sheaf of corn?
Glossary of Ancient and Traditional Weights and Measures - and Money - Hemyock Castle 2.72 feet. Proposed by some archaeologists. Yard: 3 feet. Length of man's pace. Man's reach from nose to finger tip. Ell: 3 feet 9 inches. Measurement of cloth. Double forearm. Roman pace (passus): 5 Roman feet (pedes). 58 inches (approx). Double step. Geometric pace: 5 feet. 60 inches. Modern version of Roman pace. Reed: 9½ feet (approx). 6 Hebrew cubits, possibly a measurement tool rather than a unit. Rod, pole, or perch: 5½ yards. Anglo-Saxon. Approx. 20 "natural" feet. Acre (width): 22 yards. 4 rods. Width of a strip in the strip field farming system. See also Acre (area), 22 by 220 yards, now simply 4840 square yards. Chain (Gunter's or Surveyor's): 22 yards. 100 links. Length of cricket pitch. Each tenth link is a brass tag. Chain (Ramden's or Engineer's): 100 feet. 100 links. Less common. Bolt: 40 yards. 32 ells. Measurement of cloth. Roman stadia: 125 passus. Approx 608 modern feet. Similar to cable and furlong. Furlong: 220 yards. 40 rods. 10 chains. Length of an Ox plough furrow; length of a medieval strip field. Roman mile (milia): 5000 Roman feet. 1000 Roman passus. 8 Roman stadia. Approx 4860 modern feet. English & USA mile: 5280 feet. 1760 yards. 8 furlongs. 80 chains. Changed from 5000 feet during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Scottish mile: 5952 feet. 1984 yards. Old measure. Irish mile: 6720 feet. 2240 yards. Old measure. Beware when told that an Irish distance is "a mile and a bit." The bit may be longer than the mile! Country mile: A vague, long distance — often much longer than a measured mile. Roman league leuga gallica, also leuca Gallica, (the league of Gaul.): 7500 Roman feet. 1½ Roman milia. 12 Roman stadia. Approx. 7290 modern feet. League (Devonshire Domesday Book): 1½ miles. As used in the Devonshire Domesday Book. League: 3 miles (usually). Many different definitions; often approx. the distance a person or horse can walk in one hour. Swedish mile: Traditional decorative item or figure constructed after harvest using cut straw, usually from cereal crops. Ridge Finial: Traditional decorative item or figure made using cut straw, fixed to a thatched roof or thatched hayrick. Often (loosely) called a Corn Dolly. Wisp: A few straws, a handful, used to tie around the centre of a bundle. A wisp is cheaper and more effective than string. It also causes less damage to the straws. Bale: A modern bound bundle of hay or straw from a cereal crop, often produced using a combine harvester. Until recently, most bales were rectangular. Many large modern machines now produce large round bales. Material in bales is normally used for purposes such as animal bedding, rather than for decorative or thatching purposes. Bundle or Sheaf: A bundle of cut straw, hay or reeds, tied together, often using a wisp. Circumference commonly approx. 24 inches in UK, or 1 metre in Europe, depending on local materials and traditions. Greener or damper material would normally be put into smaller sheaves, to let it dry more easily. A UK sheaf would contain approx. 400 to 500 un-damaged straws which are good enough for decorative work such as weaving into corn-dollies. In UK thatching practice, when good bundles are placed alongside each other and pressed together, 7 bundles should cover one fathom. This measure of quality is performed using a fathom of rope. Stook or Shock: Sheaves of cut straw, hay or reeds placed on end to dry. 8, 10 or sometimes up to 16 sheaves are grouped into each self-supporting stook. If the ears of grain are still on the crop, sheaves are arranged with the ears at the top. Reaping: Harvesting the cereal crop, hay or reeds. Reaper and Binder: A measure of land roughly equal to a modern acre. Bovate: A measure of land: The area that could be cultivated by a plough drawn by one ox in one year, or rather during the annual ploughing season. Varied in different regions and different soil types. Approx. 15 acres. Similar to the Dane law term: Oxgang. Bushel: Volume. A dry measure of 8 gallons, or 4 pecks. Cart-load (also called load): Weight. See: fother. Carucate: Dane law term. A measurement of land, equivalent to a hide. The amount of land that could be tilled during the ploughing season using a team of eight oxen. Varied in different regions and soil types. Approx. 120 acres. Sub-divided into four virgates or eight oxgangs. Danegeld or Danegelt: The money paid by Anglo-Saxon Britain to persuade the Danes to not invade the South and West. Now means money extorted by threats. Denarius: The English silver penny, hence the abbreviation "d" and the coin in most common circulation. Although they were sometimes "clipped" or "debased," the English silver penny contained a standard weight of silver and so could be traded across Europe. Introduced by the Romans. Exchequer: Financial department of the royal government. The chief officers of the Exchequer were the Treasurer, the Chancellor and the Justiciar. Sheriffs, in their role as regional chief accountants, presented reports to the exchequer at Easter and Michaelmas. Ferding: Administrative unit of land. Fourth part of a hundred. (Not necessarily exactly a quarter.) Ferling, Ferthing or Quarter: Literally, quarter of a quarter; normally quarter of a Virgate, itself a quarter of a Hide. But seems to have varied between about two and eight ferlings to the virgate. Feudum: Land. Term used in continental Europe. A holding of land or land held through a special grant; normally by an Earl or a tenant-in-chief. Similar to an Honor. Fief de Haubert: 11th century French term equivalent to the term Knight's Fee because of the coat of mail (hauberk) which it entitled and required every tenant to own and wear when his services were needed. This provided a definite estate in France, because only persons who had this estate or greater were allowed to wear hauberks. Fodder: Weight. See: fother. Fother (also called fodder, foder, fodur, cart-load, load, wain, waine, wey, etc.): Weight. A cart-load. About 19½ hundredweight, dependent upon material. Also, six sacks where each sack is five fotmal, depending upon material. Volume. 40 bushels or 320 gallons. Also, "lots of," "a large quantity," "a huge amount," etc. Fotmal (also called fotmæl, fotmel, fotte, fowte, foyrw, fut, vot, votmel, etc.): Length. One foot (foot-length, foot-print or foot-space). Weight. About 70 pounds of lead. (Definitions varied between 70 and 72. Weight also depended upon material.) A thirtieth of a fother. A fifth of a sack. 5 stone. Comment: A fotmal of lead would occupy about one tenth of a cubic foot. This could form an ingot about 12 x 5 x 3 inches. A man could lift and carry this weight a short distance. A pack animal could carry two fotmal as a balanced load — one on each side of its back. In 1391, each votmel of old lead roof sheets taken from the roof of Marlborough Castle was valued at 4 shillings. Lead sheeting a tenth of an inch thick weighs 6 pounds per square foot. At this thickness, a fotmal of lead would produce about 12 square feet of lead sheets. Comment: This unit does not seem to match the Roman practice: Lindsey Davis's entertaining novel "The Silver Pigs" is set during the Roman occupation of Britain. These Silver Pigs are actually lead ingots made from British lead ore which also contained about 130 ounces per ton of valuable silver. The ingots are said to be 20 x 5 x 4 inches with the Emperor's name and date stamped on one long edge, to weigh 200 Roman pounds, and to contain 24 ladles of molten ore. Furlong: (Anglo-Saxon field.) 220 yards or 40 rods. The length of a plough furrow - ie. Furrow-long. In the strip field farming system, the length of the field strip ploughed before turning the ox team to plough the next furrow. Also, sometimes a measure of area, apparently meaning square furlongs. So, when the Hemyock entry in the Domesday Book refers to 8 furlongs of woodland, it probably means 8 square furlongs: eg. 8 x 1 or 4 x 2 etc. Sometimes confused with or a mistranslation of ferling. Geld or Gelt: Tax. As in Danegeld, the money raised and paid by Anglo-Saxon Britain to persuade the Danes to not invade the South and West. God's Acre: Colloquial term for a churchyard or graveyard. Hide: A unit of measurement for assessment of tax, theoretically 120 acres, although it could vary between 40 and 240 acres. Equivalent to a carucate. By the late Anglo-Saxon, early Norman period, the hide was chiefly a unit for taxation, rather than an actual area of land. By custom it was the land that could be cultivated by a plough team of eight oxen in one year, or rather during the annual ploughing season; or alternatively the amount of land required to support one peasant household. (Sometimes ten families.) Hides seem to have been larger in eastern England than in the west. In the Devonshire Domesday Book, it seemed to average about 64 acres., although many were as small as 48 acres. Honor: Land. Holding or group of holdings forming a large estate, such as the land held by an Earl or a tenant-in-chief. Similar to a European feudum. At times, Hemyock was within the Honor of Plympton. Hundred: Anglo Saxon institution. Subdivision of a Shire. Theoretically, but hardly ever, equalled one hundred hides. Generally had its own court which met monthly to handle civil and criminal law. Equivalent to the ancient Norse Wapentake. There was a Hemyock Hundred. Hundredweight: Weight. 4 quarters ie. 8 stones or 112 pounds. Jar: Electrical unit. Admiralty practical unit of electrical capacitance until mid 1930s. Based upon the Leyden Jar. A standard Admiralty glass pint tankard covered with tin-foil as the outside electrode and filled with 1 pint of brine as the inside electrode had a capacitance of about 1 Jar. Now replaced by the Farad. 900 Jars = 1 micro Farad. Knight's Fee: In theory, a Fief which provided sufficient revenue to equip and support one knight. This was approximately twelve hides or 1500 acres, although the terms applied more to revenue a fief could generate than its size; it required about thirty marks per year to support a knight. Last: 2 wey. Definitions varied, usually about 2 tons, or 60 fotmal, or 80 bushels, or 640 gallons. League: In the Devonshire Domesday Book, usually 1½ miles; elsewhere, often approx. 3 miles. Traditionally, the distance a person or horse can walk in one hour. So the Devonshire definition presumably allows for Devon's hilly, winding lanes! Note. The Roman League has been about 1½ English miles. Perhaps this old definition had remained popular in Devon? Also a measure of area, where a "league" is one square league. Leet: The term used for a subdivision of land in Kent equivalent to a hundred. Load (also called cart-load): Weight. See ton. Man-at-arms: Soldier holding his land, generally 60-120 acres, specifically in exchange for military service. Sometimes called a Yeoman. Manor: Small holding, typically 1200-1800 acres, with its own court and probably its own hall, but not necessarily having a manor house. The manor as a unit of land was generally held by a knight (knight's fee) or managed by a bailiff for some other holder. In later years, the power of the manor declined progressively in favour of the vill. Mark: Money. Normally means the silver mark, a measure of silver, generally eight ounces, accepted throughout medieval western Europe. Although they were sometimes "clipped" or "debased," the English silver penny contained a standard weight of silver and so could be traded across Europe. In England the mark was worth thirteen shillings and four pence, ie. two thirds of £1. Equivalent to present value of the Euro. The gold mark was worth £6. Maundy Money: Ceremonial coins given to the poor by the British Monarch, on Maundy Thursday, the Thursday before Easter. Consists of silver 4, 3, 2, and 1 pence coins. Each recipient is given coins which total the Monarch's age. Oxgang: Dane law term. A measure of land: The area that could be cultivated by a plough drawn by one ox in one year, or rather during the annual ploughing season. Varied in different regions and different soil types. Approx. 15 acres. Similar to the Anglo Saxon term: Bovate. Peck: Volume. A dry measure of 2 gallons, or ¼ bushel. Also, a "large" amount. Plough (Land of one plough): The area of arable land capable of being tilled by one eight-oxen plough team. Equivalent to one Hide. But also used as a notional unit for taxation. Pound, Avoirdupois (weight): 16 ounces (Avoirdupois), 7000 grains (Troy). Many other weights have been used at different times, in different places, and for weighing different materials. Quarter (weight): 2 stones ie. 28 pounds. Riding: Administrative unit of land. Third part of a shire, eg. the Yorkshire Ridings (North Riding, East Riding, West Riding) which were established in the 9th century by the Danes. (Not necessarily exactly a third.) Sack: Weight. Five fotmal (of lead). A sack of wool was 364 pounds. But other commodities used different weights: For example, a sack of grain was 280 pounds. Shilling: Measure of money used for accounting purposes and equal to 12 old pennies. Until modern times, there was no actual coin. Small silvery coin. (Now replaced by 5 new pence.) Short Ton (weight): 2000 pounds. Slug (mass): British engineering unit. 32.174 pounds mass. A mass numerically equal to the acceleration of standard gravity (32.174 feet per second per second). When subjected to a force of 1lb weight, a 1 slug mass will accelerate at 1 foot per second per second. Small Holder: Middle ranking peasant, farming more land than a cottager but less than a villein. A typical small holder would have 10-20 acres of land, often as separate strips in different fields. He was also required to work on his lord's land or to provide a service to his lord. Also known as a Bordar. Stone (weight): Usually 14 pounds Avoirdupois, as decreed by King Edward III in 1340 when Flemish / Florentine measures were adopted to aid England's vital international wool trade. Other definitions have been used in other places and for different materials. At least two of these survived into the 20th century: "Dead Stone" or "Butcher's Stone": 8 pounds. Used in London markets such as Smithfields for weighing beef and mutton, until about 1939; Officials had been instructed to stop "Stamping" (confirming the accuracy of) weighing scales which used this measurement, after 1935. "Live Stone": 14 pounds. Used for weighing live cattle and sheep. Stone of glass: 5 pounds. Sulong: Measurement of land in Kent. Roughly equal to two hides, although still considered to be the area of land which could be cultivated using a single plough-team of eight oxen. Third Penny: The local earl's one-third share of fines in shire or hundred courts, often allocated afterwards to a particular manor or church as income. Tithe: One tenth of a person's produce and income, due as a tax to support the church. Ton (weight): 20 hundredweight or 2240 pounds. The "Long Ton." Vill: Administrative unit containing about 5 to 10 Hides and inhabitants. Equivalent to the secular parish. The vill usually contained several manors. As the feudal system declined, the vill took over importance from the hundred and manor. Later, the parish took on the duties and responsibilities, for example during the nineteenth century, the sick, poor, and destitute sometimes relied on the parish for aid. In Devonshire at the time of the Domesday Book there were 980 vills containing about 9000 hamlets or farms. Ideas return! The UK government policy in recent years has been to devolve many duties and responsibilities to secular parish councils. (Note. These secular parish councils may share common boundaries with the Church of England parishes, but are different institutions.) Villein: Wealthiest class of peasant. They usually cultivated 20-40 acres of land (sometimes as much as 100 acres), often as separate strips in different fields. He was also required to work on his lord's land or to provide a service to his lord. Virgate: One quarter of a hide, or two oxgangs. The amount of land that could be tilled during the ploughing season using two oxen. Varied in different regions and soil types. Approx. 30 acres. However, in the Devonshire Domesday Book, was used as a unit of tax rather than of land area. Hemyock was assessed as paying Geld for one Virgate. Also called a yardland or yard of land. Votmel: Weight. About 70 pounds of lead. See: Fotmal . Wain (also called cart-load, load, wain, etc.): Weight. See: Cart-load. About 19½ hundredweight, dependent upon material. Also, six sacks where each sack is five fotmal. Also, "lots of," "a large quantity," "a huge amount," etc. Warpentake: Weapon-taking. Sub-division of land in areas formerly under Norse control - including Northern and Eastern areas of Britain -equivalent to Anglo Saxon Hundred. Wey: Weight or volume. See: Cart-load. About 19½ hundredweight, dependent upon material. Also, 320 gallons, or 40 bushels, or 30 fotmal. Yeoman:
Corn dolly
Which singer and actress first performed the role of Christine in Phantom of the Opera in the West End in 1986?
1000+ images about Lammas/Lughnassadh on Pinterest | Fruits and vegetables, Life cycles and Agriculture Forward IDEAS FOR CELEBRATING LAMMAS: Harvest fruits and vegetables from your garden, or pay a visit to a Farmer's Market Make Jams, Sauces or Wines Harvest herbs for use in charms and rituals Make a Grain Weaving or a Corn Dolly Kindle a Lammas fire with sacred woods and herbs Sacrifice bad habits and unwanted things from your life by throwing them into the Sabbat fire. Bake an Apple Pie or Berry Cobbler Visit a Craft or Barter Faire or simply have an… See More
i don't know
Which writer coined the phrase 'Serendipity' to denote the faculty of making lucky and unexpected finds by accident?
Wordwizard • View topic - serendipity serendipity serendipity by Archived Topic Archived Topic » Sat Oct 23, 2004 1:27 pm The etymology was easy to find and delightful it was. My awareness of this word takes me back to the 70's or 80's when it burst into full blossom. In the event my recollection is correct, who or what caused this benign word to bust out? Submitted by C L Case (toronto - Canada) Topic imported and archived Joined: Fri Dec 10, 2004 8:38 pm Location: , serendipity by Archived Reply Archived Reply » Sat Oct 23, 2004 1:41 pm C L, Funny you should ask this since I just read the review of and ordered a book that just came out on this very subject – now that’s serendipity! The book is The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Historical Semantics and the Sociology of Science by Robert Merton and Elinor Barber. (February 2004) __________________________________________________ SERENDIPITY: A desirable discovery made by accident or the faculty of making lucky and unexpected finds by accident. English novelist Horace Walpole coined the word in 1754, basing it upon a lucky propensity enjoyed by the three heroes of the old Persian tale ‘The three princes of Serendip’ who were always making discoveries of things they were not in quest of. Serendip is an ancient name for Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) and is a corruption of the Sanskrit ‘Sinhaladvipa,’ Lion Island. (Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins) __________________________________________________ The word was largely forgotten after it was coined in 1754, until scholars rediscovered it in the mid-19th century. The reason Merton gives for the word being ignored for about a 100 years is that the intellectual temperament of that century was dominated by notions of usefulness and seriousness based on utilitarian philosophy and evangelical religion. Walpole was considered by many Victorians of his day to be wasting his time on trivia and his many coinages were said to be symptomatic of an ‘unhealthy and disorganized mind.’ As for the scientific research itself, the ‘unamused age’ generally agreed with its foremost science writer, William Whewell, who declared, “No scientific discovery can, with any justice, be considered due to accident.” In the late 19th century, in spite of Whewell’s belief, the word began to be used more and more by scientists who were raising new questions of what scientific discovery is and how it should be pursued. And in the early 20th century with the accidental discovery of X-rays, penicillin, and even the atomic nucleus the word ‘serendipity’ gained more and more popularity and in the world of scientific and industrial research came to describe the element of chance in scientific discovery. And paradoxically the scientific community actually began to try to plan for serendipity! By 1950s the word was being widely used in scientific publications and was finding its way into the popular press. Over the last 50 years with its use in the title of 57 books and one recent film and as the name of countless weekend pleasure boats, it has become, as Merton notes, “merely an attractive label designating ever more diverse pleasant phenomena and sensations.” So you’re right C L, the emergence of ‘serendipity’ was rather gradual, starting in the second half of the 19th century (after being born in the mid-18th), and slowly accelerating during the first have of the 20th when it finally reached critical mass in the 1950s and went exponential. (U.S. News and World Report, February 2, 2004) ____________________ <1754 “This discovery, indeed, is almost of that kind which I call SERENDIPITY.”—‘Letter to Horace Mann’ from H. Walpole, 28 January> <1880 “The inquirer was at fault, and it was not till some weeks later, when by the aid of ‘SERENDIPITY,’ as Horace Walpole called it—that is, looking for one thing and finding another–that the explanation was accidentally found.”—‘Index Titles of Honour’ by E. Solly, Preface page 5> <1926 “To the SERENDIPITY Shop—the venture of a friend in Westbourne Grove—he would often go.”—‘Life of Francis Thompson’ by E. Meynell, xiii. page 221> <1955 “Our story has as its critical episode one of those coincidences that show how discovery often depends on chance, or rather on what has been called ‘SERENDIPITY’—the chance observation falling on a receptive eye."—‘Scientific American,’ April, page 92/1> <1971 “Columbus and Cabot . . . (by the greatest SERENDIPITY of history) discovered America instead of reaching the Indies.”—‘European Discovery America: Northern Voyage’ by S. E. Morrison, i. page 3> <1980 “It becomes a glum bureaucracy, instead of the SERENDIPITY of 30 people putting out a magazine.”—‘TWA Ambassador,’ October, page 47/2> Ken G – February 9, 2004 Reply from Ken Greenwald (Fort Collins, CO - U.S.A.) WHEW!!!!.....THANK YOU KEN Submitted by C L Case (toronto - Canada) This is from Michael Quinion's World Wide Words SERENDIPITY The ability to make unexpected and fortunate discoveries. This word has been around for more than two centuries, but only really began to be used much in the twentieth century, to the extent that the adjective serendipitous is not recorded before the 1950s. Horace Walpole coined it in a letter he wrote to his long-time diplomat friend Horace Mann in 1754. He told him that he invented it in reference to the title of an old Persian fairy story The Three Princes of Serendip, whose heroes regularly discovered pleasant things that they weren’t searching for. But I’m told that if you read the story you will find that the princes were actually well educated and intelligent men. Their good fortune (which was a bit slap-dash: they got thrown in jail as suspected camel thieves at one point) was based on careful deduction, not chance. As the saying has it, “fortune favours the prepared mind”, just as discoveries today that are said to be serendipitous are so often the result of experience and good observation. The three princes came from a country the Persians called Sarandib but which we now know as Sri Lanka, or in earlier times Ceylon. The Persian is a corruption of the Sanskrit Sinhaladvipa, “the island where lions dwell”, hence the name Sinhala or Sinhalese for the most commonly spoken Sri Lankan language. World Wide Words is copyright © Michael Quinion, 1996–2004. All rights reserved. Contact the author for reproduction requests.
Horace Walpole
In which U.S. state is Yosemite National Park?
October 2015 | Issues | Bookology Magazine Interviews 0 credit: Michael Lionstar Bulldozer’s Big Day is a perfect read-aloud, with wonderful sound and action opportunities on most pages. Did those moments affect your decision about what verbs to use? How lovely you think it’s a perfect read aloud. I worked hard at the story’s readability. Not only did I strive for a pace and cadence, but I wanted the story to sound as active as the plot’s setting with lots of bumping and clanging and vrooming. Additionally, I thought long and hard about those working verbs. You know, the shifting, mixing, chopping each truck does. They had to have a double-meaning, applying to both construction trucks and baking. And they had to be in groups of three, because… well… three just sounds good, doesn’t it? While most readers and listeners will think the “Big Day” is a birthday, you never use that term. Why? It was redundant.  Readers can see that the big trucks made a cake for Bulldozer’s sixth birthday. They don’t need me to tell them. Interestingly, every time I read the story aloud to kindergarteners they spontaneously burst into the “Happy Birthday” song. I’m not sure I’d get that response if I’d had the trucks shout the words. It’s one more way for them to find their way into the text – and I did it accidentally. written by Candace Fleming  illustrated by Eric Rohmann  Atheneum, 2015 There is a perfect turn-around late in the story, when we go from “mashing, mashing, mashing” to a quieter moment, then the suspenseful “lifting, lifting, lifting.” This suggests to me that you are not only skilled at dramatic narrative, but a veteran classroom reader as you quiet the students down from that high-energy mashing to get ready for a resolution.  Do you remember your first author visit to a classroom? What have you learned over the years about reading your books aloud? I do remember my first author visit. I was terrified. But the kids and teachers were so lovely, I was immediately put at ease. And this strange thing happened. I turned into an actor. Seriously. Standing in front of that library full of first graders, I suddenly discovered a talent for talking in voices and acting like different animals. Me?! I became a storyteller. That’s what I know from years of reading my books – and others’ – aloud. You have to be dramatic. You have to be suspenseful. You have to lick your chops if you’re reading about a hungry tiger, or wiggle your bottom if you’re reading about a puff-tailed rabbit. Kids love it. In truth, so do I. Were you ever disappointed on a childhood birthday? You mean that year I didn’t get a pony? Do you enjoy birthday celebrations now? Absolutely! I’m especially enamored of the cake. And don’t you dare ask me how old I’ll be on my next one. About Candace Fleming Candace Fleming is the versatile and acclaimed author of more than twenty books for children and young adults, including the Los Angeles Times Book Prize-honored The Family Romanov: Murder, Rebellion, and the Fall of the Russian Empire; the Boston Globe/Horn Book Award-winning biography, The Lincolns; and the bestselling picture book, Muncha! Muncha! Muncha!. Her most recent books are Presenting Buffalo Bill: the Man Who Invented the Wild West and Giant Squid, illustrated by Eric Rohmann. She lives in Illinois. For more information please visit her website .   Skinny Dip 0 What keeps you up at night?  All that I didn’t accomplish during the day. All that I hope to accomplish the next day. In what Olympic sport would you like to win a gold medal? The marathon. The long distance performance inspires me.  I’ve driven a marathon course of 26.2 miles and can’t imagine being able to run it. However, the idea of a long distance journey of the intellectual or imaginative kind is very appealing to me. What’s the bravest thing you’ve ever done?  Since I’m a klutz, the bravest thing I’ve done is to learn to ski after the age of 40. I fell a number of times getting off the lift at our local ski hill before I successfully skied off.  It was worth it to stand at the top of a mountain and experience the panorama—and then to ski very slowly down.  What is your proudest career moment? The first time I dared to stand up, go to the lectern, and read my poems before an audience. Like learning to ski, the experience of sharing those poems was worth going through the trepidation. What TV show can’t you turn off?    The West Wing. About Emily Buchwald Emilie Buchwald is an editor, poet, award-winning children’s author, and teacher. She co-founded the nonprofit literary press Milkweed Editions, which achieved national recognition under Buchwald’s leadership. She retired from Milkweed Editions in 2003 and in 2006 founded The Gryphon Press . Features 3 by Nancy Bo Flood  Books can help readers heal. Stories can create compassion. Every one needs to find “their story” in books. The United States Board on Books for Young People ( USBBY ) is part of The International Board on Books for Young People ( IBBY ), a world-wide organization that works to build bridges of understanding through children’s and young adult books.  “A child who reads will be an adult who thinks.” USBBY/IBBY brings together authors and illustrators, editors, librarians, teachers, and readers who support the creation of books that speak to children and their parents whatever their home country or language. IBBY’s Hans Christian Andersen Medal celebrates the best world-wide author and illustrator whose words and images excite imagination, and its Astrid Lindgren Memorial award is given to authors, illustrators, storytellers, and persons and organizations that work to promote literacy. Each award is selected from the nominations of over a 100 participating regional units, such as USBBY. Kate DiCamillo (r) speaking at the opening USBBY session. This year’s USBBY conference was held in New York City, lower Manhattan. The conference is kept small, under 300 attendees, so the atmosphere is friendly, like old friends coming together to share new ideas, new trends, and new award-winning books from around the world. What a celebration of books! This year the opening speaker was our very own National Ambassador for Young People’s Literature, Kate DiCamillo . She spoke about her journey from writer to published author. Kate DiCamillo signed books and took the time to chat with each person, even me. Persistence! Kate affirmed that within each of us we have stories to tell. But to successfully move from that first page to a published book, one needs to believe in oneself, write and re-write, and stubbornly pursue the quest of finding the right editor. With humor Kate described her initial ten years of first thinking about writing before actually having the courage to put pen to paper and write. Then came 470 rejection letters. Now Kate has 22 million books in print world-wide, translated into 41 languages. She calls herself a “late-bloomer.” Her first book was published a few years before she turned forty. Even today, Kate is “still surprised that I ever got published.” When asked why her books are read by all ages of readers in countries on every continent, she imagines that somehow the stories she writes have universal appeal because she writes honestly of experiences and emotions we all share – fears and hopes, disappointments and sorrows. Kate asserts, that “the love of story is in the core of humankind.” Through story we step into the heart of another and walk within their journey. Kate also affirms that “every child has the right to learn to read.” Susan Cooper signing at USBBY. This universal love of story was reiterated in a later talk by Susan Cooper, one of England’s greatest storytellers (The Dark is Rising), a creator of many worlds, a writer of fantasy. Susan asked, “is it possible for storytelling, this basic love of story that all cultures share, to be a way to heal the divisions of our world? Through the magic of entering another place, another culture, can we increase compassion and come to accept differences, erase prejudices based on ignorance?” Yes, both Susan and Kate contend, books can build bridges. They can tell universal truths. They can let us walk within the heart and skin of another person and feel “both joy and sorrow as sharp as stones.” (l-r) Holly Thompson, Margarita Engle , Padma Venkatraman presented a panel on verse novels. A child might sit in a classroom, on a park bench, or snuggled under bed covers with a flashlight, and become lost in a book. Or a child might sit in front of a tent in a refugee camp or a detention center near a border crossing. Books let us enter new worlds, consider new ideas, rethink old hates. Both Kate DiCamillo and Susan Cooper agree that stories help us laugh and give us hope. (l-r) The war panel: me, Lyn Miller-Lachman, and Terry Farish .   This year at the conference I was part of a “war panel.” The smiling trio in the photo, “the war panel,” presented different perspectives about war and the effects on children. Today over forty million children live as refugees. Here in the United States, more veterans—mothers and fathers of children—die from suicide than from combat. How do their children make sense of war? We need well-written books about war so children can find their stories and begin to heal. Thank you, Colorado Author’s League , for supporting me with a travel grant to attend this USBBY conference. I encourage writers and illustrators to become a member of this international organization. Throughout the year USBBY is involved in a variety of projects that bring appropriate books to children and parents. As Kate DiCamillo stated: “Every child has the right to read.” About Nancy Bo Flood Nancy Bo Flood is the author of several books for children, including Navajo Year, Walk Through Many Seasons (Arizona Book of the Year) and Warriors in the Crossfire (Colorado Book of the Year). Cowboy Up! Riding the Navajo Rodeo (Boyds Mill Press, 2013; photos by Jan Sonnenmair) was named a 2014 NCTE (National Council of Teachers of English) Notable Poetry Book, a 2013 California Reading Association Eureka! Nonfiction honor book, and received the Arizona-New Mexico book award for juvenile literature. Her most recent book is Water Runs Through This Book (Fulcrum, 2015). Nancy lives in Arizona. To learn more about her and her work please visit her website . Knock Knock 6 Liza Ketchum Serendipity is one of my favorite words. I love its dancelike sound and the way it trips off the tongue. According to my dictionary, serendipity means “the faculty of making fortunate discoveries by accident.” I find the etymology of words fascinating. Even as a child, I liked to study the maps that show the relationship and origins of Indo-European languages. (Here’s an animated version .) So where does the word serendipity come from? My American Heritage dictionary traces the word’s origins to the English writer Horace Walpole, who supposedly coined the word in a 1754 letter to a friend. Walpole described a Persian fairy tale he had read, concerning three princes from Serendip. The brothers—highly accomplished, smart, and artistic—were banished from their kingdom by their father, the king. Wandering in a foreign land, they encountered a merchant who had lost his camel. The brothers used powers of deduction—which we now associate with detective fiction—to find the camel. Walpole said, “They were always making discoveries, by accident and sagacity, of things they were not in quest of.”  Things they were not in quest of. This phrase made me think of other famous discoveries that happen by accident—such as the penicillin mold that grew when Alexander Fleming left a Petri dish on his windowsill by mistake, or the burrs that attached themselves to George de Mestral’s clothes on a mountain hike, giving him the idea for Velcro. Serendipity also makes me think about moments in our writing lives when incidents, events, and ideas merge to trigger a Eureka! moment. Three years ago, at a Hamline University summer residency , I opened a new notebook late one night, and scrawled these words: “The Last Garden.” The title had come to me after I read the first two entries in Terry Tempest Williams’ brilliant book, When Women Were Birds, a gift from Phyllis Root. Williams wrote the memoir after her mother died and she uncovered a shocking truth about her life. I had recently lost both parents, so Williams’s topic pulled me in. I was also drawn to the book by its format: a series of short vignettes, forking off a single idea like branches on a tree. Vignettes seemed like a manageable, less daunting way to deal with personal subject matter. But wait—since when was I planning to write about gardens? That same morning, as we discussed our workshops, Phyllis told me that she planned to ask her students that great question: “What would you write if you knew you could not fail?” It made me think of Mary Oliver, who demands, in her poem “The Summer Day” : “Tell me, what is it you plan to do/with your one wild and precious life?”  For years I had tried to write a memoir about my relationship with my grandmother, and the Vermont house where I spent my childhood summers, but I couldn’t find a unifying thread. When I wrote those words—“The Last Garden”—I realized that gardens—and gardeners—could provide that unity. My husband and I had just purchased a sweet house, down the road a mile from my grandmother’s old place. The property came with overgrown lilacs and tangled, overgrown gardens that concealed peonies, foxgloves, and an asparagus bed. Though I have gardened all my life, I realized this would be the last garden I would create from scratch. Since that moment at Hamline, the focus of my writing has changed dramatically. In addition to the memoir, I’ve been writing essays and articles about nature and the environment. I’m working on two non-fiction projects, focused on environmental subjects, with my dear friends Phyllis Root and Jackie Briggs Martin. All thanks to serendipity. Perhaps the best thing about serendipity is that we can’t explain how it happens. Who could predict that the loss of my parents, the gift of a wise book written in an appealing form, and the right question at the right time—would coincide with ideas I was “not in quest of”? Meanwhile, as I wrestle with the memoir’s final vignettes, I can’t help thinking of that missing camel that—as the Serendip brothers predicted—was lame, blind in one eye, and lumbered under the weight of a leaking sack of honey, a bag of butter, and a pregnant woman. Uh oh. Doesn’t that sound like a picture book, waiting to happen? About Liza Ketchum Liza Ketchum’s essay on anadromous fish, “Swimming Home,” was published in River Stories . Her most recent novel for young adults is Out of Left Field (Untreed Reads). Information about her other books is on her website. Writing Road Trip 0 by Lisa Bullard I like to play a certain game when I’m traveling. I pretend that the place I’m visiting is my home, and I imagine how my life would have been altered if I had in fact taken root in that other environment. How would things be different for me if my world swirled amidst New York City’s self-fulfilling energy? If my abode was perched atop a fog-shrouded island in the Pacific Northwest? If I was planted on the lip of a tall-grass prairie, with the world dropping off into nothingness on the other edge of the great grass sea? If I dreamed my dreams in a twig-built hut? Part of a writer’s task is to create alternative homelands, to build distinctive worlds for each of our characters to inhabit. Once we have our world crafted, we invite readers to make themselves at home there too. We hope that they will want to hunker down into this habitat that we have fashioned and make it a part of themselves; to allow it to take up residence in their hearts and imaginations. One of the easiest ways to teach young writers about envisioning an environment is to talk with them about the worlds they have wandered through in their fantasy reading. Good fantasy writers are masters at the art of world-building, and students can learn a lot by meandering through the keyboarded landscapes of these writers who have built worlds before them. Once you have had a chance to help students recognize the importance of “place” in the stories that they have loved reading, start them writing with the Fantasy Land activity found here . It will help your young writers begin to visualize a “home away from home”—a place where they might house their next story.   Skinny Dip 6 What animal are you most like? My answer to this question could unwind like an endless ball of yarn! But I shall try to be brief. For as long as I can remember, I have loved cats. Looking back at my life, I can see how I am cat-like. I watch; I always have. When I first went to school, I was an “elective mute” for some time, just watching and figuring things out. (A cat may look at a king, you know.) Like certain cats I have known, I can do things that absolutely must be done, even things I’d rather not do. But I am happiest to simply be, with the sun and the rain and the grass and the trees, and all the mysterious creatures. Which book of yours was the most difficult to write? My Kindle novel, A Dog’s Best Friend, is by far the most difficult writing I’ve undertaken to date. There are a few reasons: First, the story’s hero is a dog, and I have lived only with cats. Yet, I felt this character needed to be a dog: dogs seem, to me, to be Everyman. Secondly, A Dog’s Best Friend is my first long work. I had been writing for newspapers and magazines for many years when I began the novel. I’d become quite sure of my ability to tell an entire story in 600-800 words. I thought such skills would translate easily to novel-writing. Ha! Which of your books would make a good movie and who would be the star? I cross my fingers and hope that all of my stories would make good movies, because good storytelling is cinematic: visual and concise. Because most of my novels are about non-human animals, this means animation would be marvelous, and I love animation! The voices could then be any fantastic performers—no famous names required. A Dog’s Best Friend would be nice as a film because it’s a buddy/road trip, a classic film situation. Elsie’s Afghan would be amazing because of the magical transformation required. The Three Scrooges would be a great candidate because half of its inspiration—the Stooges, of course—began as film characters! What’s your favorite line from a book? Good heavens, that’s like asking what is my favorite shell on the beach! I’ll try to narrow it down: Favorite line from another writer:  Thoreau: “My life is the poem I would have writ / but I could not both live and utter it.” My favorite line from the book I’m working on: “Oh, do not seek wisdom, my dear. If you find it, you’ll never be fit for mixed company.”   What book do you tell everyone to read? I seldom recommend books. It seems so personal! But I have mentioned to a few people The Book, by Alan Watts. I have gone back to it many times over the years. About Diana Star Helmer Diana Star Helmer is a Winding Oak acorn . She is also an experienced interviewer, editor, and writer, with over 40 books to her credit. Her most recent is Belles of the Ballpark: Celebrating the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, co-written with her husband Tom Owens. Diana lives in Iowa. curated by Richard Wilkinson and Jo Nelson Big Picture Press, 2015 by Vicki Palmquist In a large, folio-sized book, the curators of Historium present a printed-page trip through a museum, grouped by cultures and described in detail so you can understand what you are seeing without being rushed along by the crowd. Much like those rentable museum audio tapes or the placards on the wall, it’s an enhanced experience of the artifacts. Unless you are a well-traveled museum habitué, many of these items will be unfamiliar to you. There are articles from cultures all over the world over a great length of time, represented for context by a timeline. From one million years ago, a Stone Age hand ax to the early nineteenth century, a stone statue from Polynesia, traveling to Melanesia, The Levant, Ancient Islam, The Hopewell, and the realm of the Vikings. This museum is open 24/7, without the need for signing a field trip permission slip or paying for parking. On page 35, a beautifully decorated jug from the Pueblo is explained in this way: “pottery skills and designs were passed from mother to daughter. Each Pueblo settlement would try to keep the location of its clay deposit a secret, to prevent it from being plundered … they often refer to the clay as female.” This kind of detail provides depth for our understanding of the world. On page 50, there is a double-headed serpent mosaic from the 15th or 16th century, “intended to both impress and terrify the beholder.” We learn that “the craftsmen best known for their turquoise mosaics were not Aztecs but Mixtecs …” which results in a tangential search to find out more about the Mixtecs, just as a bricks-and-mortar museum would do. I’m not sure I understand why the artifacts are presented against darkly-colored backgrounds … sometimes the contrast makes it harder to study the items, but overall this is a book that will satisfy the curious in your family or classroom. Like all good museums, it is the beginning to a journey of discovery. About Vicki Palmquist Vicki Palmquist, co-founder of Winding Oak , has been reading children’s books all of her life, except for a period in the ‘80s. People still have to fill her in on books published during that decade. She blogs at Reading Ahead. Red Reading Boots 0 I’ve not kept track. Not really. I mean, I can peruse our many bookshelves and make a sort of list, but it would be missing things. What about all the library books we’ve read together? I was in a book discussion earlier this week with a woman who keeps A Reading Journal. She writes as she reads—notes and quotes, questions and lists, impressions and recommendations, etc. She has, she confessed under my too eager questioning, multiple volumes of these journals. I imagine them sitting with their straight spines and gilded pages all on one bookshelf. I am jealous—not envious, but flat out jealous. She insists their residence is not so neat, that the practice is not that admirable. She says the notebooks are not all the same, that some are falling apart, that she keeps them in multiple places etc. She says this as if she’s really not so organized and diligent, but she doesn’t fool me. She’s been keeping A Reading Journal since she was eleven. I’ve always wanted to keep A Reading Journal. I’ve never kept A Reading Journal. Not so much, even, as a list of the things I’ve read. I can forgive myself for this, but I’m envious of those who do manage to jot down the titles, even if nothing else. However…on the heels of meeting this wonderful reader, I read this interview . Because I would read anything having to do with Kevin Henkes , on whom I might have a small writerly-crush. (Sometimes, when I have a rough day, I watch the Meet Kevin Henkes video on his website. It’s better than a glass of wine. I watch him draw Lilly…and my thoughts settle. I listen to him talk about the colors of Lilly and Ginger’s dresses…and I feel like I can go on. He flips through his notebooks showing us how his ideas become books…sigh…and I am inspired and ready to work. I’m easily moved by the keeping of notebooks, apparently.) I adore this man’s books—especially the mouse picture books. When I think of this wonderful author-artist in his book-lined, light-filled studio creating books for us, my heart is glad. I think I vaguely knew he had a family, though I never gave them a thought until this interview. Here, I learn that he read to his kids at breakfast. “Which was a great thing,” he says in his Kevin Henkes way, “because I would read to both of them and my wife would be making the lunches so all four of us had this shared experience.” I sigh. He reads to kids at breakfast and his wife makes the lunches and they have a Shared Experience. Do they know how lucky they are? And then I think: I read to my kids at breakfast some! My husband wasn’t making the lunches while I was doing so, since he leaves before the rest of us are up, but we as a family have other Shared Experiences around books, yes we do! So, Kevin Henkes and I have something in common! There’s that! Then I learn that they’ve kept a list in the back hall of all the books they read together, “120 and some books.” My heart sinks. We do not have a back hall. I have not kept a list. I’m sure we’ve read 120-some books together, but I do not have a list in a back hall to prove it. I find myself wondering how the list was kept in the back hall. I imagine Kevin Henkes’ children scribbling titles on the wall, his wife wallpapering with bookcover photos, him slipping small scraps of paper with titles in a chinked wall of rock. Can you have a back hall made of rocks? I call myself back to reality. It doesn’t matter how Kevin Henkes and his lucky family keep their list. It doesn’t even matter that they’ve kept the list. Not really. What matters is the Shared Experience. I feel sure Kevin Henkes would agree with me. And my family and I have the Shared Experience of books read together—hundreds of books read together, especially if you count all the times we read Kevin Henkes’ mouse books. There’s a part of me that wants to recreate the list—find a wall somewhere in the house (I’m quite taken with the “back hall” aspect of this) to scribble all of the titles of books we’ve read together. But it wouldn’t be accurate—it’d be like marking the kids’ heights as they grew on the kitchen doorframe now that they’ve grown. (Another nostalgic record keeping I wish I’d done.) So I will kvell in the Shared Experience—I’m so grateful for all the time we’ve read together, whether I have a list in the back hall or in a journal to show for it or not. Melanie Heuiser Hill Melanie Heuiser Hill is a Winding Oak acorn, specializing in handling social media for clients. She is also a writer and reader, a mother, knitter, baker, pastor, etc. Her middle grade debut novel Giant Pumpkin Suite will be published by Candlewick in 2017. She has an MFA from Hamline University in Writing for Children. Read more of Melanie's essays about books at Red Reading Boots . Note to readers: we are trying a new format this month. We want to make our blog more conversational. Let us know what you think. Phyllis Root: What scares you? How do you deal with that fear? And why do so many of us like to scare ourselves silly, as long as we know that everything will be all right in the end? An article in The Atlantic, “ Why Do Some Brains Enjoy Fear, ” explains how the hormone dopamine, released during scary activities makes some of us feel good, especially if we feel safe. If we know those ghosts in the haunted house aren’t really ghosts, we can let ourselves be as scared as we want by their sudden appearance. In Ramona the Brave Ramona hides a book with a scary gorilla picture under a couch cushion when the book becomes too terrifying. She’s in charge of how scared she wants to be, and books offer us that opportunity: we can close them if they’re scary, or even look ahead to the end to be sure everything will be fine. Jacqueline Briggs Martin: We can give ourselves little doses of scare. Doses that feel like fun because we are watching events happen to someone else. Phyllis: The Little Old Lady Who Was Not Afraid of Anything by Linda Williams, illustrated by Megan Lloyd, is a deliciously scary experience. On her way home through the forest as it starts to get dark, the little old lady meets two big shoes that go CLOMP, CLOMP. Since she’s not afraid of anything, she continues toward home—but the shoes clomp behind her, as do, eventually, a pair of pants that go WIGGLE, WIGGLE, a shirt that goes SHAKE, SHAKE, gloves that go CLAP, CLAP, and a hat that goes NOD, NOD. To all of them she says “Get out of my way!” because, of course, she’s not afraid of anything—although she does walk faster and faster. When she meets the scary pumpkin head that goes BOO, BOO! she runs for home and locks the door. Then comes the KNOCK, KNOCK on the door. Because she’s not afraid of anything she answers the door and sees the whole assemblage of clothing and pumpkin head. “You can’t scare me,” she says. “Then what’s to become of us?” the pumpkin asks. The little old lady’s idea for a solution makes everyone happy. Part of the genius of this book is that it invites listeners to join in on the sound effects, giving them an active part in the story as well as an outlet for building tension. The narrator in What Was I Scared Of?, written and illustrated by Dr. Seuss, only has to confront a pair of empty pants (a fun twist on having the pants scared off of one), and like the old lady, this narrator claims he isn’t scared of anything. Still, when the pants move, he hightails it out of there, and each time the pants show up again, whether riding a bike or rowing a boat, the narrator runs from them. When he unexpectedly encounters the pants and hollers for help, the pants break down in tears; it turns out they are as scared of him as he is of them. The narrator responds empathetically by putting his arm around the pants’ waist and calming the “poor empty pants with nobody inside them.” Neither is scared of the other any longer. Jackie: This book has always been a favorite at our house. Who would not be scared of such pants? And this list of frightened responses is so inclusive—and so fun to read out loud: I yelled for help. I screamed. I shrieked. I howled. I yowled. I cried, “Oh save me from these pale green pants With nobody inside!” Dr. Seuss’s language in this story frequently makes us laugh. One of my favorites: And the next night, I was fishing for Doubt-trout on Roover River When those pants came rowing toward me! Well, I started in to shiver. I’m not a fishing person, but I might head out to Roover River for a couple of Doubt-trout. Another story in which the fearsome is also fearful is There’s a Nightmare in my Closet. I can’t believe this Mercer Mayer book is forty-seven years old. It seems as current a childhood worry as stepping on a crack in the sidewalk. Mayer’s illustrations are perfect—we can almost hear the silence in the illustration in which the kid tiptoes back to bed, after closing the closet door. Phyllis: Facing your fears and befriending them runs through all of these stories. Virginia Hamilton’s Wee Winnie Witch’s Skinny, an original tale based on research into black folklore and illustrated by Barry Moser, involves actually out-witting a very scary being. With more text and a more story-telling tone, the tale relates how James Lee’s Uncle Big Anthony is attacked by a cat who is really Wee Winnie Witch in disguise and who rides him through the sky at night. As weeks pass, Uncle Big Anthony “got lean and bent-over tired. He looked like some about gone, Uncle Shrunken Anthony.” Mama Granny comes to the rescue with her spice-hot pepper witch-be-gone. When Wee Winnie Witch takes off her skin that night to ride Uncle Big Anthony, she snatches James Lee from his window and takes him riding with them through the sky where he is both terrified and thrilled. When Wee Winnie Witch returns to the ground and puts on her skin again, she finds that Mama Granny has treated the skin’s inside with her spice-hot pepper witch-be-gone. The skin squeezes Wee Winnie Witch so hard that she shrivels into pieces on the floor. Uncle Big Anthony gradually returns to his former self, and although James Lee never wants to see a “skinny” again, the thought of the night-air ride up in the twinkling stars still makes him say “Whew-wheee!” Jackie: This tale is gripping—and for me, a bit disturbing, or maybe thought-provoking. I was troubled by the thought and image of the Wee Winnie Witch riding Big Uncle Anthony with the bridle in his mouth. But, as I thought about it, I wondered if Hamilton was possibly reminding us of the degradation that slavery brought to black people. So many were bridled and lashed and worked to death. Hard to say. In any case this story has plenty of scare and a strong hero in Mama Granny. Phyllis: Terrified, thrilled, and brought back to a sense of safety again: these stories do all that but with different levels of terror. And because picture books are usually read aloud by a comforting adult and because we’re free to shut them and even put them under the couch cushion, we can choose how scared to be, knowing that we can safely close the book. But like James Lee, we might also say “Whew-wheee!”—then open the book to read it again. And what kinds of stories do ghosts tell to scare themselves? Read The Haunted Hamburger by David LaRochelle and find out. About Phyllis Root Phyllis Root is the author of over forty books including Big Momma Makes the World , which won the Boston Globe Horn Book Award. Her most recent book, Plant a Pocket of Prairie (illus. by Betsy Bowen, University of Minnesota Press 2014), received the John Burroughs Riverby Award for outstanding nature books for children and was a finalist for the AAAS/Subaru prize for excellence in Science books. She has taught in the MFA in writing for children and young adults at Vermont College, and currently teaches in Hamline University's MFA in Writing for Children and Young adults program.. About Jacqueline Briggs Martin Jacqueline Briggs Martin is the author of twenty books for children, including Snowflake Bentley, which received a Caldecott medal. Her books have been chosen as “Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K-12" by the National Science Teachers Association and the Children’s Book Council, and been named to the Blue Ribbon List of the Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books. She is on the faculty of Hamline University's MFA in Writing for Children and Young adults program. For more information, please visit her website . Skinny Dip 2 What keeps you up at night? The Disney version of The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. I had to sleep in my sister’s room for 6 months after that terrifying cartoon. What’s the first book you remember reading? Little Bear by Else Holmelund Minarik. I loved Little Bear and his very functional family. Also, I thought it was simply magical that all of the letters spelled out a story. I am still a fan of large type (though that could be my age). Disclaimer: There was one story that caused many sleepless nights: “Goblin Story” in Little Bear’s Visit. I highly recommend reading this story during a clear, bright day. A big shout out to Kim Faurot at the Saint Paul Public Library Children’s Room. What’s Your favorite holiday tradition? Giving Presents for all occasions – I am most certain that there is a holiday packed into every week of the year. Were you a teacher’s pet or teacher’s challenge? Oy, such a challenge. I have dyslexia, but that wasn’t a “thing” back in the sixties – hence I was trundled off to speech therapy. It was great fun. We did a lot of puppet shows with Steiff puppets – and while they were very itchy I was a proud porcupine. Do you like to gift wrap presents? Yes, shopping, presents and holidays all go hand-in-hand. I have a closet full of cool gift wrap which I buy all year round. I must admit to using gift bags on unwieldy items. Though one can get some swell boxes at The Ax-Man surplus store . It also delights me to watch the painstaking measures some recipients will go to in an effort to preserve the wrapping paper. You people know who you are. What 3 children’s book authors or illustrators or editors would you like to invite to dinner? Such an unfair question. I would require the capacity of the Algonquin Round Table and I would try to accommodate SOME list of some of my heroes: Maurice Sendak Ursula Nordstrom, aside from being a fabulous editor she wrote one of my favorite books of second grade, The Secret Language. Edward Gorey Dr. Seuss M.E. Kerr I am quite certain that I am leaving several important guests out. By the way – I would not cook out of deference of my guests – catering all the way! I do not use my stove – I occasionally dust it. What’s your favorite line from a book? “It is not often that someone comes along who is a true friend and a good writer.”– Charlotte’s Web What book do you tell everyone to read? The Phantom Tollbooth, Mr. Rabbit and the Lovely Present, The Nutshell Library, The Moon Man, A Proud Taste for Scarlet and Miniver. It depends on who my audience is and what their needs are at the time. Are you a night owl or an early bird? Both – nighttime is for reading and hanging with my faithful dog. Morning is for “catching up.” About Amy Baum Amy been a part of the bookselling industry since her very early teens (with a few detours along the way.) She has worked in independent bookstores, community relations for a large bookselling chain and currently works in promotions and marketing for a school and library wholesaler. Amy has worked in a variety of roles within the industry as a bookseller, book buyer, media buyer, events coordinator, and a champion of the authors and illustrators that have impacted the lives of children, parents, librarians and educators. Knock Knock 1 For reasons both boring and complex, I currently find myself under obligation to deliver four novels before the next twelve months are out. Two are written, but undergoing revisions. A third has started. The fourth has nothing on paper; only in my mind. Is it an accident that my shoulders have been aching, as if I had been carrying bags of cement up a ladder?  When friends hear of this they ask, “How you going to do that?” The answer is, by sitting in front of my computer and working from about seven AM until seven PM. I’ll take Thanksgiving and Christmas off. Joke. There is something to be said for deadline writing, especially when you make your living that way. Yet, I suspect the term “deadline” came about because when you reach the finishing line, you are dead. Then again, one of my sons is a journalist, and he has daily, sometimes hourly deadlines. I admire that, from a distance. He considers my pace “leisurely.” That said, working obsessively has its own rewards. You do not put up with your own nonsense. Prolixity means more work. Repetition is to be dreaded, and cut. Lean, sharp writing flows. Bad writing is a like a wash-board road. You become so immersed in your story you think about it all the time, which can be very productive. (Wait! What if she does this? Shouldn’t he say that?) You can, if you write a lot, move quickly on to the next project because you have no choice. You can’t fall in love with your work because you are not engaged in a life-long relationship. Honestly, when I read about the writers who spend ten years (or more) on a novel, my heart goes out to them. Groundhog Day was a funny, clever movie, but I for one would not like to live my writing life that way. Moreover, if you are always writing, it is hard to feel riveted to the outcome of your just-published work. Sure, it’s fun to read the reviews (the good ones that is), but by the time that book is being published, I am so involved in the next book, it is not so very important. I feel sorry for the writer who cannot move on until the full cycle (writing-revision-publishing-response) is complete. And yet . . . and yet, I have the responsibility (to my readers, my publishers, and myself) to make each book good, as good as I can. This is difficult because no book is ever truly done. I can always find ways to make it better. Not so long ago I picked up a just-published book (I had worked on it for more than a year) and read the first paragraph. Instantly I realized I should have added an element to the plot that would have made it a much better book. Too late. Would I rather work on one book at a time, work on it from start to finish, before moving on to the next? Sure.  But no matter how you do it, writing is rather like carrying bags of cement up a ladder. The real problem is—I love doing it. About Avi Avi is the author of 70 children’s books that have won many awards, including the 2003 Newbery award for Crispin: the Cross of Lead (Hyperion), two Newbery Honors, two Horn Book awards, and an O’Dell award. His most recent novels are Catch You Later, Traitor , Old Wolf, and . For more information please visit his website. Writing Road Trip 0 by Lisa Bullard Using an “I’ll just see where the road takes me” approach has led me on all sorts of adventures. But it’s also meant I’ve arrived at midnight and discovered every hotel room in town is rented to lumberjacks. I still don’t plan ahead for lumberjack influxes—I figure one of those per lifetime is probably my quota—but that experience has forced me to rethink my approach a bit. I’ve learned the same thing about writing road trips. My earlier, shorter projects didn’t travel enough distance to require planning ahead. I always had a final destination in mind (the ending of a story is clear to me early in the process). But I didn’t worry over the how-to-get-there details. A few unexpected detours just meant more fun. It was different when I began drafting a novel. I jumped in with my usual spontaneous approach, steering towards the ending but exploring all the intriguing side roads. Then my character dug in his heels and refused to move forward. I suddenly recognized what a vast expanse stretched between the beginning and the ending, and I completely stalled out. I reluctantly recognized it was time to plot my route. As soon as I had that outline in place, I began writing again at full speed. I’m not a full outline convert, but I now see that a road map can be an important writing tool. Some young writers are natural outliners. Others are like me, dragged to it only by necessity. You can help these “outline resistant” students develop their outlining skills. For example, you can work together as a class to outline a published story. Or you can outline a “typical” human life or a calendar year for practice. Sometimes even the most spontaneous writer needs to stop and plot their route in order to make forward progress. About Lisa Bullard Lisa Bullard is the author of several books for children, including picture books, nonfiction titles, and the mystery novel Turn Left at the Cow, which is a finalist on young readers award lists for Connecticut, Florida, and Nebraska. Her books You Can Write a Story! and Get Started in Writing for Children pass along her knowledge after 17 years of teaching. She blogs at Writing Road Trip . To learn more about Lisa and her work, please visit her website. Skinny Dip 10 What keeps you up at night? Popcorn in the brain. Ideas are popping and images are streaming through my brain. I know that if I don’t get up (ugh, really, 3 am?) and write them down, I won’t have a clue in the morning what they were. All those brilliant ideas, gone! I like to read a chapter from my current work just before I go to bed. The thoughts stir up new ideas, sometimes even solutions to problems. Of course sometimes I look at what I’ve written in the middle of the night and there are no treasures, just stale popcorn. Sometimes there are some real jewels, like finding the magic ring in a box of Cracker Jacks. What is your proudest career moment? Two very happy moments—from this past year. I was asked to read from Cowboy Up! Ride the Navajo Rodeo at the Poetry Roundup session of the Texas Library Conference. Me, a poet? Watching kids race horses around barrels, throw a lasso from on top a galloping horse to snag a dodging calf’s back hoof—now that’s poetry. My favorite is watching the “mutton busting” three– and four–year-olds ride a bucking sheep. That was the inspiration for my favorite poem. When I shared this poem with about 200 librarians at their Texas conference, they all kindly stood up and pretended to ride along. Librarians are heroic. They got right on that imaginary sheep, held one hand up high, and grabbed tight onto a fistful of wool. My happiest career moments happen when I’m with students, especially the responses I’ve received from Navajo school children. During author visits they give me a big smile and say, “You wrote Navajo Year? That is my favorite book.” The very best moment of all occurred while reading from Cowboy Up! Ride the Navajo Rodeo to a classroom of second-graders at Many Farms Elementary. This little guy wearing a too-big tee shirt, jeans, and cowboy boots, looked at me, grinned, and raised his hand. Then he said, “I am in your book.” Less than 1% of the books published for children are by or about contemporary American Indians. Childhood is short; children grow up fast. All children need to see themselves in books, now. In what Olympic sport would you like to win a gold medal? Equestrian! I have imagined competing on the combined equestrian event which includes dressage, cross-country, and jumping. As a child I wished for, begged for, even plotted for getting a horse of my own. No luck. But as soon as I was grown up and living in the country with room for a horse, I bought a horse, a strong beautiful, calm golden palomino, Natchee. My next dream was to be become a “real rider,” which meant not being scared of the horse. I wanted to be able to walk out into a pasture through wild waving grass, catch my horse with just a rope halter, slip on a bridle, and ride. Fast. Leap over ditches and splash through creeks. And I did. Once I even jumped over a picnic table! Natchee and I were riding in the Olympics. What’s the bravest thing you’ve ever done? Swim with sharks. As part of my research for Warriors in the Crossfire, I needed to paddle my kayak over the reef, leave the safe calm lagoon behind, and head to the open ocean. I loved snorkeling in the lagoon. I could see bottom—white sand 30 or 40 feet below with fish of all colors nibbling on coral heads. But in the open ocean, when I looked down, there was blue that continued until it became black. That alone sent shivers up my back. But my main character in Warriors jumps out of his outrigger to save the life of his friend. They had been hunting turtle in the open ocean and, meanwhile, a shark had begun hunting them. So I paddled out. I put on mask and snorkel and slipped overboard. The rise and fall of the waves made me a bit nauseated. I was so scared my heart was pounding, and I was still holding on to the side of the kayak. I needed to let go and drift around a bit. Every shadow and shift of light under the sea’s surface looked like the silhouette of some kind of hungry sea creature. I kicked away from the kayak and then I saw them. Beneath me. The sleek backs of three reef sharks! I watched them circle around and then one shark slowly come directly at me. There was no time to haul myself back into the kayak. If I could have walked on water, I would have. The shark was so close I couldn’t think, I automatically did what I’d been taught in those boring diving lessons. I fisted my hand and punched him in the nose. He turned and disappeared. Would he return? With my arms pummeling like a crazed wind mill, I swam to the kayak, without breathing, without caring how much I was splashing. I pulled myself up over the side expecting to feel teeth chomp through my legs. Finally all of me was in the kayak. My whole body was shaking but I paddled back over the reef and straight to shore. I lay on the warm wet sand, closed my eyes, felt the safe, hot sun. What’s the first book you remember reading? Bugs and Insects, the World Book Encyclopedia, and comic books.  I grew up in a rural farm area of Illinois. We did not have a library or a bookstore. My parents valued education and the first step was learning to read. My older brother could read and I was determined to read, too. But there wasn’t much available. My parents bought a set of World Book and Childcraft Encyclopedias. My dad was a basketball coach and the team earned extra money to pay for “away” tournaments by collecting newspapers for recycling. Dad drove a pick-up truck and my brother and I got to help load tied-up stacks of newspapers into the back of the truck. Our payment was when we unloaded the stacks, we could search through the piles of newspapers for discarded comic books. I read one book of the encyclopedia at a time, alternating with Bugs and Insects, and comic books. For many years that was my summer reading! About Nancy Bo Flood Nancy Bo Flood is the author of several books for children, including Navajo Year, Walk Through Many Seasons (Arizona Book of the Year) and Warriors in the Crossfire (Colorado Book of the Year). Cowboy Up! Riding the Navajo Rodeo (Boyds Mill Press, 2013; photos by Jan Sonnenmair) was named a 2014 NCTE (National Council of Teachers of English) Notable Poetry Book, a 2013 California Reading Association Eureka! Nonfiction honor book, and received the Arizona-New Mexico book award for juvenile literature. Her most recent book is Water Runs Through This Book (Fulcrum, 2015). Nancy lives in Arizona. To learn more about her and her work please visit her website . Authors Emeritus 0 Virginia Lee Burton was born on August 30, 1909 in Newton Centre, Massachusetts. She studied art at the California School of Fine Arts and the Boston Museum School. One of her earliest jobs was as a “sketcher” for the arts section of the Boston Transcript. She married George Demetrios, a sculptor and her teacher at the Museum School, in 1931. They settled in Gloucester, Massachusetts, where they had two sons. “I literally draw my books first and write down the text after “I pin the sketched pages in sequence on the walls of my studio so I can see the books as a whole. Then I make a rough dummy and then the final drawings, and at last when I can put it off no longer, I type out the text and paste it in the dummy.” Thirteen publishers rejected her first manuscript about a dust particle, Joniffer Lint. When her three-year-old son fell asleep on her lap while she read it to him, she stopped sending it to publishers, and thereafter relied on children as her primary critics. Her classic books have never been out of print and are currently embraced by a fourth generation of early readers. She won the 1942 Caldecott Medal for The Little House. Virginia Lee Burton died October 15, 1968. For more information on the author, her books, and her design work, please visit Virginia Lee Burton, The Film.   interview by Vicki Palmquist What’s the illustration tool you turn to more than any other? Graphite pencil. Simple, efficient, erasable, feels good in the hand, makes a lovely line with infinite possibilities for line variation. Did I mention that it’s erasable? Always forgiving! What illustration technique haven’t you tried that keeps calling out to you? Relief printmaking. The technique gives you so much—the quality of the mark, the layering of color look different than anything I can make with any other technique. What do you do when you’ve run out of inspiration? What gets you going again? Making something. Looking at something others have made. It’s a big world out there and there is plenty to see. Eric’s studio Who is your favorite illustrator who is no longer with us? And it could be more than one person. William Stieg…and  Helen Sewell, Wanda Gag, Maurice Sendak, Crockett Johnson, Robert McCloskey, Virginia Lee Burton, James Marshall…just to name a few. Did winning the Caldecott (medal and honors) change how you think about your work? Yes. It made me more attentive, more dedicated, more aware of my audience. It also took off the pressure of ever thinking about such things again! How and where do you and Candy talk over a new project? Everywhere and anywhere. Bulldozer’s Big Day was begun on a car ride from Indianapolis to Chicago. Giant Squid at an ALA hotel room. Oh, No! in Borneo while walking in the jungle. If you could sit down with four other book artists, living or dead, and have dinner and a conversation, who would they be? This is not fair! Just four? Hmmm… William Stieg, Beatrix Potter, M.T. Anderson, Maurice Sendak.  About Eric Rohmann Eric Rohmann is the writer-illustrator and illustrator of many children's books, including the Caldecott Medal book My Friend Rabbit and the Caldecott honor book Time Flies. He lives near Chicago, Illinois. For more information please visit his website. About the Interviewer Vicki Palmquist, co-founder of Winding Oak. , has been reading children’s books all of her life, except for a period in the ‘80s. People still have to fill her in on books published during that decade. She blogs at Reading Ahead. Reading Ahead 4 by Vicki Palmquist There are books we remember all of our lives, even if we can’t remember the details. Sometimes we can’t even remember the story, but we remember the characters and how they made us feel. We recall being transported into the pages of the book, seeing what the characters see, hearing what they hear, and understanding the time and spaces and breathing in and out of the characters. Do we become those characters, at least for a little while, at least until we move on to the next book? Is this why we can remember them long after we’ve finished the book? This column is called Reading Ahead because I’m one of those people others revile: I read the end of the book before I’ve progressed to that point in the story. I read straight through for as long as I can stand it and then I have to know how the story ends. I tell myself that I do this because then I can observe the writing and how the author weaves the ending into the book long before the last pages. That’s partially true. But I also admit that the tension becomes unbearable for me. When I find a book that is so delicious that I don’t want to know the end until its proper time, then I know that I am reading a book whose characters will live on in me. Their cells move from the pages of the book into my arms and shoulders, heading straight to my mind and my heart. For me, those books are The Riddlemaster of Hed by Patricia McKillip, The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien (but not The Hobbit), The Wizard of Earthsea by Ursula K. LeGuin, The Dark is Rising by Susan Cooper, Dragons in the Waters and Arm of the Starfish by Madeleine L’Engle, and every one of the Deep Valley books written by Maud Hart Lovelace.  There are some newer books that haven’t yet been tested by time. I could feel that I was absorbing The Wednesday Wars by Gary D. Schmidt and Catch You Later, Traitor by Avi and Absolutely, Truly by Heather Vogel Frederick.  There are many, many other books that I admire and enjoy reading but I don’t feel them becoming a part of me in quite the same way. I suspect that you have a short list of books that make you feel like this. They are an unforgettable part of you. I’ve just finished reading Isabelle Day Refuses to Die of a Broken Heart by Jane St. Anthony (University of Minnesota Press). It is a funny and absorbing book about learning to deal with grief. That’s a place I’ve lived for the last four years in a way I hadn’t experienced before. When my mother died, my all-my-life friend, an essential part of me was transformed into something else. I don’t yet know what that is. Isabelle Day is learning about this, too. Her father, her pal, her funny man, her let-me-show-you-the-delights-of-life-kid parent has died shortly before the book begins. Her mother is in the throes of grief, pulled inward, not communicating well. Isabelle and her mother have moved from Milwaukee, where close friends and a familiar house stand strong, to Minneapolis, where Isabelle’s mom grew up. They are living upstairs in a duplex owned by two elderly sisters who immediately share friendship and food and wisdom with Isabelle, something she’s feeling too prickly to accept. There are new friends whom Isabelle doesn’t trust to be true. But for anyone who has experienced grief, this book will reach out and touch you gently, softly, letting you know that others understand what you are feeling. Isabelle comes to understand that she doesn’t have to feel alone … the world is waiting to be experienced in other, new ways. It’s a beautifully written book in that the words fit together in lovely, sometimes surprising, sometimes startling ways. There is great care taken with the story and the characters. And yet the unexpected is always around the corner. Isabelle is a complex person. She does not act predictably. There is no sense of “woe is me” in this book. There’s a whole class of what I call “whiny books” (mostly adult) and this isn’t one of them. This book is filled with life, wonder, humor, and mostly understanding. Isabelle and Grace and Margaret, Miss Flora and Miss Dora, they are all a part of me now. When I am feeling sad and missing the people I have lost, I will re-read this book because I know it will provide healing. And I can laugh … it’s been hard to do that. Thank you, Jane. About Vicki Palmquist Vicki Palmquist, co-founder of Winding Oak , has been reading children’s books all of her life, except for a period in the ‘80s. People still have to fill her in on books published during that decade. She blogs at Reading Ahead. Authors Emeritus 0 Born in Chicago on June 26, 1905, Lynd Ward, the son of a Methodist minister, grew up moving around and living close to new immigrants. Ward was a sickly baby and the family moved to northern Canada for several months hoping his health would improve. Upon the family’s return, Ward, now a healthier child, never lost his bond with the wilderness. While at college he met and married his wife, May McNeer, and left for Leipzig, Germany with her shortly after graduation. Ward’s illustrations show his respect for all people and the effects of his stay in the Canadian wilderness. Among his books are Caldecott Medal winner, The Biggest Bear (1952), The Silver Pony: A Story in Pictures (1973), a wordless picture book, several biographies of famous Americans, and one of Martin Luther. A number of these books were written by his wife, May McNeer. Among the awards received by Ward are the Regina Award in 1975, the Carteret Book Club award for illustration, and others. Two Newbery winners were illustrated by Ward and another six books with Ward’s illustrations were named Newbery Honor books. Ward was also an innovative creator of books for adults. He made the first American wordless novel, Gods’ Man, which was published in 1929. He made five more such works: Madman’s Drum (1930), Wild Pilgrimage (1932), Prelude to a Million Years (1933), Song Without Words (1936), and Vertigo (1937). The Lynd Ward Graphic Novel Prize, sponsored by Penn State University Libraries, is presented annually to the best graphic novel, fiction or non-fiction, published in the previous calendar year by a living U.S. or Canadian citizen or resident. Lynd Ward died in 1985. by Marsha Qualey Atheneum, 2015 Welcome! It’s the first Tuesday of the month and time to launch a new month of Bookology. Our October Bookstorm ™ has as its centerpiece the wonderful picture book Bulldozer’s Big Day, the first time we’ve focused on a picture book for young readers. Bulldozer’s Big Day was written by Sibert honor author Candace Fleming and illustrated by Caldecott Medalist Eric Rohmann . We will feature interviews with both, beginning today with our conversation with Eric Rohmann. Rohmann’s block print art for Bulldozer triggered a discussion between various bookologists about other print-illustrated children’s books, and put together a slide show of some of the stand-outs of the last couple of decades. Have your own favorite? Let us know. Our regular columnists will be writing through the month about their latest book or writing discoveries; today: Reading Ahead author Vicki Palmquist on Isabelle Day Refuses to Die of a Broken Heart, a new middle grade novel by Jane St. Anthony  and many other books that deal with “Laughter and Grief.” Don’t forget to check out our two latest Authors Emeritus posts about Virginia Lee Burton and Lynd Ward, who both used block print techniques in their illustration work.   Eric Shabazz Larkin, illus. Readers to Eaters, 2013 October is a month of change in the northern hemisphere, so why not change a world record? Two organizations are looking to claim the world record of most children-read-to-in-a-day. On October 19, 2015, Points of Light, a Houston-based nonprofit, will attempt to establish a new world record by rallying volunteers to read to over 300,000 children in 24 hours. The campaign book for this attempt is Farmer Will Allen and the Growing Table, written by Bookology columnist Jackie Briggs Martin! The current world record is held by the nonprofit Jumpstart, which in association with Candlewick Press, has for ten years run a global campaign, Read for the Record ® that generates public support for high-quality early learning by mobilizing millions of children and adults to take part Noah Z. Jones, illus. Candlewick, 2005 in the world’s largest shared reading experience. This year’s attempt is scheduled for October 22; the campaign book is Not Norman: A Goldfish Story, by Kelly Bennett . And, finally, it is a truth universally acknowledged that any October issue of a magazine must include something related to Halloween.  We’ve got that covered with this month’s Two for the Show column: “What Scares You?,” in which Phyllis Root and Jackie Briggs Martin discuss the role of fear in books for young readers and spotlight a few books that deliver on a scary promise. Look for their conversation October 14. As always, thank you for taking the time to visit Bookology. About Marsha Qualey Marsha Qualey is a Winding Oak Acorn and a former editor of Bookology. She is also a writer and is on the faculty of Hamline University’s MFA in Writing for Children and Young Adults program. Her most recent novel is Venom and the River . For more information please visit her website . illustrated by Eric Rohmann  Atheneum, 2015 It’s Bulldozer’s big day—his birthday! But around the construction site, it seems like everyone is too busy to remember. Bulldozer wheels around asking his truck friends if they know what day it is, but they each only say it’s a work day. They go on scooping, sifting, stirring, filling, and lifting, and little Bulldozer grows more and more glum. But when the whistle blows at the end of the busy day, Bulldozer discovers a construction site surprise, especially for him! An ideal book for a read-aloud to that child sitting by you or to a classroom full of children or to a storytime group gathered together, Bulldozer’s Big Day is fun to read because of all the onomatopoeia and the wonderful surprise ending. In each Bookstorm™, we offer a bibliography of books that have close ties to the the featured book. For Bulldozer’s Big Day, you’ll find books for a variety of tastes and interests. The book will be comfortably read to ages 3 through 7. We’ve included picture books, nonfiction, videos, websites, and destinations that complement the book, all encouraging early literacy. Building Projects. There have been many fine books published about designing and constructing houses, cities, and dreams. We share a few books to encourage and inspire your young dreamers. Construction Equipment. Who can resist listening to and watching the large variety of vehicles used on a construction project? You’ll find both books and links to videos. Birthday Parties. This is the other large theme in Bulldozer’s Big Day and we suggest books such as Xander’s Panda Party that offer other approaches to talking about birthdays. Dirt, Soil, Earth. STEM discussions can be a part of early literacy, too. Get ready to dish the dirt!  Loneliness. Much like Bulldozer, children (and adults) can feel let down, ignored, left out … and books are a good way to start the discussion about resiliency and coping with these feelings. Surprises. If you work with children, or have children of your own, you know how tricky surprises and expectations can be. We’ve included books such as Waiting by Kevin Henkes and Handa’s Surprise by Eileen Browne. Friendship. An ever-popular theme in children’s books, we’ve selected a few of the very best, including A Sick Day for Amos McGee, by the Steads. Let us know how you are making use of this Bookstorm™. Share your ideas and any other books you’d add to this Bookstorm™. Downloadables
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How many carats are there in pure gold?
Number of Karats in Pure Gold | Number Of | How Many Number of Karats in Pure Gold • | How many karats are there in pure gold? 24. The term karat (or carat) was coined to designate the quantity of gold in gold alloys. A 24-karat piece is made of 99.9% gold (which is considered pure gold), whereas in 18-karat there is 75% gold, and 50% in 12-karat. Another way of measuring gold purity is through the millesimal fineness, with values of decimal figures from 0 to 1, where 999 (or three nines fine) means pure gold. This fact is verified on : May 7, 2010.
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"What did U.S. inventor Thomas Edison describe as ""1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration""?"
Gold Caratage | Gold Colours | Hallmarks | World Gold Council World Gold Council Home Jewellery About gold jewellery Share: About gold jewellery Colour Throughout history, gold has been treasured for its natural beauty and radiance. For this reason, many cultures have imagined gold to represent the sun. Yellow gold is still the most popular colour, but today gold is available in a diverse palette. The process of alloying—mixing other metals with pure 24 carat gold—gives malleable gold more durability, but can also be used to change its colour. White gold is created through alloying pure gold with white metals such as palladium or silver. In addition it is usually plated with rhodium to create a harder surface with a brighter shine. White gold has become the overwhelming choice for wedding bands in the US. The inclusion of copper results in the soft pink complexion of rose gold while the more unusual colours such as blue and purple can be obtained from the addition of patinas or oxides on the alloy surface. Black gold for example derives its colour from cobalt oxide. Caratage The weight of gold is measured in troy ounces (1 troy ounce = 31.1034768 grams), however its purity is measured in ‘carats’. ‘Caratage’ is the measurement of purity of gold alloyed with other metals. 24 carat is pure gold with no other metals. Lower caratages contain less gold; 18 carat gold contains 75 per cent gold and 25 per cent other metals, often copper or silver. The minimum caratage for an item to be called gold varies by country. In the US, 10 carat is the legal minimum accepted standard of gold caratage, 14 carat being the most popular.  In France, the UK, Austria, Portugal and Ireland, 9 carat is the lowest caratage permitted to be called gold. In Denmark and Greece, 8 carat is the legal minimum standard.   Fineness Fineness is another way of expressing the precious metal content of jewellery, and represents the purity in parts per thousand. When stamped on jewellery, usually this is stated without the decimal point.  This chart shows some examples of the composition of various caratages of gold.  
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What service did both Iris and Hermes perform for the Gods of Olympus?
IRIS - Greek Goddess of the Rainbow, Messenger of the Gods Iris Iris, Athenian red-figure lekythos C5th B.C., Rhode Island School of Design Museum IRIS was the goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods. She was often described as the handmaiden and personal messenger of Hera . Iris was a goddess of sea and sky--her father Thaumas "the wondrous" was a marine-god, and her mother Elektra "the amber" a cloud-nymph. For the coastal-dwelling Greeks, the rainbow's arc was most often seen spanning the distance beteween cloud and sea, and so the goddess was believed to replenish the rain-clouds with water from the sea. Iris had no distinctive mythology of her own. In myth she appears only as an errand-running messenger and was usually described as a virgin goddess. Her name contains a double meaning, being connected with both the Greek word iris "the rainbow" and eiris "messenger." Iris is depicted in ancient Greek vase painting as a beautiful young woman with golden wings, a herald's rod (kerykeion), and sometimes a water-pitcher (oinochoe) in her hand. She was usually depicted standing beside Zeus or Hera, sometimes serving nectar from her jug. As cup-bearer of the gods Iris is often indistinguishable from Hebe in art. FAMILY OF IRIS PARENTS [1.1] THAUMAS & ELEKTRA (Hesiod Theogony 265, Apollodorus 1.10, Hyginus Pref, Nonnus Dionysiaca 26.350) [1.2] THAUMAS (Plato Theatetus 155d, Callimachus Hymn 5, Ptolemy Hephaestion 6, Ovid Met. 4.479, Vergil Aeneid 9.2, Cicero De Natura Deorum 3.20) [1.3] THAUMAS & OZOMENE (Hyginus Fabulae 14) OFFSPRING [1.1] POTHOS (by Zephryos ) (Alcaeus Frag 257; Eustathius on Homer 555, Nonnus Dionysiaca 47.340) ENCYCLOPEDIA IRIS (Iris), a daughter of Thaumas (whence she is called Thaumantias, Virg. Aen. ix. 5) and Electra, and sister of the Harpies. (Hes. Theog. 266, 780; Apollod. i. 2. § 6; Plat. Theaet. p. 155. d; Plut. de Plac. Philos. iii. 5.) In the Homeric poems she appears as the minister of the Olympian gods, who carries messages from Ida to Olympus, from gods to gods, and from gods to men. (Il. xv. 144, xxiv. 78, 95, ii. 787, xviii. 168, Hymn. in Apoll. Del. 102, &c.) In accordance with these functions of Iris, her name is commonly derived from erô eirô; so that Iris would mean "the speaker or messenger:" but it is not impossible that it may be connected with eirô, "I join," whence eirênê ; so that Iris, the goddess of the rainbow, would be the joiner or conciliator, or the messenger of heaven, who restores peace in nature. In the Homeric poems, it is true, Iris does not appear as the goddess of the rainbow, but the rainbow itself is called iris (Il xi. 27, xvii. 547): and this brilliant phenomenon in tile skies, which vanishes as quickly as it appears, was regarded as the swift minister of the gods. Her genealogy too supports the opinion that Iris was originally the personification of the rainbow. In the earlier poets, and even in Theocritus (xvii. 134) and Virgil (Aen. v. 610) Iris appears as a virgin goddess; but according to later writers, she was married to Zephyrus, and became by him the mother of Eros. (Eustath. ad Hom. pp. 391, 555; Plut. Amat. 20.) With regard to her functions, which we have above briefly described, we may further observe, that the Odyssey never mentions Iris, but only Hermes as the messenger of the gods: in the Iliad, on the other hand, she appears most frequently, and on the most different occasions. She is principally engaged in the service of Zeus, but also in that of Hera, and even serves Achilles in calling the winds to his assistance. (Il. xxiii. 199.) She further performs her services not only when commanded, but she sometimes advises and assists of her own accord (iii. 122, xv. 201. xviii. 197. xxiv. 74, &c.). In later poets she appears on the whole in the same capacity as in the Iliad, but she occurs gradually more and more exclusively in the service of Hera, both in the later Greek and Latin poets. (Callim. Hymn. in Del. 232; Virg. Aen. v. 606; Apollon. Rhod. ii. 288, 432; Ov. Met. xiv. 830, &c.) Some poets describe Iris actually as the rainbow itself, but Servius (ad Aen v. 610) states that the rainbow is only the road on which Iris travels, and which therefore appears whenever the goddess wants it, and vanishes when it is no longer needed: and it would seem that this latter notion was the more prevalent one in antiquity. Respecting the worship of Iris very few traces have come down to us, and we only know that the Delians offered to her on the island of Hecate cakes made of wheat and honey and dried figs. (Athen. xiv. p. 645; comp. Müller, Aegin. p. 170.) No statues of Iris have been preserved, but we find her frequently represented on vases and in bas-reliefs, either standing and dressed in a long and wide tunic, over which hangs a light upper garment, with wings attached to her shoulders, and carrying the herald's staff in her left hand; or she appears flying with wings attached to her shoulders and sandals, with the staff and a pitcher in her hands. AELLOPUS (Aellopous), a surname of Iris, the messenger of the gods, by which she is described as swift-footed like a storm-wind. Homer uses the form aellopos. (Il. 409.) Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES Iris, Athenian red-figure stamnos C5th B.C., Musée du Louvre Hesiod, Theogony 265 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "Now Thaumas married a daughter of deep-running Okeanos (Oceanus), Elektra (Electra), and she bore him swift-footed Iris, the rainbow." Plato, Theaetetus 155d (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) : "Sokrates (Socrates) : He who said that Iris (Rainbow ) was the child of Thaumas (Wonder) made a good genealogy." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 10 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Thaumas and Elektra (Electra) had [children] Iris and the Harpyiai (Harpies) named Aello and Okypete (Ocypete)." Pseudo-Hyginus, Preface (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "From Thaumas and Electra : Iris, Harpyiae (Harpies) Celaeno, Ocypete, Podarce." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 26. 350 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "He [the River Hydaspes] had the genuine Titan blood; for from the bed of primeval Thaumas his rosyarm consort Elektra (Electra) brought forth two children--from that bed came a River and a messenger of the heavenly ones, Iris quick as the wind and swiftly flowing Hydaspes, Iris travelling on foot and Hydaspes by water." IRIS GODDESS OF THE RAINBOW Homer, Iliad 24. 77 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "Iris storm-footed sprang away . . . and at a point between Samos and Imbros of the high cliffs plunged in the dark water, and the sea crashed moaning about her. She plummeted to the sea floor like a lead weight." Stesichorus, Fragment 222B (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric III) (Greek lyric C7th to 6th B.C.) : "Thaumantias [i.e. Iris daughter of Thaumas]. The cousin of Aiolos (Aeolus) Hippotades (son of Hippotes) [ god of the winds]." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 12. 189 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) : "Zeus . . . charioted upon the Anemoi (Winds), Euros (the East), Boreas (the North), Zephyros (the West-wind), and Notos (the South) [the four-wind gods in the forms of horses] : for Iris rainbow-plumed led 'neath the yoke of his eternal ear that stormy team." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 1. 10 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd A.D.) : "And the chlamys he [Amphion] wears, perhaps that also came from Hermes; for its colour does not remain the same but changes and takes on all the hues of the rainbow." [N.B. Here Hermes, messenger of the gods, is closely connected with rainbow.] Ovid, Metamorphoses 1. 270 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "The thunder crashed and storms of blinding rain poured down from heaven. Iris, great Juno's [Hera's] envoy, rainbow-clad, gathered the waters and refilled the clouds." Ovid, Metamorphoses 4. 479 ff : "Juno [Hera] went blithely back [to Olympos after a visit to the Underworld] and Iris Thaumantias (the Rainbow) as she entered heaven again, purged her with sprinkled drops of cleansing rain." Ovid, Metamorphoses 11. 585 ff : "Iris, in her thousand hues enrobed traced through the sky her arching bow . . . Iris entered, and the bright sudden radiance of her robe lit up the hallowed place . . . Iris departed, and fled away back o'er the arching rainbow as she came." Ovid, Metamorphoses 14. 829 ff : "Iris glided down to earth along her many-coloured bow." Virgil, Aeneid 5. 655 ff (trans. Day-Lewis) (Roman epic C1st B.C.) : "Spreading her wings, the goddess [Iris] took off from earth, describing a rainbow arc under the clouds as she flew." Virgil, Aeneid 9. 2 ff : "Soaring to heaven on balanced wings, [Iris] blazed a rainbow trail beneath the clouds as she flew . . . Iris, glory of the sky, cloud-borne." Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3. 20 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician C1st B.C.) : "[Cicero's critical essay on the nature of the gods :] Why should not the glorious Rainbow be included among the gods? It is beautiful enough, and its marvellous loveliness has given rise to the legend that Iris is the daughter of Thaumas (Wonder). And if the Arcus (the Rainbow) [Iris] is a divinity, what will you do about the Nubes (Clouds) [Nephelai])? The rainbow itself is caused by some coloration of the clouds." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 4. 60 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "[Jupiter-Zeus] sends down swift Iris (the Rainbow) on her rosy cloud." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8. 115 ff : "Like to illumined cloud or to Thaumantias [Iris, the Rainbow] when she ungirds her robe and glides to meet glowing Phoebus [Helios, the Sun]." Statius, Thebaid 10. 80 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "[Hera] bids her own Iris gird herself with her wonted circles . . . [and so] the bright goddess leaves the pole and wings her way down her long arc to earth . . . Hither from the blue sky came in balanced flight the varicoloured maid; the forests shine out, and the shady glens smile upon the goddess, and smitten with her zones of radiance the palace starts . . . [Iris] the golden fashioner of clouds . . . Iris goes forth, and tricks out her beams, made dim by showers of rain." Statius, Silvae 3. 3. 80 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman poetry C1st A.D.) : "The winged Arcadian [Hermes] is the messenger of supreme Jove [Zeus]; Juno [Hera] hath power over the rain-bringing Thaumantian [Iris the rainbow]." Statius, Silvae 5. 1. 103 ff : "Juno's [Hera's] maid [Iris the rainbow], who glides down through the liquid air and binds her pictured arc about the rainy sky." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 2. 200 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "And the rain’s comrade, the bow of Iris, wove her many colours into a rounded track, and shone bent under the light-shafts of Phaethon [Helios the Sun] opposite, mingling pale with dark, and light with rosy." IRIS WIFE OF ZEPHYRUS & MOTHER OF POTHOS Iris (the Rainbow) and Zephyros (the West-Wind) were occassionally called the parents of Pothos (passion). The union of the rainbow and west wind symbolised the variegated brilliance of passion. Alcaeus, Fragment 327 (from Plutarch, Dialogue on Love) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I) (Greek lyric C6th B.C.) : "The most grim of gods [Eros (Love)], whom Iris (the Rainbow) of the fair sandals bore, having lain with golden-haired Zephyros (Zephyrus, the West Wind)." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 31. 103 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "The wife of Zephyros (West-Wind), Iris (Rainbow), the messenger of Zeus . . . Iris, goldenwing bride of plantnourishing Zephyros, happy mother of Eros (Love) [i.e. the eros Pothos]." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 47. 340 ff : "Iris (the Rainbow) the bride of Zephyros (the West Wind) and mother of Pothos (Desire)." IRIS MESSENGER OF THE GODS (GENERAL REFERENCES) Iris and the feast of the gods, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., Antikensammlung Berlin Hesiod, Theogony 780 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And seldom does the daughter of Thaumas, fleet-footed Iris, come her [Styx's] way with a message across the sea's wide ridges, those times when dispute and quarrelling start among the immortals, and some one of those who have their homes on Olympos (Olympus) is lying, and Zeus sends Iris to carry the many-storied water [of the Styx] that the gods swear their great oath on, thence, in a golden pitcher." Plato, Cratylus 400d & 408c ff (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) : "[Plato invents philosophical etymologies to explain the names of the gods :] Sokrates (Socrates) : Let us inquire what thought men had in giving them [the gods] their names . . . The first men who gave names [to the gods] were no ordinary persons, but high thinkers and great talkers . . . Iris [like Hermes] also seems to have got her name from eirein, because she is a messenger." Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 6 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190) (trans. Pearse) (Greek mythographer C1st to C2nd A.D.) : "Arke (Arce) was the daughter of Thaumas and her sister was Iris; both had wings, but, during the struggle of the gods against the Titanes (Titans), Arke flew out of the camp of the gods and joined the Titanes [as their messenger, just as Iris served the Olympian Gods]." Ovid, Metamorphoses 1. 270 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Iris, great Juno's [Hera's] envoy, rainbow-clad." Statius, Silvae 3. 3. 80 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman poetry C1st A.D.) : "The winged Arcadian [Hermes] is the messenger of supreme Jove [Zeus]; Juno [Hera] hath power over the rain-bringing Thaumantian [Iris the rainbow]." Statius, Silvae 5. 1. 103 ff : "Juno's [Hera's] maid [Iris the rainbow], who glides down through the liquid air and binds her pictured arc about the rainy sky." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 26. 350 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "From the bed of primeval Thaumas his rosyarm consort Elektra (Electra) . . . [came] a messenger of the heavenly ones, Iris." See also the sections describing messenger Iris in myth (below). MESSENGER IRIS & THE EXILE OF DEMETER Zeus sent Iris to summon Demeter back to Olympos (Olympus) when she went into self-imposed exile following the abduction of Persephone. But the goddess refused to heed the call. Homeric Hymn 2 to Demeter 315 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th or 6th B.C.) : "First he [Zeus] sent golden-winged Iris to call rich-haired Demeter, lovely in form [to return to the gods on Olympos]. So he commanded. And she obeyed the dark-clouded son of Kronos (Cronus), and sped with swift feet across the space between. She came to . . . Eleusis, and there finding dark-cloaked Demeter in her temple spake to her and uttered winged words : ‘Demeter, father Zeus, whose wisdom is everlasting, calls you to come join the tribes of the eternal gods: come therefore, and let not the message I bring from Zeus pass unobeyed.’ Thus said Iris imploring her." MESSENGER IRIS & THE LABOUR OF LETO Iris, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., Sotheby's Auction Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo 102 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) : "But the goddesses [arrived on Delos to attend the labour of the goddess Leto] sent out Iris from the well-set isle to bring Eileithyia . . . and they bade Iris call her aside from white-armed Hera, lest she might afterwards turn her from coming with her words. When swift Iris, fleet of foot as the wind, had heard all this, she set to run; and quickly finishing all the distance she came to the home of the gods, sheer Olympos, and forthwith called Eileithyia out from the hall to the door and spoke winged words to her, telling her all as the goddesses who dwell on Olympos had bidden her." Callimachus, Hymn 4 to Delos 62 & 153 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek poet C3rd B.C.) : "[Hera] kept watch within the sky, angered in her heart greatly and beyond telling, and she prevented Leto who was holden in the pangs of child-birth. And she had two look-outs to keep watch upon the earth. The space of the continents did bold Ares watch . . . And the other kept watch over the far-flung islands, even Thaumantia [Iris daughter of Thaumas] seated on Mimas, whither she had sped. There they sat and threatened all the cities which Leto approached and prevented them from receiving her . . . After much toil She [Leto pregnant with Apollon and Artemis and forced to wander the earth by the rage of Hera] came unto the Isles (Nesoi) of the sea. But they received her not when she came--not the Ekhinades (Echidnades) with their smooth anchorage for ships, not Kerkyra (Corcyra) which is of all other islands most hospitable, since Iris on lofty Mimas was wroth with them all and utterly prevented them. And at her rebuke they fled all together, every one that she came to, along the waters." Callimachus, Hymn 4 to Delos 216 ff : "[Iris reports the birth of Apollon to Hera on Olympos :] A swift messenger [Iris] hastened to thee [Hera]. And, still breathing heavily, she [Iris] spake--and her speech was mingled with fear : ‘Honoured Hera, of goddesses most excellent far, thine am I, all things are thine, and thou sittest authentic queen of Olympos, and we fear no other female hand; and thou, O Queen, wilt know who is the cause of thine anger. Leto is undoing her girdle within and island. All the others spurned her and received her not; but Asteria called her by name as she was passing by--Asteria that evil scum of the sea: thou knowest it thyself. But, dear Lady,--for thou canst-- defend thy servants, who tread the earth at thy behest.’ So she spake and seated her beside the golden throne, even as a hunting hound of Artemis, which, when it hath ceased from the swift chase, sitteth by her feet, and its ears are erect, ever ready to receive the call of the goddess. Like thereto Thaumantias (daughter of Thaumas) sat beside the throne. And she never forgetteth her seat, not even when sleep lays upon her his forgetful wing, but there by the edge of the great throne with head a little bent aslant she sleeps. Never does she unloose her girdle or her swift hunting-boots lest her mistress give her some sudden command. And Hera was grievously angered and spake to her : ‘So now, O shameful creatures of Zeus, may ye all wed in secret and bring forth in darkness.’" MESSENGER IRIS & THE ARGONAUTS Hesiod, Catalogues of Women Fragment 42 (from Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius 2.297) (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "Hesiod also says that those with Zetes [the Argonauts] turned and prayed to Zeus : ‘There they prayed to the lord of Ainos (Aenus) who reigns on high.’ Apollonios indeed says it was Iris who made Zetes and his following turn away, but Hesiod says Hermes." Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 2. 286 ff (trans. Rieu) (Greek epic C3rd B.C.) : "Yet even with Heaven against them [the Boreades], the long chase would certainly have ended with their tearing the Harpyai (Harpies) to pieces when they overtook them at the Ekhinades (Echidnades), but for Iris of the swift feet, who when she saw them leapt down from Olympos through the sky and checked them with these words : ‘Sons of Boreas, you may not touch the Harpyai with your swords: they are the hounds of almighty Zeus. But I myself will undertake an oath that never again shall they come near to Phineus.’ And she went on to swear by the waters of Styx, the most portentous and inviolable oath that any god can take, that the Harpyai should never visit Phineus' house again, such being Fate's decree . . . The Harpyai and Iris went their different ways . . . Iris soared up to Olympos, cleaving the air with her unflagging wings." Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4. 702 ff : "Nothing of this escaped Hera . . . Iris pointed them [the Argonauts] out to her when she saw them leaving the hall. The goddess had asked her to watch for the moment when they [the Argonauts] set out for the ship; and now she urged her once again to help her : ‘Dear Iris, if ever you have done my bidding, serve me now. Speed away on your light wings and ask Thetis to come here to me out of the salt sea depths. I need her. After that, go to the seacoast where the bronze anvils of Hephaistos (Hephaestus) are pounded by his mighty hammers, and tell him to let his bellows sleep till Argo has passed by. Next, go to Aiolos (Aeolus), king of the sky-born winds, and to him too convey my wishes, which are that he should order all the winds of heaven to cease . . .’ Iris, spreading her light pinions, swooped down from Olympos and cleft the air. Plunging first in to the Aigaion (Aegean) Sea where Nereus lives, she approached Thetis, delivered the message from Hera, and urged her to go to the goddess. Then she went to Hephaistos and easily persuaded him to rest. The iron hammers ceased, the smoky bellows blew no more. Last of all, she went to Aiolos, the famous son of Hippotas, and when she had given him too her message, she rested her swift limbs, the errand done." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 7. 189 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "Juno [Hera] spies winged Iris and bids her swiftly obey Dione's [Aphrodite's] command and bring the Aesonian youth [Jason, leader of the Argonauts] to the appointed grove. Iris forthwith seeks out the Minyae [Argonauts], and Cytherea [Aphrodite] the Colchian maid [Medea] [to arrange their destined meeting and love] . . . [and upon their meeting] the Thaumantian [Iris] rose on swift wings and fled." MESSENGER IRIS & THE TROJAN WAR Poseidon and Iris, Athenian red-figure calyx krater C5th B.C., Yale University Art Gallery Homer, Iliad 2. 786 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "Now to the Trojans came as messenger wind-footed Iris, in her speed, with the dark message from Zeus of the aigis. These were holding assembly standing close at hand swift-running Iris spoke to them, and likened her voice to that of the son of Priamos (Priam), Polites . . . In this man's likeness Iris the swift-running spoke to them : ‘Old sir, dear to you forever are words beyond number as once, when there was peace; but now stintless war has arisen. In my time I have gone into many battles among men, yet never have I seen a host like this, not one so numerous. These look terribly like leaves, or the sands of the sea-shore, as they advance across the plain to fight by the city. Hektor (Hector), on you beyond all I urge this, to do as I tell you: all about the great city of Priamos are many companions,but multitudinous is the speech of the scattered nations: let each man who is their leader give orders to these men, and let each set his citizens in order, and lead them.’ She spoke, nor did Hektor fail to mark the word of the goddess." Homer, Iliad 3. 121 ff : "Now to Helene (Helen) of the white arms came a messenger, Iris, in the likeness of her sister-in-law . . . Laodike (Laodice) . . . She came on Helene in the chamber . . . Iris of the swift feet stood beside her and spoke to her : ‘Come with me, dear girl, to behold the marvellous things done by Trojans, breaker of horses, and bronze-armoured Akhaians (Achaeans), who just now carried sorrowful war against each other, in the plain, and all their desire was for deadly fighting; now they are all seated in silence, the fighting has ended; they lean on their shields, the tall spears stuck in the ground beside them. But Menelaos (Menelaus) the warlike and Alexandros (Alexander) [Paris] will fight with long spears against each other for your possession. You shall be called beloved wife of the man who wins you.’ Speaking so the goddess left in her heart sweet longing after her husband of time before, and her city and parents." Homer, Iliad 5. 352 ff : "The goddess [Aphrodite] departed in pain [from the Trojan battlefield], hurt badly [by Diomedes], and Iris wind-footed took her by the hand and led her away from the battle, her lovely skin blood-darkened, wounded and suffering . . . She mounted the chariot and beside her entering Iris gathered the reins up and whipped them into a run, and they winged their way unreluctant. Now as they came to sheer Olympos, the place of the immortals, there swift Iris the wind-footed reined in her horses and slipped them from the yoke and threw fodder immortal before them." Homer, Iliad 8. 397 ff : "[Hera and Athena depart for Troy, defying the commands of Zeus :] But Zeus father, watching from Ida, was angered terribly and stirred Iris of the golden wings to run with his message : ‘Go forth, Iris the swift, turn them back again, let them not reach me, since we would close in fighting thus that would be unseemly. For I will say this straight out, and it will be a thing accomplished: [He gives her his message.]’ He spoke, and Iris, storm-footed, rose with his message and took her way from the peaks of Ida to tall Olympos, and at the utmost gates of many-folded Olympos, met and stayed them [Athene and Hera from departing for Troy against the express order of Zeus], and spoke the word that Zeus had given her: ‘Where so furious? How can your hearts so storm within you? The son of Kronos (Cronus) will not let you stand by the Argives. Since Zeus has uttered this threat and will make it a thing accomplished: [she repeats message verbatim] . . . Yes, you [Athene], bold brazen wench, are audacious indeed, if truly you dare lift up your gigantic spear in the face of you father. [She then relays the warning from Zeus.] . . .’ So Iris the swift-footed spoke and went away from them." Homer, Iliad 11. 185 ff : "The father of gods and men descending out of the sky took his place along the ridges of Ida . . . He sent on her way Iris of the golden wings with a message. ‘Go on your way, swift Iris, and carry my word to Hektor (Hector) : [He gives her a message.] . . .’ He spoke, and swift wind-footed Iris did not disobey him, but went down along the hills of Ida to sacred Ilion, and found the son of wise Priamos (Priam), Hektor (Hector) the brilliant, standing among the compacted chariots and by the horses. Iris the swift of foot came close beside and spoke to him: ‘Hektor, o son of Priamos and equal of Zeus in counsel, Zeus my father has sent me down to tell you this message. [Iris repeats the message verbatim] . . .’ Swift foot Iris spoke to him thus and went away from him." Homer, Iliad 15. 53 ff : "[Zeus addresses Hera on Mt Ida when he spies Poseidon on the battlefield of Troy in defiance of his edicts :] ‘Go now among the generation of gods, and summon Iris to come here to me . . . so that Iris may go among the bronze-armoured people of the Akhaians (Achaeans), and give a message to lord Poseidon to leave the fighting and come back to the home that is his.’" Homer, Iliad 15. 145 ff : "[At the command of Zeus, Hera summons Iris to deliver Poseidon a message insisting he withdraw from the battlefield of Troy :] Hera called to come with her outside the house . . . [Apollon and] Iris, who is the messenger among the immortal gods, and spoke to them and addressed them in winged words : ‘Zeus wishes both of you to go to him with all speed, at Ida; but when you have come there and looked upon Zeus' countenance, then you must do whatever he urges you, and his orders.’ . . . They in a flash of speed winged their way onward. They came to Ida . . . These two came into the presence of Zeus the cloud-gatherer and stood, nor was his heart angry when he looked upon them, seeing they had promptly obeyed the message of his dear lady. He spoke to Iris first of the two, and addressed her in winged words : ‘Go on you way now, swift Iris, to the lord Poseidon, and give him all this message nor be a false messenger. Tell him . . . [He relates a message.]’ He spoke, and swift wind-footed Iris did not disobey him but went along the hills of Ida to sacred Ilion. As those times when out of the clouds the snow or the hail whirls cold beneath the blast of the north wind born in the bright air, so rapidly in her eagerness winged Iris, the swift one, and stood beside the famed shaker of the earth and spoke to him : ‘I have a certain message for you, dark-haired, earth-encircler, and came here to bring it to you from Zeus of the aegis. His order is that . . . [She repeats verbatim the message from Zeus.].’ Then deeply vexed the famed shaker of the earth spoke to her . . . [Poseidon complains about Zeus' order.] Then in turn swift wind-footed Iris answered him : ‘Am I them to carry, o dark-haired earth encircler, this word, which is strong and steep, back to Zeus from you? Or will you change a little? The hearts of the great can be changed. You know the Erinnyes (Furies), how they forever side with the elder.’ Then in turn the shaker of the earth Poseidon spoke to her : ‘Now this, divine Iris, was a word quite properly spoken. It is a fine thing when a messenger is conscious of justice.’" Homer, Iliad 18. 167 ff : "Swift wind-footed Iris came running from Olympos with a message for Peleus' son [Akhilleus (Achilles)] to arm. She came secretly from Zeus and the other gods, since it was Hera who sent her. She came and stood close to him and addressed him in winged words : ‘[She relays Hera's message.] . . .’ Then in turn Akhilleus of the swift feet answered her: ‘Divine Iris, what god sent you to me with a message?’ Then in turn swift wind-footed Iris spoke to him : ‘Hera sent me, the honoured wife of Zeus, but the son of Kronos, who sits on high, does not know this, nor any other immortal, of all those who dwell by the snows of Olympos.’" Homer, Iliad 23. 196 ff : "And Iris, hearing his [Akhilleus' (Achilles')] prayer [for winds to fire the pyre of his beloved Patroklos (Patroclus)] . . . went swiftly as messenger to the Winds for him. Now the winds assembled within the house of storm-blowing Zephyros (the West Wind) were taking part in a feast, and Iris paused in her running and stood on the stone doorsill; but they, when their eyes saw her, sprang to their feet, and each one asked her to sit beside them. But she refused to be seated and spoke the word to them : ‘I must not sit down. I am going back to the running waters of Okeanos (Oceanus) and the Aithiopians' (Ethiopians') land, where they are making grand sacrifice to the immortals; there I, too, shall partake of the sacraments. But Akhilleus' prayer is that Boreas and blustering Zephyros may come to him, and he promises them splendid offerings, so that you may set ablaze the funeral pyre, whereon lies Patroklos (Patroclus), with all Akhaians (Achaeans) mourning about him.’ She spoke so, and went away." Homer, Iliad 24. 77 ff : "[Zeus addresses Hera :] ‘It would be better if one of the gods would summon Thetis here to my presence . . .’ He spoke, and Iris storm-footed sprang away with the message, and at a point between Samos and Imbros of the high cliffs plunged in the dark water, and the sea crashed moaning about her. She plummeted to the sea floor like a lead weight . . . She found Thetis inside the hollow of her cave . . . Iris the swift-foot came close beside her and spoke to her : ‘Rise, Thetis. Zeus whose purposes are infinite calls you.’ . . . She [Thetis then] went on her way [to Olympos], and in front of her rapid wind-footed Iris guided her, and the wave of the water opened about them. They stepped out on dry land and swept to the sky." Homer, Iliad 24. 142 ff : "[Zeus] the son of Kronos (Cronus) stirred Iris to go down to sacred Ilion [Troy], saying : ‘Go forth, Iris the swift, leaving your place on Olympos, and go to Priamos (Priam) of the great heart within Ilion, tell him to . . . [He relates his message about the ransom of the body of Hektor (Hector).]’ He spoke, and storm-footed Iris swept away with the message and came to the house of Priamos . . . The messenger of Zeus stood beside Priamos and spoke to him in a small voice, and yet the shivers took hold of his body : ‘Take heart Priamos, son of Dardanos, do not be frightened. I come to you not eyeing you with evil intention but with the purpose of good toward you. I am a messenger of Zeus, who far away cares much for you and is pitiful. The Olympian orders you to . . . [Iris repeats Zeus' message verbatim.]’ So Iris the swift-footed spoke and went away from him." Stasinus of Cyprus or Hegesias of Aegina, Cypria Fragment 1 (from Proclus, Chrestomanthia) (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or 7th B.C.) : "Iris informs Menelaos (Menelaus) of what has happened at his home [i.e. that Paris has abducted Helene]." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 14. 467 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) : "[Athena sends Iris to Aiolos (Aeolus) to summon a storm to wreck the Greek fleet :] Iris sped unto Aiolos (Aeolus), from heaven far-flying over misty seas, to bid him send forth all his buffetting Anemoi (Winds) o'er iron-bound Kaphereus' (Caphareus') cliffs to sweep ceaselessly, and with ruin of madding blasts to upheave the sea. And Iris heard, and swift she darted, through cloud-billows plunging down--thou hadst said : ‘Lo, in the sky dark water and fire!’ And to Aiolia (Aeolia) came she, isle of caves, of echoing dungeons of mad-raging winds with rugged ribs of mountain overarched, whereby the mansion stands of Aiolos Hippotas' son. Him found she therewithin with wife and twelve sons; and she told to him Athena's purpose toward the homeward-bound Akhaians (Achaeans). He denied her not [and released his storm winds]." MESSENGER IRIS & THE VOYAGE OF AENEAS Iris, Faliscan red-figure calyx krater C4th B.C., Museum of Fine Arts Boston Ovid, Metamorphoses 14. 85 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "The fleet [of Aeneas] that Iris Junonia [Juno-Hera's envoy], nearly fired, cast off and left behind Hippotades' [Aiolos' (Aeolus')] domain." Virgil, Aeneid 5. 606 ff (trans. Day-Lewis) (Roman epic C1st B.C.) : "For, while they [Aeneas and his men in Italy] perform the rites at the tomb with various contests, Iris has been despatched from heaven by Hera, on the wings of a favouring wind, to the Trojan fleet : the goddess has certain designs; unappeased as yet is her old resentment. Unseen by any, the virginal Iris speeds to earth, sliding along the curve of a rainbow of many colours. She observes the vast assembly, and then, scanning the shore, sees the deserted harbour, the ships left unattended. But, by themselves, at a distance, upon a lonely beach the Trojan women lamented . . . Iris, who was an expert at trouble-making, put off now her heavenly mien and raiment, went quickly amongst them and joined the group of Trojan matrons, transformed into the likeness of Beroe : ‘[And persuaded the Roman maidens set fire to the ships] . . .’ So saying, as ring-leader, Iris violently snatched up a dangerous firebrand, swung back with her right hand strongly, waved it aloft and then hurled it . . . But now, spreading her wings, the goddess took off from earth, describing a rainbow arc under the clouds as she flew. Then indeed, amazed at the miracle, driven by a frenzy, all crying out . . . [they hurled flaming] greenery, twigs, torches onto the ships." Virgil, Aeneid 9. 2 ff : "Hera sent down Iris from heaven to the fiery [the Italian king] Turnus . . . Rose-lipped Iris, daughter of Thaumas, thus addressed him : ‘[Delivering a message from Hera, inciting him against Aeneas] . . .’ So she said; then soaring to heaven on balanced wings, blazed a rainbow trail beneath the clouds as she flew. Turnus recognised her divinity, raised his two hands heavenwards, and sent these words after the fleeting goddess : ‘Iris, glory of the sky, who was it conveyed you, cloud-borne, down to me here on earth?’" MESSENGER IRIS & HYPNUS GOD OF SLEEP Iris was often described acting as an intermediary between Hera queen of the gods and Hypnos the god of sleep. Ovid, Metamorphoses 11. 585 (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Hera addresses Iris :] ‘Iris, my voice's trustiest messenger, hie quickly to the drowsy hall of Somnus (Sleep) [Hypnos], and bid him send a dream of Ceyx drowned to break the tidings to [his wife] Alcyone.’ Then Iris, in her thousand hues enrobed traced through the sky her arching bow and reached the cloud-hid palace of the drowsy king. Near the Cimmerii a cavern lies deep in the hollow of a mountainside, the home and sanctuary of lazy Somnus [Hypnos] . . . There Iris entered, brushing the Somnia (Dreams) [Oneiro] aside, and the bright sudden radiance of her robe lit up the hallowed place; slowly the god his heavy eyelids raised, and sinking back time after time, his languid drooping head nodding upon his chest, at last he shook himself out of himself, and leaning up he recognized her and asked why she came, and she replied : ‘Somnus [Hypnos], quietest of the gods, Somnus, peace of all the world, balm of the soul, who drives care away, who gives ease to weary limbs after the hard day's toil and strength renewed to meet the morrow's tasks, bid now thy Somnia (Dreams), whose perfect mimicry matches the truth, in Ceyx's likeness formed appear in Trachis to Alcyone and feign the shipwreck and her dear love drowned. So Juno [Hera] orders.’ Then, her task performed, Iris departed, for she could no more endure the power of Somnus [Hypnos], as drowsiness stole seeping through her frame, and fled away back o'er the arching rainbow as she came . . . The old god chose Morpheus to undertake Thaumantias' [Iris'] commands." Statius, Thebaid 10. 80 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "She [Juno-Hera] determines to make the Aonians [Thebans during the War of the Seven], sunk in the timeless bliss of slumber, a prey to death, and bids her own Iris gird herself with her wonted circles, and commits to her all her task. Obedient to command, the bright goddess leaves the pole and wings her way down her long arc to earth [to the halls of Somnus-Hypnos the god of sleep] . . . Hither from the blue sky came in balanced flight the varicoloured maid [Iris the rainbow]; the forests shine out, and the shady glens smile upon the goddess, and smitten with her zones of radiance the palace starts from its sleep; but he himself, awoken neither by the bright glow nor by the sound or voice of the goddess, lay motionless as ever, till the Thaumantian [Iris] shot at him all her splendours and sank deep into his drowsy vision. Then thus began to speak the golden fashioner of clouds : ‘Somnus [Hypnos], gentlest of the gods, Juno [Hera] bids thee bind fast the Sidonian [Theban] leaders and the folk of ruthless Cadmus, who now, puffed up by the issue of fight, are watching in ceaseless vigil the Achaean rampart, and refuse thy sway. Grant so solemn a request--rarely is this opportunity vouchsafed, to win the favour of Jove [Zeus] with Juno [Hera] on thy side.’ She spoke, and with her hand beat upon his languid breast, and charged him again and yet again, lest her message be lost. He with his own nodding visage nods assent to the goddess’ command; o'er-weighted with the caverns’ gloom Iris goes forth, and tricks out her beams, made dim by showers of rain." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 31. 103 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "Hera made her way brooding to the waters of Khremetes [Chremetes, a river of North Africa] in the west . . . and she sought out the wife of jealous Zephyros (West-Wind), Iris (Rainbow), the messenger of Zeus when he is in a hurry--for she wished to send her swift as the wind from heaven with a message for shadowy Hypnos (Hypnus, Sleep). She called Iris then, and coaxed her with friendly words : ‘Iris, goldenwing bride of plantnourishing Zephyros, happy mother of Eros (Love) [i.e. Pothos]! Hasten with stormshod foot to the home of gloomy Hypnos in the west. Seek also about seagirt Lemnos, and if you find him tell him to charm the eyes of Zeus uncharmable for one day, that I may help the Indians. But change your shape, take the ugly form of Hypnos' mother the blackgirdled goddess Nyx (Night); take a false name and become darkness . . . Promise him Pasithea for his bride, and let him do my need from desire of her beauty. I need not tell you that one lovesick will do anything for hope.’ At these words, Iris goldenwing flew away peering through the air . . . seeking the wandering track of vagrant Hypnos (Sleep). She found him on the slopes of nuptial Orkhomenos (Orchomenus) . . . Then Iris changed her shape, and all unseen she put on the look of dark Nyx unrecognisable. She came near to Hypnos, weaving guile; and in his mother’s guise uttered her deceitful speech in cajoling whispers . . . Iris begged him to fasten Kronion with slumber for the course of one day only . . . Then goddess Iris returned flying at speed and hastened to deliver her welcome message to her queen." MESSENGER IRIS MYTHS MISCELLANY Hera and Iris, Athenian red-figure lekythos C5th B.C., Rhode Island School of Design Museum In Greek vase painting Iris is depicted leading the procession of the gods to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Ovid, Metamorphoses 14. 829 (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Hersilie (Hersilia), his [Romulus the King of Rome's] consort, mourned his loss, and royal Juno [Hera] bade Iris descend her rainbow and exhort the widowed queen [to visit the grove of her apotheosed husband, the god Quirinus] . . . Iris obeyed and gliding down to earth along her many-coloured bow addressed Hersilie in the words prescribed; and she in awe and reverence would hardly raise her eyes. ‘Goddess,’ she answered, ‘who thou art I cannot well surmise, but clear it is thou art a goddess.’ . . . Quickly she reached the hill of Romulus with Thaumantea [Iris]. There a star from heaven dropped gliding to the ground and by its glow set the queen's hair ablaze, and with the star Hersilie ascended to the sky." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 4. 6 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "He [Jupiter-Zeus] moved by the goddesses' [Diana-Artemis and Latona-Leto's] tears and Phoebus' [Apollon's] high renown sends down swift Iris on her rosy cloud [to give Herakles permission to release Prometheus from his bonds]. ‘Go,’ he says, ‘let Alcides [Herakles] . . . rescue the Titan [Prometheus] from the dreadful Bird.’ Fast flies the goddess and bids the hero quickly perform his sire's commands, and pours the glad message into his eager ears." Statius, Thebaid 12. 138 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "Iris [sent by Juno-Hera] is bidden cherish the dead bodies [of the Argives who died at Thebes forbidden burial by Kreon (Creon)] of the princes, and laves their decaying limbs with mysterious dews and ambrosial juices, that they may resist the longer and await the pure, nor perish before the flames have seized them." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 13. 1 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "Father Zeus sent Iris to the divine halls of Rheia, to inform wakethefray Dionysos, that he must drive out of Asia with his avenging thyrsus the proud race of Indians untaught of justice: he was to sweep from the sea the horned son of a river, Deriades the king, and teach all nations the sacred dances of the vigil and the purple fruit of vintage. She paddled her way with windswift beat of wings, and entered the echoing den of stabled lions. Noisless her step she stayed, in silence voiceless pressed her lips, a slave before the forest queen. She stood bowing low, and bent down her head to kiss Rheia’s feet with suppliant lips. Rheia unsmiling beckoned, and the Korybantes (Corybantes) served her beside the bowl of the divine table. Wondering she drank a sop of the newfound wine, delighted and excited; then with heavy head the spirit told the will of Zeus to the son of Zeus : ‘O mighty Dionysos! Your father bids you destroy the race of Indians, untaught of piety. Come, lift the thyrsus of battle in your hands, and earnheaven by your deeds. For the immortal court of Zeus will not receive you without hard work, and the Horai (Horae, Seasons) will not open the gates of Olympos to you unless you have struggled for the prize. Hermeias (Hermes) hardly could win his way to heaven, and only when he had killed with his rod Argos the cowherd, sparkling with eyes from his feet to the hair of his head, and when he had set Ares free from prison [captured in a jar by the Aloidai (Aloadae)]. Apollon mastered Delphyne [Python], and then he came to live in the sky. Even your own father, chief of the Blessed, Zeus Lord in the Highest, did not rise to heaven without hard work, he the sovereign of the stars: first he must bind fast those threateners of Olympos, the Titanes, and hide them deep in the pit of Tartaros. You also do your work, after Apollon, after Hermaon (Hermes), and your prize for your labours will be a home in your father's heaven.’ With these words the goddess returned to Olympos." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 20. 188 ff : "Dionysos, did not escape the jealousy of trick-stitching Hera. Still resentful of your divine birth, she sent her messenger Iris on an evil errand, mingling treacherous persuasion with craft, to bewitch you and deceive your mind; and she gave her an impious poleaxe, that she might hand it to the king of Arabia, Lykourgos (Lycurgus), Dryas' son. The goddess made no delay. She assumed a false pretended shape of Ares, and borrowed a face like his. She threw off her embroidered saffron robes, and put on her head a helmet with nodding plume, donned a delusive corselet, as the mother of battle, a corselet stained with blood, and sent froth from her grim countenance, like a man, battlestirring menaces, all delusion. Then with fluent speech she mimicked the voice of Enyalios [Ares] : ‘My son, scion of invincible Ares [and persuades Lykourgos to attack Dionysos] . . .’ So he spoke, and goldenwing Iris divine smiled to hear; then went her way, paddling in the false shape of a falcon . . . And Iris, by Hera's command, put the winged shoe on her feet, and holding a rod like Hermes the messenger of Zeus, flew up to warn of what was coming. To Bakkhos (Bacchus) in corselet of bronze she spoke deceitful words : ‘Brother, son of Zeus Allwise, put war aside, and celebrate your rites with Lykourgos, a willing host . . .’ So she cajoled him, and the shoes carried her high into the air." MESSENGER IRIS IN COMEDY The appearance of Iris in Greek comedy was anticipated by her earlier appearance in the satyr-plays of the tragedians. Aristophanes, Birds 574 (trans. O'Neill) (Greek comedy C5th to 4th B.C.) : "Hermes is a god and has wings and flies, and so do many other gods. First of all, Nike (Victory) flies with golden wings, Eros (Love) is undoubtedly winged too, and Iris is compared by Homer to a timorous dove." Aristophanes, Birds 1196 ff (trans. O'Neill) (Greek comedy C5th to 4th B.C.) : "[In this comedy the Birds have built a fortress in the air blocking the gods' access to the earth :] Leader of the Chorus [of Birds] : Scan all sides with your glance. Hark! methinks I can hear the rustle of the swift wings of a god from heaven. (The Machine brings in Iris (Goddess of the Rainbow), in the form of a young girl.) Pisthetairos (Pisthetaerus) : Hi! you woman! where, where, are you flying to? Halt, don't stir! keep motionless! not a beat of your wing! (She pauses in her flight.) Who are you and from what country? You must say whence you come. Iris : I come from the abode of the Olympian gods. Pisthetairos : What's your name, ship or head-dress? Iris : I am swift Iris. Pisthetairo s: Paralos or Salaminia? Iris : What do you mean? Pisthetairos : Let a buzzard rush at her and seize her. Iris : Seize me? But what do all these insults mean? Pisthetairos : Woe to you! Iris : I do not understand it. Pisthetairos : By which gate did you pass through the wal [of the city of the birds]l, wretched woman? Iris : By which gate? Why, great gods, I don't know. Pisthetairos : You hear how she holds us in derision. Did you present yourself to the officers in command of the jays? You don't answer. Have you a permit, bearing the seal of the storks? Iris : Am I dreaming? Pisthetairos : Did you get one? Iris : Are you mad? Pisthetairos : No head-bird gave you a safe-conduct? Iris : A safe-conduct to me. You poor fool! Pisthetairos : Ah! and so you slipped into this city on the sly and into these realms of air-land that don't belong to you. Iris : And what other roads can the gods travel? Pisthetairos : By Zeus! I know nothing about that, not I. But they won't pass this way. And you still dare to complain? Why, if you were treated according to your deserts, no Iris would ever have more justly suffered death. Iris : I am immortal. Pisthetairos : You would have died nevertheless.-Oh! that would be truly intolerable! What! should the universe obey us and the gods alone continue their insolence and not understand that they must submit to the law of the strongest in their due turn? But tell me, where are you flying to? Iris : I? The messenger of Zeus to mankind, I am going to tell them to sacrifice sheep and oxen on the altars and to fill their streets with the rich smoke of burning fat. Pisthetairos : Of which gods are you speaking? Iris : Of which? Why, of ourselves, the gods of heaven. Pisthetairos : You, gods? Iris : Are there others then? Pisthetairos : Men now adore the birds as gods, and it's to them, by Zeus, that they must offer sacrifices, and not to Zeus at all! Iris (in tragic style) : Oh! fool! fool! fool! Rouse not the wrath of the gods, for it is terrible indeed. Armed with the brand of Zeus, justice would annihilate your race; the lightning would strike you as it did Likymnios and consume both your body and the porticos of your palace. Pisthetairos : Here! that's enough tall talk. Just you listen and keep quiet! Do you take me for a Lydian or a Phrygian and think to frighten me with your big words? Know, that if Zeus worries me again, I shall go at the head of my eagles, who are armed with lightning, and reduce his dwelling and that of Amphion to cinders. I shall send more than six hundred porphyrions (water-hens) clothed in leopards' skins up to heaven against him; and formerly a single Porphyrion [the giant-king that attacked heaven] gave him enough to do. As for you, his messenger, if you annoy me, I shall begin by getting between your thighs, and even though you are Iris, you will be surprised at the erection the old man can produce; it's three times as good as the ram on a ship's prow! Iris : May you perish, you wretch, you and your infamous words! Pisthetairos : Won't you get out of here quickly? Come, stretch your wings or look out for squalls! Iris : If my father [Zeus] does not punish you for your insults . . . (The Machine takes Iris away.)" POETIC TITLES & EPITHETS Iris had several poetic titles and epithets. Greek Name
Messenger
If an animal uses thanatosis as self-protection, what does it do?
IRIS, Greek Mythology Index IRIS ΙΡΙΣ A daughter of Thaumas (whence she is called Thaumantias , Virg. Aen. ix. 5) and Electra , and sister of the Harpies . (Hes. Theog. 266, 780; Apollod. i. 2. § 6; Plat. Theaet. p. 155. d; Plut. de Plac. Philos. iii. 5.) In the Homeric poems she appears as the minister of the Olympian gods, who carries messages from Ida to Olympus, from gods to gods, and from gods to men. (Il. xv. 144, xxiv. 78, 95, ii. 787, xviii. 168, Hymn. in Apoll. Del. 102, &c.) In accordance with these functions of Iris, her name is commonly derived from erô eirô; so that Iris would mean "the speaker or messenger:" but it is not impossible that it may be connected with eirô, "I join," whence eirênê ; so that Iris, the goddess of the rainbow, would be the joiner or conciliator, or the messenger of heaven, who restores peace in nature. In the Homeric poems, it is true, Iris does not appear as the goddess of the rainbow, but the rainbow itself is called iris (Il xi. 27, xvii. 547): and this brilliant phenomenon in tile skies, which vanishes as quickly as it appears, was regarded as the swift minister of the gods. Her genealogy too supports the opinion that Iris was originally the personification of the rainbow. In the earlier poets, and even in Theocritus (xvii. 134) and Virgil (Aen. v. 610) Iris appears as a virgin goddess; but according to later writers, she was married to Zephyrus , and became by him the mother of Eros . (Eustath. ad Hom. pp. 391, 555; Plut. Amat. 20.) With regard to her functions, which we have above briefly described, we may further observe, that the Odyssey never mentions Iris, but only Hermes as the messenger of the gods: in the Iliad, on the other hand, she appears most frequently, and on the most different occasions. She is principally engaged in the service of Zeus , but also in that of Hera , and even serves Achilles in calling the winds to his assistance. (Il. xxiii. 199.) She further performs her services not only when commanded, but she sometimes advises and assists of her own accord (iii. 122, xv. 201. xviii. 197. xxiv. 74, &c.). In later poets she appears on the whole in the same capacity as in the Iliad, but she occurs gradually more and more exclusively in the service of Hera, both in the later Greek and Latin poets. (Callim. Hymn. in Del. 232; Virg. Aen. v. 606; Apollon. Rhod. ii. 288, 432; Ov. Met. xiv. 830, &c.) Some poets describe Iris actually as the rainbow itself, but Servius (ad Aen v. 610) states that the rainbow is only the road on which Iris travels, and which therefore appears whenever the goddess wants it, and vanishes when it is no longer needed: and it would seem that this latter notion was the more prevalent one in antiquity. Respecting the worship of Iris very few traces have come down to us, and we only know that the Delians offered to her on the island of Hecate cakes made of wheat and honey and dried figs. (Athen. xiv. p. 645; comp. Müller, Aegin. p. 170.) No statues of Iris have been preserved, but we find her frequently represented on vases and in bas-reliefs, either standing and dressed in a long and wide tunic, over which hangs a light upper garment, with wings attached to her shoulders, and carrying the herald's staff in her left hand; or she appears flying with wings attached to her shoulders and sandals, with the staff and a pitcher in her hands.
i don't know
Of the eight British kings called Edward, which one had the longest reign?
Frequently Asked Questions | Britroyals Frequently Asked Questions When did the last British King fight in a battle? George II was the last British King to lead his army in person, during the War of the Austrian Succession, at the Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria, 27th June, 1743. The last English King to die in battle was Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in Leicestershire on 22 August 1485 defeated by Henry Tudor who became Henry VII ending the Wars of the Roses between the Houses of York and Lancaster and starting the Tudor dynasty. The last British King to die in battle was James IV of Scotland killed at the Battle of Flodden Field in Northumberland on 9 September 1513 when the Scots invaded England hoping to take advantage of Henry VIII's absence in France, but were defeated by English forces under Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey. How far back can the British Royal Family trace their roots? Is Queen Elizabeth II really directly descended from Alfred the Great? She is the 32nd great granddaughter of King Alfred who 1,140 years ago was the first effective King of England. He ruled from 871 to 899. I thought that American Independence was in 1776. Why is it quoted as 1783? The Continental Congress of the 13 American colonies declared independence in 1776. However, the war continued and independence from Britain was not achieved until the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Was George III really mad? For most of his reign King George III was an astute king and politician with a strong sense of duty. Later in his reign he suffered from recurrent and eventually permanent mental illness. This baffled medical science at the time, although it is now generally thought that he suffered from the inherited blood disease porphyria. He suffered his first attack in 1788 and by 1810 was unfit to rule. In 1811 his son George, Prince of Wales, became Regent for 9 years until his father died in 1820. Who would now be King or Queen if Edward VIII had not abdicated? Edward VIII abdicated in 1936 less than a year after becoming King to marry Wallis Simpson. His younger brother Bertie became King George VI and was the father of the present Queen Elizabeth II . He died in 1952, and Edward who had no children died in 1972. So even if Edward had not abdicated Elizabeth would now be Queen. She would have come to the throne in 1972 instead of 1952. Why did Edward VIII have to give up the throne to marry a divorcee but Prince Charles is still in line to the throne? Royals who are divorced or marry divorcees do not lose their position in the line of succession. Edward VIII had a number of affairs with married women including Wallis Simpson who was already divorced and still married to her second husband. His parents King George V and Queen Mary did not approve and refused to meet her. When George V died Prime Minister Baldwin made it clear that the Government, popular opinion in the country and the oversees Dominions (now the Commonwealth nations) did not approve of his plans to marry Wallis. Social attitudes towards divorce and a women looking for a third marriage were considered scandalous at the time, and if Edward married against the advice of his Ministers it would have caused the Government to resign and a constitutional crisis. Edward chose to abdicate. The 1772 Royal Marriages Act requires members of the Royal Family to obtain permission from the Sovereign to marry. Queen Elizabeth II gave her permission for Prince Charles to marry Camilla, and more recently for Prince William to marry Catherine Middleton. Would Princess Diana have become Queen? If Prince Charles had become King during their marriage then she would have been his consort with the title Queen Diana. They divorced in 1996 and she died in a car crash in Paris on 31st August 1997. Although popularly known as 'Princess Diana' this was not her title - because she became a princess by marrying Prince Charles her title was Princess Charles Philip Arthur George, Princess of Wales, or more simply Diana, Princess of Wales. Who is Prince Henry shown as fourth in line to the Throne? What about Prince Harry? Prince Harry's name is Henry Charles Albert David . Harry is his nickname Is Kate Middleton the first commoner to marry an heir to the throne? The Queen's husband Prince Philip is a direct descendant of Queen Victoria, Diana's family had titled ancestry and Camilla is the granddaughter of a baron. Prince William's wife Catherine (Kate) nee Middleton comes from a middle class background with no aristocratic or titled connections. She is not however the first commoner to marry a future king. Notably Anne Hyde first wife of King James II, and Elizabeth Woodville, who married King Edward IV in 1464 and became a key figure in the Wars of the Roses were commoners with no direct connections to nobility. Edward VIII married Wallis Simpson but had already abdicated as King. Why are William and Harry referred to as Wales when their name is Windsor? Members of the Royal Family who are titled His (or Her) Royal Highness do not traditionally need or use a surname. Windsor is the name of the Royal House to which they belong. Their titles are HRH Prince William of Wales and HRH Prince Henry of Wales . During their tours of duty with the Armed Forces, the Princes chose to show their surname as Wales. Members of the royal family who are not HRH (for example Prince Edward's children Louise and James) use the surname Mountbatten-Windsor. Why are Prince Andrew's daughters princesses when Prince Edward's daughter is not? Also why do Princess Anne's children Peter and Zara not have titles? You become a prince by being the son of a prince, or princess by being the daughter of a prince or by marrying a prince. So Prince Andrew's daughters are Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie. The Queen's daughter Princess Anne has the title Princess Royal, but her children Peter and Zara do not have titles. It is traditional that they would have been made a Duke and Duchess or Earl and Countess, but it is understood that Princess Anne asked the Queen not to give her children titles so they could live as private individuals. Prince Edward declined to be made a Duke on his marriage and became Earl of Wessex, so that his wife Sophie is Countess of Wessex. The Royal Family is descended directly from the Anglo-Saxon Kings of Wessex. On their marriage is was anounced that their children would not be titled Prince and Princess but as the children of an Earl, so they are Lady Louise and James Viscount Severn. Why are Roman Catholics excluded from the Line of Succession to the British throne? In 1534 Henry VII I broke with the Church of Rome over his divorce from Catherine of Aragon and made himself Head of the Church of England. Every King or Queen since Elizabeth 1 has held the title 'Supreme Governor of the Church of England' and 'Defender of the Faith'. As it is a Protestant Church all those in the Royal line of succession and their spouses have to be Protestants. The Act of Settlement (1701) laid down that only Protestant heirs of Princess Sophia, granddaughter of James I, may succeed to the British throne. Neither Catholics, nor those who marry a Catholic, nor those born out of wedlock, may remain in the line of succession. Prince Charles has let it be known that when he becomes King he will take the title 'Defender of Faith' instead of' 'Defender of the Faith' to include faiths other than the established Church of England. In Aprl 2013 the Succession to the Crown Bill 2013 changed the succession laws so that a person is not disqualified from succeeding to the Crown as a result of marrying a Roman Catholic . They will however not be allowed to become a Roman Catholic as the British Monarch is head of the Protestant Church of England. Why are younger brothers higher in the line of succession than their older sisters? The line of succession to the British throne used until recently the system of male primogeniture whereby younger sons have precedence over their older sisters. So Prince Andrew and Prince Edward are above their older sister Princess Anne in line of succession, and Prince Edward's son James is above his sister Louise. While male precedence may now be considered to be out of line with current 'equal-rights' thinking and is proposed to be changed, it has not prevented some of the most successful and longest reigning British monarchs from being queens including Queen Elizabeth I, Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II. It does allow the succession to inherit through the female line, so the children of daughters can succeed to the throne as is the case with the current Queen. The French and German monarchies used a system of Salic law whereby females had no right to inherit and could not pass it to their offspring. The last time that the British throne passed to a son in precedence to a first born daughter was when Queen Victoria's son Edward VII inherited the throne over his older sister Princess Victoria. Had she become queen she would have been Queen Victoria II and her son Kaiser Wilhelm II would have also been King William V and ruled over a huge combined British and German Empire. This could have significantly changed 20th century European history with the 1st World War unlikely to have happened as it did but replaced with other nationalist, republican and fascist struggles leading possibly to the downfall of both monarchies and a changed map of Europe. In Aprl 2013 the Succession to the Crown Bill 2013 changed the succession laws so that a person is able to marry a Roman Catholic and remain in the line of successsion, and the right of male primogeniture no longer applies to children born after 28 October 2011. It meant that if the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge's first child had been a girl and their second a boy, male primogenture would no longer have applied and he would not have had precedence over his older sister. However, their first child born on 22 July 2013 was a boy Prince George so it did not apply. Their second child Princess Charlotte will not lose her place even if she has a younger brother. This current line of succession is shown at Line of Succession. King William IV was 64 years old when he became king in 1830 and succeeded his elder brother George IV. Prince Charles the current heir to the throne became 68 on 14th November 2016 and is now the longest waiting heir to the throne. Edward VII became king after the death of his mother Queen Victoria in 1901 when he was 59 years and 2 months old. Kings & Queens by age of accession to the throne . Could the Queen choose to pass the throne directly to Prince William? The Queen cannot choose. Prince Charles as her eldest son and Prince of Wales is next in line to the throne and will become King as long as he is living when the Queen dies or should she abdicate. It would require a change to British constitutional law for this not to happen. Will Charles become King George VII? Charles can choose to rule as King Charles III or take another name. Kings often take a different regnal (ruling) name from their first given name. Charles' grandfather George VI was Prince Albert ("Bertie") before he became king, and his great great grandfather Edward VII was also Prince Albert. King Charles I was beheaded in 1649 after the English Civil War, and Charles II was popularly known as the 'merrie' monarch as he had so many mistresses. Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) the Stuart pretender to the throne styled himself Charles III before he was defeated at Culloden in 1746. It is thought possible that Prince Charles may choose to become King George VII after his grandfather. Will Camilla become Queen? Prince Charles and Camilla were married on 9th April 2005. She was given the title Duchess of Cornwall because of sensitivity following the death of Diana. As the wife of the Prince of Wales her title should be Princess of Wales and, although before the marriage it was announced that she would take the title Princess consort, she is expected to become Queen consort when Charles becomes King. Is there a royal connection between Camilla's family and the royal family? In 1889 Camilla's great-grandmother Alice Keppel was the mistress of Edward VII when he was Prince of Wales. Edward VII was the great-great-grandfather of Prince Charles the current Prince of Wales. Why is the Queen's husband Prince Philip not King Philip? The husband of a queen is known as a Prince consort and does not become King. Queen Victoria's husband was Prince Albert, and Queen Elizabeth's husband is Prince Philip The Duke of Edinburgh . The wife of a king is a Queen consort and does take the title Queen although she does not rule as the monarch. The only exceptions were William III and Mary II who ruled jointly from 1689 until Mary's death in 1694. Were Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip related before their marriage? The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh are both great great grandchildren of Queen Victoria . The Queen is a direct descendant of Queen Victoria’s eldest son King Edward VII and the Duke of Edinburgh is a direct descendant of Queen Victoria’s daughter Princess Alice. What relation is Queen Elizabeth II to King George III ? George III was her 3rd great grandfather. If you you follow the line of succession on her grandfather's side - George VI (father), George V (grandfather), Edward VII (great grandfather), Victoria (2nd great grandmother) , Edward Duke of Kent (3rd great grandfather), George III (4th great grandfather) - then he was her 4th great grandfather. However her grandmother Queen Mary of Teck was also descended from George III - she and George V were 2nd cousins once removed. If you follow Queen Elizabeth's line through her grandmother - George VI (father), Queen Mary (grandmother), Mary Adelaide (great grandmother), Adolphus of Hanover (2nd great grandfather), George III (3rd great-grandfather) - he is more closely related as her 3rd great grandfather. You can see this on the Royal Family tree . How rich is Queen Elizabeth? Her estimated personal fortune is around £350 million (US $435M). The Duchy of Lancaster estate, a portfolio of land, property and assets, is held in trust for the monarch and worth around £348 million. She also owns properties privately that have never been valued, including Sandringham House, Balmoral Castle reputedly worth £160 million and the Castle of Mey. Her investment portfolio in blue-chip British companies is around £110 million, her personal art collection is worth at least £2 million, and she owns personal jewellery and a large stamp collection built up by her grandfather George V. Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, the Crown Jewels and the Royal Art Collection are held in trust for the nation. The Crown Estate, which manages on behalf of the monarch the property and land owned by the Crown, including properties in Regent Street and St James in London, offshore wind farms around Britain's coast and rural estates in Scotland, is worth around £11 billion and generates £285 million (2014/15) income a year. This income is given to the national Treasury for use in public finances, in return for a grant (£38 million in 2012) for the cost of running the monarchy. This arrangement dated from 1760 when George III gave up the right to the income from the Crown's estates in return for a Civil List paid to members of the Royal Family. In 2013 this changed to a Sovereign Support Grant based on 15% of the income from the Crown Estate. This means that for the year from April 2016 the nation will keep £242.2 million of the Crown Estates income, and the monarchy will receive £42.7 miilion towards the cost of the Royal household, their travel, attending formal functions and repairs to buildings including Kensington Palace which is the home of Prince William, the Duchess of Cambridge and their children Prince George and Princess Charlotte. Does the Queen pay taxes? Yes, in 1992 The Queen offered to pay income tax and capital gains tax on a voluntary basis. Since 1993, her personal income has been taxable as for any other UK taxpayer. Does the Queen rule or does Parliament? The British Monarchy is a constitutional monarchy in which the King or Queen reigns as Head of State but with limits to their power, and the day-to-day government is carried out by Parliament. The political party with the most elected seats in the House of Commons elects a Prime Minister who is invited by the monarch to form a government. A new Parliament is opened by the monarch in an official ceremony, and the Prime Minister during his or her term in office regularly meets with the King or Queen to discuss political matters and events. How many British Prime Ministers and US Presidents have there been during the Queen's reign? Queen Elizabeth II has worked with 13 different Prime Ministers since she became Queen: Winston Churchill (1951-55), Anthony Eden (1955-59), Harold Macmillan (1959-63), Alec Douglas-Home (1963-64), Harold Wilson (1964-70 & 1974-76), Edward Heath (1970-74), James Callaghan (1976-79), Margaret Thatcher (1979-90), John Major (1990-97), Tony Blair (1997-2007), Gordon Brown (2007-2010), David Cameron (2010-2016) and Theresa May (2016 - present). There have been 12 US Presidents during her reign: Harry Truman (1945-1953), Dwight Eisenhower (1953-61), John Kennedy (1961-63), Lyndon Johnson (1963-69), Richard Nixon (1969-74), Gerald Ford, (1974-77), James Carter (1977-81), Ronald Reagan (1981-89), George Bush (1989-93), William Clinton (1993-2001), George W Bush (2001-09), Barack Obama, (2009-present). There have been 7 Archbishops of Canterbury and 7 Popes during her reign. Which King or Queen reigned for the longest time? The longest reigning British monarch is Queen Elizabeth II who including today has reigned for 64 years, 11 months, and 13 days which is the longest reign in over 1,200 years of British History. On 10th September 2015 she surpassed her great great grandmother Queen Victoria who reigned for 63 years, 7 months and 2 days from 1837-1901. See Kings and Queens by length of reign . Which King or Queen reigned for the shortest time? Edward VI named his cousin Lady Jane Grey as his successor and she was proclaimed queen on July 10, 1553 by her father-in-law the Duke of Northumberland. She was 16 years old. Meanwhile Edward's half sister Mary eldest daughter of Henry VIII was also proclaimed queen. The situation was resolved 9 days later on July 19 1553 when Mary arrived in London and was proclaimed as the rightful queen. Mary was crowned Queen on Oct 1, 1553. Lady Jane Grey was executed on February 12, 1554. Another who was not crowned was Edward V . His father Edward IV died on April 9, 1483, but he was usurped by his uncle Richard III who proclaimed himself king 2 months later on June 26 and crowned on July 6, 1483. The date that Edward died is unknown - he was presumed murdered with his brother in the Tower of London at sometime in September that year. The shortest reigning crowned king was Edmund II for 7 months from 25 April - 30 November 1016. Kings and Queens by length of reign . Which King had the most illegitimate children? Henry I is purported to have had 20-25 illegitimate children by at least six women, but few details are known. Charles II famously fathered numerous illegitimate children, of whom he acknowledged fourteen. His mistresses included Lucy Walter (2 children), Moll Davis (1) , Nell Gwyne (2), Louise de Keroualle (1), Barbara Villiers (6), Elizabeth Killigrew (1), Catherine Pegg (1), Frances Stuart (became the face of Britannia on coins), and at least five others. William IV had 10 illegitimate children born between 1794 and 1807 by his mistress actress Dorothea Bland (known as Mrs Jordan). Is David Cameron descended from royalty? How close would he be in line to the throne? David Cameron, the previous British Prime Minister, is the great, great, great grandson of Elizabeth Fitzclarence (Jan 17, 1801 - Jan 16, 1856) who was an illegitimate daughter of William IV and his mistress Irish actress Dorothea Bland who was known by her stage name as 'Mrs Jordan'. They lived together for 20 years when he was Duke of Clarence and had 5 sons and 5 daughters. When he became heir to the throne William married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen but they had no surviving children so when he died having no legitimate children his niece Victoria became Queen. David Cameron is the 5th cousin, twice removed of Queen Elizabeth II, but illegitimate lines have no claim to the throne. The Royal Marriage act of 1772, instigated by William IV's father George III, requires members of the royal family to obtain permission from the monarch to marry. So William and Dorothea would have had to get permission from his brother George IV to marry and it would also have required ratification by Parliament. She was Catholic and would have had to renounce her Catholic faith for William to remain in the line of succession to the throne. In the very unlikely event that they had been allowed to marry and had done so before their children were born then their eldest son George Augustus would have had a claim to the throne. His great grandson Geoffrey Fitzclarence, 5th Earl of Munster, was a Conservative politician in Winston Churchill's government. David Cameron's line through their 3rd daughter Elizabeth would have had only a very remote claim. How big was Henry VIII? When Henry VII I came to the throne in April 1509 he was 17 years old, 6ft 2in tall, and had pale skin, blue eyes and auburn hair. He was physically active and enjoyed sport, hunting and jousting. A Venetian visitor described him as 'His Majesty is the handsomest potentate I ever set eyes on, a vigorous player of tennis, rider of horses, and skilled wrestler'. However he became fatter with age and gluttony. His suits of armour show that in 1512 he had a 32 inch waist , which increased to 35 inch by 1520s, and then grew to an enormous 54 inch by 1545. He suffered increasingly of ill health, swelling of the joints and an ulcerated leg claimed to have been caused by a jousting accident. His pain added to his mood swings and unpredictable temper. In 1544 his portrait shows him puffy and bloated. By 1546 he could hardly walk and was carried around on a wooden chair . He had to be winched on to his horse and his armour cut open to accommodate his swollen legs. He is estimated to have weighed 25 stone (350 lbs or 158kg) when he died in January 1547 Why was Queen Mary I known as Bloody Mary? Queen Mary's father Henry VIII split with Rome over his divorce from her mother Catherine of Aragon and made himself head of the Protestant Church of England. When she became queen, Mary sought to re-establish Roman Catholicism as the official religion and carried out persecution of Protestant clergy and followers. Over 200 died including Thomas Cranmer and several bishops who were burnt at the stake between 1555 and Mary's death in 1558. She was succeeded by her half sister Elizabeth I , daughter of Ann Boleyn, who re-established Protestantism as the official Church of England. How many British monarchs have been killed while they were king or queen? - King Edmund I was killed in 946 during a feast at Pucklechurch, Gloucestershire, by an outlawed robber. - King Edward The Martyr was murdered by members of Aethelred's household at Corfe Castle in 978 - King Edmund II Ironside was assassinated in London in 1016 - King Harold II was killed by an arrow in his eye at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. - King William I The Conqueror suffered a fatal internal injury in 1087 after being thrown against the pommel of his saddle near Nantes in France. - King William II Rufus was killed in 1100 with an arrow while hunting in the New Forest. Supposedly an accident, it has been suggested that he was shot deliberately on the instructions of his brother Henry. - Richard I The Lion Heart was killed by a crossbow bolt while besieging Châlus-Chabrol in France in 1199. - Edward II was murdered in 1327 at Berkeley Castle on the orders of his wife, Isabella - Richard II was starved to death in 1400 while imprisioned in Pontefract castle. He had been forced to abdicate in 1399 by his cousin Henry IV Bolingbroke. - Henry VI was murdered in the Tower of London in 1471 during the 'Wars of the Roses' between the Lancastrians and Yorkists. - Edward V and his younger brother were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1483 and never seen again. Their fate remains a mystery but the two princes are believed to have been murdered on orders from their uncle Richard III. - Richard III was killed in 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth Field. - Henry VIII executed two of his six wives, Anne Boleyn in 1536 and Catherine Howard in 1542. - Charles I was executed by Parliament in 1649 following the Civil War. Scottish Kings killed include James II at Roxburgh in 1460 when a cannon exploded, James III in battle near Stirling in 1488 by supporters of his son, James IV by Henry VIII's forces at Flodden in 1513, and Mary Queen of Scots executed in 1587 on orders from her cousin Elizabeth I. Why was Edward I not Edward IV as he followed Edward the Elder, Edward the Martyr & Edward the Confessor? The practice of using Roman numerals to distinguish kings and queens started only after there had been several with the same name, and particularly when there was a succession of father, son, grandson like Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III. Before then it was common for chroniclers and historians to use sobriquets such as Edward the Elder, Edward the Martyr, Edward the Confessor, Edmund Ironside, Aethelred the Unready, Alfred the Great, Harold Harefoot etc before this became impractical. It would be interesting to consider how the present Queen would be known if she were to be referred to in this way. 'Elizabeth the Great', 'Elizabeth the Steadfast ', 'Elizabeth the Dutiful', have been suggested, as well as 'Elizabeth the Diplomat' for her work and visits to so many countries, 'Elizabeth the Survivor' referring to her reign as the longest in British history,'Elizabeth the Wise', 'Elizabeth the Magnificent', 'Elizabeth the Supreme', 'Elizabeth the Faithful' for her untiring service over 60 years to her people and the Commonweatlh, 'Elizabeth the Enduring', 'Elizabeth the Correct', 'Elizabeth,the Benevolent', 'Elizabeth,the Tolerant', 'Elizabeth the Stalwart', 'Elizabeth the Beloved' and 'Elizabeth Britannia'. If you have a suggestion please contact us . What about King Arthur of the knights of the round table and Camelot? King Arthur is a legend and folklore of a Celtic king who fought to defend Britain from Saxon invaders in the 6th century. There is no historical evidence that he existed. Interestingly, Henry VII sought to revive the legend naming his eldest son Arthur. Unfortunately Prince Arthur died in 1502 aged 15 before he became King. His younger brother Henry followed his father instead and became Henry VIII . Why was there no king or queen between 1649 and 1660? The English Civil War (1642-1649) was fought between the royalist forces loyal to King Charles I and the parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. The Royalist were defeated at the Battle of Naseby in 1645 and following attempts to organize a Scottish invasion, Charles was caught and executed on January 30, 1649. It was the first time a British monarch had ever been publicly executed in recorded history. After the execution of the King, a republic was declared known as the Commonwealth of England (1649-1653) and then the Protectorate (1653-1658) with rule by parliament under Cromwell. Following his death in 1658, Cromwell was succeeded briefly by his son Richard before the monarchy was restored and Charles II became king in 1660. What is the Stone of Destiny? The Stone of Destiny is a symbolic stone that was used in the crowning of Kings of Scotland at the Palace of Scone in Perthshire, Scotland. It is a block of sandstone which measures approximately 26 inches long x 16 wide x 11 high which rested beneath the throne. According to legend it was brought to Scotland by Fergus Mor from Ireland, where it had reached by way of Spain and Egypt from the Holy Land. It was used in the crowning of kings from Kenneth MacAlpin in 841 to John Balliol in 1292. In 1296 King Edward I of England took the stone to London where it was kept in Westminster Abbey for use in coronations. In 1950 a group of students stole the stone and took it back to Scotland in two pieces which were repaired by a Glasgow stone mason. They left it at Arbroath Abbey from where it was returned to Westminster Abbey. In 1996 the British Government decided in response to calls by Scottish nationalists to return it to Scotland. It arrived back on St Andrews Day 30 November 1996, almost exactly 700 years after it had been removed by Edward, and is now in Edinburgh Castle. When did Wales become part of the United Kingdom? Wales became incorporated into England under the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, after it had been annexed by Edward I of England in 1282. Edward dubbed his eldest son Edward Prince of Wales, since which time the eldest son of each English monarch has borne the same title. In the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, Wales became legally part of the Kingdom of England, and subsequently part of the United Kingdom. When did Scotland become part of the United Kingdom? The Crowns of England and Scotland were united in 1603 when James VI King of Scotland became James I King of England. In October 1604, one year later , he decreed that the Royal Title would use the term Great Brittaine to refer to the "one Imperiall Crowne" made up of England and Scotland. However despite James' wishes political union between Scotland and England did not take place until 1707 in the reign of Queen Anne. See union of the United Kingdom . When did Ireland become part of the United Kingdom? Ireland became part of the United Kingdom in 1800 when the Act of Union with Ireland was passed by both the Irish and British parliaments Why is Northern Ireland part of the United Kingdom when Southern Ireland is a different country? Northern Ireland, predominantly Protestant, and Southern Ireland, Catholic, split in 1920 with 6 of the 9 counties of Ulster remaining within the United Kingdom, and the remaining 26 counties being given home rule under the Government of Ireland Act. In 1922 the Southern counties became the Irish Free State and then since 1949 the Republic of Ireland.  
Edward III of England
Which mineral, whose principal use is for tobacco pipes, takes its popular name from the German for 'Sea Foam'?
Medieval Kings of England Medieval Kings of England ... as compiled by Paul M. Remfry Edward the Confessor, 1042 to 1066 Brought up in Normandy, the reign of the Confessor saw the beginning of a close alliance with Normandy. Many Norman barons were brought into England to control the Welsh Marches and castles were first built in the kingdom. It would seem likely that Edward promised the Crown to Duke William of Normandy in 1051. King Harold II, 1066 Harold had been the power behind Edward's throne since 1055 and was elected King of the English by most of the English noble classes. King William I, the Conqueror, 1066 to 1087 King William "inherited" the English throne as heir to Edward the Confessor, with, after the battle of Hastings, substantial support from the remaining English nobility. Until 1071 the reign was spent suppressing English rebellions. After that date, by which time much of the English nobility had been eliminated, William had mainly Continental problems to deal with. The conquest of much of Wales was undertaken in the years 1070 to 1085. When William died the chronicles generally agreed that he was a good, but stern king. It had been possible during his reign for a man to walk with his pockets full of gold from one end of William's realm to the other with no-one touching him through their fear of the king. King William II, Rufus, 1087 to 1100 Second son of William the Conqueror, William had the sternness and military ability of his father, but not his sense of justice. His court was renowned for its brutality and licentiousness and the king was often at variance with the church. He faced major rebellions in 1088 and 1095 though he succeeded in crushing them, largely due to the loyal support of the English. King Henry I, 1100 to 1135 As able as his brother, Rufus, but with a keen sense of justice. The royal administrative corps really came into its own in his reign. The first seven years of Henry's rule was spent in protecting England and then conquering Normandy from his eldest brother, Duke Robert. He ruled with an iron fist like his father and looked secure both in England and on the Continent until 1120 when his only legitimate son and heir was killed in a naval tragedy. He settled the Welsh rebellion of his brother's reign and fortified Wales with many castles. The end of his reign was dominated by a succession crisis where Henry forced his barons to support his daughter, Matilda, as heir. King Stephen, 1135 to 1141 The favourite nephew of Henry I, broke his oath and assumed the kingship of England with the assent of the barons of England and Normandy. His character soon showed severe flaws for a king and as the English put it, he was found "to be soft". From 1136 onwards crisis followed crisis and England and Normandy slipped into Civil War. Empress Matilda, 1141 to 1142 Only legitimate daughter of Henry I to whom the Crown was promised in her father's lifetime. On her father's death Stephen was elected. In 1139 her half brother, Earl Robert of Gloucester, and Miles Gloucester rebelled from King Stephen in her favour. Stephen was defeated and captured in February 1141 and Matilda, the widow of the Emperor of Germany, began her short reign as Empress of the English. Her ill temper and brutal manner soon exasperated the English and she was chased out of London and by the end of 1142 she had been reduced to control of much of the South and West of England, King Stephen, released from captivity continuing his reign. Normandy was taken from Stephen by Matilda's second husband, Geoffrey of Anjou in 1144, both titles passing to their son, another Henry. King Stephen, 1142 to 1154 By 1147 the civil war in England had effectively ended with most of the important, industrious and populated parts of the kingdom remaining under Stephen's ineffectual rule. In 1153, Duke Henry of Normandy, the son of the Empress Matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou, invaded the kingdom and was recognised as Stephen's heir in place of his two sons, Eustace and William. King Henry II, 1154 to 1189 Henry succeeded King Stephen in October 1154, apparently after surviving a poisoning attempt by Stephen's supporters. He ruled his Empire of Britain, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Poitou and Aquitaine with an iron rod and was the first king of England to add Ireland to his domains. With his fiery red hair and equally fiery nature, probably inherited from his mother, the Empress, Henry proved a king to be reckoned with and for 35 years he dominated Western Christendom as the most influential monarch of the day. His masterfulness was seriously challenged by the Thomas a Becket murder and the subsequent rebellion of his sons in 1173-74. He was hounded to his death at Chinon by his eldest surviving son in the summer of 1189. King Richard I, Lionheart, 1189 to 1199 Second and eldest surviving son of Henry II. Richard had little interest in Britain, except for using it as a bank to finance his Middle Eastern and Continental ambitions. As soon as he had succeeded his father, Richard began selling the offices of state to raise money for his cherished crusade. England during his time was run by a series of Justiciars who in effect were regents. Richard only returned to his kingdom once in 1194 to put down the rebellion of his brother Prince John and to be crowned a second time. The rest of his reign was spent in incessant wars in France. King John, Lackland, 1199 to 1216 King John, also known as Lackland or Softsword, was the youngest son of Henry II. Between 1200 and 1204 he fought increasingly losing campaigns to hold onto his Continental possessions. In England he was responsible for refining the government and was instrumental in the spread of literacy. King John, despite his bad reputation, was possibly one of the most learned of all the English kings. He was a keen historian and lawgiver who enjoyed nothing more than to stand in judgement on his peoples. This keen sense of involvement in the running of the kingdom no doubt helped antagonise his baronage, who quite rightly thought that their many privileges were under threat. Magna Carta was the work of an admittedly unwilling King John and his impressive legal advisors, not the rag tag army of discontented barons who faced him at Runnymede. In 1216 when faced by the invasion of a French army he refused to fight them on the coast as, we are told, his history books well reminded him of the fate of a previous king in 1066 who did just that! John's refusal to risk all on one decisive battle led to the long civil war of 1216-8. He died of dysentery at Newark in October 1216 after the infamous loss of his treasure in the Wash. King Henry III, 1216 to 1272 Henry III came to the throne aged only 7 years old and immediately was placed under the tutelage of what should be recognized as a regency led by the old warrior, William Marshall . The first years of his reign saw the country brought back to his fealty until by 1220 most of the land and even Wales was peaceful. The death of the old Earl Marshall did not materially change the set up of Henry's government, and always a weak man he tended to appoint 'strong men' to run the country. Henry's inability to rule as his barons thought fit brought about sporadic rebellions against his ministers of which the outbreak of 1233-34 was one of the worst. Towards the end of the 1250's this discontent was focused in the Marches of Wales where the Marchers had been having a hard time from the attentions of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd. In 1258 at the Mad Parliament of Oxford, the barons led by the earls of Gloucester and Leicester commenced the reformation of the government which effectively shackled the absolute monarchy of Henry III and his predecessors with a more or less democratically elected council. This new design worked sporadically until 1263 when Henry, aided by barons who no longer wanted the burden of running the country thrust upon them, helped Henry 'regain his independence'. Unfortunately this led to a bloody civil war known as the Barons' War which lasted until 1266 by which time Henry III had been effectively superseded in the running of the country by his eldest son and heir, the Lord Edward. Henry, wounded at the battle of Evesham on 4 August 1265, contentedly allowed Edward to install a regency government when he left the country in 1270 on crusade. Henry passed away peacefully in November 1272, leaving the government of the kingdom in the hands of the regency council until the return of Edward two years later. Edward I , The Hammer of the Scots, 1272 to 1307 Edward was a far different character from his father and soon put the country on a footing he preferred. In 1276-77 he brought Llywelyn ap Gruffydd to heel as well as putting the finances of the country back in order after the disasters of the previous reign. In 1282 he was surprised by a Welsh revolt and by the April of 1283 he had subjugated the whole of Wales, killing Llywelyn and capturing his brother Dafydd. Even this proved insufficient to totally overawe Wales and Edward faced further revolts in 1287 and 1295, though neither were as serious as the wars of 1277 and 1282. With the conquest of Wales Edward began a massive castle building project that is still rightly seen as one of the wonders of the thirteenth century. Towards the end of his reign Edward became increasingly embroiled in bringing Scotland under his direct rule in a similar manner to that which he had achieved in Wales and this proved by and large to be his undoing. The Welsh campaigns had made heavy drains on the Exchequer and Edward turned more and more to imposing unjust taxes on his peoples and antagonizing his baronage. The conquest of Scotland failed largely because of Edward's success in Wales, he had spent his money and this is why no military masterpieces like Caernarfon or Harlech are to be found in Scotland, where Edward had to content himself more with wooden peels like the one he built at Linlithgow. An increasingly beleaguered Edward, abandoned in some of his campaigns by some of his previously most loyal barons, died crossing the border into Scotland again in 1307. Edward II, 1307 to 1327 After such a forthright and powerful monarch it was not surprising that his successor should be so weak. Edward II had few of the redeeming features of his father and much more resembled his grandfather. His idea of a good time was living as a rustic on his own play farm while the government of the kingdom was left to less than honest favourites. As a result his reign was punctuated by sporadic explosions amongst his discontented baronage and the rise of a new movement called the Ordainers, who in many respects were the descendants of the reformers of 1258. The Ordainers were decisively defeated in 1322, but Edward failed to capitalize on his success. Instead he was overthrown by his queen and her paramour and put to a grisly 'end' in the dungeons of Berkeley Castle. Edward III, 1327 to 1377 Initially under the tutelage of his mother and her lover, Roger Mortimer of Wigmore , Edward III bided his time. In 1330 he struck, seizing Mortimer and having him executed. With this Edward re-opened the war with Scotland and then against France having realised that the defeat of Scotland was not possible whilst they received French aid. This helped start the 100 year's war which was the major feature of the reign. War of course needed money and to this end Edward reformed the coinage and came increasingly to rely on parliament to organise the economy and deal with law and order within the realm. Richard II, 1377 to 1399 The 10 year old Richard succeeded his grandfather in 1377 and immediately his regency council faced all sorts of problems, economic, social, political and constitutional which helped lead in 1381 to the Peasant's Revolt. Then for the first time was heard the rhyme "When Adam delved and Eve span / Who was then the gentleman?" The revolt was ended with the death of Wat Tyler and the young King Richard making various promises to the rebels. However as soon as order was restored the king went back on his promises with the words "Villeins ye are and villeins ye shall remain." The new king was soon set on a path of tyranny and clashed often with his parliament, being defeated by them in 1388 at the battle of Radcot Bridge. Declaring himself of age he then proceeded to rule by fear and attempted to reduce parliament to a talking shop. In 1399 Henry Bolingbroke landed at Ravenspur while the king was in Ireland and rapidly had the country rise in his favour. At the end of September Henry, in English rather than French, declared himself king as heir of Henry III and by right of conquest. Richard passed on to a bitter end at Pontefract Castle, either by smothering or self-starvation. Henry IV, 1399 to 1413 Henry's reign was punctuated by repeated rebellions in the North and the Glyndwr rebellion in the West. Despite this he successfully held the Crown and passed it on to his son, Henry V, though their relationship was always uneasy. Henry's reign is also a convenient point to stop our short review of the monarchs of England, for his reign effectively ended all military use of castles in Brecknock .   After visiting this page, please take the time to visit Mr Remfry's own web site for more up to date information about his published works, and to learn how his research approach to the study of castles is winning widespread acclaim from the academic community. The site features many of Mr Remfry's own photographs, short descriptions of his published works, as well as planned works for the future. Best of all, you can purchase any of Mr Remfry's published titles at very reasonable rates via the easy-to-use order page. Ever wonder what new and exciting things are happening in the field of British castle research? Visit Paul Remfry's web site and find out for yourself!  
i don't know
Which planet's two largest moons have the suitably watery names of Triton and Nereid?
Space Today Online - Moons of the Solar System SPACE TODAY ONLINE ~~ COVERING SPACE FROM EARTH TO THE EDGE OF THE UNIVERSE Moons of the Solar System Massive planet Jupiter below the moon Io click NASA image to enlarge A moon is a natural satellite rotating around a planet. While moons vary in size, each moon is much smaller than its planet. Almost 140 moons are known in the Solar System. Several moons are larger than the planet Pluto and two moons are larger than the planet Mercury. There also are many small moons that may be asteroids captured by their planets. Only Mercury and Venus do not have any moons. By comparison, Earth has one moon and Mars has two. Jupiter has the most of any planet. Saturn is second. Pictures taken by the Hubble Space Telescope suggest there may be even more moons around those outer planets. earth's moon » Largest. The largest moon is Ganymede with a diameter of 3,280 miles, even larger than either of the planets Mercury and Pluto. Saturn's moon Titan is the second largest in the Solar System with a diameter of 3,200 miles, half again as large as Earth's Moon. The Planets and Their Moons PLANET Jupiter 62 Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, Amalthea, Himalia, Elara, Pasiphae, Sinope, Lysithea, Carme, Ananke, Leda, Metis, Adrastea, Thebe, Callirrhoe, Themisto, Kalyke, Iocaste, Erinome, Harpalyke, Isonoe, Praxidike, Megaclite, Taygete, Chaldene, Autonoe, Thyone, Hermippe, Eurydome, Sponde, Pasithee, Euanthe, Kale, Orthosie, Euporie, Aitne, plus others yet to receive names Saturn 33 Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus, Mimas, Hyperion, Prometheus, Pandora, Phoebe, Janus, Epimetheus, Helene, Telesto, Calypso, Atlas, Pan, Ymir, Paaliaq, Siarnaq, Tarvos, Kiviuq, Ijiraq, Thrym, Skadi, Mundilfari, Erriapo, Albiorix, Suttung, plus others yet to receive names Uranus 27 Cordelia, Ophelia, Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Portia, Rosalind, Belinda, Puck, Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, Oberon, Caliban, Sycorax, Prospero, Setebos, Stephano, Trinculo, plus others yet to receive names Neptune Triton, Nereid, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Proteus, plus others yet to receive names Pluto 139   Saturn. When the Cassini spacecraft from Earth arrived at Saturn in 2004, it promptly found two previously unseen moons. They turned out to be the smallest bodies seen until then around the ringed planet. The tiny natural satellites are about 2 miles and 2.5 miles in diameter. That's smaller than the city of Boulder, Colorado. Previously, the smallest moons seen around Saturn were are about 12 miles across. The moons are 120,000 miles and 131,000 miles from the center of planet Saturn between the moons Mimas and Enceladus. The newly discovered bodies were labeled S/2004 S1 and S/2004 S2. Later, they will be given names. The NASA JPL team wondered if S/2004 S1 might not be an object called S/1981 S14 that had turned up in a 1981 Voyager image. Saturn moons » Smallest. The smallest moon is Deimos, at Mars, only seven miles in diameter, although its size now is rivaled by the small shepherd moons discovered by Cassini at Saturn and by others yet to be counted and named in the rings around Jupiter, Saturn and other giant gas planets in the outer Solar System. There may be tiny moons as small as only around a mile across. Pluto. Charon is the moon closest in size to its planet, Pluto. Earth's Moon is second in that comparison. Neptune. The interplanetary probe Voyager 2 in 1989 found six previously-unknown moons orbiting Neptune. They ranged in diameter from 33 miles to 250 miles. In 1991, they were named Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Proteus. The names Galatea and Larissa were controversial since asteroids previously had been given those names. Names are assigned by the nomenclature committee of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Triton. Before Voyager 2, astronomers knew Neptune had two moons, Triton and Nereid. With a surface temperature of –391 degrees, Triton was found by Voyager 2 to have a thin veneer of methane and nitrogen on top of water ice on its surface. Triton had been thought to have a diameter of 2,361 miles, close in size to Earth's Moon, but turned out to be smaller, around 1,690 miles. Nereid is 210 miles in diameter. Pan. A new moon only 12 miles in diameter was discovered in 1990 circling the planet Saturn. It was Saturn's 18th and most distant moon. Photos of the planet, moons and rings, left over from the 1981 Saturn flyby by Voyager 2, had been filed away at NASA's Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California, for a decade. A planetary scientist was tipped off to Pan's presence by a disturbance in a 200-mi.-wide gap — Encke's Gap — in Saturn's outermost A ring. Pan's gravity moved particles in the large A ring, creating a gap with waves along the edges like the wake of a motorboat. Checking the wavy edges, he calculated the probable position and mass of the moon and compared them with Voyager 2 positions and camera angles in 1980-81. When finally uncovered, the moon stood out as a small bright spot in 11 pictures among 30,000 photos scanned by a computer. In 1991, the moon officially was named Pan. It was the second time since Neptune was discovered in 1894 that a gravity disturbance had been used to pinpoint a previously-unknown Solar System body. Inner Solar System. The inner Solar System includes the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Of all the known moons in our Solar System, only three are in the inner region. Mars has two. Earth has one. Mercury and Venus are the only planets without moons. The outer Solar System includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto and the rest of the moons. More moons are discovered each year in the outer Solar System by astronomers using ever more powerful equipment. Atmospheres. Most moons are airless, but Jupiter's Io, Saturn's Titan and Neptune's Triton seem to have atmospheres. Titan may be flooded with an ocean of liquid ethane. Triton may be covered by an ocean of liquid nitrogen. Io seems to have a thin sulphur dioxide atmosphere from volcanos. Titan. Titan appears to have an organic chemistry in its atmosphere which may resemble the primitive Earth before the dawn of life. It is the only moon known to have a thick, organic-rich nitrogen atmosphere. Surface temperature is around –290 degrees Fahrenheit. Solar System's moons are listed below: Exploring the Moons of the Outer Solar System The moons of the outer planets are popular targets with planners of future spaceflights. Jupiter has more moons than any other planet. Its best known moons are the four large planet-sized bodies Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. jupiter » Callisto is the outermost of the four and the most heavily cratered body in the Solar System. It may have a vast water ocean indside. Io is innermost of the four. This sulfurous moon is the most volcanic world in our Solar System. It is peppered with hundreds of volcanoes, several of which might be active at any given moment. Europa has an icy surface that may hide a layer of warm slush or even liquid water. That would make it one of the few places in the Solar System with that life-sustaining liquid. Ganymede is the largest moon of Jupiter and the largest moon in the Solar System. In fact, Ganymede is larger in diameter than the planet Mercury and much larger than the planet Pluto. Ganymede has its own magnetic field. Saturn has some unique moons. Here are some examples: Titan is Saturn's largest moon. Mimas has an enormous crater – probably a hole caused by a meteorite. Enceladus has a very bright surface. It may have active water volcanoes. Tethys has a canyon running three-quarters of the way around its surface. That means it may once have been split almost in half. Dione and Rhea have wispy white markings on one side. Hyperion is oddly shaped and the length of its day is constantly changing. Iapetus is half bright and half dark. Pan, by comparison, is a very tiny moon. Its diameter is only 20 km, which on the sale above would be only half the size of a BB. Uranus' moons are eye-openers. They have statuesque mountains towering more than ten miles high. Incredibly deep valleys. Vast plains, some with a mysterious dark surface. Moon diameters range from a bit fatter than 25 miles up to about 1,100 miles.
NEPTUNE
Huby's Tower is a feature of which ruined abbey?
The moons of Neptune The moons of Neptune September 9, 2015 by Matt Williams, Universe Today Neptune and its moons. Credit: NASA Neptune, that icy gas giant that is the eight planet from our Sun, was discovered in 1846 by two astronomers – Urbain Le Verrier and Johann Galle. In keeping with the convention of planetary nomenclature, Neptune was named after the Roman god of the sea (the equivalent to the Greek Poseidon). And just seventeen days after it was discovered, astronomers began to notice that it too had a system of moons. Initially, only Triton – Neptune's largest moon – could be observed. But by the mid-20th century and after, thanks to improvements in ground-based telescopes and the development of robotic space probes, many more moons would be discovered. Neptune now has 14 recognized satellites, and in honor of of their parent planet, all are named for minor water deities in Greek mythology. Discovery and Naming: Triton, being the largest and most massive of Neptune's moons, was the first to be discovered. It was observed by William Lassell on October 10th, 1846, just seventeen days after Neptune was discovered. It would be almost a century before any other moons would be discovered. The first was Nereid, Neptune's second largest and most massive moon, which was discovered on May 1st, 1949, by Gerard P. Kuiper (for whom the Kuiper Belt is named) using photographic plates from the McDonald Observatory in Fort Davis, Texas. The third moon, later named Larissa, was first observed by Harold J. Reitsema, William B. Hubbard, Larry A. Lebofsky and David J. Tholen on May 24th, 1981. The discovery of this moon was purely fortuitous, and occurred as a result of the ongoing search for rings similar to those discovered around Uranus four years earlier. If rings were in fact present, the star's luminosity would decrease slightly just before the planet's closest approach. While observing a star's close approach to Neptune, the star's luminosity dipped, but only for several seconds. This indicated the presence of a moon rather than a ring. No further moons were found until Voyager 2 flew by Neptune in 1989. In the course of passing through the system, the space probe rediscovered Larissa and discovered five additional inner moons: Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea and Proteus. In 2001, two surveys using large ground-based telescopes – the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory and the Canada-France-Hawaii telescopes – found five additional outer moons bringing the total to thirteen. Follow-up surveys by two teams in 2002 and 2003 respectively re-observed all five of these moons – which were Halimede, Sao, Psamathe, Laomedeia, and Neso. And then on July 15th, 2013, a team of astronomers led by Mark R. Showalter of the SETI Institute revealed that they had discovered a previously unknown fourteenth moon in images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope from 2004–2009. The as yet unnamed fourteenth moon, currently identified as S/2004 N 1, is thought to measure no more than 16–20 km in diameter. In keeping with astronomical convention, Neptune's moons are all taken from Greek and Roman mythology. In this case, all are named for gods of the sea, or for the children of Poseidon (which include Triton, Proteus, Depsina and Thalassa), minor Greek water dieties (Naiad and Nereid) or Nereids , the water nymphs in Greek mythology (Halimede, Galatea, Neso, Sao, Laomedeia and Psamathe). However, many of the moons were not officially named until the 20th century. The name Triton, which was originally suggested by Camille Flammarion in his 1880 book Astronomie Populaire , but not into common usage until at least the 1930s. Inner (Regular) Moons: Neptune's Regular Moons are those located closest to the planet and which follow circular prograde orbits that lie in the planet's equatorial plane. They are, in order of distance from Neptune: Naiad (48,227 km), Thalassa (50,074 km), Despina (52,526 km), Galatea (61,953 km), Larissa (73,548 km), S/2004 N 1 (105,300 ± 50 km), and Proteus (117,646 km). All but the outer two are within Neptune-synchronous orbit (meaning that orbit Neptune slower than it's orbital period (0.6713 days) and thus are being tidally decelerated. The inner moons are closely associated with Neptune's narrow ring system. The two innermost satellites, Naiad and Thalassa, orbit between the Galle and LeVerrier rings, whereas Despina orbits just inside the LeVerrier ring. The next moon, Galatea, orbits just inside the most prominent Adams ring and its gravity helps maintaining the ring by containing its particles. Hubble Space Telescope composite picture showing the location of a newly discovered moon, designated S/2004 N 1. Credit: NASA, ESA, and M. Showalter (SETI Institute). Based on observational data and assumed densities, Naiad measures 96 × 60 × 52 km and weighs approximately 1.9 x 1017 kg. Meanwhile, Thalassa measures 108 x 100 × 52 km and weighs 3.5 x 1017 kg; Despina measures 180 x 148 x 128 and weighs 21 x 1017 kg; Galatea measures 204 x 184 x 144 and weighs 37.5 x 1017 kg; Larissa measures 216 x 204 x 168 and weighs 49.5 x 1017 kg; S/2004 N1 measures 16-20 km in diameter and weighs 0.5 ± 0.4 x 1017 kg; and Proteus measures 436 x 416 x 402 and weighs 50.35 x 1017 kg. Only the two largest regular moons have been imaged with a resolution sufficient to discern their shapes and surface features. Nevertheless, with the exception of Larissa and Proteus (which are largely rounded) all of Neptune's inner moons are believed to be elongated in shape. In addition, all the inner moons dark objects, with geometric albedo ranging from 7 to 10%. Their spectra also indicated that they are made from water ice contaminated by some very dark material, probably organic compounds. In this respect, the inner Neptunian moons are similar to the inner moons of Uranus. Outer (Irregular) Moons: Neptune's irregular moons consist of the planet's remaining satellites (including Triton). They generally follow inclined eccentric and often retrograde orbits far from Neptune; the only exception is Triton, which orbits close to the planet following a circular orbit, though retrograde and inclined. In order of their distance from the planet, the irregular moons are Triton, Nereid, Halimede, Sao, Laomedeia, Neso and Psamathe, a group that includes both prograde and retrograde objects. With the exception of Triton and Nereid, Neptune's irregular moons are similar to those of other giant planets and are believed to have been gravitationally captured by Neptune. In terms of size and mass, the irregular moons are relatively consistent, ranging from approximately 40 km in diameter and 4 x 1016 kg in mass (Psamathe) to 62 km and 16 x 1016 kg for Halimede. Triton and Nereid: Triton and Nereid are unusual irregular satellites and are thus treated separately from the other five irregular Neptunian moons. Between these two and the other irregular moons, four major differences have been noted. First of all, they are the largest two known irregular moons in the Solar System. Triton itself is almost an order of magnitude larger than all other known irregular moons and comprises more than 99.5% of all the mass known to orbit Neptune (including the planet's rings and thirteen other known moons). Secondly, they both have atypically small semi-major axes, with Triton's being over an order of magnitude smaller than those of all other known irregular moons. Thirdly, they both have unusual orbital eccentricities: Nereid has one of the most eccentric orbits of any known irregular satellite, and Triton's orbit is a nearly perfect circle. Finally, Nereid also has the lowest inclination of any known irregular satellite With a mean diameter of around 2700 km and a mass of 214080 ± 520 x 1017 kg, Triton is the largest of Neptune's moons, and the only one large enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. is spherical in shape). At a distance of 354,759 km from Neptune, it also sits between the planet's inner and outer moons. The video will load shortly Triton follows a retrograde and quasi-circular orbit, and is composed largely of nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide and water ices. With a geometric albedo of more than 70% and a Bond albedo as high as 90%, it is also one of the brightest objects in the Solar System. The surface has a reddish tint, owning to the interaction of ultraviolet radiation and methane, causing tholins. Triton is also one of the coldest moons in the Solar System, with surface temperature of about 38 K (235.2 °C). However, owing to the moon being geologically active (which results in cryovolcanism) and surface temperature variations that cause sublimation, Triton is one of only two moons in the Solar System that has a substantial atmosphere. Much like it's surface, this atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen with small amounts of methane and carbon monoxide, and with an estimated pressure of about 14 ?bar. Triton has a relatively high density of about 2 g/cm3 indicating that rocks constitute about two thirds of its mass, and ices (mainly water ice) the remaining one third. There also may be a layer of liquid water deep inside Triton, forming a subterranean ocean. Surface features include the large southern polar cap, older cratered planes cross-cut by graben and scarps, as well as youthful features caused by endogenic resurfacing. Because of its retrograde orbit and relative proximity to Neptune (closer than the Moon is to Earth), Triton is grouped with the planet's irregular moons (see below). In addition, it is believed to be a captured object, possibly a dwarf planet that was once part of the Kuiper Belt. At the same time, these orbital characteristics are the reason why Triton experiences tidal deceleration. and will eventually spiral inward and collide with the planet in about 3.6 billion years. Nereid is the third-largest moon of Neptune. It has a prograde but very eccentric orbit and is believed to be a former regular satellite that was scattered to its current orbit through gravitational interactions during Triton's capture. Water ice has been spectroscopically detected on its surface. Nereid shows large, irregular variations in its visible magnitude, which are probably caused by forced precession or chaotic rotation combined with an elongated shape and bright or dark spots on the surface. The video will load shortly Formation: Given the lopsided distribution of mass in its moons, it is widely believed that Triton was captured after the formation of Neptune's original satellite system – much of which would have been destroyed in the process of capture. Many theories have been offered regarding the mechanisms of its capture over the years. The video will load shortly The most widely-accepted is that Triton is a surviving member of a binary Kuiper Belt Object that was disrupted with an encounter with Neptune. In this scenario, Triton's captured was the result of a three-body encounter, where it fell into a retrograde orbit while the other object was either destroyed or ejected in the process. Triton's orbit upon capture would have been highly eccentric, and would have caused chaotic perturbations in the orbits of the original inner Neptunian satellites, causing them to collide and reduce to a disc of rubble. Only after Triton's orbit became circular again could some of the rubble re-accrete into the present-day regular moons. This means it is likely that Neptune's present inner satellites are not the original bodies that formed with Neptune. Global Color Mosaic of Triton, taken by Voyager 2 in 1989. Credit: NASA/JPL/USGS Numerical simulations show that there is a 0.41 probability that the moon Halimede collided with Nereid at some time in the past. Although it is not known whether any collision has taken place, both moons appear to have similar ("grey") colors, implying that Halimede could be a fragment of Nereid. Given its distance from the Sun, the only mission to ever study Neptune and its moons up close was the Voyager 2 mission. And though no missions are currently being planned, several proposals have been made that would see a robotic probe dispatched to the system sometime in the late 2020s or early 2030s. Using the CRIRES instrument on ESO’s Very Large Telescope, a team of astronomers has been able to see that the summer is in full swing in Triton’s southern hemisphere. Credit: ESO
i don't know
In which year did Shakespeare die?
When, Where, How Did William Shakespeare Die? Cause Of Death BBC REPORT ON WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S 400 YEAR ANNIVERSARY Where, When & How Did William Shakespeare Die? 200,000 Google His Cause Of Death SHAKESPEARE'S DEATH is as much of a mystery as his life. Was it syphilis, typhoid, influenza, alcohol or drug abuse that caused his death, or a combination of elements? By Ben Arogundade . [Apr.26.2016] WHEN, WHERE AND HOW did English playwright William Shakespeare die? According to Google, who collate and publish global monthly search statistics, approximately 17,849 internet-users type this collection of queries into their digital devices each month — that adds up to over 200,000 searches per year globally. SHAKESPEARE: WHEN, WHERE & HOW DID HE DIE? So, when, where and how did Shakespeare die? A limited number of facts are known. We know, for example that he died in Stratford-upon-Avon, on April 23, 1616 — his 53rd birthday — and his burial was recorded in the register of the Holy Trinity Church, Stratford. Five years previously, Shakespeare had returned home to Stratford after almost 20 years in London. He was taken seriously ill in the first weeks of 1616 — so much so that on January 18 he issued instructions for the drawing up of his will, which, after various delays, was finally completed on March 25. The exact nature of Shakespeare’s illness, and subsequent death, remains the subject of much speculation. Here are the hypotheses currently debated by scholars: TERTIARY SYPHILIS This is a sexually transmitted disease, the onset of which may occur years or even decades after initial infection, and which was a known killer in Shakespeare’s time. An analysis of his final signatures suggests that he may have been suffering from dystonia in his arm — an involuntary muscle contraction often linked to syphilis. This may explain why Shakespeare retired from playwriting in his later years. TYPHOID William Shakespeare’s house, New Place, was situated next to a small stream, which in those days were known carriers of typhoid — a contagious bacterial disease transmitted by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the faeces of an infected person. It is common in areas of poor sanitation, and with limited access to clean water. The fact that Shakespeare suffered severe fevers for weeks before his death is consistent with typhoid. INFLUENZA There was an epidemic of this viral infection — commonly referred to as flu — during the winter of 1615 and 1616, which Shakespeare could have caught. A doctor at the time noted that fevers had been “especially prevalent in Stratford,” during that period. ALCOHOL ABUSE There is a reference, reported by the Stratford vicar of the time, to a “merry meeting” between Shakespeare and fellow playwright Ben Jonson, in which they “drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted.” DRUG ABUSE The idea that Shakespeare could have indulged in drug abuse is a hot topic amongst scholars. In 2001 traces of cocaine and marijuana were discovered in early 17th-century clay tobacco pipes found near Shakespeare’s home and within the garden of his home. Although there is no proof that they belonged to him, they suggest the culture of drug use within his hometown, which he would have been aware of. Ultimately, perhaps the question of when, where and how William Shakespeare’s died is a combination of some of the aforementioned possibilities, as is often the case. Certainly, the speed of his burial — two days after his death — suggest that Shakespeare died of a contagious disease, and that there was concern about it spreading. The only way to know the truth about whether he died as a result of drug or alcohol abuse or an infectious disease would be to exhume his remains. But, fearful of what might have happened to them after his death, the Bard famously had a curse engraved upon his tomb: Good frend for Jesus sake forebeare, To digg the dust encloased heare; Bleste be the man that spares thes stones, And curst be he that moves my bones. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S SKULL But if getting inside William Shakespeare's grave to find out the exact cause of his death is problematic, perhaps we can find out by analysing it from above. In March 2016, a team of archaeologists and geophysicists from Staffordshire University, led by Kevin Colls, used high tech ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to look into the Bard's grave. To their surprise they found that Shakespeare's skull was missing. Their finding gives credence to an 1879 report in The Argosy magazine that stated that Shakespeare's skull had been stolen from his shallow grave, which was barely a metre deep. The team were the first ever to be allowed permission to undertake the non-invasive archaeological investigation. Perhaps soon, further scans may reveal crucial information about exactly how Shakespeare died. “With projects like this, you never really know what you might find,” said Colls.
one thousand six hundred and sixteen
Which is the largest moon of the dwarf planet, Pluto
When and where did Shakespeare die? | eNotes When and where did Shakespeare die? brendawm | High School Teacher | (Level 1) Educator Posted on December 24, 2007 at 9:10 AM William Shakespeare died at the age of 52, on April 23, 1616. Based on the date of the Old Style, or Julian, calendar of his time. Based on the New Style, or Gregorian, calendar, the date is May 3, 1616. He was buried in the chancel of the Church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford, and his gravestone bears an epitaph supposedly written by Shakespeare himself. It warns: Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. like 8 dislike 2
i don't know
What role on film has been played by Lon Chaney, Claude Raines and Herbert Lom, amongst others?
IMDb: Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Gaston" Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Gaston" 1-50 of 68 names. Robin Wright Robin Virginia Wright was born in Dallas, Texas, to Gayle (Gaston), a national director at Mary Kay, and Freddie Wright, a pharmaceutical executive. She grew up in San Diego, California. She started her professional career as a model in 1980 at age 14, and worked both in Paris and Japan. After finishing high school she decided to become an actress. She got a role on the soap opera Santa Barbara , for which she was nominated three times for a Daytime Emmy. During the first season of the show, she fell in love with fellow cast member Dane Witherspoon , whom she married in 1986. Meanwhile, she starred in The Princess Bride , playing the title role. After leaving the cast of Santa Barbara, she got the starring role in Denial alongside Jason Patric . In 1990, she was in State of Grace , where she met actor Sean Penn , by whom she had a daughter, Dylan Frances, and a son, Hopper Jack. After taking some time off, Robin was back to Hollywood with one the best roles of her career: She played Tara in The Playboys . She was extremely stunning and brilliant. Then, she acted in Toys with Robin Williams , and she gave a funny performance. In 1994, Wright was in the blockbuster hit Forrest Gump , with Tom Hanks . For her performance as Jenny, she got a nomination for a Golden Globe Award. She got a small role in The Crossing Guard , which starred Jack Nicholson . After turning down 14 roles, she played the title role of MGM/UA upcoming Moll Flanders , directed by Pen Densham . Her co-stars are Morgan Freeman and Stockard Channing . She just started to star in Erin Dignam 's Loved , with William Hurt . Hugh Jackman Hugh Michael Jackman is an Australian actor, singer, multi-instrumentalist, dancer and producer. Jackman has won international recognition for his roles in major films, notably as superhero, period, and romance characters. He is best known for his long-running role as Wolverine in the X-Men film series, as well as for his lead roles in the romantic-comedy fantasy Kate & Leopold (2001), the action-horror film Van Helsing (2004), the drama The Prestige and The Fountain (2006), the epic historical romantic drama Australia (2008), the film version of Les Misérables (2012), and the thriller Prisoners (2013). His work in Les Misérables earned him his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor and his first Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy in 2013. In Broadway theatre, Jackman won a Tony Award for his role in The Boy from Oz. A four-time host of the Tony Awards themselves, he won an Emmy Award for one of these appearances. Jackman also hosted the 81st Academy Awards on 22 February 2009. Jackman was born in Sydney, New South Wales, to Grace McNeil (Greenwood) and Christopher John Jackman, an accountant. He is the youngest of five children. His parents, both English, moved to Australia shortly before his birth. He also has Greek (from a great-grandfather) and Scottish (from a grandmother) ancestry. Jackman has a communications degree with a journalism major from the University of Technology Sydney. After graduating, he pursued drama at the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, immediately after which he was offered a starring role in the ABC-TV prison drama Correlli , opposite his future wife Deborra-Lee Furness . Several TV guest roles followed, as an actor and variety compere. An accomplished singer, Jackman has starred as Gaston in the Australian production of "Beauty and the Beast." He appeared as Joe Gillis in the Australian production of "Sunset Boulevard." In 1998, he was cast as Curly in the Royal National Theatre's production of Trevor Nunn 's Oklahoma. Jackman has made two feature films, the second of which, Erskineville Kings , garnered him an Australian Film Institute nomination for Best Actor in 1999. Recently, he won the part of Logan/Wolverine in the Bryan Singer - directed comic-book movie X-Men . In his spare time, Jackman plays piano, golf, and guitar, and likes to windsurf. Ali Liebert Ali Liebert is a 2015 Canadian Screen Award winner ("Best Actress in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Series") for her portrayal of Betty Mcrae in Reelz/Global TV's original hit series, Bomb Girls. In July 2013, she also won a Leo Award for the same character. Most recently she recurred as a gun slinging young widower in the gold rush era series, Strange Empire (CBC). In 2014, the Hollywood Reporter named Ali "Next Generation 15 Hottest Canadian Talents under 35". In 2013, Whistler Film Festival, Elle Canada & Variety named her "Rising Star of the Festival". Variety also featured her as "International Star You Should Know" in their July issue. Ms. Liebert has over 70 credits to her name, including guest appearances on ABC's Motive, FOX's Fringe, The CW's Hellcats, Showtime's Dead Like Me and USA Network's Psych. She has recurred on SyFy's Lost Girl, CBS's Harpers Island, CBC's Intelligence, FOX's Killer Instinct, ABC Family's Kyle XY and many others. Her favourite feature credits include Connor Gaston's THE DEVOUT, Ben Ratner's DOWN RIVER, Laurent Cantet's FOXFIRE and Sook-Yin Lee's YEAR OF THE CARNIVORE. Ali resides in Vancouver & Los Angeles. Ivan Dixon Ivan Dixon, a handsome, mustachioed African-American actor and director who carried a strong, serious nature about his solid frame, initially earned attention on the ground-breaking stage and film with pronounced themes of social and racial relevance. He would become better known, however, for his ensemble playing in the nonsensical but popular WWII sitcom Hogan's Heroes . His role as a POW radio technician, while heightening his visibility, did little to satisfy his creative needs. Overshadowed by the flashier posturings of stars Bob Crane , Werner Klemperer and John Banner , Ivan eventually left the series, the only one of the original cast to do so. In retrospect, he was among the few African-American male actors in the 1960s, along with Bill Cosby and Greg Morris , to either star or co-star on a major TV series. Born Ivan Nathaniel Dixon III on April 6, 1931, in New York's Harlem, where his parents originally owned a grocery store. Ivan grew up, however, in the South, and as a youngster, was headed towards a life of crime, when he took a keen interest in acting. This helped Ivan to get back on the straight-and-narrow, studying dramatics at Lincoln Academy, a black boarding school in Gaston County, North Carolina. He then graduated from North Carolina Central University (in Durham) with a degree in drama in 1954. Ivan's Broadway debut occurred three years later in William Saroyan 's "The Cave Dwellers", and in 1959 his career took a significant jump after earning the part of Joseph Asagai, the well-mannered Nigerian-born college student, in Lorraine Hansberry 's landmark drama, "A Raisin in the Sun," which starred Sidney Poitier , and was the first play written by a black woman which was produced on Broadway. He and Poitier became lifelong friends. Ivan's early film career included providing stunt double assistance for Poitier in The Defiant Ones . Following minor film parts in the racially-tinged Something of Value , and Porgy and Bess (both of which starred Poitier), he and Poitier recreated their respective Broadway roles in the film version of A Raisin in the Sun , which drew high marks all the way around. Ivan's most mesmerizing film role, however, came a few years later when he and renowned jazz singer Abbey Lincoln starred in the contemporary film drama Nothing But a Man . Starring as a young, aimless railroad worker who gives up his job to marry a school teacher and minister's daughter (Lincoln), Ivan's character matures along the way, as he strives to build a noble, dignified life for the couple, living in a deeply prejudicial South. The film was hailed for its extraordinarily powerful portrayals of black characters and its stark, uncompromising script. The film, which was written by two white documentary filmmakers who spent time in the Deep South in the 1960s, was considered far ahead of its time. Dixon himself never found a comparable role in film again. During this time he was cast dramatically on TV with fine roles on "Perry Mason," "The Twilight Zone," "Laramie" and "The Outer Limits", among others. Following another strong but secondary showing as Poitier's brother in the film A Patch of Blue , Dixon won his "Hogan's Heroes" TV role. While shooting the series, he managed to squeeze in the title role in "The Final War of Olly Winter," a dramatic special which earned him his sole Emmy nomination in 1967. Ivan's post-"Hogan" acting work was limited. Active in the civil rights movement (he served as a president of Negro Actors for Action), he steadfastly refused to play roles that he felt were stereotypical in nature. As a result, he segued himself as a director, and was a noted success, helming hundreds of television productions during the 70s and 80s, including "Nichols," "The Waltons," "The Greatest American Hero," "The Rockford Files," "Magnum, P.I.," "Quincy" and "In the Heat of the Night." Ivan also managed to direct films, including Trouble Man , and the controversial crime drama The Spook Who Sat by the Door , the story of the first black officer in the Central Intelligence Agency who turns revolutionary. This blaxploitation-era movie did not do well upon initial release (the film's title being highly in question) and was quickly pulled from theaters. It subsequently gained cult status. Throughout his career, Ivan actively worked for better roles for himself and other black actors. Among the honors he received were 4 NAACP Image Awards, the National Black Theatre Award and the Paul Robeson Pioneer Award, from the Black American Cinema Society. In his later years, Ivan battled kidney disease, and died of a brain hemorrhage, age 76 in Charlotte, North Carolina. Ivan was survived by his wife of 58 years, Berlie Ray, whom he met while both were college theater students. 2 of their 4 children - Ivan Nathaniel IV and N'Gai Christopher - predeceased him. Of his surviving children, Doris Nomathande and Alan Kimara, Doris has been a documentary filmmaker and was a one-time production assistant on the film Boyz n the Hood . Mel Ferrer Actor/director/producer Mel Ferrer was born Melchor Gaston Ferrer on August 25, 1917, in Elberon, New Jersey. The son of a Cuban-born surgeon and a Manhattan socialite, he went to prep school and attended Princeton University. From the age of 15 he worked in summer stock. After Princeton he became an editor on a small Vermont newspaper and wrote a children's book, "Tito's Hats." He became a chorus dancer on Broadway in 1938 in two musicals and made his New York debut as an actor two years later. After a bout with polio he started in radio as a disc jockey in Texas and Arkansas and rose to producer-director of top-rated shows for NBC in New York. He made a modest debut as a director at Columbia with the low-budget The Girl of the Limberlost , then returned to acting on Broadway to star in Lillian Smith 's "Strange Fruit." He was John Ford 's assistant on The Fugitive . Ferrer made his screen acting debut in Lost Boundaries . He is best remembered for the role of the lame puppeteer in Lili and as Prince Andrei in War and Peace . He directed Claudette Colbert in The Secret Fury and Audrey Hepburn - his wife at the time - in Green Mansions . Ferrer produced the hit Wait Until Dark , also with Hepburn. In the following year, the couple separated and ultimately divorced. Since 1960 had been producing and acting mainly in Europe. Marc Platt One of Hollywood's more high-flying dancers on film, dimpled, robust, fair-haired Marc Platt provided fancy footwork to a handful of "Golden Era" musicals but truly impressed in one vigorous 1950s classic. Born to a musical family on December 2, 1913 in Pasadena, California as Marcel Emile Gaston LePlat, he was the only child of a French-born concert violinist and a soprano singer. After years on the road, the family finally settled in Seattle, Washington. Following his father's death, his mother found a job at the Mary Ann Wells' dancing school while young Marc earned his keep running errands at the dance school. He eventually became a dance student at the school and trained with Wells for eight years who saw great potential in Marc. It was Wells who arranged an audition for Marc with the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo when the touring company arrived in Seattle. The artistic director Léonide Massine accepted him at $150 a week and changed his name to Marc Platoff in order to maintain the deception that the company was Russian. A highlight was his dancing as the Spirit of Creation in Massine's legendary piece "Seventh Symphony". Platt also choreographed during his time there, one piece being Ghost Town (1939), which was set to music by Richard Rodgers . While there he met and married (in 1942) dancer Eleanor Marra. They had one son before divorcing in 1947. Ted Le Plat , born in 1944, became a musician as well as a daytime soap and prime-time TV actor. Anxious to try New York, Marc left the ballet company in 1942 and moved to the Big Apple where he changed his marquee name to the more Americanized "Marc Platt" and pursued musical parts. Following minor roles in the short run musicals "The Lady Comes Across" (January, 1942) with Joe E. Lewis , Mischa Auer and Gower Champion and "Beat the Band" (October-December, 1942) starring Joan Caulfield , Marc and Kathryn Sergava found themselves cast in a landmark musical, the Rodgers and Hammerstein rural classic "Oklahoma!" Choreographer Agnes de Mille showcased them in the ground-breaking extended dream sequence roles of (Dream) Curly and (Dream) Laurey. Platt stayed with the show for a year but finally left after Columbia Pictures signed him to a film contract. Aside from a couple of short musical films, he made his movie feature debut with a featured role as Tommy in Tonight and Every Night starring Rita Hayworth . From there he appeared in the Sid Caesar vehicle Tars and Spars and back with Rita Hayworth in Down to Earth . Columbia tried Marc out as a leading man in one of their second-string musicals When a Girl's Beautiful opposite Adele Jergens and Patricia Barry but did not make a great impression. Featured again in the non-musical adventure The Swordsman starring Ellen Drew and Larry Parks and the Italian drama _Addio Mimi! (1949) based on Puccini's "La Boheme," Marc's film career dissipated. After appearing on occasional TV variety shows such as "The Ed Sullivan Show" and "The Colgate Comedy Hour" and following a single return to Broadway in the musical "Maggie" (1953, Platt returned to film again after a five-year absence but when he finally did, he made a superb impression as one of Howard Keel 's uncouth but vigorously agile woodsman brothers (Daniel) in MGM's Seven Brides for Seven Brothers . The film still stands as one of the most impressive dancing pieces of the "Golden Age" of musicals. He followed this with a minor dancing role (it was James Mitchell who played Dream Curly here) in the film version of Oklahoma! . When the musical film lost favor in the late 1950's, Marc finished off the decade focusing on straight dramatic roles on TV with roles in such rugged series as "Sky King," "Wyatt Earp" and "Dante". By the 1960s Marc had taken off his dance shoes and turned director of the ballet company at New York's Radio City Music Hall. He and his second wife, Jean Goodall, whom he married back in 1951 and had two children (Donna, Michael), also ran a dance studio of their own. Following this they left New York and moved to Fort Myers, Florida where they set up a new dance school. Marc moved to Northern California to be near family following his wife's death in 1994 and occasionally appeared at the Marin Dance Theatre in San Rafael. One of his last performances was a non-dancing part in "Sophie and the Enchanted Toyshop" at age 89. In 2000, Marc was presented with the Nijinsky Award at the Ballets Russe's Reunion. He appeared in the 2005 documentary Ballets Russes . Platt died at the age of 100 at a hospice in San Rafael from complications of pneumonia. He was survived by his three children. Trevor Bardette Wavy-haired, articulate, quietly-spoken Bardette was one of Hollywood's archetypal villains of westerns and cliffhanger serials. He initially aspired to become a mechanical engineer after graduating from Oregon State University in June 1925. However, by the late 1920's, he had changed his name from Terva Gaston Hubbard to Trevor Bardette and embarked on a brief, unremarkable acting career on the East Coast stage, before moving to Hollywood in 1937. Though he went on to essay the occasional sheriff, rustic, frontiersman or hero's sidekick, his stoney features and deep-set, cold eyes ensured that he would invariably be cast as a ruthless heavy, sneaky spy, swindler, gangster or double-crosser. In the course of a thirty year career, the majority of his characters rarely survived until the final scene. A hard-working character player, Bardette took on just about any role offered him. Between 1938 and 1940 alone, he appeared in some 33 films, including bits in prestige pictures like Jezebel , Marie Antoinette , Gone with the Wind , Abe Lincoln in Illinois and The Grapes of Wrath . At the smaller studios and later for television, he fared rather better in terms of screen time. Serials, especially, gave him the opportunity to chew the scenery at his most menacing: as the scar-faced Pegleg (aka Mitchell) of Overland with Kit Carson , the icily controlled, preening killer Raven of Winners of the West ; and the deceptively meek Jensen, head of a Nazi spy ring, in The Secret Code . On TV, he was Old Man Clanton, cattle rustler and perpetual nemesis of law and order in The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp (though, in actual fact, N.H. Clanton never faced the Earps, having met his fate earlier at the hands of Mexican cowboys in Guadalupe Canyon). Then there were recurring roles in series like Lassie , Cheyenne and Gunsmoke , to name but a few. Perhaps not surprisingly, Bardette bought his own ranch in Green Valley, Arizona, where he spent his remaining years after retiring from acting in 1970. In interesting footnote is his authorship (under his original name) of a short story entitled "The Phantom Photoplay", published in the August 1927 issue of Weird Tales magazine. His first name Terva, evidently sounded sufficiently feminine to be included among the publication's list of lady writers. Justin Gaston Justin Gaston was born on August 12, 1988 in Pineville, Louisiana, USA. He is an actor, singer and model. He was a contestant on Nashville Star on season 6. He finished 10th overall out of 12 contestants. He left his hometown at the age of at age 17 to pursue a career in acting. Gaston first found work as a model for 2(x)ist underwear, Christian Audigier, Adidas, International Jock, Hugo Boss, and other notable labels. He is best known for starring on NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives. Andrea Carballo Andrea Carballo (born December 8, 1982) is an Argentinian actress with experience on Films, Theatre and TV. Watching Andrea's portfolio is sufficient to appreciate her multi-faceted acting skills. Instead of confining her acting to exact gestures, tones, and personifications of characters, she achieves, from one role to the next, genuine and complete transformations. There is reason to believe that with her talent and technical ability, this young actress, born in 1982, will have a fertile and successful future. Educated in a diverse range of acting techniques, she has ten years experience working in theatre, film, and television, including the following: Lo Que Haria, a film by Natural Arpajou, winner of 'best short film' in several national and international film festivals, presented in the Short Film Corner of the Cannes Film Festival, and for which Andrea Carballo received the 'best actress' prize at: the International Short Film Week in Bolivia; the Pedrera Short Film Festival, Uruguay; the Film and Video Festival in Rosario, Argentina; and the Ituzaingó International Film Festival in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Ni una sola Palabra de Amor, by Niño Rodriguez; Cielo Azul, Cielo Negra, by Paula de Luque and Sabrina Farji; Carne de Neón, by Paco Cabezas; Los Diarios de Juan Bushwick, by David Gutierrez Camps; Marea, by Brenda Urlacher. A sample of television work: Las 13 Esposas de Wilson Fernandez, directed by Gaston Portal ; Le due facce dell amore, Canale 5, Italy, directed by Monica Vullo and Maurizio Simonetti; Finding Sofia (forthcoming), a movie directed by Nicolas Casavecchia Mary Philbin Mary Philbin's life should be a lesson to domineering parents. Mary was born on July 16, 1903, in Chicago, Illinois, to John Philbin and his first wife and namesake, Mary. The child was regarded as a little beauty from an early age and her mother was exceedingly proud of her and loved to show her off. Howevr, unlike her gregarious mother (who many regarded as controlling and domineering, to the point of imprinting her strict religious beliefs on the child), Mary took after her shy, quiet and reserved father, whom she adored. Many of her contemporaries remarked how she didn't seem to belong to the current age; her personality was a throwback to the 19th century with her mannerisms and religious, quiet and very gentle nature. Being an only child, Mary grew up quite spoiled by her mother. Her father would take her often to see the plays at local theaters and even, on rare occasion, to see an opera at the Chicago Opera House. She fell in love with the stage immediately and, once home, would re-enact what she saw to her dolls--performing the leading heroine roles. She decided at an early age that she wanted a career in the theater. She took up classical dancing (ballet and waltz) and was quite adept at playing the pipe organ and piano (in her later years she kept her family's pipe organ close at hand), although much to her chagrin, she could not sing. However, she did not train in an acting school and this would ultimately impact on her later career. Mary's early life was relatively uneventful; her mother's strong nature created friction between her parents and she became even more reserved and quite shy in public when meeting new people. The only real friend she had at that age (who would be her lifelong friend and even colleague in The Phantom of the Opera ) was Carla Laemmle (aka Rebecca Laemmle), the daughter of Joseph Laemmle, brother of Universal Studios mogul Carl Laemmle . Through her friend's uncle Mary became interested in films and put her stage career on hold. Upon seeing her first "Nickelodeon", she was bitten by the film bug and eagerly awaited any new ones that came out. She was particularly fond of the films of Erich von Stroheim , so much so that at the age of 16, when she heard that the director was making his new film Blind Husbands and a contest was set up to search for talent for the film, Mary tried to sign up. At first she could not find the right photograph worthy of submission, but her mother had taken a picture and submitted it and was allowed to join the contest. The contest was held in Chicago at the Elks Club and was sponsored by her church, with Von Stroheim himself as the judge. The Teutonic director was smitten with her beauty and her eagerness to behave and speak well, and gave her the leading role in one of his films. When finding out she was to move to Los Angeles to make the film, Mary at first had reservations and (as always) consulted her parents. Her parents refused until they found out their old family friends, the Laemmles, were moving out to Los Angeles as well, and they gave consent for Mary to go but only with her parents as her chaperones (due to their fear that the "sheiks" of Los Angeles would corrupt Mary's moral character). Once in Los Angeles, Mary was under watch all the time by her parents (in particular her mother) and, when working, by her new boss, Carl Laemmle. When arriving at the studio, she found out that she had been replaced in the leading role in "Blind Husbands". Mary was deeply hurt at the time and felt cheated, and was considering going home had it not been for her friend Rebecca (whom was now known as Carla) who recommended her to her uncle, the owner of Universal City, Carl Laemmle, and the man in charge of production, Irving Thalberg . Although Carl Laemmle had met Mary some time earlier and always regarded her as an "angelic, sweet, quiet" young lady, he was none too impressed with her at the time to consider her for a contract, owing mostly to her moralistic and reserved disposition. Thalberg held the same reservations about her. However, after being persuaded by Mary's family and Carla, Carl caved and gave 17-year-old Mary her first big part: "Talitby Millicuddy", the leading lady, in the melodrama The Blazing Trail , directed by Robert Thornby . Mary caught on in films very quickly and was considered by the public, initially at least, in the same league as her bigger contemporaries - Mary Pickford , Florence Lawrence , Mae Marsh and Lillian Gish , one of those "child-woman" actresses particularly noted for her subtle but extraordinary ethereal Irish beauty. After the moderate success of "The Blazing Trail" she was cast in Danger Ahead in the role of Tressie Harlow; the one-reel comedy Twelve Hours to Live ; the western Red Courage as Eliza Fay, and Sure Fire in an extra part (her earliest known surviving film); and False Kisses as Mary. In all, she made six films in 1921. After seeing her work in "False Kisses" and in particular "Danger Ahead"; Erich von Stroheim cast Mary for his next film, which would become the most expensive (to that date) production ever for Univeral City (the costs rising up to a million dollars) - the part of the crippled girl (an extra part) in Foolish Wives . Mary can be seen in the film as the little girl on crutches with her back turned, and you only quickly get a darkened glimpse of her face through her curly ringlets. Although her role in the film was just a bit part, Mary relished being under Von Stroheim's tutelage and it was from him, as she always said, she learned about "true" acting in comparison to stage acting. It has always been said of Mary Philbin that when the director was really good (such as von Stroheim, Paul Leni , William Beaudine ), people noticed she could be equally as good an actress as her colleagues. However, in the hands less talented directors (such as Rupert Julian', - who would partly direct her later in Merry-Go-Round and "The Phantom of the Opera"--her lack of acting training became a real handicap for her (this is clearly evident in some of her later films). Mary began to get more notice from Carl Laemmle and Irving Thalberg, after Erich von Stroheim's high recommendation of her (and of course the public's approval), and after a minor film, _The Trooper (1922)_ (v), she was given the role of "Ruth" in Human Hearts . Mary began to get even further recognition and it was around this time that her face always was featured on movie magazines as the 'Cover' Girl. But Mary's personal life was darkened by her father's divorce and remarriage to Alice Mead. Mary was shattered by the event, and as a result became even closer to her mother (her biggest mistake), but nevertheless was very loving to her new stepmother and continued to adore her father. Mary made two more films before she received her first big break as the heroine "Agnes Urban", in von Stroheim's "The Merry-Go-Round" in 1923. The casting for this film was impeccable and many of its stars would later repeat many films with Mary afterward - in particular her leading man, Norman Kerry . He always had a crush on Mary and flirted with her many times on the set, although von Stroheim, Mary's mother and father (who always were on the set with her; her stepmother stayed at home) and even Mary herself kept him from getting too carried away. Mary said in her later years how deep down she always had a great crush on Norman Kerry and considered him "a very handsome, dashing man". Everything was going well in the production until it came to a standstill for the most unusual and even hilarious reason. Erich von Stroheim was known to be a perfectionist in his work, so much so that in the plot of this film (set in the Austro-Hungarian Empire of the time of 'Emperor Franz Josef') he insisted that some of the actors wear underwear embroidered with the Imperial Austrian Royal Family insignia - infuriating Carl Laemmle. After an intense argument with Laemmle the wildly extravagant director was dropped from the picture. The cast was stunned and the two most affected were Wallace Beery (who was originally cast as Agnes' father) and Mary Philbin. Wallace, infuriated with Carl Laemmle's decision walked out, as did many others--even Mary considered it. To clean up the mess quickly, Carl hired Universal actor Rupert Julian to direct (who previously had directed and starred in The Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin with Lon Chaney ). Mary, at first, refused until Carl insisted that Julian would be just as good a director as von Stroheim. Not having met or worked with Julian before, she decided to stay and Cesare Gravina (a favorite actor of von Stroheim) was re-cast in Beery's role. However, it became clearly evident that Julian was a novice compared to von Stroheim, although he reportedly considered himself equal to, if not better than, von Stroheim in directorial skills. Much of the original footage was cut or re-filmed upon its release, "The Merry-Go-Round" launched Mary as an "official" Hollywood star. Although not as popular as her contemporaries, Mary graced many more magazine covers and was the feature girl for various products - even the Victrola Recording Company. During this time, Mary met the love of her life, Universal Studio executive/producer Paul Kohner - through the Laemmles. Paul Kohner was only a year older than Mary and born in Teplitz-Schoenau, Austria-Hungary (now Teplice, Czech Republic). They were immediately smitten with each other - but due to Mary's parents' religion (Roman Catholicism) and the fact that Paul was a Jew - they kept their relationship, in the early years, secret as much as possible. They exchanged love letters to each other (which both of them kept till their deaths). Mary's film career took off with "Where Is This West?"; "The Age of Desire"; "The Temple of Venus"; "The Thrill Chaser"; among others with Paul Kohner sometimes as the producer (affording her more time to be with him, under the protection from her parents observance). But it wasn't until 1924, after she made good in the role of Marianne in The Rose of Paris that Mary was to be cast in her next, most famous and best- remembered film role of her entire career. In 1924, Carl Laemmle was searching among the elite list of Hollywood starlets (among those listed were Lillian Gish , Madge Bellamy , Betty Bronson , Patsy Ruth Miller , Mildred Davis ) for the role of the young Swedish soprano Christine Daaé in the film adaption of Gaston Leroux's novella "Le Fantôme de l'Opéra" (The Phantom of the Opera) starring in the leading role of Erik (the Opera Ghost/Phantom of the Opera) was one of Hollywood's best actors - Lon Chaney, fresh from his success in The Hunchback of Notre Dame and, much to the concern of the cast and crew, the director hired for the picture was the temper-mental Rupert Julian. Julian remembered Mary from "The Merry-Go-Round" (he also remembered Norman Kerry and hired him for role of Viscount Raoul de Chagny). Mary was cast in the key role of Christine, the chance of a lifetime. But the production was one of the most difficult for the cast to endure. Although Mary was working alongside of many of her former colleagues and friends (Norman Kerry, Cesare Gravina , John St. Polis , and Carla Laemmle ), she had never met Lon Chaney personally before and, in keeping with her nature, was initially very shy and nervous around him. During the filming Chaney and Julian exchanged heated arguments. Charles Van Enger , the main cameraman for the film, commented on how they "just hated each other" and how Julian was obsessed with Mary; adjusting her clothes, wigs, even the padding on her legs and chest. Mary put up with it - because of not only was her mother on the set most of the time, but Julian's wife Elisie Wilson was an old friend of Mary's. Upon seeing Julian's conduct- Elisie took over Mary's wardrobe and makeup for the film. On the Phantom set Mary seldom worked with Chaney alone, most of the time it was under Julian's supervision - but due to Chaney and his arguments - Chaney would direct his own scenes including several scenes with Mary. Her big test with Chaney came for the climactic unmasking scene - there was a shot of Mary on the floor (Chaney not in view) screaming after her character "Christine" unmasks the Phantom and is supposed to cry. Julian had gone through several takes of the scene with Mary; although this was not to Mary's fault - as Mary could cry at will and did not need the use of glycerin or onions (which was used for making "cold crying" in films at that time, or causing one to cry on cue), but all takes failed to satisfy Julian. This angered the cast and crew and Julian called it a day and they shut down early. But Lon Chaney remained behind and asked Mary and the crew to stay and reshoot the scene themselves. Given Chaney's clout, they all agreed. Mary set herself up for the scene - with Charles van Enger rolling the film (ordered not to stop no matter what happens or get involved - by Chaney) and Chaney just off-camera preparing for the scene. What Mary did not expect was Lon Chaney turning on her and the barrage of insults he launched at her. Mary was deeply hurt, but too proud to cry and was on the verge of leaving to report him to Carl Laemmle. Then Chaney rose his hand to strike her and Mary fell back screaming, remembering "the wild rage in his eyes", her hand to her face and then the tears flowed. Once it was caught on film - Chaney stopped and then began to comfort Mary and told her what he was really up to and he really meant none of those terrible things. It was then that Mary respected Chaney and grew to even adore him as much as she did Erich Von Stroheim, so much so, Chaney would always be on the set when Julian was directing Mary in future scenes, even if he was not in it. The Phantom of the Opera was a box-office hit and the studio's biggest money maker of the decade, launching not only Chaney to stardom but Mary as well. Mary attended the premiere with her father and he stated he was so proud of his daughter. After that producers/directors clamored for Mary to be in their films. Her next big role was the dual part of Stella Marris/Unity Blake in a remake of Mary Pickford's "Stella Marris". The film was received with moderate success with Mary being complimented on her ability to change from the beautiful Stella into the hideous outcast Unity Blake so well that many didn't recognize her. During this time, Mary and Paul were still seeing each other and their relationship became so serious Paul proposed marriage to Mary in May, 1926. Ecstatic, Mary accepted but they still had to keep their engagement secret for a while - till she felt it was safe to tell her family. During the time, Mary was filming "The Man who Laughs" in the role of the blind girl, Dea. Behind the scenes was Paul, acting as production supervisor/interpreter for Conrad Veidt (who was cast in the leading role of Gwynplaine) to the crew, since at the time he spoke no English. On opening night, the film was hailed as a box-office success and Mary was praised for her the role as Dea. It was then that Mary announced her engagement to Paul. But her family was outraged at the news and called a meeting to meet Paul - foreshadowing what was to come, and the worst personal tragedy of Mary's life. At the meeting, Mary's parents and her step-mother asked Paul many questions and everything was going reasonably well - until Mary's father came to the subject of religion and Paul admitted then he was a staunch Jew. Although Mary's step-mother approved of Paul and her father liked him (Paul was a quiet but respectable man), Mary's mother would have none of it and convinced her ex-husband that he would only convince Mary to convert to Judaism and soon a heated fight started up between Mary's parents and Paul. Mary was in tears during this and insisted that, although she wanted to marry Paul, she would never abandon her faith and Paul understood that and had no intention of even converting her. But the pleas were futile; Mary was given an ultimatum: Marry Paul and she would be disowned. Mary was always close to her family, no matter what the trouble was, but this was one time where Mary seriously considered defying her family. But in the end, she gave Paul back the ring and told him she could not marry him, but that she still loved him. Paul was devastated and Mary so much so that she would never marry. At the dawn of talkies, Mary's film career nose-dived along with her personal life. Because of the inadequacy of early recording equipment - Mary's "lovely, girlie voice" recorded as high pitched and squeaky. She did re-film her most famous role in "The Phantom of the Opera" with Norman Kerry (intercut with footage of the 1924/5 version with Chaney, as Chaney was working on "Thunder" at the time and was now working for MGM). In retrospect, all of her post-Phantom films were mediocre. She received good notices in D.W. Griffith 's otherwise pathetic Drums of Love . Her final film (a talkie) was After the Fog in the role of Faith Barker. Mary decided to abandon her film career and took up a life of self-enforced celibacy, becoming a virtual recluse in her father's home. Mary virtually vanished off the face of the earth and Hollywood forgot her. But it wasn't until the 1960s, that it was discovered that Mary was still alive, living at the time in the very same home she had in the 1920's (her parents and step-mother had deceased). It was remarked at how youthful and beautiful she still looked even though she was in her 60's and how her voice still had that youthful girlish quality. She had been a faithful member of her parents' church and only went out to visit friends and family, shop, and go to church. During that time, she admitted that she refused interviews and photo shoots, although she gladly replied to her fans and even sent them autographs. But around the late 1970s - Mary began experiencing the first symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. In 1988, Mary made her first public appearance since 1931 at a memorial service for Rudolph Valentino . Another huge blow came when it was announced Paul Kohner passed away. When Mary was told Paul had kept the letters she had sent him, tucked away in the top drawer of his desk locked away from his family - Mary began to cry and then revealed the letters Paul had sent to her and even a few recent ones after the "family incident". After that Mary's memory lapses grew worse, and her old friend Carla Laemmle came to help her. At her insistence - Mary made two more public appearances - the first at the opening night of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's stage extravaganza "The Phantom of the Opera" in downtown Los Angeles at the Ahamasohn Theatre, starring Michael Crawford. And the second to help promote Philip Riley's "The Phantom of the Opera." After that - Mary was never seen in public again. On May 7, 1993 it was announced that Mary had died of complications from pneumonia. The original Christine Daae was dead at age 91. Ty Consiglio TY CONSIGLIO credits include the television series "iZombie," "Frequency," and "Riggle's Picks NFL FOX Sports;" as well as the short films JUMP, and Trout; and the upcoming animated Woody Woodpecker. His role in Wonder marks his first live-action feature length film credit. Consiglio began acting at the age of eight after becoming involved with a local theatre company. From 2010-2015, he performed in over six musical theatre productions, including playing Gaston in "Beauty and the Beast," Augustus Gloop in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory," and Charlie Brown in "You're A Good Man Charlie Brown." In 2015, he began to segue into film and television and became a full time student at the Vancouver Young Actors School. Born in Kelowna, he now resides in the Vancouver area with his family, including his brother and sister who are competitive Figure Skaters. Marc Kudisch Born in Hackensack, New Jersey, USA, and grew up in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, the second child of four (older brother, two sisters, all connected to the medical profession in some way). Graduated from Florida Atlantic University in 1989. Was engaged to Kristin Chenoweth for three years; the relationship ended in 2001. Appeared as "TV Guy" in Toyota commercials, 1999-2000. Starred as Conrad Birdie in the national tour of "Bye Bye Birdie" in 1992, and reprised the role in the 1995 ABC TV movie remake. Starred on Broadway in "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat", as Gaston in "Beauty and the Beast" (1995-97), "High Society" (1998), 'The Scarlet Pimpernell" (1999), "The Wild Party" (2000) and as Jeff Moss in "Bells Are Ringing" (2001). {Anonymous}} Harriet Medin Born in Somerville, Massachusetts, on March 14, 1914, Harriet White Medin started out as a dental assistant and cleaned the teeth of young John and Robert Kennedy. After deciding to pursue work in the theater and playing a role on Broadway, she joined the USO and this led to her becoming the first American actress to relocate to post-war Italy and work in Italian films, beginning with Roberto Rossellini's Paisan . Her following role was the lead in a dramatic film about the life of a saint, Genoveffa di Brabante . She never found success as anything but a character actress and was often typecast as starchy, prim housewives and housekeepers. Orson Welles wanted her to play the role of Emilia in his Othello, but Harriet's inability to remain at the beck and call of Welles' shooting schedule forced him to recast the role with Fay Compton. When she realized that her acting career was at a standstill, she began working as a dialogue coach, helping Italian actors with their English. She became the personal assistant of Gina Lollobrigida in this respect for many years, and also assisted directors working in Italy, among them Vittorio De Sica, Joseph Losey, Raoul Walsh and John Huston. She witnessed some extraordinary things in film history, including the death of Tyrone Power on the set of Solomon and Sheba (for which she blamed George Sanders) and the filming of the famous Trevi fountain scene in La Dolce Vita , in which she played Edna, Anita Ekberg's personal assistant. In the early 1960s, Harriet entered the Italian horror boom when they needed actors who could speak English, the better for the movies to seem British or American rather than Italian. She played the housekeepers in Riccardo Freda's _Orribile segreto del Dr. Hichcock, L' (1962), played important red herring parts in Bava's The Whip and the Body and Blood and Black Lace , and also appeared in Elio Scardamaglia's The Murder Clinic . After assisting John Huston on Reflections in a Golden Eye, Harriet was persuaded by her friend, director Andrew Marton, to come and live in his guest house in Hollywood. One day, while doing the dishes, she decided that her marriage (to art director Gastone Medin) was over, and she accepted Marton's invitation by walking out on her old life, leaving the sink full of dirty dishes. After relocating to California, she did a fair amount of work in television (in addition to playing Henry Fonda's date in an episode of Family, she appeared on Bonanza, The A-Team, Northern Exposure and many other shows) and low-budget films. As a SAG member, she had to play the blind girl's mother in Schlock under the pseudonym of "Enrica Blankey." She also played the President of the United States in Death Race 2000 , one of Linda Hamilton's diner customers in The Terminator and a grocery shopper in The Witches of Eastwick . She narrated the trailer for George Romero's Hungry Wives (Season of the Witch). Gaston Leroux A native of Paris, France, a poet, journalist and novelist, Gaston Leroux is known for his many creative horror stories, including "Rouilable", "The Haunted Chair" and "The Wax Mask", but is probably best known for his work "The Phantom of the Opera", which became Leroux's prize possession. He wrote the novel in 1908 about a disfigured man who dresses in masks and capes and terrorizes the Paris Opera House while falling in love with the leading lady. "The Phantom of the Opera" was based much upon Leroux's own experiences. During his early years as a journalist in the late 1800s, Leroux spent time going the Paris Opera House and watching performances, and was influenced by Charles Gounod 's opera "Faust", about a man who sells his soul to the devil. On one occasion, the chandelier which featured in the opera fell into the audience by accident. Combining the singers, Faust and the chandelier together, Leroux created "The Phantom of the Opera". In 1923, Carl Laemmle , head of the new Universal Pictures in Hollywood, produced a film of the novel, The Phantom of the Opera , with Lon Chaney in the lead. Leroux was impressed by this, but two years later he died. Since that time, "The Phantom of the Opera" has become so popular it has inspired five feature remakes, one in 1943 Phantom of the Opera ), another in 1962 ( The Phantom of the Opera and again in 1989 ( The Phantom of the Opera ). A television version was also made ( The Phantom of the Opera ) and then a remake made in 1999 ( The Phantom of the Opera ). The most recent remake is Joel Schumacher 's The Phantom of the Opera , produced and cast by Andrew Lloyd Webber , with Gerard Butler , Emmy Rossum and Patrick Wilson , three quite unknown actors, rather than Michael Crawford and Sarah Brightman , the original actors of the Broadway show. The novel was also made into a major London and Broadway stage musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber. Gaston Leroux will forever be remembered for "The Phantom of the Opera". Soledad Fandiño Soledad Fandiño (Born in Monte Grande, Buenos Aires) is an Argentinean stage, television and feature film actress. Soledad Fandiño debuted as an actress in the 2003 television series REBELDE WAY. After the series, she was then cast as Felicitas Echagochen in the popular family sitcom RICOS Y MOCOSOS (2004-2005) which propelled her career with best new actress nominations from Premios Martín Fierro and Premios Clarín. For the next three years she continued earning lead roles in family sitcoms produced by POL-KA for CANAL 13. She was outstanding as Juanita, the female lead of JUANITA LA SOLTERA opposite Gabriel Corrado, and later played Jazmin Sassone opposite Nicolas Cabre in POR AMOR A VOS. Looking elsewhere for inspiration, Soledad started a career transition that would take her to the stage, television films and mini-series. In 2009 she played the female lead in Astral Theater's production of Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland directed by Alicia Zanca. Later that year she performed the lead in episode El Manto Chino of the Sci-Fi anthology series DROMO. In 2010 she played an actress in love with Juan Perugia, played by Gaston Pauls in TELEFE's comedy series TODOS CONTRA JUAN 2. She was subsequently summoned by director Alberto Lecchi to film in Uruguay the role of Alicia, a victim of domestic violence in the drama series MALTRATADAS. This dramatic turn was followed by a starring role opposite Independent Spirit Award winner and Bafta nominee Rodrigo de la Serna in drama series CONTRA LAS CUERDAS (2010); the only Argentinean dramatic series nominated for an International Emmy. She went back to the stage for the play CEREMONIA SECRETA (2011) an adaptation of Marco Denevi's novel, directed by Rodolfo Bebany and Oscar Barney Finn at the Margarita Xirgu theater, Soledad playing opposite Uruguayan stage actress Estela Media, had the chance to show her dramatic abilities performing the role of Cecilia Engelhardt, a physically and mentally abused woman who loses her mind and tries desperately to find her dead mother. This role earned her a nomination for Los Premios Florencio Sanchez 2012. Later that year she starred opposite Luis Machin in episode Cuestion de Poder of the anthology series TELEVISION POR LA INCLUSION. In 2012 feature film director Juan Jose Campanella featured Soledad in Latin Grammy winner CALLE 13 music video "LA VUELTA AL MUNDO". She has recently completed a production with Martin Piroyansky and Betiana Blum in TELEFE's comedy series MI VIEJO VERDE. Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni is an internationally recognized actress, painter, singer, song composer and writer. She was born on Manhattan's Upper West Side. Her unique family history spans countless cultures and countries, filled with an array of fascinating historic figures. As a young child, she moved to Rome, Italy, where she spent many years. Coralina is the daughter of Maestro Walter Cataldi-Tassoni, a globally prominent opera director, and mezzo-soprano Velia Botti. Her grandfather, Maestro Corace Cataldi-Tassoni, studied under Mascagni and conducted for Giacomo Puccini. She was an active member of her father's opera company since early childhood, singing her first role in Puccini's La Boheme at the age of three. Coralina continued performing on stage and assisting her father in theaters around the world until her late teens. Her first starring role was in the romantic drama In Cerca D'Amore, a film commissioned by RAI (Italy's national TV network) for the primetime show Passione Mia, produced by acclaimed actress Monica Vitti. Cataldi-Tassoni's on-screen acting skills and undoubted charisma caught the attention of legendary film-maker Dario Argento, who cast her as Sally, the lead in his production of Lamberto Bava's Demons 2. Her memorable performance in the movie prompted Argento to create the role of Giulia expressly for Coralina in his next movie,Opera. Coralina also co-hosted, alongside Dario Argento, a weekly segment on cinema and entertainment on RAI's primetime live TV show Giallo. Award winning director Luciano Odorisio cast Coralina in the historical drama La Monaca di Monza, and also directed her in the romantic movie Via Paradiso, in which Coralina captivates audiences with her whimsical and lively comedic performance. Thanks to her strong dramatic skills,unique talent for comedy and innate professionalism, several directors(Dario Argento, Lamberto Bava, Mariano Baino, Pupi Avati, Luciano Odorisio, Andrea Manni, to name a few) have written roles specifically for Coralina and worked with her on more than one occasion. Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni was offered a scholarship to the internationally recognized training center for comedy and improvisation Second City, in Chicago. This offer came as a true delight and honor.Eager for a new artistic venture, she returned to the United States. While in Chicago, Coralina successfully performed on stage, acting in plays, comedies and musical theater where her powerful mezzo-soprano voice received many accolades. Dario Argento cast Coralina once more in his re-imagining of Gaston Leroux's Phantom Of The Opera. She performed alongside Asia Argento and British actor Julian Sands, in the role of vivacious Honorine, a character invented exclusively for the film. Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni's film roles have become iconic figures for fans all around the world. Coralina's desire to explore her creativity has allowed her to blossom into a very successful painter. Her solo exhibits have gathered high praise within Manhattan's gallery scene. Her art, which she simply signs "Coralina", has been displayed in the USA and Europe. This prolific artist's clientele includes many illustrious international film-makers and performers. Coralina's body of work is an autobiographical walk through what she calls her "Magical Alternate Dimension", a spiritual journey interspersed with mystic characters from her past, present or future. It could be a person she saw in a dream or a vision, but, ultimately,each painting becomes her through some form of transference. Each painting is a piece of the missing puzzle - a clue, a key to her true self. "Everything and everyone has a sound, and every sound has an image. My memories, my voice, the voices of others, eyes, hands, situations,objects, cities,lips, streets, rain, moon, smiles, toys, pebbles.Everything. Everyone and everything are notes. Sounds. I feel them. I hear them. I am those sounds. My paintings are translations of those sounds." Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni's love of music has not only translated itself into colors, but also fueled her to compose and produce her album Limbo Balloon, containing eclectic works which she likes to call "Arias",embodying an array of influences from Rock & Roll, New Wave, and Opera. Coralina has performed her music in venues in the USA and Canada. Lamberto Bava cast Coralina as Elizabeth in his supernatural thriller Ghost Son, shot in South Africa, where she performed alongside John Hannah (The Mummy), Laura Harring (Mulholland Drive), and Academy Award nominee Pete Postlethwaite. Upon completion of this film, Dario Argento offered Coralina the pivotal role of Giselle in the final chapter of his long awaited "Three Mothers Trilogy" - The Mother of Tears. As with all their previous collaborations, the director created the role of Giselle specifically for her. In 2008, Coralina received an award for Best Actress at Fright Nights Film Festival in Austria for The Dirt, a film directed by celebrated musician Claudio Simonetti (frontman of the band Goblin and composer of the soundtracks for numerous movies) along with his sister Simona Simonetti. The film also won a Special Award at Rome's Fantafestival 2008. To accompany the launch of the book Coralina: Life is Art/Art is Life, edited by journalist Filippo Brunamonti, Coralina wrote and co-directed a highly cinematic short film, Coralina: Based on a True Life, along with renowned director Mariano Baino (Dark Waters, Never Ever After). Cataldi-Tassoni and Baino's artistic collaboration has proven to be a very successful one:Hidden 3D, a stereoscopic movie based on an original story that Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni and Mariano Baino co-wrote, is due out in 2011. Recently, Coralina was the leading lady in the romantic film Baggage Claim, written by award-winning writer Tim Lucas, and co-written and directed by Golden Globe winner Irene Miracle (Midnight Express). Coralina lives in New York City. Adam Dietlein Originally from Murray, Utah, Adam has acted all over the USA and internationally. He played Gaston in the first international tour of Disney's Beauty and the Beast. Acting opposite Kathryn Heigl in (Jackie & Ryan) and working with T.C. Christensen have been highlights of his career. he has worked with numerous companies doing many commercial spots, including many national commercials. He currently resides in LA. Gene Deitch Gene Deitch was an animator at UPA. He later joined Terrytoons in 1955. He created characters like "John Doormat", "Clint Clobber", "Gaston Le Crayon", "Sidney", and "Foofle". In early 1958, his theatrical cartoon Sidney's Family Tree was nominated for Academy Award. In August, 1958, he was fired from Terrytoons, and in 1960, he moved to Prague, Czechoslovakia to work with William L. Snyder, and directed approximately a dozen Tom and Jerry cartoons for MGM, and also "Krazy Kat" and "Popeye" for King Features, and also a Oscar Winning Munro . He later created "Nudnik", a character based on "Foofle", which he created, while at Terrytoons. He still lives in Prague, with his wife, Zdenka. Sergio Agüero Sergio Leonel "Kun" Agüero del Castillo (fan of Independiente de Avellaneda) is an Argentine footballer. Agüero earned his nickname Kun when his grandparents noted his resemblance to Japanese anime character Kum Kum. He is married and has a son with Diego Maradona's daughter Giannina Maradona. Agüero was born in Quilmes, Buenos Aires on 2 June 1988 into a large family with seven children. His mother, Adriana, was a housewife, and his father, Leonel, was a taxi driver. Kun is the second child of the seven, but unlike his siblings Yesica, Gabriela, Maira, Daiana, Mauritius and Gaston, he took the name of his mother, Agüero, and not Del Castillo, the name of his father. Agüero started playing football at a young age and he often played on a pitch in his local neighbourhood, Villa Itali. He was quoted as saying that the best place for children to learn how to play football was on the street, and that doing so helped him in his own development. Gaston Dalmau Gaston Dalmau is an Argentinean performer. He is well known for his role as Ramiro "Rama" Ordóñez in Cris Morena television series "Casi Ángeles" , and as a member of the music pop band Teen Angels. He has participated in some of the most successful TV shows in Argentinean television and toured around Europe and Latinoamerica with the band during several years. Paul Daniel Ayotte Born in Peterborough, Ontario. Paul Daniel Ayotte is a character actor showing great promise and comedic timing in his craft. Paul's most recent acting coaches were Glen Gaston at The Pro Actors Lab, Linda Kash for Improv and continuing his comedic studies at Second City Toronto. He is best known for his role as Laren in the award winning documentary feature by Matt Johnson The Dirties. The Dirties made it's official debut at the Slam Dance Film Festival in Park City, Utah. The film has gone on to win multiple awards included Best Narrative and Spirit of Slam Dance. Kevin Smith best known for Clerks and the Jay & Silent Bob franchises has called the film " the most important film of the year ". Kevin Smith and Phase 4 films bought the Canadian rights and the movie was released on October 4th in Select Theatres as well as On Demand and ITunes. Paul makes his television debut in the Syfy original series " Paranormal Witness " in the " The Tenant's " episode season 2 finale. In 2013 Paul appears in two music videos. Billy Talent's " Surprize Surpize " and KeysNKrates " Dum Dee Dum ". Both videos combined have a since gone viral with a total of 7.6 million views. Paul is an avid volunteer at the local hospital and the Toronto International Film Festival. He likes being active as a back round talent. Dennis O'Connor Bilingual actor, born and raised in the Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean region of Québec. He studied acting at the Actor's Studio in Montreal. Dennis has brought his linguistic versatility to many productions across Canada. He has premièred roles by some of the country's finest writers, including Michel Tremblay, John Murrell, George F. Walker, David Fennario and Daniel MacIvor. He has also played the über-everyman on television, film and stage, and his fair share of bumbling cops. A character actor, O'Connor finds artistic challenges mostly on the stage. His classical roles have included Tartuffe for Théâtre français de Toronto, and Falstaff in an indie production of Henry IV, Part One for the past several summers, he has played Leopold Bloom in the James Joyce ''Ulysses'' / Bloomsday celebrations in Toronto; roles which require great verbal and emotional dexterity. He is most notably remembered for his role as Gaston Talbot in Larry Tremblay's The Dragonfly of Chicoutimi. He created the English language première of Michel Tremblay's Narrator in For the Pleasure of Seeing Her Again (Encore une fois, si vous le permettez). In 2010, he will perform in disguise room, a solo piece written for him by e. schuhe, for SeeshoplaytrickS, in Berlin, Germany. He is a veteran of over three hundred radio dramas for CBC / Radio-Canada. O'Connor has had 4 Best Actor nominations for Toronto's Dora Awards. Gaston Rivero Gaston Rivero was born in Montevideo, Uruguay and raised in Buenos Aires and New York City. Gaston Rivero's career has spanned several media and arts professions: actor, opera singer, producer, composer and music consultant. His stage debut came when film director Baz Luhrmann selected him for his production of Puccini's La Bohème on Broadway 2002. Gaston Rivero is known for Deutsche Gramophon's Il Trovatore alongside Placido Domingo, Anna Netrebko and Daniel Barenboim. He has worked with many different film-makers; Philipp Stölzl, Johannes Schaaf and Baz Luhrmann. Robert Porter Robert came from a large Catholic family, raised in Los Angeles, and lived at Sycamore Farms, Malibu CA in about 1970, which he leased with his brother Peter Porter. This was an old horse stable that had been a Malibu landmark for decades, still located on Cross Creek Road today just off the Malibu Lagoon and the central shopping area. The brothers built the large two-story horse barn using materials "borrowed" from the county building site a block away, and at the time the trainer was Capt. Pat Conar, an Irishman that had served in the British Cavalry and coached Elizabeth Taylor in National Velvet. The stable clientèle was a mix of socialites like Gigi Gaston (Getty), actors & models along with regular locals like director Sam Peckinpah's daughter Melissa Peckinpah. The brothers lived in the small house on the property and much of the layout is still the same, except the stable was later expanded in front of the large barn and in the back. Robert's girlfriend at the time was a beautiful Hippy local Erin Murphy whose grandfather was director Dudley Murphy, founder of the famous Holiday House hotel & restaurant located a few miles up the coast. Their relationship was a tumultuous, passionate affair out of an Italian movie. This was the period after he had a few roles in major movies and was beginning to do the Indy type work that most know him for. Robert was so charismatic there was a constant stream of female stable boarders looking for any excuse to hang out. These were also the times of the anti-war protests and anti-establishment Yippies and the brothers lived the part, dressing like European aristocratic vagabonds. Robert had been heavily influenced by the Actors Studio, Method Acting and actors like Brando and James Dean, that had set the bar in the previous decade. His throwback style was out of place in the new industry which had taken on television level mass production values and cookie cutter acting styles. His friendship and association with talents like Zalman King, who later gained notoriety for cult films like Wild Orchid (1989) encouraged him to step off into the independent type roles that would let him stretch his acting chops. This was the period when he did The Jesus Trip (1971) and in the first wave of the counterculture following films such as Easy Rider (1969) there was a buzz at the time that this might be his big break in a lead role. Distribution & PR was lacking though and his last major film was Klansman (1974) with a large cast of A & B list actors starting with Lee Marvin & Richard Burton and descending down to other names like O.J. Simpson, Lola Falana and Linda Evans. His last work of note, Trip WIth the Teacher (1975), a low budget movie inspired by European New Wave films such as Antonioni's Zabriskie Point (1970), saw him in a supporting role to his friend Zalman King, who played the lead bad guy while Robert was the conflicted younger brother exasperated by his sibling's evil doings. This work would presage later violent Grindhouse movies such as Tarantino's, also influenced by major fare like Peckinpah shooters. The Porter brothers dropped out of the horse business and got into agriculture, first with a foolhardy pot grow near the Malibu/Ventura county line off Yerba Buena Road below Mt. Boney Peak, and later a stint doing some back to the land farming on the McGrath Family Farms in Oxnard which led to brother Peter going into the pickling business selling hot peppers through their company Hosan Produce. Robert was working as a stonemason in Sacramento CA in 2007 and talking about returning to acting as a teacher. Michael Evans The stage and screen actor Michael Evans was born John Michael Evans on July 27, 1920, in Sittingbourne, England, to A.J. Evans, who wrote the 1926 novel "The Escaping Club" about his escape from a WWI prisoner of war camp, and the former Marie Galbraith, a concert violinist. The young John decided to become an actor at the age of 12 after seeing the great John Gielgud in one of his signature roles, Shakespeare's Richard II . Evans served as a navigator in the Royal Air Force during World War II. After studying acting at the Old Vic School in London, he made his theatrical debut on in the West End in 1948. He made his cinema debut in 1950, the same year he made his Broadway debut in the comedy "Ring Round the Moon." The following year, he appeared on Broadway as Gaston in the musical "Gigi", which featured Audrey Hepburn in the title role. He was Henry Higgins in the national touring production of My Fair Lady in the late 1950s and for a 1960 tour of the USSR. After appearing in the movie version of Bye Bye Birdie , Evans permanently relocated to the United States, where he appeared in more than 40 films and television shows. Evans appeared on The Young and the Restless from 1980 through 1997. His co-star "Young and Restless" co-star Eric Braeden lauded him as "[A] total professional from the old English school, a gentleman through and through," after hearting of his death on Sep 4, 2007 at a Woodland Hills assisted-living facility. He was 87 years old. Khalimah Gaston For as long as she can remember, Khalimah Gaston has been plagued by adventure and curiosity. Hailing from Queens, New York, she is a self-described "born entertainer", citing versatility as the main component in perfecting her craft. Khalimah's gifts, although initially overlooked among five siblings, flourished upon her relocation to Virginia Beach during her high school years. A long ways from home, she delved into a world of artistic exploration; paintings and sculptures held her initial interest, until she eventually found her calling in the theater. Upon graduating, Khalimah returned to New York City and attended The New York Conservatory for Dramatic Arts (NYCDA). Her studies, along with natural stage presence, have granted her roles in countless off-Broadway plays, sketch comedies, and independent films. She enjoys staying active, traveling, writing, and is currently pursuing a TV/ film career, while working on her own film. She now lives in Atlanta, GA. Enzo D'Alò Director, screenwriter and musician. Enzo d'Alò was born in Naples in 1953. Ranked as one of the leading exponents of European animation, he is among a handful of European authors to show in their curriculum at least five feature animated films successfully released around the world. Since 1980 he has authored several films and videos, not only in animation but also in TV that have led to numerous, prestigious domestic and international awards at film festivals. His films have been both critically acclaimed and achieved commercial success worldwide. In 2009 he received special mention from UNICEF "for having married his art with children's rights and having been able to exploit differences in opportunities, communicating the value and richness of the comparison, and inciting the boys to be protagonists of their lives ". In 2010 he was one of 50 guests of honor (50 excellent personalities of the world of animation) on the occasion of 50 years of Annecy 2010, the most important Festival of animated films. On September 6, 2013, during the 70th Edition of the Venice Film Festival, he received the prestigious Franco Bianchi Award, given by the Italian critics and journalists Syndicate. CINEMA His first success is dated 1996, when La Freccia Azzurra ("The Blue Arrow", David di Donatello for Best Music composed by Paolo Conte; two Silver Ribbons, 1997 Oscar Home Video) was released. Then he directed La Gabbianella e il Gatto ("Lucky and Zorba"), music by David Rhodes, Real Word by Peter Gabriel; released on Christmas 1998, this film successful beyond expectations at the Italian box office: 1,500,000 tickets sold, 20 billion liras (Silver Ribbon 1999, Audience Award at the Montreal Children's Film Festival 1999). Distributed worldwide, it conquered the American and Asian world, as well. His third animation feature film, Momo alla conquista del tempo ("Momo", December 2001) was appreciated by critics even more than his previous works (Silver Ribbon for Best Song, "Aria" by Gianna Nannini, composer of the soundtrack. Audience Award at the 2003 Montreal Children's Film Festival, AGIS school award "Films Coming"). In 2003, his feature Opopomoz was released. This animation pic is about Naples and the magic of the tradition of Christmas mangers, with a soundtrack signed by Pino Daniele. Similarly to his other features, this film was sold and distributed worldwide as well. In August 2012, he showed his Pinocchio at the Venice Days, (69th Festival del Cinema di Venezia), a careful and personal interpretation of the famous Collodi's novel, with Lorenzo Mattotti's drawings and music by Lucio Dalla. The film was later screened at the international festivals in Busan (South Korea), Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates) and several other cities with critical acclaim and large audiences. In December 2013, Pinocchio received the prestigious EFA Awards nomination. TELEVISION Pipì Pupù & Rosemary Born from his idea, with the original subjects signed by himself and with the screenplays of the famous Italian screenwriter Vincenzo Cerami, Oscar winner with "Life is Beautiful". Among the stars were Giancarlo Giannini, who played the role of the Narrator. Illustrations were signed by Anna Laura Cantone, the music by Daniele di Gregorio. This series for children was produced by Cometafilm, PTD and Juliette Films (Luxembourg) and Millimages (France), which distributes worldwide, as well as with the participation of Rai Fiction; it includes 78 episodes of 7 minutes each, and four 22-minutes specials on Opera. BOOK In September 2008 he released the book entitled, "the Prince of the City of Sand" published by Mondadori, born from a subject for an animated feature. He authored the book along with Gaston Kaboré and Pierdomenico Baccalario. The book was translated and published in German, Turkish and Spanish. In October 2012 the illustrated book of the film "Pinocchio" was released by Rizzoli publisher, in which Enzo d'Alò rewrote Collodi's text. Gilles Carle Advertising studies at the Ecole des Beaux-arts de Montreal. Start the book edition company 'Les Editions de l'hexagone' with the poet Gaston Miron where he wrote litterature and cinema's reviews. In 1955, he began working in graphic arts at Radio-Canada still writing reviews in some newspaper. He is engaged as a researcher at the Office national du film du Canada in 1960. It's not long before he becane a director (1961) in documentaries. He create his first fiction film in 1964 with a short film Solange dans nos campagnes. He likes working with his consort as his leading actress; ex. Carole Laure or Chloé Sainte-Marie Gaston Berghmans Gaston Berghmans, quite possibly Belgium's greatest comedian of all time, was born in 1926 in Merksem, a community which is part of the city of Antwerp. He had a very normal and healthy childhood and attended middle school to become a craftsman, just like his father before him. Right before the Second World War, Gaston had been starring in some local plays in his off-time, and decided to become a professional comedian during the War, quitting his job as a handyman on ships in the port of Antwerp. In this period in his life, he met up with some guardian angels that would procure his future in the entertainment industry. Later, he met up with Leo Martin , also born in Antwerp, but raised in Brussels. Together they formed the legendary comedy duo 'Gaston & Leo', that toured around theaters all over the country and made TV appearances with hilarious sketches. They also made some features movies including _"Zware jongens" (1984)_, _"De Paniekzaaiers" (1986)_ and _"Gaston en Leo in Hong Kong" (1988)_. Their last big thing together was a Sunday evening sketch show called _"Gaston & Leo Show" (1989)_, which aired from 1989 until 1993, when Leo died of cancer. When asked about this period later in his life, Gaston said that he felt like he had died along with his friend. After losing Leo, Gaston starred in his own television show (_"Gaston Berghmans Show" (1994)_) for a few years, but he realized that things would never be the same again. After retiring from sketch comedy television in 2000, he only made a limited number of on-screen appearances, mostly in shows that tributed him. In 2008, he ended his acting career in the way he wanted to, with a large dramatic movie part in _"Christmas in Paris" (2008)_. That picture however flopped, making people demand him to get into another final project. Gaston kept refusing this, saying his health did not longer allow him to do so. After years of physical ups and downs, he eventually passed away on May 21, 2016 in a rest-home in Schoten, surrounded by his family. Anton Radichev Anton Ignatov Radichev is Bulgarian drama and cinema actor . He was born on July 7, 1947 in Sofia, Bulgaria. In 1974, he graduated in "acting" at the National Academy for Theatre and Film Art, Sofia, Bulgaria . In the same year he became a part of the troupe of the National Theatre "Ivan Vazov" . Among his roles in the theater are: Lubomir in "Golemanov" by St. Kostov, Sizobryuhov in "Humiliated and Offended" by Dostoevsky, Guri in "Run" by M. Bulgakov, Hadzhi Smion, Karakalpakov, Vaarlam Waxwing in "Outcasts," "Under the Yoke", "Duel" and "Uncles" by Ivan Vazov, Doncho in "Masons" by P. Todorov; Cocks, Velikov, and Ivan leggings in "Learning to fly", "January" and "Turmoil" by J. Raditchkov, Amforeas in "Wrestling "by S. Karras, Krastan in "Every autumn evening "by Ivan Peychev; Figaro in" The Marriage of Figaro " by P. Beaumarchais, Epihodov in" The Cherry Orchard "by Anton Chekhov, Nag in" Endgame " by S. Beckett, Sheriff Thomas in "The Person Who Makes the Rain" by N. R. Nash; Gaston in "Ghosts in Naples" by E. Filippo; December, Venko in "Day Off" by K. Donev; Man in "Reis "by Stanislav Stratiev, Fried Eggs in "Marriage" by Nikolay Gogol, Corbacho in "Volpone" by Ben Johnson. He has participated in popular group "UFO". He has participated in over 40 feature films, including " Maneuvers on the fifth floor " , " Orchestra without a Name " , " Under the Yoke " , " Hotel Central " , "Auction" , " Cricket in the Ear " . Radichev has recorded many songs, some of which for the festival " Golden Blackbird ." In 2002, he issued a music album titled " It breaks my heart ." The lyrics are written by Zhivko Kolev . In 2006, he participated in the dubbing of the three-dimensional feature film of Disney and Pixar - " Cars " as Doc Hudson and Ramon. In 2009, he ran for parliament from the Party Leader . In 2011 he has participated in the show of Nova TV " Block of Flats ". Gabriel Grieco Gabriel Grieco was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In 2014, he directed his debut feature film "Naturaleza Muerta - Still life" starring Luz Cipriota, Juan Palomino, Nicolas Pauls and Mercedes Oviedo which won 3 awards at the LATAM'S Ventana Sur Market organized by Cannes festival's Marche Du Film & INCAA. The film received good reviews by the the press and was screened at: Cannes, U.S.A Fantastic Fest, Sitges, Morbido Mexico & Mar Del Plata Film Festival, between others. The film was released on theaters in Argentina on March 5th 2015, where it peaked at No. 8 in the box office's Ranking of the Argentinian most seen horror films of all time (between 150 titles). In 2015 Grieco Won best director in "Revista DE Cine Fantastico DE Argentina 2015" contest. His second feature film is "Hipersomnia" (2016) starring Peter Lanzani, Gerardo Romano, Gustavo Garzon, Nazareno Casero, Jimena Baron, Fabiana Cantilo, Sofia Gala, Daniel Valenzuela, Florencia Torrente, Vanesa Gonzalez, Candela Vetrano, Yamila Saud, Chucho Fernandez, Belen Chavanne, Juliana Gattas, Nai Awada, Gaston Sardelli, Willy Lemos, Miguel Angel Paludi, Daniela Herrero, Lola Moran. His third feature film will be "Respira (2017)" In his early years, Gabriel Grieco directed and produced music videos for well-known Spanish & Latin-American artists as: Attaque 77, Los Autenticos Decadentes, Ricardo Montaner, Airbag, Sergio Dalma, Carlos Baute, El Otro yo, Melendi, Ratones Paranoico's former leader Juanse, "Los Pericos" former singer "Bahiano", Leo Garcia, Disney Channel's Talents, Vilma Palma e Vampiros, Claudia Puyo, among others); TV commercials (Diners International Club, Disney's Friends for a change, Cerro Castor); and other TV programs (for the Disney Channel, CM Music Channel, and Fashion TV networks). In the year 2000, he created his own production company "Crep Films" and the "Crepusculum Short-films Festival". Between the years 2000 and 2008, he directed and produced several short movies, with huge critical acclaim. In 2013, he produced, directed and hosted the highly successful TV music "Soundtrack CM", released through the CM broadcasting channel. James Ramsey Ullman James Ramsey Ullman was born in New York City, the son of Alexander F. Ullman. As a boy, he attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. In 1929 he graduated from Princeton University and moved to Brooklyn to begin work in journalism as a newspaper reporter and feature writer. Ullman decided to try his hand at producing theater. This endeavor included the production of plays: "Faraway Horses", "Men in White", "Blind Alley", and "The Milky Way" among others of which he authored or co-authored a dozen. No production with which he was associated made it to Broadway. After a string of failed productions, Ullman decided to take a fresh look at career and traveled to the Amazon to relieve a growing fascination for travel and the lure of adventure. This experience inspired a travelogue narrative, The Other Side of the Mountain (1938), upon his return to America. Although he took a position with the Federal Theater, he began to devote himself to freelance writing and produced short stories and articles with the emphasis on the mountain climbing that he had taken up enthusiastically at a basic level as a hobby and a means to satisfying that adventure urge. Later in 1938 he climbed in the Canadian Rockies with friend J. Monroe Thorington, the American eye doctor and mountaineer who climbed extensively and wrote many guide books on the Canadian Rockies. He made a trip to the Tetons in Montana in 1941 and evidently climbed with guide and later Himalayan mountaineer Paul Petzoldt. This must have inspired his first book on the subject of mountain climbing, a history of the sport up to contemporary time, High Conquest (1941). This was the first of nine books for the publisher J.B. Lippincott. World War II intervened at this point, and Ullman was with the American Field Service from 1941 to 1943. True to one's life experiences he was inspired to write a first novel, The White Tower (1945). This dramatic rendering was about a post-World War II veteran American and casual mountaineer who climbs a fictitious unclimbed and killer peak that had taken the life of the father of his Swiss love interest. The story had a good plot and was the second of Ullman's books to make it to Hollywood, the first being a fictitious script about climbing the Matterhorn carved out of his history High Conquest and made into a 1947 film by that name. White Tower became a film vehicle for Glenn Ford , Alida Valli , and a great supporting cast in the film version also called The White Tower . Ullman's traveling continued to inspire new literary projects: books as well as many magazine articles. He had already gone to South America in 1937 and spent more time there in 1946 and enjoyed the chance to hike in the foothills of the Andes. An interest in the continued attempts at climbing the highest mountain in the world, Mt. Everest, prompted the 1947 book The Kingdom of Adventure: Everest. Ullman and his wife (they had three children) vacationed in Europe in 1951 and 1952 which at some point gave him the opportunity to achieve a climber's historical goal -- do the classic northeast ridge route (first route to the summit accomplished in 1865) on the Matterhorn. The early 1950s marked notable events in world mountaineering history in the Himalayas. Annapurna was climbed by the French led by Maurice Herzog in 1950, and nearly 30 years after the British sustained efforts on Everest in the 1920s, an Anglo/Tibetan team reached that summit in 1953. As mountaineering participants' books began pouring from the press, Ullman was much in demand from publishers to write book reviews: Herzog, another famous French climber Gaston Rebuffat, Sir John Hunt (longtime British Himalayan expedition leader), Sir Edmund Hillary, and others. For Ullman this was all fertile authoring material. In 1954 he completed Banner in the Sky, a historical fiction of the first ascent of the Matterhorn, involving a young Swiss man whose father had died in an attempt - a basic storyline reminiscent of White Tower - the characters mirroring to various degrees the actual participants involved in the race to the summit in 1865. Another of Ullman's books had made it to the screen Windom's Way , and with Banner winning the Newbery Award for children's literature in 1955, the book was certainly Hollywood bound. Ullman was busy otherwise in the meantime. There were more novels of faraway places, a continuation of his history of mountaineering with The Age of Mountaineering (1954), and his ghost writing of the biography of co-Everest conqueror Tenzing Norgay, Man of Everest (originally published as Tiger of the Snows, 1955). Travel continued as well: Africa and a climb up Kilimanjaro (1957) and back to Europe (1958). Walt Disney optioned Banner as the feature Third Man on the Mountain with a cast headed by veterans Michael Rennie and Herbert Lom and up-and-coming young male lead James MacArthur . No expense was spared. Real mountaineers were hired for stunt work, and everything was shot on location in Switzerland. Ullman himself had an uncredited role as a tourist in the film. It was good family fare, but White Tower had more of the complexity factor that made it superior as an adult film. Ullman was off to the South Pacific from 1959 to 1960, visiting Pitcairn Island, Fiji, the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Wake, and the U. S. Pacific Island Trust. He finished out 1960 with a noteworthy biography of American geologist and explorer John Wesley Powell in Down the Colorado with Major Powell. The mountain experience continued to drive Ullman's writing. Ullman's fascination with Everest garnered a special dream-come-true status when he was asked to be the official historian for the American attempt on the summit in 1963 headed by Swiss/American Norman Dyhrenfurth, who was able to interest the National Geographic Society to foot the bill with the addition of scientific data gathering. Though Ullman got no closer than Kathmandu due to delicate health (altitude acclimatization for the Himalayas can be extremely difficult even for superbly fit individuals), Ullman was busy with gathering and beginning to draft the story of what would be a resoundingly successful expedition, Americans on Everest (1964). Three teams made it to the summit, one via a new west ridge route. Ullman was also involved in writing for the TV production about the American success. Two years later high drama in the Alps would be yet another authoring source. In 1966 American climber John Harlin fell to his death near the top of his goal to forge a direct route up the north face of the Eiger. That same year of 1966 British journalist Peter Gillman, who had been part of the ground team, wrote a narrative with the one successful team member to summit, Scots climber Dougal Haston (the remaining climber being noted American climber Layton Kor). Ullman became thoroughly intrigued with the complex Harlin, interviewed his parents and widow and produced the thought-provoking biography Straight Up (1968). It is not too much of a conjecture that the incident also inspired author Rod Whitaker , who gave himself the European-sounding pseudonym Trevanian, to write The Eiger Sanction (1972) - also made into a popular film (1975). To top off his inspiring travels, Ullman made a trip to Antarctica in 1970. For a man of deeply urban New York City, James Ramsey Ullman had written about and been a part of enough high adventure to fulfill any lifetime. Sammy Johns Singer/songwriter Sammy Johns was born February 7, 1946, in Charlotte, North Carolina. He received his first guitar as a present from his father at age nine. He started his own band, called The Devilles, while still in his teens. The Devilles lasted from 1963 to 1973, performed at various local clubs and recorded a few singles on the Dixie label. In 1973 Sammy secured a record deal with the General Recording Corporation, which released his debut album "Early Morning Love" in 1974. The titular track was a minor Billboard chart hit. He scored his biggest success with the single "Chevy Van." The extremely groovy and mellow tune peaked at #5 on the Billboard pop charts and sold over three million copies. The success of "Chevy Van" inspired the enjoyably low-brow Crown International teen exploitation comedy romp The Van ; Sammy co-composed the score for this movie and his signature number "Chevy Van" was prominently featured on the soundtrack ("Chevy Van" was also featured on the soundtrack to the 2004 film Starsky & Hutch ). Alas, his follow-up single, "Rag Doll", was only a modest success. However, Johns went on to become a successful songwriter whose compositions were covered by several popular country singers. John Ellison Conlee had a gold record with his rendition of Sammy's "Common Man" and Conway Twitty scored his final gold record with "Desperado Love." Waylon Jennings sang Johns' "America" in a 1985 national television broadcast celebrating the restoration of the Statue of Liberty. The single for "America" subsequently went gold and was nominated in some country music circles for song of the year. In 1996 Sammy Kershaw did a cover of "Chevy Van" on his album "Politics, Religion, and Her." Johns recorded the comeback album "Honky-Tonk Moon" in 2000. Johns died on January 4, 2013, at age 66 at Gaston Memorial Hospital in Gastonia, North Carolina. Gaston Willig Gaston Willig is from the Andes Mountains - Mendoza, Argentina. At the age 11, Gaston fell in love with music. Self-taught piano and guitar, Gaston attended to the university of music at 12, a year later, he decided to compose his own music with classical influences. At the age 16 he booked his first print campaign in Santiago Chile with Bookers Agency. Soon after he moved to the states to pursue acting and booked his first national commercial in Dallas Texas with the Horne agency at 17 while studying theater at his high school. He has worked over 14 years in the entertainment industry. Dr. Willig is currently producing, writing and directing films and music with different artists abroad. If you would like to be part of his projects feel free to reach him. There is no limit with free imagination. Charlie Rainer Gaston Charlie Rainer Gaston is an American actress, award-winning screenplay writer and improv performer. She holds a master's degree in film and television and a bachelor's degree in fine arts. Classically trained, Charlie has played roles from Shakespeare to Sophocles, as well as delivered powerhouse acting performances in lead and supporting roles for daytime and prime time TV, including unscripted shows for NBC Universal, Investigation Discovery and DreamworksTV. She has appeared in commercials for major brands and given voice to national promo ads for hit TV shows such as A to Z (NBC) and The Voice (NBC), as well as the American Spanish-language broadcast television network MundoFox. She's also appeared multiple Grammy Award-winning singer-songwriter Alicia Keys in the public service announcement "No Child With Aids" for the ONE Campaign. In addition to being in front of the camera, she has also spent time behind it, directing short films, music videos and documentaries. Charlie's unique journey as an international student, indie filmmaker, screenplay writer and all-around social butterfly has taken her around the world, including experiences in Mexico, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Asia, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. She is originally from the Midwest. As of 2016, she resides in Los Angeles, CA. Max Glass Max Glass was born in Oriental Galicia, in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now Poland. Max, the youngest of 5 children, arrived as a young boy in Vienna with his parents, Hersh Mendel, a Talmud scholar and jeweler, and his mother Rachel - known as Rosa Wachsmann, whose parents were from Krakow. He obtained in 1905 a Ph.D degree in philosophy, at the University of Vienna, a work which was published by Strecker and Schröder in Stuttgart under the title "Klassiche und romantische Satire" ("Satire classique et romantique" / "Classical and romantic Satire"). On July 9th 1908, Max Glass married Helene Münz (originally Münzdorf), from the Viennese suburb Pötzleinsdorf, one year his senior. Like Max, she was a Doctor in philosophy. The couple had two sons, Paul, born on May 18, 1909 and George(s), born on October 19th, 1917. Only about 5.000 students were enrolled, at the turn of the century, at the "University of Vienna", half of them at the "Faculty of Law". Several professors, dedicated to the dissemination of knowledge, took the initiative of organizing classes for adults in what came to be known as "Volksbildungsbewegung" ("Mouvement pour l'Éducation populaire" / "Mouvement for popular Education"). Among the leaders of this movement, one finds two lay Jews, Ludo Moritz Hartmann (1865-1924), son of Bohemian poet Mortiz Hartmann, and Moritz Szeps, Chief editor of "Neues Wiener Tageblatt", one of the major progressive daily newspapers in Vienna. In 1900, Hartmann and Szeps help found the "Volksheim" ("Maison du Peuple" / "House of the People") where workers were enrolled in evening classes. Max Glass contributed several articles to the weekly "Wissen für Alle" ("Savoir pour tous" / "Knowledge for all"), a "synthesis of contemporary knowledge" edited by Moritz Szeps. He also wrote and had several novels published. After the Second World War, he moved to Berlin where he devoted himself to script writing, to directing and producing films. Berlin was the "Mecca" for Austrians whose intellectuals suffered from an inferiority complex, exemplified by a passage in a letter written in 1914 by Arthur Schnitzler to his sister-in-law "... the expression "real Austrian" has a derogatory connotation, whereas the associations brought forth by anything "German" are of the order of nobility, strength and beauty". In Berlin, Max Glass' second novel "Die entfesselte Menschheit" ("L'Humanité déchaînée" / "Humanity unleashed") was brought to the screen by Joseph Delmont in 1920, in a Max Nivelli production... Max Glass rapidly entered production himself and rose to the head of the "Terra Film". According to German journalist Georg Fuchs, "Terra Film" owed its rise to international recognition to Max Glass, sometimes nicknamed "the Dictator of Cinema" because of his iron will. In 1928 Max Glass started up his own production company, "Max Glass Film Produktion GmbH", at Friedrichstrasse 221, in Berlin. His first two productions that same year were signed by Robert Wiene: "Leontines Ehemänner" ("Les Maris de Leontine" / "Leontine's Husbands") and "Unfug der Liebe" ("Les Farces de l'Amour" / "Love's Pranks"). The following year, he took on Maurice Tourneur to direct "Das Schiff der verlorenen Menschen" ("Le Navire des Hommes perdus" / "Ship of lost Men"), starring Marlene Dietrich, Robin Irvine, Gaston Modot, Fritz Kortner and Wladimir Sokoloff. Before Hitler came to power in 1933, Max Glass produced another 8 films, some of them by the second production / distribution company he had set up in 1929, the "Kristall Film", also located at Friedrichstrasse 221, in Berlin. Like "Max Glass Film Produktion GmbH", the "Kristall Film" was both owned by Max Glass. Many of the films produced and distributed by these companies were eventually banished from any commercial success or even from any commercial distribution, as the "Racial Laws" tightened. Not only was Max Glass a Jew, (his conversion to Catholicism dating back to his youth in Vienna and his efforts at assimilation were to no avail), but several of the actors that appeared in his films were too, like for example Szöke Szakall, Helga Molander and Grete Mosheim. In 1933, both companies were shut down and Max Glass went into exile in Paris, where he founded yet another production company, "Flora Films". With the help of his eldest son Paul, he produced, in the early 1930s, a series of films such as "La Rosière des Halles", "L'Auberge du Petit Dragon", and "La Reine des Resquilleuses". Certain scripts were signed "E. Raymond, Budapest", pseudonym and fictional origin Max Glass sometimes used. In 1937 Max Glass and his two sons created a second French production and distribution company called "Arcadia Films". It undertook two super-productions, "La Tragédie Impériale" (1938) with Harry Baur in the role of Rasputin, and "Entente Cordiale" (1939) after the novel by André Maurois. Both films were directed by Marcel L'Herbier. On November 23, 1939, a decree granted Max Glass his French citizenship. On September 2, 1942 the Vichy Government issued another decree, bearing the number 2718, stripping him of his French citizenship. But by then, he had already departed for Brazil, then the United States. Little is known of his sojourns in Brazil and the U.S. He seems to essentially have devoted himself to writing. In 1947, the American Beechurst Press released "Liberation from Yesterday", under the name of Max Glass-Plesching Ph.D. (Plesching was the name of the Austrian village where Max Glass had acquired a country estate before his departure for Berlin in the early twenties) The 672 page volume of this book contains a detailed geo-political survey of the planet, no references whatsoever to cinema, art history or personal hazards. Upon returning to France after the war, Max Glass discovered that during his exile his companies, "Flora Films" and "Arcadia Films", had been declared bankrupt and dissolved by a provisional administrator on May 28, 1941 and August 12, 1942 respectively. In 1945, Max Glass obtained an agreement that permitted him to recover some of the French films he had produced before the war. On November 6, 1948, at age 67, Max Glass created what was to become his last company, the "Max Glass Films". Within this new structure, he produced three feature length films and some shorts... In 1957, Max Glass divorced Helene Münz and married his long-time friend, German-Jewish actress Helga Molander, mother of famous psychiatrist Hans-Jürgen Eysenck (know especially for his I.Q. tests). Helga Molander - whose real name was Ruth Werner - had starred in many of Max Glass' Berlin productions such as the 1923 "Der Mann mit der Eisernen Maske" ("L'Homme au Masque de Fer" / "The Man with the Iron Mask") "Bob und Mary" ("Bob et Marie" / "Bob and Mary") both films not only produced but also directed by Max Glass. According to some sources, Max Glass had "spent a fortune" buying his friend's freedom after - like most refugees from Germany - she had been rounded up by the French police and locked up in a French internment camp (prelude to Drancy, then Auschwitz for most of those who were handed over to the Nazis). Helga Molander eventually joined Max Glass in Bresil, then the United States. Max Glass died in Paris on July 18th, 1965 and was incinerated in the Père Lachaise Cemetary. Kyle Jordan Kyle Jordan first discovered his love and connection with acting at Jack Nicholson theater at Manasquan, NJ. From there Kyle went on to play roles such as Gaston and Dracula at Monmouth University. He then continued to study and hone his craft at the University of Miami. Since leaving the realm of academia Mr. Jordan has gone on to capture a principal role in a martial arts feature film called Akirema: City of The Damned, a lead in a web-series, Single and Anxious, and a supporting role in a short horror film, Release. Kyle enjoys playing complicated characters that have a lot of emotional depth. He hopes to have a long career and will always do his homework when preparing for a role, Casey Russell Casey Russell was born in on January 15, 1987 in Princeton New Jersey; however, he was raised in the Chicago suburb of Woodridge, Illinois. His family made it a point to routinely take advantage of Chicago's theater district, which helped feed his acting bug. He began acting at a young age and was primarily involved with stage productions, including his role of "Gaston" in Beauty and The Beast (2005). He took a brief hiatus from the lime light in order to focus on pursuing a graduate degree in physical therapy. After completion of this degree he quickly became involved with several short-film projects and found a passion for on-camera work. He now enjoys working on projects of all sizes and in various genres ranging from comedy to horror. Renato Cecchetto He studied and graduated from the "Accademia Nazionale d'Arte Drammatica Silvio D'Amico". He works in theater and is directed, among others, by Mario Missiroli, Giorgio Pressburger, Jim Dale and Francesco Macedonio. Filmmaking has worked in more than 80 films with directors such as Mario Monicelli, Steno, Marco Ferreri, Damiano Damiani and Florestan Vancini. Memorable his performances in "Amici miei - Atto IIº" with Ugo Tognazzi and Gastone Moschin, "Fracchia la belva umana" and "Fantozzi alla riscossa" with Paolo Villaggio, "Parenti serpenti" with Alessandro Haber, Cinzia Leone and Monica Scattini, "Pierino colpisce ancora" with Alvaro Vitali. For television he is Judge Bordonaro in the first two editions of "La piovra". He gives voice to Cleveland Brown from the twelfth season of "I Griffin", replacing Luciano Marchitiello. Oscar Marcos Azar Dr. Oscar Marcos Azar has participated in legal advice in more than 400 Argentine films, many of them have obtained International Awards, "Mundo Grua" rewarded in Europe, "Tango" nominated for the Oscar Prize; including "Kluge", "Luca", "El Vestido", "El Boquete", "El Tigre Escondido", "Un Amor de Borges", "Un dia de suerte", "Un Año sin Amor", "El Cielito", "Sed", "Tatuado", among others. Nowadays he participates in advice and production of many argentina and iberoamerican films. He participated as co-producer in many films, being out-standing "Zenitram", "Miss Tacuarembo", "Al fin el mar", "Lifting de corazon", "Naranjo en flor", "Dolores de casada", "Suspiros del corazon", "Villa", "Las aventuras de Nahuel", "Arroz con leche" and "La 21 Barracas" among many others. His work comes from the academic activity, Diploma of Honor of the Buenos Aires University, He has been Head of Chair professor in the Ph.D. in Private International Law, and graduate professor in different private and national universities, with more than 30 years activities. He was author or co-author of rules and regulations that today Argentine Cinematography applies to a national level, he is legal adviser, founder partner of FAPCA, Federation Argentina of Productores, he is a member of the Directive Commision of the Independent Producers Association (APRI), of the Producers of Audiovisual Arts (ARPROART), of the Movie Directors Association (AADC), of the Independent directors Assoc (DIC) and of the Asociacion de Productores de Cine para la Infancia (APCI). Among the directors of the films he has worked we can mention Adolfo Aristarain, Adrian Caetano, Alberto Arazi, Alberto Lecchi, Alcides Chiesa, Alejandro Agresti, Alejandro Chomski, Alejandro Malowicki, Alejo Taube, Alfonso Arau, Aluizio Abranchez, Alvaro Fontana, Amin Yoma, Anahi Berneri, Anibal Di Salvo, Anibal Guiser, Anibal Uset, Antonio Gonzalez Vigil, Antonio Hernandez, Antonio Ottone, Ariel Broitman, Arturo Ripstein, Avner Benaim, Baltasar Tokman, Bebe Kamin, Bernardo Correa, Betty Kaplan, Blas Eloy Martinez, Carlos Galettini, Carlos Lozano Dana, Carlos Martinez, Carlos Orgambide, Carlos Oves, Carlos Saura, Cesar Dangiolillo, Cesar Heil, Ciro Cappellari, Cristiane D'Amato, Daniel Burak, Daniel Ritto, Danilo Lavigne, Dario Arcella, Dario Colmenares, Diego Curubeto, Diego Fried, Diego Gachassin, Diego Kaplan, Diego Muziak, Diego Yaker, Dody Scheuer, Edgardo Cabeza, Edgardo Pabano, Edmund Valladares, Edmundo Rodriguez, Eduardo Capilla, Eduardo Montes Bradley, Eduardo Raspo, Eliseo Subiela, Emiliano Goessens, Enrique Gabriel, Enrique Liporace, Enrique Muzio, Ernesto Aguilar, Esteban Sapir, Ezio Massa, Facundo Ramilo, Federico Palazzo, Federico Urioste, Fermin Alvarez Rivera, Fernando Musa, Fernando Regalado, Fito Paez, Francisco D'Intino, Fredy Torres, Gabriel Arbos, Gabriel Arregui, Gabriel Gonzalez Condron, Gabriel Retes, Gaston Duprat, Gaston Ocampo, Gerardo Herrero, Gerardo Vallejo, Gianfranco Quattrini, Guillermo Roig, Gustavo Corrado, Gustavo Hernandez Perez, Henrique de Freitas Lima, Hernan Andrade, Hernan Roman, Horacio Correa, Horacio Muschietti, Hugo Lescano, Hugo Rodriguez, Hugo Santiago, Imanol Arias, Ines Oliveira Cezar, Isabel Jaguaribe, Ivan Entel, Jaime Chavarri, Jaime Lozano, Javier Diaz, Javier Torre, Jesus Martinez, Jorge Coscia, Jorge Dyszel, Jorge Giannoni, Jorge Polaco, Jorge Pstyga, Jorge Roca, Jorge Salvador, Jose Luis Marques, Jose Miguel Juarez, Juan Bautista Stagnaro, Juan Carlos Desanzo, Juan Jose Jusid, Juan Manuel Jimenez, Juan Raad, Julio Cardoso, Julio Midu, Laura Bondarevsky, Leo Ricagni, Leonardo Favio, Leopoldo Torre Nilsson, Leyla Grumberg, Liliana Mazure, Liliana Romero, Lucas Brunetto, Luis Barone, Luis Palomares, Luis Sampieri, Magadalena Mastromarino, Mahmoud Kalari, Manane Rodriguez, Manolo Gonzalez, Marcelo Katz, Marcelo Mangone, Marcelo Schapces, Marcos Carnevale, Marcos Loayza, Marcos Zurinaga, Maria Victoria Menis, Mariana Arrutti, Mariano Cohn, Mariano Galperin, Mariano Mucci, Mariano Olmedo, Mariano Torres Manzur, Mario Levin, Martin Schor, Matilde Michanie, Mausi Martinez, Maximiliano Gonzalez, Miguel Mato, Miguel Miño, Miguel Pereira, Miguel Rodriguez Arias, Nemesio Juarez, Nestor Lescovich, Nestor Montalbano, Nicolas Entel, Nidia Zarza, Norman Ruiz, Ofelia Escasany, Oliverio Torre, Olivia Guimaraes Castro, Oscar Aizpeolea, Oscar Castillo, Osvaldo Andechaga, Pablo Cesar, Pablo Douchinsky, Pablo Fendrik, Pablo Kuhnert, Pablo Nisenson, Pablo Sofovich, Pablo Torre Nilsson, Pablo Trapero, Patricio Coll, Paula de Luque, Paula Siero, Pedro Stocki, Poli Nardi, Quique Aguilar, Rafael Filipelli, Ramiro Garcia, Raul de la Torre, Ricardo Becher, Ricardo Berretta, Ricardo Wullicher, Roberto D. Ceuninck Roberto Ferro, Roberto Maiocco, Rodolfo Carnevale, Rodolfo Duran, Rodolfo Mortola, Rodrigo Espina, Rodrigo Moscoso, Rodrigo Triana, Rolando Pardo, Rolo Pereira, Roly Santos, Ruben Estrella, Ruben Stella, Sandra Gugliotta, Sebastian Faena, Sebastian Massana, Segio Bellotti, Sergio Bizzio, Silvio Fischbein, Susana Tozzi, Ulises Rosell, Veronica Chen, Victor Dinenzon, Victor Gonzalez, Victor Laplace, Victor Olivo, Victor Ruiz y Walter Tejblum John Saviano John Saviano is a veteran of the independent film business. John began his career in account management with Grey Advertising in New York. Upon leaving Grey, he formed his own video production company, which he owned and operated for three years. He entered the world of film production after relocating to Los Angeles where he worked on several feature films in various production capacities, as well as the television series "Moonlighting." Shortly thereafter, Saviano began Line Producing on a series of television movies and specials including "Stompin' at the Savoy," "With a Vengeance," "MTV: Give Me Back My Life," "The Unnaturals" and "Between Cars." Saviano made the move to producing feature films in 1995 when he served as Executive Producer on Fine Line Features' true crime drama "Normal Life," Shot in Chicago and directed by John McNaughton, "Normal Life" featured Ashley Judd and Luke Perry. Besides producing duties, Saviano also Music and Post Supervised the film, delivering his first feature effort on time and under budget, a trend that still continues. This film was a critical success following its premiere at the Sundance Film Festival in 1996. Saviano next completed work on MDP Worldwide's production of "Liar," by the writer-director team of Josh and Jonas Pate. Shot in Charleston, South Carolina, "Liar" stars Tim Roth, Chris Penn, Michael Rooker, Renee Zellweger, Rosanna Arquette and Ellen Burstyn. Picked up for distribution by MGM under "Deceiver," the film made its theatrical debut in February of 1998. Since that time Saviano has completed more than six films in Los Angeles as Producer and/or Co-Producer including - Kushner-Locke's coming-of-age teen-angst dramedy "Girl" directed by Jonathon Kahn and starring Dominique Swain and Sean Patrick Flanery which aired on Cinemax. "The Suburbans," a musical comedy produced by MPCA, Ignite Entertainment and Ben Stiller's Red Hour Films from writer-director-actor Donny Ward, also starring Jennifer Love Hewitt, Stiller, Amy Brenneman, Will Ferrel, Craig Bierko and Robert Loggia. The film was released by Tri-Star in October of 1999; "Lucky 13," a romantic comedy directed by first-timer Chris Hall starring Harland Williams (Disney's "Rocketman"), Brad Hunt, and Lauren Graham ("Gilmore Girls"); "Beyond the City Limits," a quirky drama directed by GiGi Gaston and starring Nastasja Kinski, Todd Field ("In the Bedroom"), Steve Harris, Jennifer Esposito and Allyson Hannigan; "Sin", an independently financed drama starring Gary Oldman and Ving Rhames, directed by Michael Stevens ("Bad City Blues"), and "Wicked Prayer," the fourth installment of "The Crow" franchise starring Edward Furlong, Tara Reid, Dennis Hopper, David Boreanaz, and UFC champion fighter Tito Ortiz. As the nature of independent film changed, Saviano changed as well making four movies for under $1 million dollars each in the last 16 months. Each of these films was completed on time and in budget, and each is in various states of the finishing and delivery process. From cop thriller ("Venice Underground") to romantic comedy ("Partner(s)") to World War II period piece complete with digital effects and flying B-24 bombers ("Beautiful Dreamer") to serious dramatic work ("Bondage"), to gritty urban drama ("On the Doll"), Saviano employed all his experience and passion for filmmaking into these difficult but satisfying endeavors. Rounding out Saviano's production experience is his background working in development, with an eye for material and a commitment to moving projects through to production. Saviano served as a Director of Development for Richard Maynard Productions at Hearst Entertainment where he was responsible for putting 20 hours of television and cable into development. Subsequently he was promoted to VP, Production. In 2001 Saviano financed and formed Old School Pictures, LLC, working with writer/directors Lem Dobbs, Frank Military, Larry Golin, Luka Pecel, Christopher Harwood, Mark Pavia, and Jordan Hawley on developing projects for various mediums. Saviano has excellent relationships with production crews in New York, Chicago, Seattle, Salt Lake City, Nevada, the Southern United States (Carolinas, Georgia, Virginia, Florida) and Los Angeles, as well as access to nationally known talent. His experience provides the leadership to ensure a creatively successful and economical production. Ed Schiff Ed Schiff is a veteran actor, director and producer with over 200 credits in professional theater, in film and on television. Schiff was recently featured in the movies "War of the Worlds," "Out of the Fog," "The Warrior Class" and "Everyman." He was John Wolfe, the corrupt detective, on ABC-TV's "One Life to Live," and Mitchell Morgan, the TV station manager in the primetime comedy "Grapevine." Recent regional theater stage roles for Schiff have included title roles in "Da" and "King Lear"; lead roles as Matthew Harrison Brady in "Inherit the Wind," Big Daddy in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof," Gaston in "Picasso at the Lapin Agile," Larkin in "Golf with Alan Shephard," Gen. MacKenzie in "And Then There Were None," Mr. Laurence in "Little Women" and King Claudius in "Hamlet." His many recent TV commercials include him as Ernest Hemingway for "Pilot Pen," The Gorton's Fisherman, and as King Alfonso for "Medieval Times." Gaston Carrizo Gaston Carrizo, founder of Flying Visual Art, recognizes and appreciates the artistic power of photography/cinematography. As a child growing up in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Gaston would visit the popular Historic Train Club (Ferroclub Argentino) every weekend to work on preserving the history of Argentina's railroading past by photographing the antiqued locomotives. It was at this time in his life when he realized his passion for photography, which would ultimately drive him to start Flying Visual Art, Inc. Later in his life, Gaston's love for still images developed into a love for film. On November 1st, 2002, at the age of 23, Gaston moved to the United States to pursue a career in the film and TV production. While taking English classes at Glendale College, he met a friend who would later help him get his first job as a camera assistant. During his apprenticeship, Gaston had the opportunity to work closely with many industry professionals who helped him master the skill of operating the Jib Camera (Crane Camera). Despite the industry's competitiveness, his artistic talents earned him and his crew an Emmy award in 2007 for their work with Univision covering the Rose Parade. His drive and innate ability to capture the beauty of every moment set him apart and positioning him in the entertainment industry. In 2006, Gaston founded Gina Productions, a small production firm that offered professional Jib services. This venture afforded him a breadth of production experience shooting sporting events, talk shows, music videos, corporate events, live performances, films, short films, and online shows. In 2011, due to growing demand, Gaston founded Flying Visual Art, Inc which has now worked with well known DPs, Producers, Directors, and some companies like German TV, Red Bull, NBC, ABC, LATV Networks, NET GEO, ESPN and others. Suzzane Skinner Suzzane Skinner is a professional image groomer and advisor with over 35 years of experience. Based in Nashville, she works extensively in the entertainment and racing industry. She consults with professionals and amateurs in music, television, sports, corporations, reality TV, fashion, schools, churches, retail, medicine, and theater. She served as personal assistant to veteran TV producer Jim Owens and TV personalities, Lorianne Crook & Charlie Chase (Crook & Chase) for The Nashville Network's "Music City Tonight". She works in many aspects of television production and launched the casting division, ImageCast, in 1994. So Good! Entertainment - Suzzane's recent joint venture focuses on Production, Marketing, Music and Events. Founded in 2009, So Good! Entertainment is an integrated entertainment marketing company specializing in the innovation and activation of marketing strategy for musical artists, athletes, and corporate clients across the nation. With years of experience with clients like Folgers, Lays, Kleenex, The Wake Up Narcolepsy Foundation and ZLOOP E-Waste Recycling and Data Destruction company, Zaxby's Restaurants and Bitcoin's BitPay in NASCAR, So Good! Entertainment realizes that while the ways their clients relate to their consumer may change, the need to do so does not. In providing opportunities for branding and exposure, their goal remains to truly connect their clients with their audience/consumer. They approach each project with the belief that the right idea and/or message can leave an indelible impression as well as build the foundation of a relationship between client and consumer that can "move" them to action. They have the passion, experience and relationships to connect people with opportunity to make BIG things happen. Suzzane Skinner, Producer - Suzzane recently served as Talent Producer, Director, Writer and Stage Manager for the George Jones Concert Tribute, the largest music event of its type in history, with 112 members of talent and 42 performances, in under 4 hours at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville. She served as the Talent Producer for Johnny Cash's Memorial Funeral Service at the Famous Ryman Auditorium. Suzzane is a contracted Image and Career Coach, Talent Executive, Casting Director, Talent Booker, Segment Producer, Audience Coordinator, Stage Manager, and Artist Liaison Coordinator. She owns and coordinates Audience Company Nashville, specializing in quality crowds & audiences. Her individual Image instruction is available for professional skill development in many areas such as career coaching, image grooming, media training, interviewing, auditioning, cold reading, handwriting, autograph, table manners, mannerisms & etiquette, self-promotion, establishing industry presence and creating celebrity. Suzzane is a circuit speaker to various groups and schools, and member of Source- a Distinquished Women in Music Association and American Women in Radio and Television (AWRT). She is a specialized instructor for the Curb School of Music at Belmont University, mentor and featured speaker for the Honors Program at Tennessee State University in Nashville. She is the exclusive Image Consultant for the Grammy Showcase (NARAS) in Nashville. She was a Stage Manager for the 44th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Annual Musicians Hall of Fame Awards, Larry the Cable Guy Christmas Specials and the 18th Annual Bluegrass Awards in Nashville. Her client list is deep and includes Angelina Jolie, Brad Pitt, Sony Recording artist Danny Gokey, Revlon featuring Sheryl Crow, Michael Jordan, Megan Alexander of Inside Edition, NASCAR race car drivers Justin Boston, John Wes Townley, and Brennan Poole, The Voice/Team Blake's Adley Stump, Justin Gaston of Nashville Star 08 and Taylor Swift's Prince Charming, Nashville TV host Holly Thompson, Keenan Thompson of Saturday Night Live, Billy Bob Thornton and Mark Collie. ImageCast - Suzzane is a talent executive, casting director and consultant for national and international telecasts, including the annual ABC's CMA Awards & CMA Country Christmas, CMT Music Awards, annual "CMT Artist of the Year", The Nashville "Footloose" AXS-tv's "Discovering Lucy Angel" and "Revenge of the Electric Car" Film Premieres, the CMT/TNN/Country Weekly Music Awards, the CMT Flameworthy Video Music Awards, the Music City News Awards, the Dove Awards, the CMA 40th Anniversary Special, the Grand Ole Opry 75th Anniversary Special, Country Freedom Concert, and CMA Fan Fair/Music Fest Riverfront Stage, CMT's "Larry the Cable Guy's Star-Studded Christmas Extravaganza", among many, many others. She served as Talent Executive and Image Consultant for the "1999 CMA: Backstage Pass" pay-per-view event preceding the CMA Awards international telecast, where she landed the first interview in 9 years with George Strait. She was Audience Coordinator for the 2008 & 2012 Trumpet Awards in Atlanta and Nashville. She was contracted as Talent Executive for Election Night 2000 for Vice President Al Gore and the National Democratic Party at the War Memorial in Nashville. Talent included Cher, Morgan Fairchild, Star Jones, Rob Reiner, Kathy Mattea, BeBe Winans, Fisk Jubilee Singers and others. She casts for many, many artists' videos such as "Easy" with Rascal Flatts & Natasha Bedingfield, "House that Love Built" for Brooks & Dunn, LeeAnn Womack's Grammy-nominated video, "I Hope You Dance", "Red High Heels" with Kellie Pickler, George Strait, Joe Nichols' "Tequila", "Control" for the Grammy-nominated rock band MuteMath, James Otto, Keith Urban, Sara Evans, Eric Church, Ryan Shupe & the Rubberband, RockieLynne, Anthony Smith, Patty Loveless, Anita Cochran, John Michael Montgomery, Collin Raye, Phil Vassar, and Jo Dee Messina's "Delicious Surprise". Audience Company Nashville - One of Suzzane's companies, she supplies quality audiences and extras for many television specials and programs such as "CMT Crossroads" with Keith Urban & John Mayer as well as Jason Aldean & Bryan Adams, "Legends & Lyrics" for PBS, HGTV's hit show finale "Design Star", CMT "Comedy Stage", Nashville Star (3 years), "Clint Black~Live By Request" for A&E, "Willie Nelson & Friends" for USA Network, TNN's Ralph Emery's "On The Record" with guests Naomi Judd, Olivia Newton-John, Johnny Cash, and "Nunsense" featuring Vicki Lawrence in the Grand Ole Opry House, CMT Music Awards, CMA Awards, and many others. She casts national and local commercials and programs for clients such as "Larry the Cable Guy's Star-Studded Christmas Extravaganza", Mercedes Benz, ESPN, Revlon with Sheryl Crow, Farm Bureau Insurance, Gold Bond, Partnership for a Healthier MS, Lucent Technologies /NY, Rexall, BellSouth/1997 Winter Olympics for Flying Tiger Productions/LA, "Heck On Wheels" for the Nashville Network, Bellevue Center Mall in Nashville, YWCA, LifeWay, and UTV Records for Marvin Gaye Recordings. Stanley J. Weyman Popular on both sides of the Atlantic, British author and playwright, Stanley John Weyman, was considered by many to be one of the best historical romance writers of his day. Some lamented the fact that in 1928 his death rated only scarce mention, at least in America, by the national press. Weyman's more popular works included "The King's Stratagem," (1891, "The Gentleman Of France Being The Memorys Of Gaston De Bonne Sieur De Marsac" (1893) and "Under the Red Robe" (1894)) Zachary Steven Houp Zachary Houp was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1981. He graduated from Fleetwood Area High School in 2000. From an early age, he developed a love of film that would compel him towards storytelling in his personal life and in his career. Houp graduated from The University of Delaware in 2004 with a Bachelor's Degree in English Education. Immediately after college, he began teaching at his alma mater, Fleetwood Area High School. He continues to teach tenth and twelfth grade English, journalism, as well as electives in Science Fiction, Film, and Tolkien to this day. Houp acquired his Master's of Education from Kutztown University in 2006. Houp met his wife Jennifer while he was directing "Hello, Dolly!" for the school at which he taught. Two years later they were married. He has one daughter, Mia, and one son, whose name has not yet been disclosed. Houp's big break came when filmmaker Sean D. Gaston began teaching media courses at Fleetwood Area School District. When Gaston requested Houp's assistance on the film that would become Misa's Fugue, Houp jumped at the chance. Houp is an avid reader and writer. He enjoys cooking, spending time with his family and dog Phoebe, and immersing himself in new hobbies David Burrows-Sutcliffe David is a hugely popular actor who has appeared in movies, TV and the West End stage. Born in Bolton, Lancashire to an Anglican vicar David at his public school, appeared in many school plays and produced many of them. He was directed by David Self who died in 2008. Whilst at school he wrote and directed a comedy film entitled 'The Weirdies'. He recorded many voice overs for BBC radio as well as the narration of a Christmas story in 1973. In 1995 David successfully auditioned for a place at the prestigious Drama Studio London whose past students include Forrest Whittaker and Peter Howitt. He graduated with Distinction. Whilst at DSL David appeared as Timon in Timon of Athens on the Olivier Stage of the National Theatre in London. David's stage appearances include Higgins in Pygmalion, Gaston in Gigi and Andrew Wyke in Sleuth. His film credits include Sliding Doors and 12 in a Box. He is much in demand as both an actor and writer. He is also an accomplished after dinner speaker. In 2000, David added the role of movie producer to his list of credits. He founded the film production company, Cracking Films, which has many movies on its slate. David is a voting member of BAFTA and a member of the English Speaking Union. David lives near London and travels extensively. Chakachas The Chakachas were a Belgium-based band of studio musicians who specialized in Latin soul music. Also known as Les Chakachas and Los Chakachas, the group was formed by arranger and band leader Gaston Bogaert in the late 50s. The other members were: Kari Kenton (vocals/maracas), Vic Ingeveldt (saxophone), Charlie Lots (trumpet), Christian Marc (piano), Henri Breyre (guitar/backing vocals), and Bill Raymond (bass guitar). The Chakachas had a #1 hit in Belgium with the song "Eso es el amor" in 1958. In 1959 the group recorded the song "Rebecca," which was featured in the acclaimed movie "The Battle of Algiers." In 1962 the Chakachas had a mid-chart hit with "Twist Twist," which reached #48 on the UK Singles chart. In 1972 the Chakachas scored a massive smash with the supremely earthy and funky instrumental disco single "Jungle Fever;" this extremely sexy and slow-grinding number sold over a million copies in America and soared to #8 on the US Billboard pop charts. Despite being banned by the BBC for its highly sensuous and suggestive heavy breathing and orgasmic moaning, "Jungle Fever" nonetheless cracked the UK Top 30 at #29. "Jungle Fever" went on to be featured on the soundtracks to the films "Boogie Nights," "Next Friday," and "Just Like Heaven." Moreover, "Jungle Fever" has been sampled in songs by such hip-hop artists as 2 Live Crew, Ambassador, Antoinette, the Beachnuts, and Public Enemy.
The Phantom of the Opera
What service did Hebe and her successor, Ganymede, perform for Zeus on Mount Olympus?
Horror Films HORROR FILMS Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4 | Examples Horror Films are unsettling films designed to frighten and panic, cause dread and alarm, and to invoke our hidden worst fears, often in a terrifying, shocking finale, while captivating and entertaining us at the same time in a cathartic experience. Horror films effectively center on the dark side of life, the forbidden, and strange and alarming events. They deal with our most primal nature and its fears: our nightmares, our vulnerability, our alienation, our revulsions, our terror of the unknown, our fear of death and dismemberment, loss of identity, or fear of sexuality. Whatever dark, primitive, and revolting traits that simultaneously attract and repel us are featured in the horror genre. Horror films are often combined with science fiction when the menace or monster is related to a corruption of technology, or when Earth is threatened by aliens. The fantasy and supernatural film genres are not synonymous with the horror genre, although thriller films may have some relation when they focus on the revolting and horrible acts of the killer/madman. Horror films are also known as chillers, scary movies, spookfests, and the macabre. See also Scariest Film Moments and Scenes (illustrated) - from many of the Greatest Horror Films ever made, Best Film Death Scenes (illustrated), and Three Great Horror Film Franchises . Introduction to Horror Films Genre: Horror films go back as far as the onset of films themselves, over a 100 years ago. From our earliest days, we use our vivid imaginations to see ghosts in shadowy shapes, to be emotionally connected to the unknown and to fear things that are improbable. Watching a horror film gives an opening into that scary world, into an outlet for the essence of fear itself, without actually being in danger. Weird as it sounds, there's a very real thrill and fun factor in being scared or watching disturbing, horrific images. Horror films, when done well and with less reliance on horrifying special effects, can be extremely potent film forms, tapping into our dream states and the horror of the irrational and unknown, and the horror within man himself. (The best horror films only imply or suggest the horror in subtle ways, rather than blatantly displaying it, i.e., Val Lewton's horror films.) In horror films, the irrational forces of chaos or horror invariably need to be defeated, and often these films end with a return to normalcy and victory over the monstrous. Of necessity, the earliest horror films were Gothic in style - meaning that they were usually set in spooky old mansions, castles, or fog-shrouded, dark and shadowy locales. Their main characters have included "unknown," human, supernatural or grotesque creatures, ranging from vampires, demented madmen, devils, unfriendly ghosts, monsters, mad scientists, "Frankensteins," "Jekyll/Hyde" dualities (good against evil), demons, zombies, evil spirits, arch fiends, Satanic villains, the "possessed," werewolves and freaks to even the unseen, diabolical presence of evil. Horror films developed out of a number of sources: folktales with devil characters, witchcraft, fables, myths, ghost stories, Grand Guignol melodramas, and Gothic or Victorian novels from Europe by way of Mary Shelley, Victor Hugo or Irish writer Bram Stoker, and American writers Robert Louis Stevenson and Edgar Allan Poe. Oscar Wilde's 1890 Faustian tale The Picture of Dorian Gray and H.G. Wells' 1896 story of The Island of Dr. Moreau were adapted into early film versions. In many ways, the expressionistic German silent cinema led the world in films of horror and the supernatural, and established its cinematic vocabulary and style. Many of the early silent classics would be remade during the talkies era. The Earliest Horror Films: Vampires (Vamps), Monsters, and More Bloodsuckers (leeches) and vampire bats have always intrigued and frightened people from cultures around the world. Demonic or supernatural possession was often juxtaposed with blood-drinking, sex, and corpses. Many religions, myths, folk-tales and cults espoused the idea of obtaining the life-essence from blood – in its extreme was the practice of cannibalism. Vampires began to emerge in popular fiction of the 18th and 19th centuries, during which time Anglo-Irish writer Bram Stoker's 1897 vampire novel Dracula was written. It has become the most popular, influential and preeminent source material for many vampire films. Sheridan Le Fanu's 1872 lesbian vampire tale Carmilla came a close second to Stoker's writings. Stoker's seminal book hatched all the elements of future vampire films -- predatory female vamps who kissed the neck of male victims for their human blood, an elderly Count who vied for their prey, and a vampire hunter with garlic to ward off the "Prince of Darkness" and with a wooden stake to drive through Dracula's heart. The first horror movie, only about two minutes long, was made by imaginative French filmmaker Georges Melies, titled Le Manoir Du Diable (1896, Fr.) (aka The Devil's Castle/The Haunted Castle) - containing familiar elements of later horror and vampire films: a flying bat, a medieval castle, a cauldron, a demon figure (Mephistopheles), and skeletons, ghosts, and witches - and a crucifix to dispatch with evil. It appeared that Quasimodo, from Victor Hugo's Notre-Dame de Paris 1831 novel, became the first horror figure in the 10-minute short by female director Alice Guy titled Esmeralda (1905, Fr.), and soon after was seen in the full-length horror film Notre-Dame De Paris (1911, Fr.) (aka The Hunchback of Notre Dame). In the French silent film serial (with ten chapters) Les Vampires (1915, Fr.) (aka The Vampires) by director/writer Louis Feuillade, subversive vampire thieves sucked the blood out of sleeping bourgeois Parisian society, and stole their jewels. The villainous leader of the vamps was Irma Vep (Musidora), an anagram for VAMPIRE. The partly scripted, partly-improvised episodes (with eye-catching titles like "The Severed Head" and "The Ring That Kills") followed investigative journalist Philippe Guérande (Édouard Mathé) and his comic sidekick Oscar Mazamette (Marcel Lévesque) in their continued attempts to foil The Vampire Gang's elaborate schemes and gadgets. One of the more memorable and influential of the early films was Germany's silent expressionistic landmark classic, Das Kabinett des Doktor Caligari (1919/1920, Ger.) (aka The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari) from director Robert Wiene, about a ghost-like hypnotist-therapist in a carnival named Dr. Caligari (Werner Kraus) who calls pale-skinned, lanky, black leotard-wearing Cesare (Conrad Veidt, later known for his portrayal as Major Strasser in Casablanca (1942) ), his performing somnambulist (and haunted murderer), from a state of sleep. The shadowy, disturbing, distorted, and dream-nightmarish quality of the macabre and stylistic 'Caligari,' with twisted alleyways, lopsided doors, cramped rooms, overhanging buildings, and skewed cityscapes, was shot in a studio. It was brought to Hollywood in the 1920s, and later influenced the classic period of horror films in the 1930s - introducing many standard horror film conventions. As with many classic films (i.e., Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) ), the original story was altered (due to its insinuation that "authority" was questionable and insane), and a flashback framing device (composed of an epilogue and prologue) was added to soften its message. This made the film appear to be a delusional nightmare in a psychotic mental patient's (Francis) dream, thereby diluting the subversive nature of the original. Early Vampire Films: Female vamps made an appearance in Robert Vignola's melodramatic The Vampire (1913), although they were femme fatales who seductively 'sucked' the life-blood from 'foolish' men -- also exemplified by popular vamp actress Theda Bara in A Fool There Was (1915). The earliest significant vampire film was director Arthur Robison's German silent film Nachte des Grauens (1916, Ger.) (aka Night of Horror) with strange, vampire-like people. Until recently, the lost Hungarian film Drakula halala (1921, Hung.) (aka The Death of Dracula), was widely assumed to be the first adaptation of Anglo-Irish writer Bram Stoker's 1897 vampire novel Dracula, and featured cinema's first Drakula. The first genuine vampire picture was also produced by a European filmmaker - director F. W. Murnau's feature-length Nosferatu, A Symphony of Horror (1922, Ger.) (aka Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens). Shot on location, it was an unauthorized film adaptation of Stoker's Dracula with Max Schreck in the title role as the screen's first vampire - a mysterious aristocrat named Count Graf Orlok living in the late 1830s in the German town of Bremen. Because of copyright problems, the vampire was named Nosferatu rather than Dracula, and the action was moved from Transylvania to Bremen. The emaciated, balding, undead vampire's image was unforgettable with a devil-rat face, pointy ears, elongated fingers, sunken cheeks, and long fangs, with plague rats following him wherever he went. In the film's conclusion, the grotesque, cadaverous creature was tricked by the heroine Nina (Greta Schroder) into remaining past daybreak, so Orlok met his fate by disintegrating into smoke in the sunlight. [Note: There were many attempts to copy or remake the film. German director Werner Herzog's faithful shot-by-shot color remake Nosferatu the Vampyre (1979) starred Klaus Kinski as the nauseating Count Dracula and beautiful Isabelle Adjani as Lucy Harker. Producer/director Augusto Caminito's sequel was Vampire in Venice (1988, It.) (aka Nosferatu a Venezia) with Kinski as Nosferatu and Christopher Plummer as inept vampire hunter Professor Paris Catalano. At the turn of the century, Shadow of the Vampire (2000) fancifully retold the making of the 1922 classic, with John Malkovich as obsessive director F.W. Murnau. It asked the question: "What if Max Schreck (Oscar-nominated Willem Dafoe), who played the character of Count Orlok, was indeed a vampire?"] Early Monster (Frankenstein) Films: In Danish director Stellan Rye's and Paul Wegener's early German silent horror film Der Student von Prag (1913, Ger.) (aka The Student of Prague/A Bargain With Satan), based loosely upon the Faust legend, a poor student made a pact with the devil in return for wealth and a beautiful woman. [The student was portrayed by actor/producer/director Paul Wegener in his film debut.] It was the first artistically important German production - and was later remade in 1926 and directed by Henrik Galeen. Wegener directed the first of his influential adaptations of the Golem legend by Gustav Meyrinck - Der Golem (1914, Ger.) (aka The Monster of Fate), and then remade it a few years later as Der Golem Und Die Tanzerin (1917, Ger.) (aka The Golem and the Dancer) - notably the first horror film sequel. He remade the film a third time, with Karl Freund as cinematographer, again titling it Der Golem (1920, Ger.) (aka The Golem: or How He Came Into the World). The expressionistic film was based upon Central European myths and influenced later 'Frankenstein' monster films in the early 1930s with themes of a creator losing control of his creation. The Golem, played by Wegener, was an ancient clay figure from Hebrew mythology that was brought to life by Rabbi Loew's magic amulet to defend and save the Jews from a pogrom in the 16th century threatened by Rudolf II of Habsburg. The man-made, clay creature roamed through the Jewish ghetto of medieval Prague to protect it from persecution. The earliest horror pictures were one-reel or full length features, many of which were produced in the US from 1909 to the early 1920s, making the horror genre one of the oldest and most basic. Many of them are now-forgotten "vamp" pictures (featuring devilish, captivating ladies). The first Frankenstein monster film in the US was Frankenstein (1910) by director J. Searle Dawley, a 16-minute (one-reel) version made by the Edison Studios and starring Charles Ogle as the monster. In this early version, the Monster was created in a cauldron of chemicals rather than by a bolt of lightning. Two other silent precursors to later Frankenstein films were Joseph W. Smiley's Life Without Soul (1915) and the expressionistic German film Homunculus (1916), a six-hour epic serial about an artificially-created man. Before the 1930s, Hollywood was reluctant to experiment with the themes of true horror films. Instead, the studios took popular stage plays and emphasized their mystery genre features, providing rational explanations for all the supernatural and occult elements. The Miser's Conversion (1914) (aka The Miser's Reversion) was the first film to depict a screen transformation by using a series of dissolves with footage of the character's different stages of makeup, rather than a single jump-cut. This was later used to great effect in many films including Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931) and The Wolf Man (1941). In the film, the title character miser (Sidney Bracey), 75 year-old John Grisley, obsessed with the idea of evolution, acquired a rejuvenation serum that transformed him into a 40 year-old man with just a few drops. To intensify the effect, he drank the entire bottle of serum and reverted into an ape. Man of a Thousand Faces - Lon Chaney: The First American Horror Film Star One actor who helped pave the way for the change in outlook and acceptance of the horror genre was Lon (Alonso) Chaney, Sr., known as "the man of a thousand faces" because of his transformative, grotesque makeup and acting genius as a pantomime artist. He appeared in numerous silent horror films beginning in 1913 at Universal Studios. He was soon to become the first American horror-film star and Hollywood's first great character actor. His first grotesque character role as a fake cripple (a contorted figure named the Frog), his breakthrough role, was in The Miracle Man (1919) (a film that only partially survives). Chaney's films, collaborating with director Tod Browning on ten feature films over a decade, included these examples of lurid melodrama (and horror) and crime: Universal's The Wicked Darling (1919) - Chaney's first film partnering with Tod Browning, portraying a thief named Stoop Connors Universal's Outside the Law (1920) - a crime drama with Chaney in a dual supporting role as Black Mike Sylva and Ah Wing MGM's The Unholy Three (1925) - with Chaney as a criminal ventriloquist named Professor Echo; it was later remade by MGM in 1930 by director Jack Conway (again with Chaney) - it was Chaney's first and only talkie before he died of throat cancer MGM's The Blackbird (1926) - Chaney portrayed the dual roles of Dan 'The Blackbird' and The Bishop MGM's The Road to Mandalay (1926) - Chaney took the role of Singapore Joe MGM's London After Midnight (1927) - Browning's first Hollywood vampire film (a lost film) in which Chaney starred as a sunken and dark-eyed vampirish character MGM's The Unknown (1927) - Chaney portrayed Alonzo the Armless Knife-thrower, a circus performer, with an obsession for a carnival girl (Joan Crawford in an early role) in its tale of a love-triangle MGM's West of Zanzibar (1928) - Chaney was cast as English magician named Phroso, now crippled and bald-headed and known as 'Dead-Legs' in "A Story of Love and Revenge in African Jungles!" MGM's The Big City (1928), a lost film MGM's Where East is East (1929) - the last collaboration between Browning and Chaney (a film that only partially survives); Chaney starred as Indochinese animal trapper "Tiger" Haynes In the first of Chaney's two other horror masterpieces, he appeared in one of the earliest versions of Victor Hugo's novel about the hunchbacked Quasimodo - a tortured bellringer living in a cathedral tower in love with gypsy dancer Esmeralda (Patsy Ruth Miller) in director Wallace Worsley's The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923) - it was another silent film version of the classic tale. [An earlier version was The Darling of Paris (1917), a lost film starring vamp Theda Bara as Esmeralda.] Chaney's most memorable portrayal was in the ground-breaking, vividly-frightening, Beauty-and-the-Beast silent film, Rupert Julian's costume horror classic The Phantom of the Opera (1925), as Devil's Island escapee Erik - a disfigured, deranged, bitter and vengeful composer/ghost of the Paris Opera (based on the character in Gaston Leroux's 1911 novel). This film was a technical achievement, with a two-color Technicolor 'Bal Masque' sequence, the falling chandelier and underground lake scenes. Its dark expressionistic tones helped set the tone for horror films in the 30s. Its most famous scene was ingenue Christine's (Mary Philbin) unmasking of Lon Chaney's mask - revealing a hideous skull-face, lipless mouth, rotten teeth, snouty nose, and bulging eyes. [Other versions over the years are wide-ranging, as both horror films and theatrical musicals]: The Phantom of the Opera (1943), d. Arthur Lubin, Universal's Technicolored version with Claude Rains as the title character - a disfigured violinist, and also Nelson Eddy as Raoul, the Phantom's rival for Christine's (Susanna Foster) love The Phantom of the Opera (1962), d. Terence Fisher, with Herbert Lom (of Pink Panther fame) in a UK Hammer Films production as Professor Petrie/the Phantom and Heather Sears as Christine Charles The Phantom of the Paradise (1974), d. Brian DePalma, a rock-opera musical version (and cult favorite) starring Paul Williams as a Svengali impresario named the Swan The Phantom of the Opera (1983), d. Robert Markowitz, a made-for-TV movie starring a miscast Jane Seymour and Maximilian Schell as the Phantom, set in Budapest The Phantom of the Opera (1986), the long-running Andrew Lloyd Webber theatrical musical show, featuring Sarah Brightman The Phantom of the Opera (1989), d. Dwight H. Little, with Robert Englund (horror movie villain Freddy Krueger in the Nightmare on Elm Street series) as the Phantom and Jill Schoelen as Christine The Phantom of the Opera (1990), d. Tony Richardson, a two-part NBC-TV mini-series, with Burt Lancaster starring as the Baron - the Phantom's father (in one of his final film appearances), Teri Polo as Christine, and Charles Dance as the Phantom The Phantom of the Opera (1991), d. Darwin Knight, a theatrical musical created by Maury Yeston and Arthur Kopil and filmed before a live audience, starring David Staller and Elizabeth Walsh Il Fantasma Dell'Opera (1998, It.) (aka The Phantom of the Opera), d. Dario Argento, a loose adaptation with daughter Asia Argento as Christine and Julian Sands as the nameless Phantom (without a mask); with great production values including more sex, graphically-bloody gore, and a musical score by Ennio Morricone The Phantom of the Opera (2004), d. Joel Schumacher, with Gerard Butler as the lead character, and starlet Emmy Rossum (a trained opera singer) as Christine; also with Minnie Driver and Miranda Richardson [James Cagney played the role of Chaney in Man of a Thousand Faces (1957) and recreated the star's roles as the Phantom and Quasimodo in two of horror's greatest achievements.] The Cycle of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Films: There were a few very early renditions in the 1900s of the classic tale taken from Robert Louis Stevenson's story "The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" (and Thomas Russell Sullivan's 1887 stage play "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde") about a doctor/scientist whose evil side was brought out by a magic formula. The first filmed version was also the first American horror film - director Otis Turner's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1908) with Hobart Bosworth in the lead role - by the Selig Polyscope Corporation. The next was Thanhouser Film Corporation's (New York) one-reel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1912) with future director James Cruze starring as the title character. And then superstar King Baggot appeared in independent IMP's (the future Universal Studios) two-reeler Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1913). Broadway idol John Barrymore also starred in one of the earliest versions of the Jekyll/Hyde story, a silent film from Famous Players-Lasky Corporation titled Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1920). [Another almost forgotten version in 1920 from the Pioneer Film Corporation starred Sheldon Lewis.] The familiar story was later re-made in many versions, but the two most noteworthy versions were: director Rouben Mamoulian's first sound version Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931), starring Fredric March in the title role as the villainous scientist (the first Oscar-winning horror performance) and Miriam Hopkins as the slutty Cockney barmaid Ivy. The film had ground-breaking transformative special effects as March changed from Jekyll into Hyde, filmed in one-take Victor Fleming's ponderous MGM production (which won the Academy Award for black and white cinematography) Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941), starring Spencer Tracy in the title role and Ingrid Bergman as the "wicked" prostitute [In the psycho-sexual thriller Mary Reilly (1995), Julia Roberts starred as the innocent maid of the infamous Dr. Jekyll to provide a new perspective.] The Advent of Classic Horror Films of the 30s: The End of Silent Horror Films, The Rise of Universal Studios Actor Conrad Veidt and German expressionistic director Paul Leni were recruited by Universal's boss Carl Laemmle in the mid-1920s. Paul Leni was already known in his homeland for the spooky horror classics Backstairs (1921, Ger.) (aka Hintertreppe) and the expressionistic anthology Waxworks (1924, Ger.) (aka Das Wachsfigurenkabinett). After moving to Hollywood, Leni directed The Cat and the Canary (1927), a derivative from a stage-bound 1922 melodrama. The influential film is considered the first Gothic 'haunted house' horror film. Veidt was cast as an ever-smiling, grotesque carnival freak named Gwynplaine in Leni's next film for Universal, The Man Who Laughs (1927), a superb romantic melodrama. The first talkie horror film was also the second 'all-talking' motion picture from Warner Bros -- director Roy Del Ruth's The Terror (1928), a stage-bound adaptation of Edgar Wallace's play regarding a haunted house terrorized by a homicidal asylum escapee. The film's many ads capitalized on the new feature of sound (creaking doors, howling wind, organ music), heard with the Vitaphone sound-on-disc process: "It will thrill you! Grip you! Set you into tremors of awe. HEAR this creepy tale of mystery - the baffling story of a detective's great triumph. With voices and shadows that will rack your nerves and make you like it. Come, hear them talk in this Vitaphone production of the play that has gripped London for over 3 years." By the early 1930s, horror entered into its classic phase in Hollywood - the true Dracula and Frankenstein Eras, with films that borrowed from their German expressionism roots. The studios took morbid tales of European vampires and undead aristocrats, mad scientists, and invisible men and created some of the most archetypal creatures and monsters ever known for the screen. Universal Studios, with many groundbreaking silent horror films, continued its tradition by providing talkie horror films derived from literature and other mythic-legendary sources. It was best-known for its pure horror films in the 30s and 40s, horror-dom's characters (Frankenstein, Dracula, The Mummy, the Invisible Man, and the Wolf Man) and its classic horror stars, Hungarian matinee idol Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff. The First of the Dracula Films: According to Guinness World Records, the character most frequently portrayed in horror films is Dracula, with nearly 200 representations (at the present count). With Tod Browning's direction, Universal Studios produced a film version of Lugosi's 1927 Broadway stage success about a blood-sucking, menacing vampire named Dracula (1931) , released early in the year. [Lon Chaney, Sr. was one of many actors considered to play the title character, but he died in 1930.] The atmospheric, commercially-successful film adaptation of Bram Stoker's novel played upon fears of sexuality, blood, and the nebulous period between life and death. The heavily-accented voice and acting of Hungarian actor Bela Lugosi in his most famous portrayal as the 500 year old vampire was elegant, suave, exotic and stylish - and frightening to early audiences - while the undead villain hypnotically charmed his victims with a predatory gaze. [An impressive-looking Spanish version, with director George Melford in place of Browning, was shot simultaneously on the same sets at night, but with a different cast and crew (Carlos Villarías replaced Lugosi, and Eduardo Arozamena as Van Helsing, along with provocatively-dressed actresses Lupita Tovar as Eva (Mina) and Carmen Guerrero as Lucia (Lucy)).] [In director Tim Burton's horror/comedy Ed Wood (1994), Martin Landau won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar as the aging, morphine-addicted horror star Bela Lugosi, a friend of one of Hollywood's worst directors.] In the same year, Danish writer/director Carl Theodor Dreyer's dreamlike, atmospheric, seminal horror film Vampyr (1931, Ger./Fr.) (aka Not Against the Flesh/Castle of Doom) was released. The unsettling film, Dreyer's first sound feature, was loosely based on the 1872 lesbian vampire short story Carmilla by J. Sheridan Le Fanu. It was alternatively titled The Strange Adventure of David Grey - and it told the story of an occult researcher named Allan/David Grey (Baron Nicolas de Gunsburg, played by Julian West) in a remote country inn in the village of Courtempierre who was given a vampire combat book. He slowly believed he was surrounded by vampires - and dreamt of his own death and glass-lidded coffin burial (filmed with a double-exposure) during a blood-loss induced fever dream. And Fritz Lang's M (1931, Ger.) introduced a terrorized criminal, child-murdering deviant character (portrayed by German-born Peter Lorre in his mesmerizing film debut) who was based on the real-life, notorious serial killer Peter Kurten - the 'Vampire of Dusseldorf.' In his defining performance, Lorre cried out that he couldn't help his compulsion. [Peter Lorre's first American role was in cinematographer/director Karl Freund's melodramatic horror film Mad Love (1935), an adaptation of Maurice Renard's 1920 novel Les Mains d'Orlac about an obsessed and twisted surgeon named Dr. Gogol who schemed to win the love of Parisian Grand Guignol theatre actress Yvonne Orlac (Francis Drake) by transplanting the hands of a knife-murderer onto her injured concert pianist husband Stephen (Colin Clive).] The Original Frankenstein Film: The first Dracula film was followed closely by the definitive, quintessential combination of science fiction and Gothic horror in a 'mad doctor' thriller. This classic monster/horror film - Frankenstein (1931) - was James Whale's adaptation from Mary Shelley's novel about Dr. Henry Frankenstein with a virtually unknown actor - Boris Karloff. With a boxy forehead and neck electrodes (and other features created from Whale's sketches by make-up artist Jack Pierce), Karloff's poignant portrayal of the pathetic created Monster's plight gave a personality to the outcast, uncomprehending character with a lumbering and lurching gait. The next three films in the series (see later) were: The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942) The Wolf Man Cycle of Films: Without resorting to an existing literary horror figure, such as Frankenstein, Dracula, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, or The Invisible Man, Universal also created a new and 'original' creature in two films - the werewolf - the last of its great original horror characters. The first US werewolf film was Stuart Walker's well-made The Werewolf of London (1935) with Henry Hull as Dr. Glendon - the scientist who brought the 'wolf' curse upon himself. The second, most famous and definitive Wolf Man character was in director George Waggner's excellent B-grade film, The Wolf Man (1941) with Lon Chaney, Jr. in his first appearance as the accursed Larry Talbot - his portrayal came to be his best-known role. The "transformation" scene from man-to-wolf, involving complicated cosmetic/makeup artistry, was remarkably realistic. [The makeup artist used yak hair and a rubber snout.] Unfortunately, the Wolf Man role hopelessly typecast Chaney, Jr. for life. In fact, he was the only actor to play all four classic movie monsters: the Wolf Man, the Frankenstein monster (in The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942)), Kharis (the Mummy) (in The Mummy's Tomb (1942), The Mummy's Ghost (1944) and The Mummy's Curse (1944)), and Count Dracula (in Son of Dracula (1943)). He was forced to star in a series of very poor sequels, teamed up with other Universal horror stars in B-grade films including Frankenstein Meets the Wolfman (1943) (in which Chaney, Jr. portrayed the Wolf Man and Lugosi was the Frankenstein Monster), and in two films adding Dracula to the mix: House of Frankenstein (1944) (the first all-star get-together with Glenn Strange as the Frankenstein Monster, John Carradine as Baron Dracula, Boris Karloff as mad scientist Dr. Gustav Neimann, and Lon Chaney, Jr. as Larry Talbot/the Wolf Man) House of Dracula (1945) - an immediate sequel to the House of Frankenstein (1944) film, with Lon Chaney, Jr. as the Wolf Man, John Carradine as Dracula, and Glenn Strange as the Frankenstein Monster - again The worst ignominy suffered by Chaney, Jr. was in Universal-International's hybrid horror-comedy Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948) with the two screen comedians. Here was evidence that classic horror films in the genre were beginning to go out of style after the real 'horrors' of World War II, and Universal was attempting to crank out more and more sequels for younger audiences. Another unrelated 'wolf-man' film was She-Wolf of London (1946), with June Lockart as Phyllis Allenby, an innocent young girl in London - and the alleged perpetrator of gruesome murders.
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Which international relief agency, formed in 1863, has it's headquarters at 17, Avenue de la Paix, Geneva?
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Classic Posted 4th March by Career Jobs International 0 List of Career Opportunities in International Organizations Jan. 2012 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) European Bank for Reconstruction  and Development (EBRD) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) International  Fund for Agricultural Development Internship: http://www.iaea.org/About/Jobs/index.html Special program for women: http://www- tc.iaea.org/tcweb/participation/asfelloworvisitor/professionalwomen/defa ult.asp Internship:  http://www.iadb.org/en/careers/internships,1360.html Young Professional Program: http://www.iadb.org/en/careers/young  -professionals-program,1358.html Research Fellow Program: http://www.iadb.org/en/careers/research-fellows  -program,1359.html Jobs: International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) International Organization for Migration International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) Nato Air Command and Control System Management  Agency Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development  (OECD) Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical  Weapons (OPCW) Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) United Nations Economic and Social http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/careers.nsf/Content/CareersatIFC http://www.itlos.org/index.php?id=29&L=0#c53 Jobs: http://www.itlos.org/index.php?id=28&L=0 Internship: http://www.opcw.org/jobs/  Internship:  http://www.osce.org/employment/91 Junior Professional Officer Programme: Young Professional Officer’s Program:  http://www.jposc.org/ Jobs: http://jobs.undp.org/cj_view_jobs.cfm Internship:  http://www.unescap.org/jobs/internships/ Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Office at Nairobi (UNON) United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) United Nations Headquarter in New York (UN) United Nations Office at Vienna (UNOV) United Nations Office at Geneva (UNOG) United Nations Office at Addis Ababa UNECA) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) Jobs: http://www.unescap.org/jobs/ http://www.unon.org/intern_ship/?ses=&ctfo=7&ctid=3&ctsub=16&ctno= INTERNSHIP+PROGRAMME Jobs: http://www.unhabitat.org/lis  t.asp?typeid=12&catid=435 Internship: http://www.unon.org/intern_ship/?ses=&ctfo=7&ctid=3&ctsub=16&ctno= INTERNSHIP+PROGRAMME Junior Professionals Officers:  http://www.unep.org/vacancies/default.asp?vac_level=Junior Jobs: http://www.unep.org/Vacancies/ Internship: http://www.unon.org/i  ntern_ship/?ses=&ctfo=7&ctid=3&ctsub=16&ctno= INTERNSHIP+PROGRAMME Jobs: http://www.unon.org/vac.php Internship: Junior Professional Programme  http://www.unicef.org/about/employ/index_jpp.html Jobs: http://www.unicef.org/about/employ/index.php Internship: Economic Commission for Latin America United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (UNICTR) United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Counter Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate  (CTED) United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Geneva (OHCHR) Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees  Geneva (UNHCR) Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Germany (UNHCR) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) http://www.eclac.org/cgi - bin/getProd.asp?xml=/noticias/vacantes/default.xml&xsl=/acerca/opor- tra-i.xsl&base=/tpl-i/top-bottom.xsl Internship:  http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c49d.html Junior Professional Officer Programme: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c49a.html Jobs: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c497.html Jobs: http://www.unctad.org/Templates/Page.asp?intItemID=1652&lang=1 Jobs: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about- Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) United Nations Association of the United States of America (UNA-USA) UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (IRIN-Nairobi) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations Commission on International  Trade Law (UNCITRAL) United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) United Nations Development  Fund for Women (UNIFEM) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) United Nations Institute for Disarmed  Research (UNIDIR) http://www.imo.org/About/Careers/Internship/Pages/Default.aspx Jobs: http://www.unausa.org/Page.aspx?pid=324 Jobs: http://www.unausa.org/Page.aspx?pid=315 Jobs: http://www.irinnews.org/jobs.aspx URL_ID=11716&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Young Professional:  http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php- URL_ID=11714&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Jobs: https://recrutweb.unesco.org/postes/postes_visualisation.asp?AffLangue= gb&CATPOSTE=1 Internship and Jobs:  http://www.uncitral.org/uncitral/en/vacancies_internships.html United Nations Crime and Justice Research Inst. (UNICRI) United Nations University (UNU) World Federation of United Nations (WFUNA) World Health Organization (WHO) :20515785~menuPK:1477648~pagePK:64262408~piPK:64262191~theSiteP K:1058433, 00.html Jobs: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTHRJOBS/0,,contentMDK :20522507~menuPK:64262363~pagePK:64262408~piPK:64262191~theSite PK:1058433,00.html Internship:  http://www.wfuna.org/internships-at-wfuna Jobs: Junior Professional Programme:  http://www.who.int/employment/jpo/en/ Jobs: http://www.who.int/employment/vacancies/en/ Internship: United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) International  Labour Organization United Nations Industrial Development Programme (UNIDO) World Trade Organization (WTO) Internship:  http://www.unido.org/index.php?id=o82311 Jobs: http://www.unido.org/index.php?id=o3611 Internship:  https://erecruitment.wto.org/public/hrd-cl  -vac- United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) United Nations Capital  Development Fund (UNCDF) International  Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) International  Trade Center World  Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) European  Central Bank Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty  organization (CTBTO) Earthwatch  Institute Europe Earthwatch  Institute US/International Earthwatch  Institute Australia Asian Development Bank http://new.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1 489&Itemid=4245 Jobs: http://new.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1 357&Itemid=1213&lang=en Internship:  http://www.wfp.org/about/vacancies/internship Jobs: Internship:  http://www.adb.org/Internship/default.asp Young Professional Program: http://beta.adb.org/site/careers/adb-young-professionals-program North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Office of the High Representative  in Bosnien and Herzegovina (OHR) World  Organization for Animal Health (OIE) Association of Caribbean  States (ACS-AEC) Jobs: http://beta.adb.org/site/careers/working-adb on=SEARCH&p4=0&p5=0&p6=0&p7=0&p8=0&p9=0&pcr- id=iKbLXEw2xStwRp7F54Q3UGdfDgi5NhiX6qFQzvGnRC8AIzgcklUJjPNahyO Posted 27th February by Career Jobs International 0 Department of Economic and Social Affairs A Guide to a Career with the United Nations Part One: The United Nations Chapter 1: An Overview -Human Rights and Humanitarian Assistance -Reorganisation of the Secretariat -UN Competencies for the Future Part Two: Job Opportunities in the United Nations Chapter 2: Opportunities in the Secretariat 2.1-Introduction 2.5 Recruitment for Higher Level Positions 2.6 Recruitment for Peacekeeping Missions 3 Chapter 3: Opportunities in Affiliated Agencies 3.1-Introduction 3.2-Opportunities in the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Introduction 3.3- Opportunities in the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) - Introduction 3.4- United Nations Volunteers (UNV) -Introduction Chapter 4: How to Obtain Information 4.1- Using the Internet 4.2- Searching job announcements in newspapers and magazines 4.3- Contacting Foreign Affairs Offices, Permanent Missions to the UN, and United Nations Information Centres (UNIC) A.1- Relevant Addresses and Contacts A.2- List of Acronyms A.3- Guidelines For Preparation of Resume for Employment with the United Nations Secretariat A.4- Sample Application Forms Special mention should be made to the contribution of Miss Adelaide Sansalone, who has prepared the present guide on behalf of the United Nations Secretariat Associate Experts Programme. We would like to thank DPKO, OHRM, UNDP, UNICEF and UNV for their precious contribution to this guide. We also thank Mr. Furio de Tomassi for his time in making the publication of this project possible. 5 Forward As we enter the new millennium, the UN could be considered the world’s principal actor for international peace and security and for mobilising international efforts to deal with global problems. The key to our success, and one may say our greatest strength, is the quality of the staff. In the UN’s continuing efforts to prepare the organisation to meet the challenges of the 21st century, much importance has been given to the employment of persons with the highest standards of efficiency, competence and integrity and to the achievement of gender and geographical balance and genuine diversity of the staff members world-wide. Equal importance has been given to strengthening the human resources systems such as recruitment and placement. We are pleased to provide the public with A Guide to a Career with the United Nations. Although it is targeted primarily to graduate school students, recent graduates and young professionals interested in a career with the UN, it is in our best hopes that anyone with an interest in our organisation will take advantage of the information found in the following pages. We aim to provide the reader with answers to the frequently asked questions concerning the UN and its affiliated agencies, with a specific focus on employment. For easier reference, the guide has been divided into two parts: the first dedicated to background information on the UN system and how it works, and the second to job opportunities and recruitment procedures within this system. Although Part 2 tends to focus more on the Secretariat, a special section focuses solely on affiliated agencies including the UNDP, UNICEF, and the UNV. It also contains postal addresses, telephone and facsimile numbers, email and internet addresses which the reader may find useful for further inquiries. The rising interest in a career with the United Nations demonstrates a strong willingness on the part of young candidates to undergo extensive and competitive procedures in order to play a role in dealing with pressing global challenges. We hope that with the help of this guide, many of these candidates will in fact reach their goal of successfully contributing to a promising future for the United Nations. The name “United Nations” was created by the US President Franklin Roosevelt and was first used in the “Declaration by United Nations” of January 1942, during the Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers. The United Nations was founded on June 26th, 1945, as a result of the San Francisco Conference, held from April 25 to June 25th of that same year. On this occasion, representatives of fifty states outlined the Charter of the United Nations. The Charter was signed by representatives of the original states and Poland that, although not present in San Francisco, was counted as one of the founding nations. With the future ratification by the Member States of the Security Council (China, France, Great Britain, United States, and USSR) as well as the majority of the signing states, the Charter formally came into being on October 24, 1945. It is for this reason that United Nations Day is celebrated on October 24 of each year. The idea of creating an intergovernmental organisation that would replace the League of Nations, increasing its functionality and efficiency, dates back to the beginning of the 1940’s. The goal of the Second World War focused primarily on the necessity of an international “frame” for the co-operation between various countries, with the goal of eliminating future conflict, promoting respect of human rights and justice, favouring economic development, social progress and the creation of friendly relations between nations. The First General Assembly, formed of representatives from 51 founding states, met for the first regular session in January 1946. The invitation by the American government to establish a permanent headquarters of the organisation in the United States was accepted. The privileges and the immunity of the headquarters of the United Nations were later decided upon in an Accord signed the following year. In little over half a year of existence, the UN has more than tripled its members. The dynamics of the support varied over the course of these years and was often subject to the progression of the relations between the USA and the USSR. On several occasions, the admission of countries pertaining to the western block was counterbalanced by countries under Soviet influence and vice versa. The political events of the 1990’s have had significant effects on the number of Member States of the United Nations. In 1990, the entry of both Namibia and Liechtenstein made the number of members rise to 160; however the successive union of North and South Yemen, and the unification of the Federal Republic of Germany with the Democratic Republic of Germany, led to a total number equal to the initial 158. The fall of the USSR brought in three new members in 1991 (the Baltic Republics) and nine in 1992, while Russia wanted to take the seat previously occupied by the USSR. 9 The situation in Yugoslavia was not only a military concern for the United Nations. Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, three republics facing dismemberment from the Baltic federation, were introduced as official members of the United Nations in 1992. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, on the other hand, had declared its wish to substitute the seat previously occupied by the Federal Socialists of Yugoslavia. However this was suspended by the participation in the work of the General Assembly and of all the auxiliary bodies, as a result of the role played by the Serb Government in the Bosnia-Herzegovina conflict. In 1993 the number of Member States rose to 185, thanks to the admission of Monaco, Andorra, Eritrea, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Malta, and Macedonia. The membership now totals 188 sovereign countries. Among the non-member states are Palestine, Switzerland and the Vatican. They participate however in the work of the General Assembly as observers. Even the European Union, that formally co-ordinates foreign politics of the Member States, is not a present member of the UN, but participates as an observer. 1.2 The United Nations System The Untied Nations is not a world government, and it does not make laws. It provides, however, the means to help resolve international conflict and formulate policies on matters affecting everyone. At the UN, all Member States have a voice and vote in this process. The complex system of the United Nations is made up of six main organs, a series of affiliated bodies and programmes, and specialised agencies and independent institutions. Lets focus our attention on the main body of the organisation, made up of the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat. The Charter of the United Nations foresees that these organs will achieve the following goals of the organisation: •= to maintain international peace and security; •= to develop friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples; •= to achieve international co-operation in solving the international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character, and to promote the respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms of all; •= to harmonise the actions of countries in the attainment of these common goals. 10 The official languages of the United Nations are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. General Assembly The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the United Nations and consists of all the members of the Organisation. It may discuss any questions arising under the UN Charter, or relating to the power and functions of any of the other organs. The Assembly may also make recommendations to the Member States of the United Nations or to the Security Council, however not on disputes or situations being considered by the latter of the two. In the Assembly, each representative has one vote, and important decisions are taken by a majority vote. Recommendations regarding international peace and security, the admitting of new members and the exclusion of others, questions relating to the budget and the operation of the trusteeship system are all important questions for which the decisions of the General Assembly shall be made by a two-thirds majority vote. The other decisions are made by a majority of the members present and voting. The Assembly meets in regular annual sessions from September to December. Special sessions are convoked by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the UN Members. On the basis of a resolution made November 3, 1950, a special emergency session of the General Assembly can be requested by nine members of the Security Council or by a majority of Member States when, because of disagreement between permanent members, the Security Council does not act in favour of international peace and security. Past special sessions have been summoned on the Palestinian situation, as well as the independence of Namibia and of the occupied Arab territories. At the recent 1999/2000 session, the Assembly considered 173 different topics, including globalisation, nuclear disarmament, development, protection of the environment and consolidation of new democracies. Functions In addition to discussing a wide range of arguments provided by the Charter, the Assembly elects the members of the Economic and Social Council, the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the members elected by the Trusteeship Council and, together with the Security Council, the judges of International Court of Justice. It also accepts new members, approves the budget of the organisation, and on the recommendation of the Security Council, nominates the Secretary-General. 11 The Commissions At the beginning of the regular session, the Assembly opens an initial debate in which the members raise a series of questions of international security. These are then subdivided in six principal commissions; each designated to a specific issue: 1. First Commission- political affairs, disarmament, and questions of international security 2. Second Commission- economic and financial affairs 3. Third Commission- social, cultural and humanitarian affairs 4. From 1993 the Forth Commission- trusteeship and de-colonisation is joined to the Special Political Committee 5. Fifth Commission- administrative affairs and the budget 6. Sixth Commission- legal affairs The resolutions and the approved recommendations of the Principal Commissions are then transmitted for the final discussion and for the approval of the Assembly in plenary session. All the Member States are represented in the six commissions. The daily activities of the United Nations are a result, for the most part, of the decisions made by the General Assembly. Such work is done mostly by the UN Secretariat, rather than “ad hoc” committees or conferences. Although its decisions are not binding for the governments of the Member States, it has a strong influence due to the fact that it represents the opinion of the global community on international issues. The moral authority of the General Assembly should not be overlooked. The International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice is the UN’s main judicial organ. It is the only organ of the UN that does not have its headquarters in New York- it is in The Hague in the Netherlands. Presiding over the ICJ, otherwise known as the “World Court”, are fifteen judges selected separately from the General Assembly and the Security Council. No two of these judges may be nationals of the same state. The court is an organ that represents the judicial powers inside the UN system. Its functions are to: •= decide on the controversies faced by the members states •= provide opinions on legal issues to the General Assembly, Security Council, and every other body of the UN that has been authorised by the General Assembly. 12 Its Parts The Statute specifies in article 93 that the Member States of the UN are in fact Parties to the Statute of the Court, and thus have the right to refer their own controversies to this organism. The states that are not part of the UN can become Parties to the Statute of the Court, or can stand before it even without being part of it, only on the specific conditions determined in every case by the General Assembly, upon the recommendation of the Security Council. However, such conditions should not put the interested countries in an unfair position before the Court itself. The Jurisdiction As far as its jurisdiction is concerned, the position and the role of the court are very specific. It extends to all cases presented by Member States and to questions related to the UN Charter; but is very limited at the same time because the states that adhere to the Charter are not obligated to resolve their differences before the Court itself. This means that it is the states that must recognise the jurisdiction of the Court on questions that deal with: a) the interpretation of the Charter, b) international law, c) the facts that constitute a violation to international obligations, and d) the compensation needed in this last case. The various countries, in general, have recognised the competence of the Court on condition of reciprocity and excluding some internal issues. The Structure The fifteen judges that form the Court are elected for a period of nine years. Each judge is irremovable from his/her position, unless, according to the unanimous opinion of the others, one of the necessary conditions of service is not fulfilled. Every three years the mandate of a third of the judges expires. The General Assembly and the Security Council are responsible for the nomination of the new judges. The choice is made by consulting lists of candidates by national groups of jurists. In the decision-making process, two fundamental questions are kept in mind: firstly, the judges cannot be citizens of the same country, and secondly, the fact that the principal juridical systems of the world are represented in the court. The mandate of justice is absolutely incompatible with any task of political or administrative nature, as well as every other professional activity. In order to avoid that the judges be subjected to external pressures, the rule of their irremovability applies, keeping in mind the above-mentioned exception. If in the Court there is no judge of the same nationality of the parties involved, these parties can choose a national judge that is part of the Court on the condition of equality with the others. In the decision-making process of the disputes submitted to it, the Court shall apply: •= international conventions and treaties •= the general principles of the law recognised by civilised nations •= judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of various nations Given the hierarchy of the authorities, the judges decide by majority. The quorum consists of nine votes, but in the case of a tie, the President of the Court receives another vote. Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is a body of the United Nations with a key role in establishing priorities for action in economic and social areas: higher standards of living, full-time employment, the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, progress in the conditions of economic and social development and the resolution at an international level of problems that affect this sector. ECOSOC is responsible for discharging these functions under the authority of the General Assembly. The abilities and functions that mark ECOSOC are also those which distinguish it from the Security Council. The first represents the activity of the Untied Nations in the economic and social area. The second, on the other hand, constitutes true political power. ECOSOC makes or initiates studies and reports on economic, social, cultural, sanitary, and scientific issues. It makes recommendations on such matters to the General Assembly, to the Member States, and to the specialised agencies concerned. It also prepares draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly and calls international conferences on such matters. The Organisation After two successive emendations to the Charter of the United Nations, the number of members of the Council has risen from 18 to 27 in 1965, and to 54 in 1973, aiming to adjust the dimension of the Council to the newly entered members. A third of its staff is renewed each year, for a period of three years. The appointment is up to the General Assembly and comes into effect respecting a certain geographical distribution: 14 seats to African countries, 11 to Asia, 10 to Latin America, 6 to Eastern Europe and 13 to Western Europe and remaining countries. Inside ECOSOC, the decisions are made by majority- each member having the right to a vote. Its commissions carry out many activities of ECOSOC. Nine Functional Commissions deal with various issues such as the drugs, human rights, social development, criminality, science and technology at the service of development, etc. The Regional Commissions are focused on 14 the geographical areas within their region. In conclusion, numerous Permanent Committees and ad hoc organisms are set up to deal with various problems as they come into existence. To add to this rather complex structure is the fact that ECOSOC has affiliations with a number of specialised agencies. It participates on the Administrative Committee of Coordination (ACC), formed by the direction of all the specialised agencies other than the International Agency on Atomic Energy (IAAE). It elects, along with others, the council of administration of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Security Council Continuously called upon to respond to situations of international crisis, the Security Council is the most publicly known UN body. The Security Council is also the only institution of the UN whose decisions are binding for the governments of the Member States, on the basis of the Charter of the UN. Structure The Security Council is made up of permanent and non-permanent members. The permanent members are the countries that won World War II, the promoters of the United Nations. These countries have the right to a seat on the Council. In December, 1991 China, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States accepted that Russia replace the USSR. On the other hand, the non-permanent members are elected for a two-year period by the General Assembly. Two fundamental elements are kept in mind in this choice: •= the respect of an equal geographical distribution •= the contribution of candidate countries to peacekeeping and international security and to the achievement of the organisation’s objectives. The presidency is rotated monthly among the various representatives. Each member of the Security Council has the right to a vote. However, the voting mechanisms change according to the type of decision. Procedural questions are decided upon with an affirmative vote by nine members, but this must include an agreement by five permanent members. This condition allows the permanent members to exercise their veto right on non-procedural issues, independently from the majority that has approved the decision. During the Cold War, the veto right greatly obstructed the Security Council’s activity. 15 Responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security, the Security Council intervenes dealing with conflicts in a peaceful manner, or undertakes actions against threats or violations against peace and in cases of aggression. When a violation against international peace and stability is put under examination by the Security Council, it is used until the problem is solved peacefully. In certain cases, it uses its own investigation power to see to what point the situation is compromised, and its mediation power to find a compromise between opposing parties. For this reason, the Council nominates its own representatives or acts through the Secretary-General. If however the controversy degenerates in a military conflict, the intervention of the Security Council happens at a different level. The principal objective is to stop hostility, and can be reached by the order of truce or by the sending of peacekeeping troops that reduce tension in areas of interest, separating the parties in conflict and creating necessary conditions of tranquillity to resolve the conflict in a peaceful manner. In other cases, the Council intervenes by means of force. When preventive and compulsory measures are taken in a Member State, this state can be suspended by the General Assembly of its rights and privileges as a member. Trusteeship Council Of extreme importance after the end of the second global conflict, this institution has lost part of its importance and duties in concomitance with the decrease in territories under the trusteeship. For this reason, there is an indication of a rapport of dependence that is created between a territory not yet able to govern itself independently and a state that assumes the administration temporarily, with the aim of creating the presuppositions for a future autonomous government. In accordance with article 86 of the UN Charter, the Trusteeship Council consists of the following members: •= the Members administering trust territories •= the permanent members of the Security Council not administering trust territories. •= as many other Members elected for three-year terms by the General Assembly, in such a way that participation of the Council is equally divided between administering countries and nonadministering countries. Over the years it has become more and more difficult to respect these indications. The number of administering territories has decreased, and consequently have never again been elected members of the General Assembly since 1965. 16 The Trusteeship Council is responsible for the supervision of territories under the International Trusteeship System. In relation to this, the Council: •= considers the reports provided by the administering countries; •= examines the petitions in consultation with the administrative authorities; •= arranges periodical visits in the territories; •= takes all the initiatives foreseen by the trusteeship agreement. The final objective is to set such countries out on a path to autonomy, permitting the installation of democratic governments. The International Trusteeship System was composed originally of 11 countries that were the mandates of the League of Nations, or even colonies of the conquered states during the Second World War. Ten administrative territories have been given independence since then. These became sovereign states or were completely divided or fused with neighbouring countries, based on the willingness of the inhabitants. The Secretariat Formed by an international staff, drawn from over 170 countries, the Secretariat constitutes the skeleton of the organisation, allowing the entire system to work, supporting the activities of other organisms. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year term. As the chief administrative office of the Organisation, the Secretary-General directs its work, and is responsible for implementing decisions made by various organisms of the United Nations. But the duties are mostly in the economic and diplomatic field. The Secretary-General can subject the Security Council to every question that constitutes a potential threat to international peace and security. At times he/she may be in charge of duties determined by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and by other bodies. Therefore, the result is a very flexible role, capable of adapting to the circumstances that are created. The prestige and impartiality give this figure a determining role in international diplomacy. Through public consultations, private encounters or negotiations often dealt with by the Security Council, the Secretary-General often tries to avoid that international conflict rise, worsen, or expand into other countries. There have been seven Secretary-Generals since the founding of the UN: •= Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-1952; •= Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden), 1953-1961- died during the course of his mandate; •= U Thant (Bruma, now Myanmar); 1961-1971; •= Kurt Waldheim (Austria); 1972-1981; •= Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru) 1982-1991; •= Boutros Boutros-Ghali Egypt) 1992-1996; The first Secretary-Generals were particularly conditioned by the east-west conflict. An example is given by the conflict between the Soviet Union and the Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold during the Belgian Congo crisis in 1960. The USSR boycotted the activity of the Secretary-General until his death, and then imposed very restricted conditions before accepting U Thant as his successor. The activity of Perez de Cuellar, during his first mandate, focused on the famine and drought problem in Africa. He claimed that the cyclic crises in the limited food supply were not only due to the climatic and environmental problems, but above all to the constant situation of underdevelopment in the African countries where they are found. In this way, he gave a boost to the technical co-operation and economical and social development. The Secretary-General was then absorbed above all by the political problems of the day: the Iraq-Iran conflict; the problems in Namibia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Cyprus; and finally the withdrawal of the Iraqi army from Kuwait. Perez de Cuellar ended his mandate right in the middle of this last important operation, having already given the organisation the necessary tools in order to continue to maintain or to create peace; the role that his successor widely developed. It was this very successor, Boutros Boutros-Ghali that published in June 1992, An Agenda for Peace, an attentive program of the future steps to be taken by the UN in order to consecrate its role in international diplomacy. But contemporarily he inaugurated a capillary restructuring of the organisation with the goal of simplifying and making it more efficient and flexible to the needs of the time. 1.3 Recent Trends The organisation of the United Nations has developed a varied agenda conforming to the objectives set by the founding countries. Regardless of the extreme heterogeneity of the sectors that have seen the UN engaged on the front line, it is possible to divide the structure in three main areas: •= technical co-operation for economic and social development; •= interventions to maintain international peace and security; •= human rights and humanitarian assistance. Each one of these areas has had its ups and downs in the past, depending on the political and economic situation at the international level and the trends of individual Secretary-Generals. The root of the problem is found in the fact that the United Nations system (formed by the central bodies, related programs, and specialised agencies) was seen in the beginning as a stellar 18 structure, formed by semi-autonomous organisations, led by the intergovernmental type decisionmaking organisms, who have ultimate power in decision-making, but do not necessarily depend hierarchically from the General Assembly or of the Secretary-General. The growth of such a structure has given life to a very difficult system to co-ordinate. With the rise of new problems and new policies to be implemented (in the economic and social sector, more so than the political-diplomatic sector), the system has not adapted the existing structures, but has created new ad hoc organisations. All this has caused duplications, high costs, and inefficiencies. Certain examples can clarify these ideas. Three independent agencies exist in the food and agriculture sector: FAO, WFP and IFAD. The same situation is present in refugee aid: the High Commissioner for Refugees in Geneva is absolutely independent in comparison to the Office for the Commission of Humanitarian Affairs of the Secretariat, which shares many competencies and activities with other agencies, such as UNICEF and UNDP. To partly solve the problem of co-ordination, the Administrative Committee of Coordination (ACC) was created with the participation of various agencies and is presided over by Secretary-General. For the moment, this organisation has shown itself solely partly effective since it only meets a few times a year and no chief is required to be present nor needed to put into effect the Committee’s recommendations. This happens because the chiefs of the agencies are elected by different institutions and are therefore independent and sovereign in their politics. For a better understanding of the problem, a parallel can be made between the structure of the UN and that of the government. In the government, the co-ordination is assured by a global strategy that covers all the ministries, and a budget that mirrors such a strategy. In the United Nations this doesn’t happen because the single agencies adopt their own politics and have their own financial means. The Secretary-General and the chiefs of the agencies are elected by different institutions. Therefore, the Secretary- General has no power over the others. In addition, the Secretary-General does not have a cabinet council similar to that of the government. The only structure that comes close to this model, the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination (ACC), as we have seen, has problems. It is not difficult to imagine problems that would rise in a state if the government would meet only two times a year, or if the ministers were not obligated to be present. One must not however solely hold the UN system responsible for its lack of coordination. Often, in fact, it is precisely the states that create the co-ordination problems, or to say the least, do not alleviate them. Quite often it happens that the same countries are representatives in different agencies of different organisms (for example from various Ministries). The lack of communication and co-ordination amongst these causes the states to speak with different voices and often dissonance. Keeping in mind the problem of co-ordination, lets now consider the tendencies in the activities and in the politics of the UN. 19 Social and Economic Development In the past decades, the co-operation for development has been the activity that has absorbed a large part of the resources and energy of the UN. Programmed on the basis of strategic ten-year plans, the co-operation was given merit for having canalised many developing nations on the road to growth. However, a certain level of distrust spread in the past decades regarding the effectiveness of UN intervention and its agencies. This was motivated by various reasons: •= the impact of co-operation for development was not always in line with the expectations. •= the donor countries of resources followed a policy of containment of the public expenses and the reduction of the deficit. •= the end of the Cold War opened new fronts in competition with the developing countries. •= the developing countries at times manifested a certain distrust towards policies of cooperation for development. Only few countries significantly benefited from the co-operation. Many, on the other hand, remained in conditions of absolute need. The countries that benefited, like NICS (New Industrialised Countries), benefited more from other factors, and only partly from the cooperation. The development was induced by the funds of public or private finances, foreign investments, and the transfer of technology, that had been inserted into an economic and social structure that was more advanced in comparison to those of developing countries. Today, although progress has been made, there is still a good portion of countries in absolute need of aid, and it is here that the co-operation has to concentrate its efforts. At the World Summit for Social Development, held in March 1995 in Copenhagen, governments reached a new consensus on the need to put people at the centre of development. World leaders promised have the following as their principal objectives: •= creation of an economic, political, social, cultural and legal environment that will enable people to achieve social development; •= eradication of absolute poverty by a target date to be set by each country; •= support of full employment as a basic policy goal; •= promotion of social integration based on the enhancement and protection of all human rights; •= achievement of equality and equity between women and men; •= attainment of universal and equitable access to education and primary health care; •= acceleration of the development of Africa and the least developed countries; •= assurance that structural adjustment programmes includes social development goals; •= increase in resources allocated to social development; •= strengthening of co-operation for social development through the UN. 20 These leaders have recently reconvened in Geneva, after five years, to review if these goals have been achieved over the past five years, and to commit themselves to new initiatives. Unfortunately, the problems of poverty, unemployment and unsafe, unstable and unjust societies that troubled many parts of the world before the 1995 World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen still remain problems five years later. But changes in the way social issues are viewed are now considered a much higher priority. The new commitments established at the Copenhagen+5 World Summit are as follows: •= to create an economic, political, social, cultural and legal environment that will enable people to achieve social development; •= to eradicate poverty in the world, through decisive national actions and international cooperation, as an ethical, social, political and economic imperative of humankind; •= to promote the goal of full employment as a basic priority of our economic and social policies, and to enable all men and women to attain secure and sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen productive employment and work; •= to promote social integration by fostering societies that are stable, safe and just and that are based on the promotion and protection of all human rights, as well as on non-discrimination, tolerance, respect for diversity, equality of opportunity, solidarity, security, and participation of all people, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups and persons; •= to ensure that when structural adjustment programmes are agreed to they include social development goals, in particular eradicating poverty, promoting full and productive employment, and enhancing social integration; •= to increase significantly and/or utilize more efficiently the resources allocated to social development in order to achieve the goals of the Summit through national action and regional and international cooperation; •= to promote and attain the goals of universal and equitable access to quality education, the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, and the access of all to primary health care; •= to accelerate the economic, social and human resource development of Africa and the least developed countries; •= to promote an improved and strengthened framework for international, regional and subregional co-operation for social development, in a spirit of partnership, through the United Nations and other multilateral institutions; •= to promote full respect for human dignity and to achieve equality and equity between women and men and to recognise and enhance the participation and leadership roles of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural life and in development. 21 Before the Summit, social issues were generally regarded as subjects for each country’s domestic agenda. Since the Summit, these issues are squarely on the table as a priority for international consideration. There are several indications that the Summit has had an impact. One of the major hopes of the organisers of the Social Summit was that the forum would result in commitments from every country to work towards eradicating poverty, and that has happened. However, what has not yet happened on a large scale, is the transformation of the ideas and commitments of the Summit into results that have truly benefited people. Peace and International Security Peace and security are the ultimate goals of all United Nations activity. How the Organisation works to achieve those goals is best demonstrated in the peace initiatives of the Security Council. An important United Nations concern is disarmament. The General Assembly has held special sessions on disarmament and works every year through its two deliberative bodies, the United Nations Disarmament Commission and the Assembly's First Committee, the Disarmament and International Security Committee. The Organisation provides support for intergovernmental disarmament bodies and meetings and, among other initiatives, monitors arms transfers of major conventional weapons systems through the United Nations Register of Conventional Arms. Before the early 90's, planning of peacekeeping operations started after the Security Council had voted on the resolution. Its logistical nature and lack of conceptual approach, together with the rise in demand for new peacekeeping missions following the end of the Cold War, created the need for an operational planning capacity. The more complex peacekeeping operations involving political, humanitarian and military dimensions require greater coordination and liaison and ask that the departments and agencies involved work in an integrated manner. Much effort and resources have been devoted to the development of the planning process, focussing on operational and logistic planning, and the co-ordination and liaison functions within the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. There have been 40 United Nations peacekeeping operations, and over 750,000 military and civilian personnel have participated. The following is a list of the United Nations current peacekeeping missions: 1.Democratic Republic of the Congo - MONUC United Nations Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission April 1991 - To present United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon March 1978 - To present United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation June 1948 - To present Progress has also been made in the area of mine clearance and assistance to mine-affected countries. In Cambodia, for example, 23 per cent of the land thought to be mined has been cleared. In Afghanistan, approximately 64 per cent of mined residential areas and irrigation systems has been cleared. In Mozambique, three new centres to service mine victims have opened over the past three years, and two more are planned. United Nations-supported Mine Action Centres are fully operational in eight countries and are under development in six others. Since 1997, United Nations teams have conducted assessment missions in approximately twenty countries. Some other peace-building activities to keep in mind are: UN's supervision of the 1989 elections in Namibia and police training in Haiti which take place within the framework of a UN peacekeeping operation. Others, requested by governments, include: Liberia where the UN has opened a peace-building support office; Cambodia where the UN maintains a human rights office; and Guatemala where the UN is helping to implement peace agreements which affect virtually all aspects of national life. Human Rights and Humanitarian Assistance Despite the past success stories in human rights protection, such as the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1960) and concentrated efforts on the human rights abuses resulting from the policy of apartheid in South Africa, the effectiveness of the United Nations was severely restricted by the Cold War. Today, there is general recognition that there is a need for a new driving force to secure broader realisation of economic and social rights. Millions of people in both developing and developed nations still suffer from extreme poverty and exclusion from economic, political and cultural life. For this reason, the United Nations has increasingly emphasised the right to development, which can provide the basis for a strategy for a more comprehensive human rights programme that shifts its main concern from standard setting to implementation. In 1993, for example, the General Assembly significantly strengthened the Organisation’s human rights machinery by creating the post of United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Mandated to co-ordinate all United Nations human rights programmes and improve their impact 24 and overall efficiency is the High Commissioner- the chief official responsible for human rights. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) serves as the secretariat of the Commission on Human Rights, the treaty bodies and other United Nations human rights organs, and is the focal point for all United Nations human rights activities. In 1997, as part of wide-ranging reforms to enhance the effectiveness of the United Nations, the Secretary-General placed human rights at the centre of all the work of the Organisation by organising the work of the United Nations into four substantive fields: peace and security, economic and social affairs, development co-operation, and humanitarian affairs. The United Nations is thus enhancing its human rights programme by integrating a human rights focus into the entire range of the Organisation’s activities. In addition, the High Commissioner's Office and the Centre for Human Rights were consolidated into a single Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. This merger gave the new High Commissioner a solid institutional basis from which to lead the Organisation’s mission in the domain of human rights. The High Commissioner's broadened mandate supports the work of the Commission on Human Rights and the treaty bodies, focusing on areas such as: advancing the rights of women and children, combating racial discrimination in all its forms and protecting vulnerable groups and minorities, such as indigenous people, migrants and disabled people. The Office is able to carry out these expanded mandates through voluntary contributions to finance its activities. The Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda, for example, was funded entirely by voluntary contributions from Governments. The High Commissioner's initiatives on indigenous people, the rights of the child, economic rights, victims of torture and contemporary forms of slavery, as well as combating racism and racial discrimination were also supported by voluntary funds. Today, almost every United Nations body and specialised agency is making efforts to incorporate the promotion or protection of human rights into its programmes and activities. A synthesis of the process of restructuring and reorganization of the economic center of the Secretariat will be outlined in the following paragraphs, aiming to clarify the objectives and duties of the presently existing divisions. The Reorganisation of the Secretariat The United Nations, as a key international organisation, is a tool to be used by its Member States. In the rapid and changing climate of the global scene, the system finds itself confronting growing political expectations and requests for intervention. This has put the human and financial resources of the organisation under much pressure. The restructuring had to be geared towards bettering the contribution of the UN according to the priorities of the Member States, assuring efficiency and quality in the interventions. 25 Keeping in mind the previously outlined co-ordination and superimposition problems, as well as new political, humanitarian, and economic tendencies, it is clear that there has been a need for a restructuring process over the past decade. In the political and humanitarian sector, new structures have focused on the responsibility of the precautionary diplomacy, re-pacification, maintaining and establishing peace. The objective has been to increase the ability of the UN to face the political and humanitarian crises by consolidating and making more efficient the existing organisms. The result of this process has been the constitution of departments that form the political nucleus of the UN: the Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs, the Department of Political Affairs, Department of Peacekeeping Affairs, and the Department of Disarmament Affairs. The objectives of the reorganisation of the economic and social sector were the following: •= to obtain a common goal and a major coherence in the economic, social, and environmental fields; •= to strengthen the connections and the synergies with the political and humanitarian sectors; •= to define which tasks the sector of the co-operation and development must be completed by the organisation itself, and which must be completed by the specialised agencies of the system; •= to establish a coherent division of responsibility between the Headquarters in New York and the Offices in Vienna, Nairobi, and Geneva, and between the regional and local offices; •= to create a structure with clearly defined responsibilities, in order to resolve co-ordination problems, and to avoid duplication and overlapping. The department that makes up the economic nucleus of the United Nations was established after much restructuring, and is now known as the Department of Social and Economic Affairs (DESA). DESA is a result of an amalgamation of its predecessors: Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis (DESIPA), Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD), and Department for Development Support and Management Services (DDSMS). Having clarified certain aspects of the restructuring of the Secretariat, we can now outline the responsibilities of its departments. A. Department of Politic Affairs (DPA) DPA’s mission is to provide advice and support on all political matters to the Secretary- General relating to the maintenance and restoration of peace and security. The principle functions of this new organism are: •= to monitor, analyse and assess political developments throughout the world; 26 •= to identify potential or actual conflicts in whose control and resolution the United Nations could play a useful role; •= to recommend to the Secretary-General appropriate actions in such cases and execute the approved policy; •= to assist the Secretary-General in carrying out political activities decided by him and/or mandated by the General Assembly and the Security Council in the areas of preventive diplomacy, peace-making, peace-keeping and post-conflict peace-building; •= to provide the Secretary-General with advice on requests for electoral assistance received from Member States and to co-ordinate implementation of programmes established in response to such requests; •= to provide the Secretary-General with briefing materials and support him in the political aspects of his relations with Member States; •= to provide substantive support and Secretariat services to the Security Council and its subsidiary organs, as well as to the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People and the Special Committee on the Situation with regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and People. B. Department of Disarmament Affairs (DDA) DDA serves as the focal point for disarmament and development within the Secretariat. It participates in a number of mechanisms established to ensure co-ordination among various parts of the UN system: •= the Senior Management Group (SMG), which meets weekly under the chairmanship of the Secretary-General to assist him in leading the process of change and instituting sound management throughout the UN; •= the Executive Committee for Peace and Security (ECPS), established by the Secretary- General as part of his reform to facilitate joint strategic planning and decision-making among DPA, DPKO, DDA, OCHA, UNDP, UNHCR, OHCHR and UNSECOORD; •= the High-Level Steering Group on Disarmament and Development, which it co-ordinates and services. C. Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) This independent department was created due to the significant increase in the number and the dimensions of the operations. The principal responsibility in this sector is to define, develop, and co-ordinate the peacekeeping operations and other field missions. In addition, it deals with everything regarding the police forces, the reclamation of landmines and general training. The more multi-sectored nature of the missions has suggested the formation of a Mission Planning Service that foresees the co-operation of the department units, specialists of other departments of the Secretariat, specialised agencies, and non-governmental organisations in achieving the goal of planning and integrating multidimensional operations. D. Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) OCHA was established following the adoption of the Secretary-General’s programme for reform. Prior to the establishment of this office, its predecessor was the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). The goal of the reorganisation was that of giving the UN an effective and integrated tool in order to better handle emergency situations on a political, military and humanitarian level. The functions of its Emergency Relief Co-ordinators (ERCs) are focused in three main areas: •= policy development and co-ordination functions in support of the Secretary-General, ensuring that all humanitarian issues are addressed; •= advocacy of humanitarian issues with political organs, notably the Security Council; •= co-ordination of humanitarian emergency response, by ensuring that an appropriate response mechanism is established, through the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) consultations, on the ground. OCHA currently maintains field co-ordination arrangements in 16 countries and one region: Afghanistan, Angola, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Georgia, Great Lakes Region, Republic of the Congo, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Tajikistan. OCHA manages the web site, Relief Web (www.reliefweb.int) that provides up-to-date information on complex emergencies and natural disasters collected from over 170 sources. It also issues monthly reports on the response to appeals and natural disasters that are available on Relief Web. E. Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) DESA’s mission is to promote broad-based, sustainable development through a multidimensional and integrated approach to economic, social, environmental, population and gender issues. The major functions and services of this department are to: •= provide policy analysis and facilitate international dialogue on development issues in the General Assembly, ECOSOC and the specialised intergovernmental bodies reporting to them; •= provide technical assistance to Member States at the national and sub-regional level; •= provide research, analysis and support for policy-making bodies; •= provide substantive support to the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), its functional-commissions dealing with issues ranging from statistics and population to sustainable development, social development and the status of women and other intergovernmental and expert bodies, in their efforts to find co-ordinated responses to ongoing or emerging global challenges; •= promote the implementation, monitoring and review of plans, strategies, programmes or platforms of action agreed to at the global level. DESA also advises and supports countries, at their request, in implementing their development strategies. The aim is to help build national capacities as well as to strengthen economic and technical links among developing countries. Special attention is given to the requirements of the least developed countries, particularly those in Africa, and small island nations. F. The Department of General Assembly Affairs and Conference Services (DGAACS) DGAACS consists of three divisions and one service, which correspond to the relevant program structure in the current Medium-Term Plan of the United Nations. The functions of each Division and Service are outlined below: General Assembly and ECOSOC Affairs Division- provides secretariat services to the General Assembly, its General Committee and Main Committees and various subsidiary bodies and working groups; Central Planning and Co-ordination Service- provides central planning services for the meetings and documentation, and co-ordinates conference services world-wide. Translation and Editorial Division-provides translation and editorial services into and from the UN official languages. G. Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) OIOS was created by the United Nations General Assembly in 1994 to establish a credible, effective, and permanent system of oversight of UN operations. It incorporates all major oversight functions: internal audit and management consulting; programme evaluation and monitoring; inspection and investigations. Before the establishment of OIOS, independent internal oversight did not exist in the United Nations. This significant change has enabled internal oversight in the United Nations to be given the status and importance it requires for the first time in the history of the Organisation. Over the past five years, OIOS has focused on the substantive activities of the Organisation, with priority given to peacekeeping missions and humanitarian affairs. Although continuing to give importance to these areas, OIOS is now shifting its attention to some of the more systemic or pervasive deficiencies of the Organisation. At times, this will call for a horizontal approach in dealing with common services and how they function in different duty stations. OIOS aims to improve efficiency, effectiveness and integrity in the United Nations. H. Office of Legal Affairs (OLA) The overall objectives of this programme are: •= to provide central legal service for the Secretariat and other organs of the United Nations; •= to contribute to the progressive development and codification of international public and trade law; •= to promote the strengthening and development as well as the effective implementation of the international legal order for the seas and oceans; •= to register and publish treaties, and to perform the depository functions of the Secretary- General. OLA seeks to achieve these goals through: •= the provision of legal services on questions of international and national, public, private, procedural and administrative law; •= the provision of substantive secretariat functions to United Nations bodies; •= the contribution to the understanding, acceptance and consistent application of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and related implementing Agreements; •= the prompt processing and publication of treaty-related actions and treaties registered and deposited; •= the provision of assistance to Member States in matters related to treaty law. UN Budget The resources to finance the activities of the United Nations come from the contributions of the Member States. The General Assembly attributes the onus of subsidising a percentage of the total budget on the basis of a specific formula which refers principally to the GDP. 30 The United States originally financed 50% of the annual requirements. Their quota has now been reduced to approximately half this amount. It has been established that the quota of the poorer nations cannot be lower than 0.001% of the total budget. The other major contributors that find themselves in between these to extremes are Japan, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom, Canada, Brazil, Russia, China, India, and so on. There are 87 nations that contribute the minimum. Even the peacekeeping operations are financed on the basis of the ability to contribute, but with a slightly different outline. The Permanent Members of the Security Council pay approximately 22% more than the percentage set in the above formula- other countries contribute the same amount, and other still contribute a tenth or a fifth. Finally, the various programs and agencies affiliated with the United Nations are financed by voluntary contributions separate from the regular budget. These include UNDP, WFP, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNRWA, and UNFPA. The budget is put under the examination of the General Assembly and its committees, the Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions and the Committee for Programme and Co-ordination, by the Secretary-General. It is approved on a biennial basis. The United Nations budget for the biennium 2000-2001 will amount to $2,535 million. It appeared that requirements for anticipated inflation would raise the budget for the new biennium by $120 million. . But, as a result of further budgetary reductions and favourable exchange rates, this increase did not occur. It remains rather at virtually the same level as 1998-1999. The budget for 1994-1995 was at the level of $2,632 million, and for each successive period between 1994 and 1999, the budget level decreased. The adoption of the new budget means that the Secretariat will have been working with the same or a lower level of resources from 1994 to 2001. There are some new features in the 2000-2001 budget: a contingency provision of $35 million has been included in the budget for new political missions, the reduction of administrative costs, and the reallocation of additional resources to the prime activities of the Organisation including, amongst others, the maintenance of international peace and security; the promotion of sustained economic growth and sustainable development; and the development of Africa. In summary, the new budget for 2000-2001 will allow the Organisation to deliver more value to its Member States without an increase in cost. 31 UN Core Values and Competencies The United Nations Competencies for the Future have been created to capitalise on the quality of the UN staff. These competencies include a combination of skills, attributes and behaviours that need to be developed and strengthened in one’s career. Gradually, they will be incorporated into generic job descriptions and vacancy announcements. Interview frameworks will be developed to incorporate competencies into recruitment and placement decisions, and staff will be trained in the use of these tools. Core Values Job Opportunities in the United Nations 33 Chapter 2: Opportunities in the Secretariat 2.1 Introduction Before looking at the topic of job opportunities in the UN system, it is necessary to create a panorama of the Secretariat. Organisational Structure There are seven departments and two offices in the Secretariat, which are divided in other organisational units. Each hierarchical level include the following: 1. Office: minimum of 20 high level professionals under the supervision of a D-2 staff member, or in few cases an Assistant Secretary General or Under Secretary General. 2. Division: minimum of fifteen high level professionals under the supervision of a D-2 staff member. 3. Service: minimum of eight high level professionals under the supervision of a D-1 staff member. 4. Section: minimum of four professionals under the supervision of a P-4 or a P-5 staff member. 5. Unit: minimum of four positions under the supervision of a chief. One must firstly point out that, similar to other international institutions, the highest appointments inside the Secretariat are political. One arrives to such positions by appointment, not by promotion. These positions include: •= Secretary-General- appointed by the General Assembly, on the recommendation of the Security Council, for a period of five years; •= Under Secretary General (USG)- Department Head •= Assistant Secretary General (ASG)- Head of Office 34 Normally at the top of the career line are the two D-positions: •= D-2- Director- Division Head •= D-1- General Administrator- Service Head Following these positions are the five professional levels, from P-1 to P-5, where one, with an advanced university degree, progresses through merit and seniority. A recent graduate without any work experience, for example, will be recruited to a P-1 position. As the amount of experience increases, so does the professional level: •= P-5 13 to 17 years of experience are required •= P-4 8 to 12 years of experience •= P-3 Examination or if external recruitment 4 to 8 years of experience •= P-2 Examination or if external recruitment 2 to 3 years of experience •= P-1 Recent graduates or United Nations General Service employees, that have passed internal qualification examinations The General Service sector is made up of various groups, all occupied with clerical, secretarial and administrative work. There are seven levels, indicated as G-1 to G-7. From these, as anticipated, it is possible to continue to the professional category by internal examinations. With the exception of certain cases, the hierarchical subdivision just described is also applied to the autonomous agencies and organisations affiliated to the United Nations. For this reason, reference can be made to it even when speaking of the employment of personnel in the UNDP and UNICEF. The Charter establishes norms that then are expanded in the Staff Rules and Regulations. Basically, the Charter states that: •= the Secretary-General and entire personnel, as employees of an international organisation, must not solicit or receive instructions from foreign authorities or governments. In addition, they must avoid any actions that can effect their position as civil servants; •= each Member State of the United Nations is committed to respecting the exclusively international character of the responsibility of the Secretary-General and personnel; •= the personnel is nominated by the Secretary-General, based on the Staff Regulations established by the General Assembly. The quota is based on the financial contributions of each of States to the budget of the UN. It is important to note a basic distinction, which often is overlooked in one’s first exposure to the United Nations’ system. Those who work in the Secretariat and in related programs are international civil servants. These positions should not be confused with the civil servants of the 35 Missions of the various Members of the United Nations. The latter are referred to as diplomats, who report to the Ministries of Foreign Affairs. The Salary System Employees in the Professional and higher categories are paid on the basis of salary scales applied worldwide and established by the General Assembly of the United Nations on the recommendation of the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC). The salary of this group of staff is made up of a base or floor (minimum) salary and post adjustment, both expressed in United States dollars. Post adjustment is a cost-of-living adjustment designed to preserve equivalent purchasing power for all duty stations. The level of salaries for Professional staff is determined in accordance with the Noblemaire principle. This principle states that the international civil service should be able to recruit staff from all its Member States, including the highest-paid. Thus, the salaries of this group of staff are set by reference to the highest-paying national civil service, which has been taken to date to be the federal civil service of the United States of America. The post adjustment system is designed to ensure that Professional salaries have the same purchasing power at all duty stations. As the cost-of-living varies significantly between duty stations, the salaries of this group of staff are set at different levels at each duty station so as to compensate for the differences in living costs. Differences in living costs are measured through periodic place-to-place surveys conducted at all duty stations. The surveys measure the cost-of-living of a duty station relative to the cost-of-living at the base of the system (New York). The results are reflected in a post adjustment index for each duty station. Duty stations with higher costs of living than New York have higher post adjustment indices, and consequently, higher salaries, while those that are less expensive than New York have lower post adjustment indices and lower salaries than New York. Subject to meeting the eligibility criteria, internationally-recruited staff members may also receive the following entitlements: Rental subsidy is an entitlement paid to staff members whose rented accommodations are of a reasonable standard but which cost significantly more than the average rental costs for the duty station. Similarly, a rental deduction is levied on staff members whose housing is provided by the United Nations, a Government or a related institution, either free of charge or at rents substantially lower than the average rent used to determine the post adjustment for the duty station. Dependency allowances, in respect of dependent spouse and children, are paid in the form of salary at the dependency rate and/or a dependency allowance. Education grant is available to internationally-recruited staff members whose duty station and place of residence is outside of their home countries, and is payable in respect of children in full-time attendance at a school or university, or a similar educational institution. Travel and shipping expenses are paid for by the Organization in respect of travel of internationallyrecruited staff members (and recognized dependents) on initial appointment, on change of official duty and on separation from service. 36 Mobility and Hardship Allowance is an allowance to encourage mobility between duty stations as operationally required by the organizations, and to compensate for service at difficult locations. •= Assignment grant is a cash payment made to internationally-recruited staff members who proceed on authorized travel, upon appointment or reassignment, to a duty station for a period of service expected to be of at least one year's duration. The purpose of the grant is to assist staff members in meeting initial extraordinary costs of relocation to the new duty station. Home leave travel is provided by the Organization to internationally-recruited staff members (and their dependents) for the purpose of renewing their social, cultural and family ties in their home countries. The frequency of home leave travel is based on the difficulty of conditions of life and work at the duty station of assignment. The typical opportunity for the first category is an internship. A National Recruitment Examination, as well as the Associate Experts Program and Junior Professional Officers (JPO), are offered to those of the second category. And finally, once experience is accumulated, the doors open to those of the third category for professional staff, experts and consultants through external vacancy announcements. The objective of the internship programme is to provide a framework by which graduate and post-graduate students from diverse academic backgrounds may be attached to United Nations offices or departments; to expose them to the work of the United Nations; and to provide departments at Headquarters with the assistance of students specialised in various professional fields relevant to their needs. This internship programme is solely for the United Nations Secretariat in New York. The United Nations Headquarters Internship Programme consists of three two-month periods of the year: spring (mid-January to mid-March), summer (early June to early August), and fall (mid-September to mid-November). This is a full-time programme- the interns spend five days a week in a Department or Office of the Secretariat, which has selected them for an internship, carrying out their assignment under the supervision of a staff member. 37 Requirements: Applicants should: •= be enrolled in a degree granting programme (i.e. masters or PhD level) in a graduate school during the internship; •= be pursuing their studies in countries where higher education is not divided into undergraduate and graduate stages, should have completed at least three years of university studies; •= be no older than 30 years of age. Before sending the application, it is necessary to keep in mind the following criteria: •= The student must be enrolled in a Masters or PhD programme in a graduate school at the time of application and also during the internship. •= The student is able to obtain the necessary visas and arrange travel to the United Nations Headquarters in New York. •= The student is able to cover the costs of travel, accommodation, as well as living expenses of the internship (approx. US$5,000). •= The student is able to show proof of valid regular as well as major medical insurance. •= The student is able to communicate fluently in English or French. In addition to the application form (see Appendix 3): •= Part II must be filled out by the Office of the Dean of graduate school, the nominating institution or the Permanent Mission of the student’s country to the United Nations; •= an up-to-date curriculum vita, grade transcript and a short essay in English or French stating the purpose of obtaining the internship must be included. The application form as well as all the above documents should be submitted in English or French and must be forwarded in two copies to the following address no earlier than 8 months and no later than 6 months before the start of your intended period: Coordinator of the Internship Programme Room S-2590D The applicants are informed of the outcome approximately 6-8 weeks before the commencement of the internship. The following principal rules should be considered before completing an application package: •= Interns are not paid. Costs of all travel, insurance and accommodation, as well as living expenses, are the responsibility of interns or their sponsoring institutions. •= Interns are responsible for obtaining the necessary visas (B.1) and arranging their travel to the United Nations Headquarters in New York. •= The United Nations accepts no responsibility for costs arising from accidents and/or illness incurred during an internship. Therefore, candidates for internship must show proof of valid regular as well as major medical insurance coverage. •= Interns must keep confidential any and all unpublished information obtained during the course of the internship and not publish any reports or papers based on such information. Associate Experts Programme This Programme offers young professionals who are graduates from universities or institutions of higher education an opportunity to acquire professional experience in the technical co-operation of the United Nations Secretariat. The associate experts, who may have limited or no professional experience, are recruited under bilateral agreements between the UN and the donor countries for development projects or regional projects or regional activities within various UN fields. They are provided by the nineteen governments that participate in the Associate Experts Programme (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom). Associate Experts are generally nationals of these countries. Some of these countries, however, agree to finance nationals of developing countries, particularly of least developed countries, as Associate Experts. Upon receipt of a breakdown of estimated costs from the UN Associate Experts Programme, the donor country deposits the necessary funds to cover all costs, such as salary, allowances, insurance and travel expenses, as well as administrative expenses incurred by the UN. The salary levels of Associate Experts are determined by the donor countries in consultation with the UN. 39 Associate Experts perform their duties either under the supervision of an experienced expert specialising in their field and the Chief Technical Adviser of the project or of a regional adviser, and if recruited for projects of a national character, may be called upon to work under the supervision of the National Director responsible for the project. If their performance is deemed satisfactory, an initial one-year appointment may be extended. Although a few take on regular staff member posts, there is no automatic transfer to regular staff positions. They have, however, a fair chance of applying for such positions like any other candidate. The necessary requirements to participate in the pre-selection process vary according to donor country. But, they basically correspond to the following: •= a degree in the an area of development •= a strong command of English and one of the other working languages of the UN •= age below 30 years (33 for the medical graduates) Although there is not an exact rule, there are many organisms to which a candidate can be recruited. In general, the following can be considered studies connected to development: •= medicine One U.N. Plaza, Room DC1-802 New York NY 10017 The consultants and experts are present in various UN departments. This discussion, however, is limited to the technical co-operation activities for development. 40 Once having defined the objectives of a project and the means necessary to achieve them, it is possible to translate them into the requirements for the personnel called upon to fulfil them. The nature of these duties and the characteristics of the personnel needed to complete them are described in two types of documents: •= job description; •= terms of reference. The first is used for duties of medium-long periods, dedicated therefore to experts. The second, on the other hand, is a simplified version of the first and refers to the duties of the consultants, whose term length can extend anywhere from a few days to a few months. The minimum content of a job description is the following: •= job objectives; •= the duties which must be fulfilled; •= the level of the duties and the corresponding required competency; •= duty station; •= length and time of project; •= organisational context and general information. The competencies and qualifications required of the consultants and the experts are the most varied. In addition to a specialisation in a specific area, language skills, interpersonal relations, and sensitivity towards cultures other that one's own are all important in the selection of an expert or a consultant. The combination of all these characteristics often makes it difficult to find the right candidate. It is not easy, for example, to find a specialist in irrigation systems that is specialised in a certain geographical area, and that speaks both Arabic and French very well. The combination of qualities complicates the research, especially when the time given is limited. A competitive examination for editors, translators/précis-writers and verbatim reporters takes place annually in order to establish a roster from which vacancies for editors, translators/précis-writers and verbatim reporters at United Nations Headquarters in New York, and at other duty stations (Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi, Beirut and Bangkok) are filled. Applicants outside the Secretariat applying for the examination must: •= have the language that they are translating into as their main language; •= have a perfect command of English and an excellent knowledge of French and one of the other official languages of the United Nations (Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish); •= hold a degree or qualification from a university or institution of equivalent status or hold a university degree from a school of translation. On the basis of the results of this examination, selected candidates are invited for an interview. Candidates who are successful in this examination and are selected for inclusion in the roster are appointed to fill vacancies as they occur in the Editorial, Translation or Verbatim Reporting Services. When vacancies occur, successful candidates are recruited from the roster, subject to the requirements of the services in terms of expertise and language combinations. The assignments are subject to rotation, and successful candidates are sometimes called upon to serve at other duty stations in Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America/Caribbean and Headquarters according to the needs of the Organisation. Successful candidates are expected to serve a minimum of five years in language posts. The selected candidates are normally offered an initial two-year probationary appointment at the P-2 level. Contact information: Language Instructors Full-time language instructors with the United Nations must teach the specified number of course hours per week as determined by the duty station concerned and devote a specified number of work hours to course preparation and correcting students' work. In addition, 42 each full-time teacher is assigned tasks such as drafting and updating of teaching materials and examinations, preparation of examinations, design of specialised courses and communication courses, consultations with students, and participation in meetings and seminars. At United Nations Headquarters (New York), full-time teachers participate in the preparation, administration, and correction of the United Nations Language Proficiency Examination as part of their assigned tasks. The teacher is expected to use word-processing and database software in performing these duties. The teacher is also expected to carry out other training activities whenever called upon to do so. As in the case of translators and interpreters, prospective candidates for language teachers are required to undergo a competitive examination. The examination is open to staff members of the United Nations Secretariat who meet the eligibility and qualification requirements and to qualified external applicants. Language teachers working part-time at Headquarters may also apply. Applicants who are not staff members of the United Nations Secretariat applying for the examination must: •= have the language of instruction as their main language and be fluent in English; •= hold an advanced university degree (Masters) in applied linguistics, linguistics, language teaching, languages or similar field; •= have at least five years' recent and consecutive experience within the last eight years in teaching the language of instruction as a second language or a foreign language to adults, preferably in a professional setting; •= have word-processing skills. The written examination consists of the following: •= essay questions on modern language teaching methodology, communication skills and writing skills training, preparation of teaching material, and the use of technology for language teaching; •= knowledge of language syntax and usage; •= several practical problems and a lesson plan. On the basis of the overall results of the examination, the Board will recommend to the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Resources Management the names of candidates who qualify for inclusion in the roster. Vacancies at United Nations Headquarters, New York and the United Nations Office at Geneva will be filled from the roster in order of where the vacancy occurs. Successful candidates selected from the roster to fill the vacancy are normally offered a one-year appointment as language teachers. Upon satisfactory completion of the trial period, their appointment will be extended. The fixed term appointments of teachers whose performance and conduct proves unsatisfactory will not be extended. 43 Junior professionals (P1/P2) and professionals (P3) are recruited through National Competitive Recruitment Examinations. The examinations are organised as a matter of priority in countries that are inadequately represented among the staff of the Secretariat. The examinations are administered in a number of occupational groups, including administration, economics, electronic data processing, finance, legal affairs, library, political affairs, public information, social development, and statistics. Eligibility In order to qualify for P1/P2 positions, a candidate must: •= possess a first level university degree and be 32 years of age or younger •= be a national from one of the Member States •= be fluent in either English or French For P3 positions, a candidate must: •= possess an advanced university degree •= four years of professional experience •= be 39 years of age or younger •= be a national from one of the Member States •= be fluent in either English or French However, examinations for most P-3 positions are currently suspended according to the decision of Secretary General. Examination Procedure The examination will consist of a written examination and an interview. The written examination is divided into two parts. Part I is a General Paper (4 hours) testing one’s analytical skills, drafting skills and knowledge of international affairs. Part II is the Specialised Paper (4 hours) testing one’s substantive skills in the occupational group. The examination questions are given in English and French, but the responses may be written in any other of the official languages of the UN Secretariat. One must keep in mind that the answer for the drafting component must be written in English or French. The travel expenses to and from the site of the written examination are not borne by the UN. On the basis of the performance in the written examination, a number of candidates are invited to the interview by the Board of Examiners. The interview will be conducted in English or French, the two working languages of the Secretariat. Office of Human Resources Management Room S-2590 New York, NY 10017 2.5- Recruitment for Higher Level Positions It is the general policy of the United Nations to announce all vacancies other than those at the entry level. In filling these vacancies, special efforts are made to recruit from as wide a geographic area as possible, in order to achieve, as closely as possible, equitable representation among Member States. To be considered for these posts, candidates must possess an advanced university degree, in addition to relevant professional experience. Normally, a minimum of six years of professional experience is required. Information on vacant positions is available at Headquarters; United Nations Information Centres throughout the world and other offices of the United Nations family such as UNDP, UNHCR, and UNICEF; Foreign Ministry of the respective Member States; and certain educational and professional institutions. The information is also available at web site: http://www.un.org/Depts/OHRM/. 2.6 Recruitment for Peacekeeping Missions Aside from the widely known "blue helmets", which are military forces provided directly by the Member States of the United Nations, these operations also rely on civilian staff for a wide variety of functions ranging from monitoring the observance of human rights to managing human or material resources. These operations provide significant opportunities for a number of professionals with a variety of professional backgrounds. 45 At the professional level, candidates must: •= have proven track records in one of the following fields. political affairs, legal affairs, human rights, election monitoring, humanitarian assistance, public information, general administration, procurement, logistics, civil engineering, and electronic data processing; •= have an advanced university degree or its equivalent in a relevant discipline; •= preferably have two to four years of prior relevant professional experience; •= be fluent in English and/or French. Fluency in additional languages, such as Arabic, Portuguese, Russian or Spanish, as well as working experience in developing countries, constitute a definite advantage; •= be in excellent health and prepared to work in hardship areas under difficult and sometimes dangerous conditions. Once the application package is received, it is reviewed as part of an initial screening process. The background and experience of the candidate is evaluated based upon a specific set of criteria. The second phase of the application process involves a comparison of the candidates’ qualifications within one occupational group. As one of the final stages of processing a candidature, the candidate may be asked to schedule an interview with a staffing officer. Finally, in the event that the candidate succeeds in meeting all of the required criteria, he/she will be entered onto a roster of qualified candidates. His/her skills will then be matched with applicable post vacancies, as they become available in the various mission areas. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Personnel Management and Support Services maintains a computerised roster on which candidatures are kept active for assignments to Peacekeeping Operations. Chapter 3: Opportunities in Affiliated Agencies 3.1 Introduction The system of the United Nations is formed of numerous specialised agencies, semiindependent bodies, and related programs. Since each one of these has its own personnel policies, not to mention separate forms of recruitment, it is not possible to extend the analysis to the entire UN system. For this reason, we will focus here on the UNDP, UNICEF, and the UNV. The first two have a net of national, regional, and local offices; however their central offices are located in New York. The UNV, on the other hand, is not located in New York; but it offers job opportunities, especially for recent graduates, that should not be disregarded. The Specialised Agencies (i.e. UNESCO, FAO, ILO, etc) conduct their own recruitment programmes. Interested candidates should contact the appropriate agency for information concerning employment opportunities. 3.2 Opportunities in the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Introduction With over 7,000 staff working throughout a global network of over 136 country offices in every major developing region and its Headquarters in New York, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations largest provide of grant funding for development, and the main body for co-ordinating UN development assistance. Its purpose is to help developing countries, and countries moving from centrally planned to market economies, build capacities for sustainable human development. The UNDP has established a network of human, technical and financial resources and provides a managerial umbrella for a wide range of funds and activities covering major development initiatives. It also provides special measures for the Least Developed Countries (LDCS), round tables for country aid planning and co-ordination, management services for projects financed by bilateral donors and the World Bank, promotion of technical co-operation among developing countries (TCDC), collaboration with NGOs, support for the private sector, and strengthening public sector management. Adapting its activities to the needs of individual countries, the technical co-operation of the UNDP puts specific attention on: •= helping countries build capacities for people-centred, sustainable development, working with government policy-makers, and with people and their organisations; •= supporting programmes in 174 developing countries and territories through a network of 132 country offices ; •= poverty eradication and livelihoods for the poor, gender equity environmental regeneration, management development, co-operation amongst developing nations and good governance; •= stimulating development dialogue and action by commissioning a yearly Human Development Report and supporting the production of National Human Development Reports in 110 countries; •= co-ordinating the country-level development activities of all UN organisations. The UNDP provides technical and financial support for thousands of projects in very different fields: agriculture, forests, meteorology, education, transportation, health, public administration, industry, energy, environment, communications, etc. With its own assistance the UNDP makes sure that, at a local level, managerial abilities are developed, human resources are valued, and technology is transferred. The ultimate objective is to create a base for permanent development, sustainable and independent of external intervention. The projects are conceived and managed in a such a way to: •= efficiently manage the natural, industrial, and commercial resources; •= stimulate the investment of capital; •= form human resources; •= transfer the most adequate technologies, specifically in reference to the environment. The most precious patrimony of the UNDP is surely its decentralisation, guaranteed from the capillary net of offices at a national level. In this way, the organisation is constantly present in its field, in strict contact with governments, the project addressees, and other organisations that operate in the same country. Around 80 % of the UNDP staff works in local or national offices. This refers to the local personnel as well as international staff. Every office is directed by a Resident Representative that is often also the director of the UN Information Centre for that country. The representative negotiates the national program with the government, and approves and actualises projects up to $1 million. For projects of greater importance the authorisation of the UNDP Administrator is necessary. In addition to collaborating with many non-governmental agencies and assisting governments in their development projects, the UNDP administers a series of associated programmes, which are financed by separate voluntary contributions and provide special services. This refers to UNCDF, UNSO, UNIFEM, UNFSTD, UNRFNRE, and UNV. 48 In order to follow through with all these activities, the UNDP counts on these generic contributions to bilateral programmes, division of costs with beneficiary governments and contributions of trust funds. The UNDP organises an internship programme equivalent to that of the Secretariat. The objectives, the procedures of recruitment, the required qualifications are very similar. The only difference is that the UNDP personnel manage the programme. Objective of the Programme The Internship Programme principal objective is to offer a small group of graduate-level students the opportunity to acquire direct exposure to UNDP's work and structure. It is designed to complement development-oriented studies with practical experience in various aspects of technical co-operation. Interns are assigned to either a UNDP country office or the organisation’s Headquarters in New York. Assignments vary greatly in terms of content. They may have a country-specific, regional, sectional, or thematic focus. However, interns are normally involved in some aspect of the design, implementation and evaluation of UNDP-supported programmes and projects. Every attempt is made to match the interests of the intern with the needs of the organisation. Internship assignments vary in length according to the availability and academic requirements of the intern, as well as the needs of UNDP: usually lasting anywhere from two to six months, but a fixed rule does not exist. Assignments are available on a part-time and full-time basis throughout the year. Candidates for the Internship Programme are selected on a competitive basis. The following minimum qualifications are required: •= Enrolment in a graduate-level degree programme. In countries where there is no distinction between graduate and undergraduate levels, it is necessary to have completed at least three years of program. Only those students who will return to their studies upon completion of their internship assignments are eligible. •= Demonstrated interest in the field of development. •= Written and spoken proficiency in at least two of the three working languages used by UNDP: English, French and Spanish. Fluency in Arabic, Portuguese, Russian or Eastern European language is an asset. •= An interest in global mobility. 49 •= Adaptability to various physical and other environments. •= A desire to work with, and gain the confidence and respect of, people with different language, national and cultural backgrounds. •= Willingness to change posts, facility to adapt to new environments, and the desire to work in an international cultural environment. Areas of study in a development related field is the following: •= economics Like the Secretariat programme, the UNDP Internship Programme operates on a nonremunerative basis. The costs connected with an intern's participation in the Programme must be borne by the student, who will have to obtain financing for subsistence and make his or her own arrangements for travel, accommodation, health insurance etc.; or by the nominating institution, related institution or government, which may provide the required financial assistance to its students. The purpose of the Internship Programme has no direct connection to further employment with UNDP but, as mentioned, to complement an intern's studies and to provide the opportunity to learn more about the organisation. However, this does not mean that the student, once having completed his/her studies, cannot be selected for a permanent or temporary post. It is interesting to note that around 10-15% of interns, having completed their studies and met the necessary requirements, have gone on to participate in other UNDP programmes such as the Junior Professional Officer programme and the Management Training Programme. The Application Selection for Internships is fully decentralized within UNDP. Applicants interested in an internship should forward their application directly to the bureau/country office of interest. The application package should be presented three months before the desired starting date of the internship. The following documents should be included in the application package: •= the UNDP application form •= a detailed curriculum vitae •= a cover letter that explains the reasons for which the candidate wishes to participate in such an internship and his/her future career plan. 50 The Junior Professional Officer Programme (JPO) represents a working opportunity for young professionals with a limited experience. Similar to the Associate Expert Programme managed by the Secretariat, it gives graduates pursuing a career in development with an experience and on-the-job training in the field of technical operation. It is a multilateral programme, in that it involves several donor countries that sponsor national candidates, through the United Nations body. Some governments also fund candidates coming from developing countries. JPOs are directly involved in development and management of UNDP supportprogrammes. After an intensive pre-service training in New York and a period of on-the-job training, they are expected to assume considerable responsibilities, under the supervision of a senior staff member, either national or international at the country office level. The nature of the assignment can vary considerably: •= building-up and negotiating the UNDP country programme with government authorities, collaborating with representatives of bilateral assistance agencies and specialised UN organisations; •= preparing documents required for the implementation of the country programme, including project descriptions, objectives, work plans, and budgets; •= monitoring project activities, conducting field visits and preparing progress reports; •= up-dating economic and social data and analysis, as well as information on all other development activities in the country; •= contacting UNDP Headquarters, other UN agencies and government authorities. Structure of the Programme Every year UNDP recruits nearly 150 JPOs. Approximately 100 are employed in the agencies and programmes administered by UNDP, such as UNFPA, UNIFEM, UNIDO, and UNV. The remaining 250 serve with UNDP. Nevertheless the overall number varies, depending on donor governments’ policies and on their budget constraints. The JPO, like the AE, is completely sponsored by the government of his or her country. Recipient countries supply no financial resources. As a consequence, any constraint in development co-operation funds has repercussions on the number of available assignments. The JPO Programme is a means of development aid that a government decides to grant to developing countries through a multilateral organization. The constant concern is to match donor countries’ policies with the requirements of UNDP programs. UNDP is, by its nature, a politically neutral organization. Nineteen countries participate in the programme, some of which include Australia, Canada, Japan, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. Qualifications and Personal Features: The aim of the programme is to supply young professionals with a field experience in development co-operation, in the activities carried out by UNDP. The qualifications below are required for being eligible for selection: •= Master level degree in economics, business or public administration, development studies, anthropology or any other development oriented discipline. A general background combined with a technical specialisation is also appreciated. •= knowledge of two out of three working languages of the UNDP, which are English, French, and Spanish (spoke and written). Knowledge of Arabic, Portuguese or Russian is an asset. •= one to two years of working experience. A development-oriented employment history, or previous experience in development is desirable. •= ability to think strategically, to exercise sound judgement, to express oneself clearly and simply; to have personal security, cross-cultural gender sensitivity and deep commitment in development work. •= availability to move everywhere, since the nature of the assignment is to work in the field. •= capacity to adapt oneself to various situations and different environments. Training and Future Opportunities Besides continuous on-the-job training under the supervision of a senior staff member, JPOs are given two other formal training opportunities: •= three week course in New York, before reaching the duty station, in order to introduce the JPO on the structure and the operating procedures of the UNDP. •= language and computer course, organised by the national office of the country of destination. The experience as a JPO can be the first step of the career in UN or the UNDP, but it is clear that there is no commitment from the UNDP to from the national government to hire former JPO into the system. Upon completion of the programme, a former JPO can attend the national competitive exam, should he or she want to start a career in the Secretariat. Or, should the JPO aim at entering the UNDP, and if performance during the JPO service years is satisfactory, he or she can apply to the Management Training Programme. 52 Management Training Programme Intended for a selected number of candidates, MTP is the first step on the UNDP career path. The highest position is the one of the Resident Representative, who is responsible for UNDP development programmes in one country. Resident Representatives are often delegated by the Secretary General with the co-ordination of all United Nations activities in the same duty station. Structure The number of participants varies according to anticipated vacancies and financial considerations. In any case, no more than 20 or 25 people take part in the programme each year. It is a very attractive experience, not only due to the small number of selected participants, but also because of the course content. MTP provides five weeks of seminars, group discussions, case studies and lectures; al designed to introduce the participants to: •= the UNDP’s approach to development issues; •= an overview on the organisation structure, and on the relationships between programme, personnel and financial management; •= the necessary skills for managing country offices programmes; •= development of monitoring, supervisory and interpersonal skills. After the training sessions, candidates are assigned to a country office, with the task of assisting field managers in managing UNDP country programmes. Assignments are usually for four years, followed by rotation to other country offices or to Headquarters. Keeping in mind the competitive nature of the programme and the fact that recruitment is virtually held world-wide, the qualifications for selection are: •= MA or equivalent in development related disciplines, such as economics, business administration, sociology, political sciences, engineering, trade, finance and industry. •= excellent knowledge (written and spoken) of at least two of the three working languages of the UNDP, that are English, French and Spanish. Knowledge of Arabic, Portuguese and Eastern European languages is consider an asset. •= development oriented employment history, preferably with experience on the field, showing a progress to major responsibilities, high productivity and potential for managerial and leadership positions. •= ability to express sound judgement, to give valid opinions, to interact positively with the others, to be convincing and cogent, to have listening, presentation, and marketing skills. 53 •= sensitivity to appreciate cultural differences. •= an interest in global mobility. •= a good balance between personal and professional interests. Application People interested in applying for Management Training Programme should complete a UNDP application form. This can be obtained from the Division of Personnel at New York Headquarters, or from any local office of the agency. The candidate must also enclose a brief statement including the following: •= why he/she is interested in joining the UNDP •= what contribution he/she feel that he/she can make •= how do his/her qualifications meet the requirements •= his/her particular areas of interest Application form and enclosures must be sent to: Management Training Programme USA A certain number of top applicants are selected for a process of competitive interviews, held from February to June of each year. The five-week training course starts by the beginning of August. As mentioned above, the number of participants depends on the personnel policies and the financial considerations of the agency. 3.3 Opportunities in the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Introduction UNICEF works in 161 countries, areas and territories on solutions to the problems plaguing poor children and their families and on ways to realise their rights. Its activities are as varied and include for example: helping prevent childhood illness and death, making pregnancy and childbirth safe, combating discrimination and co-operating with communities to ensure that girls as well as boys attend school. 54 Since its creation at the end of World War II to relieve the suffering of children in Europe, UNICEF has responded rapidly in crises, helped recreate a sense of stability and normalcy, reopened schools and established safe spaces for children when armed conflict and war, flood and other disruptions occur. UNICEF brings ideas, resources, strategies and support to bear when and where they are needed most. Some examples include: supporting National Immunisation Days in the global effort to eradicate polio, encouraging young people to prepare for and participate in issues affecting them or helping them resist the onslaught of HIV/AIDS. Mission: •= is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential. •= strives to establish children's rights as enduring ethical principles and international standards of behaviour towards children. •= insists that the survival, protection and development of children are universal development imperatives that are integral to human progress. •= mobilises political will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing. •= ensures a "first call for children" and to build their capacity to form appropriate policies and deliver services for children and their families. •= is committed to ensuring special protection for the most disadvantaged children - victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation and those with disabilities. •= aims, through its country programs, to promote the equal rights of women and girls and to support their full participation in the political, social, and economic development of their communities. •= works with all its partners towards the attainment of the sustainable human development goals adopted by the world community and the realisation of the vision of peace and social progress described in the Charter of the United Nations. 55 To be considered for an internship in UNICEF, the applicant must: •= be currently enrolled graduate or post-graduate student in a field related to international or social development, child survival or development, or management during the proposed internship period. •= be fluent in at least one of UNICEF's working languages- English, French or Spanish. The applicant’s academic performance should be excellent, as demonstrated by recent university or institution records. The application for an internship should be supported by a sponsoring university, related institution or government. A minimum requirement is a letter from a professor supporting the application. Additional consideration will be given for any past work experiences. Specific interests or requirements for a university course should be included on the application form. Most interns work on a project or several projects which will benefit both them and UNICEF, such as limited research or studies and creating or improving databases or Web sites. Interns are accepted for a minimum period of 6 weeks and a maximum of 16 weeks. The period will often coincide with an academic semester or the summer vacation. UNICEF does not provide financial support for interns. All successful applicants are expected to make their own arrangements for travel, lodging and living expenses during the internship period. While most of the internships are full time, Sometimes there are projects that can be done on a part-time basis. For all New York internships, the application should reach the office by the deadlines below: •= November 1st for the period between January to May •= April 1st for June to August •= August 1st for September to December If UNICEF does not contact you within nine weeks of the above deadlines, the applicant may assume that there is no suitable opening available. For internships in offices other than New York, applications are accepted on an ongoing basis. The applicant will need to complete the following paperwork: •= an application form •= a United Nations Personal History Form •= a statement indicating terms of support from his/her university/institution/government (if such support is received). •= a copy of an up-to-date university transcript or equivalent institutional record. 56 •= two letters of recommendation, one of which should be from a college professor. For internships outside of New York, applications should be sent directly to the head of the office concerned. The Head of Office has the authority to accept qualified interns. However, applicants should be aware that many of the offices do not provide internships on a regular basis since they are often working in conditions, which do not allow for the possibility for the effective supervision of an intern. The following principal rules should be considered before completing an application package: •= The UNICEF internship programme is not connected with employment. Interns cannot apply for posts advertised internally to UNICEF staff during the period of internship. •= No papers or reports may be published based on information obtained from UNICEF during the internship without the explicit written authorisation by the Head of Office or Division Director. •= UNICEF's Internship Programme is independent of the United Nations. Junior Professional Programme The Junior Professional Officer programme comprises a special category of staff members who are young professionals, interested in acquiring experience in the development field. These staff members are sponsored by donor governments to specific positions within the organisation. The Governments of the following countries participate in this programme: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. The criteria for admission into the JPO programme include: •= citizenship of the respective country •= between 28 and 32 years of age •= graduate degree (Master's level) •= fluency in written and spoken English and one other UN language, i.e. Arabic, Chinese, French, Spanish or Russian Interested applicants are invited to submit their curriculum vitae to their respective Ministry of Foreign Affairs, or other competent offices, which reviews the applications and makes its recommendations. 3.4 United Nations Volunteers (UNV) Introduction The United Nations Volunteers programme (UNV) was created by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1970 to serve as an operational partner in development co-operation at the request of UN member states. It reports to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and works through UNDP's country offices around the world. There are about 4,000 qualified and experienced women and men of over 140 nationalities annually serving in developing countries as volunteer specialists and field workers. Since 1971, more than 20,000 UN Volunteers from some 150 developing and industrialised nations have worked in about 140 countries. Currently, 70 percent are citizens of developing countries while 30 per cent come from the industrialised world. They work in technical, economic and social fields, under four main headings: in technical cooperation with developing countries; with community-based initiatives for self-reliance; in humanitarian relief and rehabilitation; and in support of human rights, electoral and peacebuilding processes. The UNV programme involves a wide spread of sectors: it maintains a roster covering some 110 professional categories. Agriculture, health and education feature prominently, as do social conditions, community development, vocational training, industry, transport and population and information technology. UN Volunteers can be recruited under different categories. International Volunteers serve in a country other than their own whereas National Volunteers serve in their own country. Since UNV specialises in recruiting volunteers for developing countries, nationals from industrialised countries can only apply for international UNV specialist posts or UNISTAR assignments. International UNV specialists serve in a country other than their own and are recruited for practical and specialised inputs to development or humanitarian programmes. International UNV specialists usually hold a university degree or a higher diploma and have extensive professional experience. Their contracts are usually for two years. However, assignments for international UNV specialists in humanitarian relief, peace-building, electoral work or human rights can vary from a few months to a year or more. International UNV field workers also serve in a country other than their own but come from the same continent. International UNV field workers normally have a technical diploma and several years of experience with grass-roots groups or organisations in their own country. Their contracts are usually for two years. National UNV specialists serve in their own country. They have formal qualifications and experience in working with local governments, community-based organisations (CBOs) and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs). National UNV specialists support national capacity building initiatives, facilitate networking and exchange. Their contracts vary between one and two years. National UNV field workers also serve in their own country. They often hold a vocational diploma and have experience in supporting self-help groups. National UNV field workers assist in building capacities of local community organisations and extend support to grassroots initiatives. Their contracts are usually for two years. Two other categories of UN Volunteers’ contributions in building national capacity are: •= UNISTAR volunteers (United Nations International Short-Term Advisory Resources)- international executives and technical experts who offer their know-how to support private and public sector entrepreneurship in developing countries. Their contracts vary from one week to three months. •= TOKTEN volunteers (Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals)- professionals living outside their homeland who return there for short periods to assist academic, research, public or industrial bodies. Their contracts vary from one week to three months. To apply as international UNV specialist, you should fulfil the following requirements: •= Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, doctorate or higher technical diplomas; several years of relevant working experience, preferably a minimum of five years; •= at least 25 years of age (there is no upper age limit); •= a good working knowledge of at least one of the following languages: Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish; •= an ability to work in partnership and to adjust to difficult living conditions. Professions: In order to quickly respond to the requests for Volunteers, UNV maintains a resource bank of available candidates who have relevant experience to work in the above sectors. In order to develop this resource bank in accordance with the demand for UN Volunteers, UNV is currently inviting applications in the professions listed below: Professions in demand for international UNV specialists: bio-diversity management specialists, business managers, civic education specialists, peace promotion specialists, culture conservation specialists, database specialists, drug abuse rehabilitation specialists, eco-tourism developers/promoters, energy and conservation specialists, ENT specialists, environment lawyers, environmental coastal zone specialists, epidemiologists, forest conservation specialists, heritage project co-ordinators, HIV/AIDS home-care specialists, information communication technology specialists, labour economists, local resource management specialists, low-cost 59 housing specialists, medium-scale industry specialists, micro-credit specialists, micro-project management specialists, monitoring and evaluation specialists, network/Internet specialists, obstetricians, ophthalmologists, orthopaedic technicians, paediatricians, photo interpretation specialists, planners (land use, industrial, urban, rural), public accountants. pulmonologists, socio-economic planners, soil surveyors, specialists in income generation for disabled, waste management specialists, water ecologists, wildlife planning/conservation specialists. International UNV specialists are unsalaried professionals who in return for their services receive the following entitlements: •= settling-in Grant calculated on the duration of assignment; includes provision for temporary accommodation; •= Volunteer Living Allowance (VLA) to cover basic needs including housing and utilities. The VLA ranges from US$ 1,000 to US$ 2,700, depending on the country of assignment and the number of dependants of the UNV specialist; •= International travel (on appointment and at the end of assignment); •= Life, health and permanent disability insurance; •= Annual leave at a rate of two and a half working days a month; •= Resettlement allowance of $100 per month of service. Contact Information: Chapter 4: How to Obtain Information 4.1 Job Announcements in Newspapers and Magazines For those interested in international careers, job announcements can also be found in newspapers and magazines. The following is a list of some international publications, which the UN and other international organisations occasionally use to advertise some of their vacancies: Europe: Austria- Der Standard, Die Presse Belgium- Le Soir, De Standaard Denmark-Berlingske Tidende, Jyllandsposten France- Le Figaro, Le Monde Germany- Frankfurter Allgemaine Zeitung, Die Zeit Greece- Ta Nea, Elefteros Typos Ireland- Irish Times, Irish Independent Italy- La Repubblica, Il Corriere della Sera, Il Sole 24 ORE Holland- NRC Handelsblad, De Volkskrant Portugal- Expresso, Publico United Kingdom-The Guardian, The Times America: The Economist, Financial Times Asia: The Far Eastern, Economist Review Africa: Jeune Afrique A complete international newspaper listing, including web site information, can be found at the following web site: www.intenationale.it.giornali.giornali.html. 4.2- Using the Internet Appendix 2: List of Acronyms ACC Administrative Committee on Co-ordination DESA Department for Economic and Social Affairs DM Department of Management DPI Department of Public Information DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations DPA Department of Political Affairs ECA Economic Commission for Europe ECE Economic Commission for Europe ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean ECOSOC Economic and Social Council ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and trade IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation ICJ International Court of Justice ICSC International Civil Service Commission IDA International Development Association IFAD International Fund for Agriculture Development IFC International Finance Corporation INSTRAW International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women ITC International Trade Centre OCHA Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services OLA Office of Legal Affairs OSG Office of the Secretary General UNCHR United Nations Commission on Human Rights UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) UNCRD United Nations Centre for Regional Development UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDCP United Nations International Drug Control Programme UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNFPA United Nations Populations Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research 73 UNOG United Nations Office at Geneva UNOV United Nations Office at Vienna UNRWA United Nations Relief and Work Agency For Palestine Refugees in the Near East •= List of the degree(s) and major area of study •= Indication of the date, name of the institution, and location where the degree was obtained Summary of Professional skills and expertise •= Field of expertise (i.e. finance, human resources, audit, procurement •= Credentials or professional training relevant to expertise (i.e. CPA) •= Computer skills (both hardware and software) Summary of Relevant Work Experience •= An overview of work history in reverse chronological order. •= Dates, title, employer, type of business, location, area of work, and major accomplishments •= Salary history •= Any management experience including specific achievements Publications •= List of publications, if any, which should not exceed four. 75 •= Other languages indicate written and verbal proficiency (fluent/full, working knowledge, minimal working knowledge) •= referees (with complete addresses) who are in a position to provide information on your professional achievements. •= indication of any restrictions that should be taken into account in connection with employment with the United Nations •= The following statement must be included in the resume and must be dated: I CERTIFY THAT AL INFORMATION STATED IN THIS RESUME IS TRUE AND COMPLETE TO THE BEST OF MY KNOWLEDGE. I AUTHORIZE THE UNITED NATIONS TO VERIFY THE INFORMATION PROVIDED IN THIS RESUME. Notes •= The application should only be sent to the addressee on the vacancy announcement. •= The hard copy of the evaluation should be sent through postal service. •= If the application is sent electronically (via e-mail), it must be sent as a WordPerfect, Microsoft Word or ASCI file. •= A complete application package should be sent for each vacancy announcement •= Plain white paper without any shading or lines in the printout and clearly legible font (Arial/ Times New Roman) should be used •= The resume should be limited to three to four pages. 76 Baldi, Stefano, and Antonio Enrico Bartoli. Carriere Internazionali. Milano: Il Sole 24 Ore Media e Impresa S.p.A., 2000. Candotti, Laura, ed. Una carriera nelle Nazioni Unite. Milano:Edizioni Giuridiche Economiche Aziendali dell'Università Bocconi e Giuffrè Editori S.p.A., 1995. Childers Erskine, and Brian Urquhart. Renewing the United Nations System. Uppsa Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, 1994. General Assembly, Report of the Secretay General. Reforme de l’organisation de Nations Unies: mesures et propositions, Projet du Budget-programme pour l’exercise biennal 1998-1999. 52nd session, September, 11th, 1997. A/52/303 General Assembly, Report of the Secretary General , Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly. February 13, 1998. A/RES/52/220 New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs. United Nations Handbook 1999. Wellington: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1999. United Nations, DESA (formally DDSMS). Handbook for Associate Experts. New York,1993. United Nations, DESA(formally DDSMS). National Recruitment Services and UN Organisations AE/JPO/APO Schemes Turin 5-6 December 1996. New York, 1997. United Nations, DESA/DPEPA, Meeting of National Recruitment Services and UN Organisations on the Associate Experts/JPOs/APOs Schemes- Final Report. The Hague 23-25 February 1999. New York, 1999. United Nations, OHRM, Employment Opportunities with the United Nations. New York,1995 United Nations, OHRM, Employment Opportunities with the United Nations Secretariat. New York,1999. United Nations, Secretariat, A Concise Guide to the Functions and the Organisation of the Secretariat-Introduction. August 8th ,1996. Web Sites
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Of the eight British kings called Henry, which one had the longest reign?
m22303661_IHL-FAQ Answers to your Questions   Founded by five Swiss citizens in 1863 (Henry Dunant,Guillaume-Henri Dufour, Gustave Moynier, Louis Appia andThéodoreMaunoir), the ICRC is the founding member of theInternational Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.•It is an impartial, neutral and independent humanitarian institution.•It was born of war over 130 years ago.•It is an organization like no other.•Its mandate was handed down by the international community.•It acts as a neutral intermediary between belligerents.• As the promoter and guardian of international humanitarian law,it strives to protect and assist the victims of armed conflicts,internal disturbances and other situations of internal violence.The ICRC is active in about 80 countries and has some 11,000staff members (2003). The ICRC and the Movement The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and theNational Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, together with theInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies(the Federation), combine to form the International Red Crossand Red Crescent Movement (the Movement). As a rule,representatives of those organizations meet every four years withrepresentatives of the States party to the Geneva Conventions at an International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent. Basis for ICRC action During international armed conflicts, the ICRC bases its work onthe four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Additional Protocol Iof 1977 (see Q4). Those treaties lay down the ICRC’s right tocarry out certain activities such as bringing relief to wounded,sick or shipwrecked military personnel, visiting prisoners of war,aiding civilians and, in general terms, ensuring that thoseprotected by humanitarian law are treated accordingly.During non-international armed conflicts, the ICRC bases its workon Article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol II (see Index  ). Article 3 also recognizes theICRC’s right to offer its services to the warring parties with a viewto engaging in relief action and visiting people detained inconnection with the conflict.In violent situations not amounting to an armed conflict (internaldisturbances and other situations of internal violence), the ICRCbases its work on Article 5 of the Movement’s Statutes, whichsets out among other things the ICRC’s right of humanitarianinitiative. That right may also be invoked in international andnon-international armed conflicts. All these articles and laws together form the mandate given to theICRC by the international community, i.e. by the States.  THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS (ICRC) International Committee of the Red Cross19 Avenue de la Paix1202 Geneva, Switzerland T
i don't know
Which Greek mathematician is best remembered for his formulation of a hydrostatic principle?
Archimedes | Greek mathematician | Britannica.com Greek mathematician Henri Poincaré Archimedes, (born c. 287 bce, Syracuse, Sicily [Italy]—died 212/211 bce, Syracuse), the most-famous mathematician and inventor in ancient Greece . Archimedes is especially important for his discovery of the relation between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder . He is known for his formulation of a hydrostatic principle (known as Archimedes’ principle ) and a device for raising water, still used in developing countries, known as the Archimedes screw . Archimedes, oil on canvas by Giuseppe Nogari, 18th century; in the Pushkin Fine Arts Museum, Moscow. © Fine Art Images/age fotostock His life Archimedes probably spent some time in Egypt early in his career, but he resided for most of his life in Syracuse , the principal Greek city-state in Sicily, where he was on intimate terms with its king, Hieron II . Archimedes published his works in the form of correspondence with the principal mathematicians of his time, including the Alexandrian scholars Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene . He played an important role in the defense of Syracuse against the siege laid by the Romans in 213 bce by constructing war machines so effective that they long delayed the capture of the city. When Syracuse eventually fell to the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus in the autumn of 212 or spring of 211 bce, Archimedes was killed in the sack of the city. Far more details survive about the life of Archimedes than about any other ancient scientist, but they are largely anecdotal , reflecting the impression that his mechanical genius made on the popular imagination. Thus, he is credited with inventing the Archimedes screw, and he is supposed to have made two “spheres” that Marcellus took back to Rome—one a star globe and the other a device (the details of which are uncertain) for mechanically representing the motions of the Sun , the Moon , and the planets . The story that he determined the proportion of gold and silver in a wreath made for Hieron by weighing it in water is probably true, but the version that has him leaping from the bath in which he supposedly got the idea and running naked through the streets shouting “Heurēka!” (“I have found it!”) is popular embellishment. Equally apocryphal are the stories that he used a huge array of mirrors to burn the Roman ships besieging Syracuse; that he said, “Give me a place to stand and I will move the Earth”; and that a Roman soldier killed him because he refused to leave his mathematical diagrams—although all are popular reflections of his real interest in catoptrics (the branch of optics dealing with the reflection of light from mirrors, plane or curved), mechanics , and pure mathematics . An animation of Archimedes screw. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cheetahs Face Extinction Risk According to Plutarch (c. 46–119 ce), Archimedes had so low an opinion of the kind of practical invention at which he excelled and to which he owed his contemporary fame that he left no written work on such subjects. While it is true that—apart from a dubious reference to a treatise , “On Sphere-Making”—all of his known works were of a theoretical character, his interest in mechanics nevertheless deeply influenced his mathematical thinking. Not only did he write works on theoretical mechanics and hydrostatics, but his treatise Method Concerning Mechanical Theorems shows that he used mechanical reasoning as a heuristic device for the discovery of new mathematical theorems. His works There are nine extant treatises by Archimedes in Greek. The principal results in On the Sphere and Cylinder (in two books) are that the surface area of any sphere of radius r is four times that of its greatest circle (in modern notation, S = 4πr2) and that the volume of a sphere is two-thirds that of the cylinder in which it is inscribed (leading immediately to the formula for the volume, V = 4/3πr3). Archimedes was proud enough of the latter discovery to leave instructions for his tomb to be marked with a sphere inscribed in a cylinder. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 bce) found the tomb, overgrown with vegetation, a century and a half after Archimedes’ death. Sphere with circumscribing cylinder Numbers and Mathematics Measurement of the Circle is a fragment of a longer work in which π ( pi ), the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle, is shown to lie between the limits of 3 10/71 and 3 1/7. Archimedes’ approach to determining π, which consists of inscribing and circumscribing regular polygons with a large number of sides, was followed by everyone until the development of infinite series expansions in India during the 15th century and in Europe during the 17th century. That work also contains accurate approximations (expressed as ratios of integers) to the square roots of 3 and several large numbers. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies On Conoids and Spheroids deals with determining the volumes of the segments of solids formed by the revolution of a conic section (circle, ellipse, parabola , or hyperbola) about its axis. In modern terms, those are problems of integration . (See calculus .) On Spirals develops many properties of tangents to, and areas associated with, the spiral of Archimedes —i.e., the locus of a point moving with uniform speed along a straight line that itself is rotating with uniform speed about a fixed point. It was one of only a few curves beyond the straight line and the conic sections known in antiquity. On the Equilibrium of Planes (or Centres of Gravity of Planes; in two books) is mainly concerned with establishing the centres of gravity of various rectilinear plane figures and segments of the parabola and the paraboloid . The first book purports to establish the “law of the lever ” (magnitudes balance at distances from the fulcrum in inverse ratio to their weights), and it is mainly on the basis of that treatise that Archimedes has been called the founder of theoretical mechanics. Much of that book, however, is undoubtedly not authentic, consisting as it does of inept later additions or reworkings, and it seems likely that the basic principle of the law of the lever and—possibly—the concept of the centre of gravity were established on a mathematical basis by scholars earlier than Archimedes. His contribution was rather to extend those concepts to conic sections. Quadrature of the Parabola demonstrates, first by “mechanical” means (as in Method, discussed below) and then by conventional geometric methods, that the area of any segment of a parabola is 4/3 of the area of the triangle having the same base and height as that segment. That is, again, a problem in integration. The Sand-Reckoner is a small treatise that is a jeu d’esprit written for the layman—it is addressed to Gelon, son of Hieron—that nevertheless contains some profoundly original mathematics. Its object is to remedy the inadequacies of the Greek numerical notation system by showing how to express a huge number—the number of grains of sand that it would take to fill the whole of the universe. What Archimedes does, in effect, is to create a place-value system of notation, with a base of 100,000,000. (That was apparently a completely original idea, since he had no knowledge of the contemporary Babylonian place-value system with base 60.) The work is also of interest because it gives the most detailed surviving description of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310–230 bce) and because it contains an account of an ingenious procedure that Archimedes used to determine the Sun’s apparent diameter by observation with an instrument. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Method Concerning Mechanical Theorems describes a process of discovery in mathematics. It is the sole surviving work from antiquity, and one of the few from any period, that deals with this topic. In it Archimedes recounts how he used a “mechanical” method to arrive at some of his key discoveries, including the area of a parabolic segment and the surface area and volume of a sphere. The technique consists of dividing each of two figures into an infinite but equal number of infinitesimally thin strips, then “weighing” each corresponding pair of these strips against each other on a notional balance to obtain the ratio of the two original figures. Archimedes emphasizes that, though useful as a heuristic method, this procedure does not constitute a rigorous proof. On Floating Bodies (in two books) survives only partly in Greek, the rest in medieval Latin translation from the Greek. It is the first known work on hydrostatics , of which Archimedes is recognized as the founder. Its purpose is to determine the positions that various solids will assume when floating in a fluid, according to their form and the variation in their specific gravities . In the first book various general principles are established, notably what has come to be known as Archimedes’ principle : a solid denser than a fluid will, when immersed in that fluid, be lighter by the weight of the fluid it displaces. The second book is a mathematical tour de force unmatched in antiquity and rarely equaled since. In it Archimedes determines the different positions of stability that a right paraboloid of revolution assumes when floating in a fluid of greater specific gravity, according to geometric and hydrostatic variations. Trending Topics Opium Wars Archimedes is known, from references of later authors, to have written a number of other works that have not survived. Of particular interest are treatises on catoptrics, in which he discussed, among other things, the phenomenon of refraction ; on the 13 semiregular (Archimedean) polyhedra (those bodies bounded by regular polygons, not necessarily all of the same type, that can be inscribed in a sphere); and the “ Cattle Problem” (preserved in a Greek epigram), which poses a problem in indeterminate analysis, with eight unknowns. In addition to those, there survive several works in Arabic translation ascribed to Archimedes that cannot have been composed by him in their present form, although they may contain “Archimedean” elements. Those include a work on inscribing the regular heptagon in a circle; a collection of lemmas (propositions assumed to be true that are used to prove a theorem) and a book, On Touching Circles, both having to do with elementary plane geometry; and the Stomachion (parts of which also survive in Greek), dealing with a square divided into 14 pieces for a game or puzzle. Archimedes’ mathematical proofs and presentation exhibit great boldness and originality of thought on the one hand and extreme rigour on the other, meeting the highest standards of contemporary geometry . While the Method shows that he arrived at the formulas for the surface area and volume of a sphere by “mechanical” reasoning involving infinitesimals , in his actual proofs of the results in Sphere and Cylinder he uses only the rigorous methods of successive finite approximation that had been invented by Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century bce. These methods, of which Archimedes was a master, are the standard procedure in all his works on higher geometry that deal with proving results about areas and volumes. Their mathematical rigour stands in strong contrast to the “proofs” of the first practitioners of integral calculus in the 17th century, when infinitesimals were reintroduced into mathematics. Yet Archimedes’ results are no less impressive than theirs. The same freedom from conventional ways of thinking is apparent in the arithmetical field in Sand-Reckoner, which shows a deep understanding of the nature of the numerical system. In antiquity Archimedes was also known as an outstanding astronomer: his observations of solstices were used by Hipparchus (flourished c. 140 bce), the foremost ancient astronomer. Very little is known of this side of Archimedes’ activity, although Sand-Reckoner reveals his keen astronomical interest and practical observational ability. There has, however, been handed down a set of numbers attributed to him giving the distances of the various heavenly bodies from Earth , which has been shown to be based not on observed astronomical data but on a “Pythagorean” theory associating the spatial intervals between the planets with musical intervals. Surprising though it is to find those metaphysical speculations in the work of a practicing astronomer, there is good reason to believe that their attribution to Archimedes is correct. His influence Given the magnitude and originality of Archimedes’ achievement, the influence of his mathematics in antiquity was rather small. Those of his results that could be simply expressed—such as the formulas for the surface area and volume of a sphere—became mathematical commonplaces, and one of the bounds he established for π, 22/7, was adopted as the usual approximation to it in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, his mathematical work was not continued or developed, as far as is known, in any important way in ancient times, despite his hope expressed in Method that its publication would enable others to make new discoveries. However, when some of his treatises were translated into Arabic in the late 8th or 9th century, several mathematicians of medieval Islam were inspired to equal or improve on his achievements. That holds particularly in the determination of the volumes of solids of revolution, but his influence is also evident in the determination of centres of gravity and in geometric construction problems. Thus, several meritorious works by medieval Islamic mathematicians were inspired by their study of Archimedes. The greatest impact of Archimedes’ work on later mathematicians came in the 16th and 17th centuries with the printing of texts derived from the Greek, and eventually of the Greek text itself, the Editio Princeps, in Basel in 1544. The Latin translation of many of Archimedes’ works by Federico Commandino in 1558 contributed greatly to the spread of knowledge of them, which was reflected in the work of the foremost mathematicians and physicists of the time, including Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). David Rivault’s edition and Latin translation (1615) of the complete works, including the ancient commentaries, was enormously influential in the work of some of the best mathematicians of the 17th century, notably René Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–65). Without the background of the rediscovered ancient mathematicians, among whom Archimedes was paramount, the development of mathematics in Europe in the century between 1550 and 1650 is inconceivable. It is unfortunate that Method remained unknown to both Arabic and Renaissance mathematicians (it was only rediscovered in the late 19th century), for they might have fulfilled Archimedes’ hope that the work would prove useful in the discovery of theorems.
Archimedes
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Archimedes facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Archimedes (b. Syracuse, ca. 287 b.c.; d. Syracuse, 212 b.c.) mathematics, mechanics. Few details remain of the life of antiquity’s most celebrated mathematician. A biography by his friend Heracleides has not survived. That his father was the astronomer Phidias we know from Archimedes himself in his The Sandreckoner (Sect. I.9). Archimedes was perhaps a kinsman of the ruler of Syracuse, King Hieron II (as Plutarch and Polybius suggest). At least he was on intimate terms with Hieron, to whose son Gelon he dedicated The Sandreckoner. Archimedes almost certainly visited Alexandria, where no doubt he studied with the successors of Euclid and played an important role in the further development of Euclidian mathematics. This visit is rendered almost certain by his custom of addressing his mathematical discoveries to mathematicians who are known to have lived in Alexandria, such as Conon, Dositheus, and Eratosthenes. At any rate Archimedes returned to Syracuse, composed most of his works there, and died there during its capture by the Romans in 212 b.c. Archimedes’ approximate birth date of 287 b.c. is conjectured on the basis of a remark by the Byzantine poet and historian of the twelfth century, John Tzetzes, who declared (Chiliad 2, hist. 35) that Archimedes “worked at geometry until old age, surviving seventy-five years.” There are picturesque accounts of Archimedes’ death by Livy, Plutarch, Valerius Maximus, and Tzetzes, which vary in detail but agree that he was killed by a Roman soldier. In most accounts he is pictured as being engaged in mathematics at the time of his death. Plutarch tells us (Marcellus, Ch. XVII) that Archimedes “is said to have asked his friends and kinsmen to place on his grave after his death a cylinder circumscribing a sphere, with an inscription giving the ratio by which the including solid exceeds the included.” And indeed Cicero (see Tusculan Disputations, V, xxiii, 64–66), when he was Quaestor in Sicily in 75 b.c., ...tracked out his grave.... and found it enclosed all around and covered with brambles and thickets; for I remembered certain doggerel lines inscribed, as I had heard, upon his tomb, which stated that a sphere along with a cylinder had been put upon the top of his grave. Accordingly, after taking a good look all around (for there are a great quantity of graves at the Agrigentine Gate), I noticed a small column arising a little above the bushes, on which there was the figure of a sphere and a cylinder.... Slaves were sent in with sickles... and when a passage to the place was opened we approached the pedestal in front of us; the epigram was traceable with about half of the lines legible, as the latter portion was worn away. No surviving bust can be certainly identified as being of Archimedes, although a portrait on a Sicilian coin (whatever its date) is definitely his. A well-known mosaic showing Archimedes before a calculating board with a Roman soldier standing over him was once thought to be a genuine survival from Herculaneum but is now considered to be of Renaissance origin. Mechanical Inventions . While Archimedes’ place in the history of science rests on a remarkable collection of mathematical works, his reputation in antiquity was also founded upon a series of mechanical contrivances which he is supposed to have invented and which the researches of A.G. Drachmann tend in part to confirm as Archimedean inventions. One of these is the water snail, a screwlike device to raise water for the purpose of irrigation, which, Diodorus Siculus tells us (Bibl. hist., V, Ch.37), Archimedes invented in Egypt. We are further told by Atheneus that an endless screw invented by Archimedes was used to launch a ship. He is also credited with the invention of the compound pulley. Some such device is the object of the story told by Plutarch in his life of Marcellus (Ch. XIV). When asked by Hieron to show him how a great weight could be moved by a small force, Archimedes “fixed upon a three-masted merchantman of the royal fleet, which had been dragged ashore by the great labors of many men, and after putting on board many passengers and the customary freight, he seated himself at a distance from her, and without any great effort, but quietly setting in motion a system of compound pulleys, drew her towards him smoothly and evenly, as though she were gliding through the water.” It is in connection with this story that Plutarch tells us of the supposed remark of Archimedes to the effect that “if there were another world, and he could go to it, he could move this one,” a remark known in more familiar form from Pappus of Alexandria (Collectio, Bk. VIII, Prop. 11): “Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the earth. “Of doubtful authenticity is the oft-quoted story told by Vitruvius (De architectura, Bk. IX, Ch. 3) that Hieron wished Archimedes to check whether a certain crown or wreath was of pure gold, or whether the goldsmith had fraudulently alloyed it with some silver. While Archimedes was turning the problem over, he chanced to come to the place of bathing, and there, as he was sitting down in the tub, he noticed that the amount of water which flowed over by the tub was equal to the amount by which his body was immersed. This indicated to him a method of solving the problem, and he did not delay, but in his joy leapt out of the tub, and, rushing naked towards his home, he cried out in a loud voice that he had found what he sought, for as he ran he repeatedly shouted in Greek, heurēka, heurēka. Much more generally credited is the assertion of Pappus that Archimedes wrote a book On Spheremaking, a work which presumably told how to construct a model planetarium representing the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and planets, and perhaps also a closed star globe representing the constellations. At least, we are told by Cicero (De re publica, I, XIV, 21–22) that Marcellus took as booty from the sack of Syracuse both types of instruments constructed by Archimedes: For Gallus told us that the other kind of celestial globe [that Marcellus brought back and placed in the Temple of Virtue], which was solid and contained no hollow space, was a very early invention, the first one of that kind having been constructed by Thales of Miletus, and later marked by Eudoxus of Cnidus... with the constellations and stars which are fixed in the sky.... But this newer kind of globe, he said, on which were delineated the motions of the sun and moon and of those five stars which are called the wanderers... contained more than could be shown on a solid globe, and the invention of Archimedes deserved special admiration because he had thought out a way to represent accurately by a single device for turning the globe those various and divergent courses with their different rates of speed. Finally, there are references by Polybius, Livy, Plutarch, and others to fabulous ballistic instruments constructed by Archimmedes to help repel Marcellus. One other defensive device often mentioned but of exceedingly doubtful existence was a burning mirror or combination of mirrors. We have no way to know for sure of Archimedes’ attitude toward his inventions. One supposes that Plutarch’s famous eulogy of Archimedes’ disdain for the practical was an invention of Plutarch and simply reflected the awe in which Archimedes’ theoretical discoveries were held. Plutarch (Marcellus, Ch. XVII) exclaims: And yet Archimedes possessed such a lofty spirit, so profound a soul, and such a wealth of scientific theory, that although his inventions had won for him a name and fame for superhuman sagacity, he would not consent to leave behind him any treatise on this subject, but regarding the work of an engineer and every art that ministers to the needs of life as ignoble and vulgar, he devoted his earnest efforts only to those studies the subtlety and charm of which are not affected by the claims of necessity. These studies, he thought, are not to be compared with any others; in them, the subject matter vies with the demonstration, the former supplying grandeur and beauty, the latter precision and surpassing power. For it is not possible to find in geometry more profound and difficult questions treated in simpler and purer terms. Some attribute this success to his natural endowments; others think it due to excessive labor that everything he did seemed to have been performed without labor and with ease. For no one could by his own efforts discover the proof, and yet as soon as he learns if from him, he thinks he might have discovered it himself so smooth and rapid is the path by which he leads one to the desired conclusion. Mathematical Works. The mathematical works of Archimedes that have come down to us can be loosely classified in three groups (Arabic numbers have been added to indicate, where possible, their chronological order). The first group consists of those that have as their major objective the proof of theorems relative to the areas and volumes of figures bounded by curved lines and surfaces. In this group we can place On the Sphere and the Cylinder (5); On the Measurement of the Circle (9); On Conoids and Spheroids (7); On Spirals (6); and On the Quadrature of the Parabola (2), which, in respect to its Propositions 1–17, belongs also to the second category of works. The second group comprises works that lead to a Geometrical analysis of statical and hydrostatical problems and the use of statics in geometry: On the Equilibrium of Planes, Book I (1), Book II (3); On Floating Bodies (8); On the Method of Mechanical Theorems (4); and the aforementioned propositions from On the Quadrature of the Parabola (2). Miscellaneous mathematical works constitute the third group: The Sandreckoner (10); The Cattle-Problem; and the fragmentary Stomachion. Several other works not now extant are alluded to by Greek authors (see Heiberg, ed., Archimedis opera, II, 536–554). For example, there appear to have been various works on mechanics that have some unknown relationship to On the Equilibrium of Planes. Among these are a possible work on Elements of Mechanics (perhaps containing an earlier section on centers of gravity, which, however, may have been merely a separate work written before Equilibrium of Planes, Book I), a tract On Balances, and possibly one On Uprights. Archimedes also seems to have written a tract On Polyhedra, perhaps one On Blocks and Cylinders, certainly one on Archai or The Naming of Numbers (a work preliminary to The Sandreckoner), and a work on Optics or Caloptrics. Other works are attributed to Archimedes by Arabic authors, and, for the most part, are extant in Arabic manuscripts (the titles for which manuscripts are known are indicated by an asterisk; see Bibliography); The Lemmata*, or Liber assumptorum (in its present form certainly not by Archimedes since his name is cited in the proofs), On Water Clocks*, On Touching Circles*. On Parallel Lines, On Triangles*, On the Properties of the Right Triangle*, On Data, and On the Division of the Circle into Seven Equal Parts*. But even the genuine extant works are by no means in their original form. For example On the Equilibrium of Planes, Book I, is possibly an excerpt from the presumably longer Elements of Mechanics mentioned above and is clearly distinct from Book II, which was apparently written later. A solution promised by Archimedes in On the Sphere and the Cylinder (BK. II, Prop. 4) was already missing by the second century a.d.On the Measurement of the Circle was certainly in a much different form originally, with Proposition II probably not a part of it (and even if it were, it would have to follow the present Proposition, III, since it depends on it). The word parabolēs in the extant title of On the Quadrature of the Parabola could hardly have been in the original title, since that word was not yet used in Archimedes’ work in the sense of a conic section. Finally, the tracts On the Sphere and the Cylinder and On the Measurement of the Circle have been almost completely purged of their original Sicilian-Doric dialect, while the rest of his works have suffered in varying degrees this same kind of linguistic transformation. In proving theorems relative to the area or volume of figures bounded by curved lines or surfaces, Archimedes employs the so-called Lemma of Archimedes or some similar lemma, together with a technique of proof that is generally called the “method of exhaustion,” and other special Greek devices such as neuseis, and principles taken over from statics. These various mathematical techniques are coupled with an extensive knowledge of the mathematical works of his predecessors, including those of Eudoxus, Euclid, Aristeus, and others. The Lemma of Archimedes (On the Sphere and Cylinder, Assumption 5; cf. the Preface to On the Quadrature of the Parabola and the Preface to On Spirals) assumes “that of two unequal lines, unequal surfaces, and unequal solids the greater exceeds the lesser by an amount such that, when added to itself, it may exceed any assigned magnitude of the type of magnitudes compared with one another.” This has on occasion been loosely identified with Definition 4 of Book V of the Elements of Euclid (often called the axiom of Eudoxus): “Magnitudes are said to have a ratio to one another which are capable, when multiplied, of exceeding one another.” But the intent of Archimedes’ assumption appears to be that if there are two unequal magnitudes capable of having a ratio in the Euclidian sense, then their difference will have a ratio (in the Euclidian sense) with any magnitude of the same kind as the two initial magnitudes. This lemma has been interpreted as excluding actual infinitesimals, so that the difference of two lines will always be a line and never a point, the difference between surfaces always a surface and never a line, and the difference between solids always a solid and never a surface. The exhaustion procedure often uses a somewhat different lemma represented by Proposition X. l of the Elements of Euclid: “Two unequal magnitudes being set out, if from the greater there be subtracted a magnitude greater than its half, and from that which is left a magnitude greater than its half, and if this process be repeated continually, there will be left some magnitude which will be less than the lesser magnitude set out.” This obviously reflects the further idea of the continuous divisibility of a continuum. One could say that the Lemma of Archimedes justifies this further lemma in the sense that no matter how far the procedure of subtracting more than half of the larger of the magnitudes set out is taken (or also no matter how far the procedure of subtracting one-half the larger magnitude, described in the corollary to Proposition X. l, is taken), the magnitude resulting from the successive division (which magnitude being conceived as the difference of two magnitudes) will always be capable of having a ratio in the Euclidian sense with the smaller of the magnitudes set out. hence one such remainder will some time be in a relationship of “less than” to the lesser of the magnitudes set out. The method of exhaustion, widely used by Archimedes, was perhaps invented by Eudoxus. It was used on occasion by Euclid in his Elements (for example, in Proposition XII.2). Proof by exhaustion (the name is often criticized since the purpose of the technique is to avoid assuming the complete exhaustion of an area or a volume; Dijksterhuis prefers the somewhat anachronistic expression “indirect passage to the limit”) is an indirect proof by reduction to absurdity. That is to say, if the theorem is of the form A = B, it is held to be true by showing that to assume its opposite, namely that A is not equal to B, is impossible since it leads to contradictions. The method has several forms. Following Dijksterhuis, we can label the two main types: the compression method and the approximation method. The former is the most widely used and exists in two forms, one that depends upon taking decreasing differences and one that depends on taking decreasing ratios. The fundamental procedure of both the “difference” and the “ratio” forms starts with the successive inscription and circumscription of regular figures within or without the figure for which the area or volume is ought. Then in the “difference” method the area or volume of the inscribed or circumscribed figure is regularly increased or decreased until the difference between the desired area or volume and the inscribed or circumscribed figure is less than any preassigned magnitude. Or to put it more specifically, if the theorem is of the form A = B, A being the curvilinear figure sought and B a regular rectilinear figure the formula for the magnitude of which is known, and we assume that A is greater than B, then by the exhaustion procedure and its basic lemma we can construct some regular rectilinear inscribed figure P such that P is greater than B; but it is obvious that P, an included figure, is in fact always less than B. Since P cannot be both greater and less than B, the assumption from which the contradiction evolved (namely, that A is greater than B)must be false. Similarly, if A is assumed to be less than B, we can by the exhaustion technique and the basic lemma find a circumscribed figure P that is less than B, which P (as an including figure) must always be greater than B. Thus the assumption of A less than B must also be false. Hence, it is now evident that, since A is neither greater nor less than B, it must be equal to B. An example of the exhaustion procedure in its “difference” form is to be found in On the Measurement of the Circle: 1 > GH. It follows that the triangle FTG is greater than half the area TEAH. Similarly, if the arc AH be bisected and the tangent at the point of bisection be drawn, it will cut off from the area GAH more than one-half. Thus, by continuing the process, we shall ultimately arrive at a circumscribed polygon such that the spaces intercepted between it and the circle are together less than the excess of K over the area of the circle. Thus the area of the polygon will be less than K. Now, since the perpendicular from O on any side of the polygon is equal to the radius of the circle, while the perimeter of the polygon is greater than the circumference of the circle, it follows that the area of the polygon is greater than the triangle K; which is impossible. Therefore the area of the circle is not less than K. Since then the area of the circle is neither greater nor less than K, it is equal to it. Other examples of the “difference” form of the exhaustion method are found in On Conoids and Spheroids (Props. 22, 26, 28, 30), On Spiral Lines (Props. 24,25), and On the Quadrature of the Parabola (Prop. 16). The “ratio” form of the exhaustion method is quite similar to the “difference” form except that in the first part of the proof, where the known figure is said to be less than the figure sought, the ratio of circumscribed polygon to inscribed polygon is decreased until it is less than the ratio of the figure sought to the known figure, and in the second part the ratio of circumscribed polygon to inscribed polygon is decreased until it is less than the ratio of the known figure to the figure sought. In each part a contradiction is shown to follow the assumption. And thus the assumption of each part must be false, namely, that the known figure is either greater or less than the figure sought. Consequently, the known figure must be equal to the figure sought. An example of the “radio” form appears in On the Sphere and the Cylinder (Bk. I): 2 (polygon about B):(surface of pyramid) < B: S; which is impossible. Since therefore B is neither greater nor less than S, B = S. Other examples of the “ratio” form of the exhaustion method are found in On the Sphere and the Cylinder, (Bk. 1, Props, 13, 33, 34, 42, 44.) As indicated earlier, in addition to the two forms of the compression method of exhaustion, Archimedes used a further technique which we may call the approximation method. This is used on only one occasion, namely, in On the Quadrature of the Parabola (Props. 18–24). It consists in approximating from below the area of a parabolic segment. That is to say, Archimedes continually “exhausts” the parabola by drawing first a triangle in the segment with the same base and vertex as the segment. On each side of the triangle we again construct triangles. This process is continued as far as we like. Thus if A1 is the area of the original triangle, we have a series of inscribed triangles whose sum converges toward the area of parabolic segment: A1, 1/4A1, (1/4)2 A1,... (in the accompanying figure A1 is ΔPQq and 1/4 A1 or A2 is the sum of triangles Prq and PRQ and A3 is the sum of the next set of inscribed triangles—not shown on the diagram but equal to [1/4]2A1). In order to prove that K, the area of the parabolic segment, is equal to 4/3A1’ Archimedes first proves in Proposition 22 that the sum of any finite number of terms of this series is less than the area of the parabolic segment. He then proves in Proposition 23 that if we have a series of terms A1, A2, A3,..... such as those given above, that is, with A1 = 4A2, A2 = 4 A3,..., then or With modern techniques of series summation we would simply say that as n increases indefinitely (1/4)n-1 becomes infinitely small and the series in brackets tends toward 4–3 as a limit and thus the parabolic segment equals 4/3. A1. But Archimedes followed the Greek reductio procedure. Hence he showed that if we assume K > 4/3 A1 on the basis of a corollary to Proposition 20, namely, that by the successive inscription of triangles “it is possible to inscribe in the parabolic segment a polygon such that the segments left over are together less than any assigned area” (which is itself based on Euclid, Elements X.1), a contradiction will ensue. Similarly, a contradiction results from the assumption of K < 4/3. A1. Here in brief is the final step of the proof (the reader is reminded that the terms A1, A2, A3,..., An, which were used above, are actually rendered by A, B, C,..., X): 3 Proposition 24 Every segment bounded by a parabola and a chord Qq is equal to four-thirds of the triangle which has the same base as the segment and equal height. where P is the vertex of the segment; and we have then to prove that the area of the segment is equal to K. For, if the segment be not equal to K, it must either be greater or less. I. Suppose the area of the segment greater than K. If then we inscribe in the segments cut off by PQ, Pq triangles which have the same base and equal height, i.e. triangles with the same vertices R, r as those of the segments, and if in the remaining segments we inscribe triangles in the same manner, and so on, we shall finally have segments remaining whose sum is less than the area by which the segment PQq exceeds K [Prop. 20 Cor.]. Therefore the polygon so formed must be greater than the area K; which is impossible, since [Prop. 23] where A = ΔPQq. Thus the area of the segment cannot be greater than K. II. Suppose, if possible, that the area of the segment is less than K. If then ΔPQq = A, B = 1/4 A, C = 1/4 B, and so on, until we arrive at an area X such that X is less than the difference between K and the segment, we have Now, since K exceeds A + B + C +... + X by an area less than X, and the area of the segment by an area greater than X, it follows that A + B + C +... + X > (the segment); which is impossible, by Prop. 22... Hence the segment is not less than K. Thus, since the segment is neither greater nor less than K, In the initial remarks on the basic methods of Archimedes, it was noted that Archimedes sometimes used the technique of a neusis (“verging”) construction. Pappus defined a neusis construction as “Two lines being given in position, to place between them a straight line given in length and verging towards a given point.” He also noted that “a line is said to verge towards a point, if being produced, it reaches the point.” No doubt “insertion” describes the mathematical meaning better than “verging” or “inclination,” but “insertion” fails to render the additional condition of inclining or verging toward a point just as the name neusis in expressing the “verging” condition fails to render the crucial condition of insertion. At any rate, the neusis construction can be thought of as being accomplished mechanically by marking the termini of the linear insertion on a ruler and shifting that ruler until the termini of the insertion lie on the given curve or curves while the ruler passes through the verging point. In terms of mathematical theory most of the Greek neuseis require a solution by means of conics or other higher curves. Neusis constructions are indicated by Archimedes in On Spirals (Props. 5–9). They are assumed as possible without any explanation. The simplest case may be illustrated as follows: 4 Proposition 5 Given a circle with center O, and the tangent to it at a point A, it is possible to draw from O a straight line OPF, meeting the circle in P and the tangent in F, such that, if c be the circumference of any given circle whatever. FP: OP < (arc AP): c. Take a straight line, as D, greater than the circumference c. [Prop.3] Through O draw OH parallel to the given tangent, and draw through A a line APH, meeting the circle in P and OH in H, such that the portion PH intercepted between the circle and the line OH may be equal to D [literally: “let PH be placed equal to D, verging toward A”]. Join OP and produce it to meet the tangent in F. Then FP:OP = AP:PH, by parallels, = AP:D > (arc AP):c. With the various methods that have been described and others, Archimedes was able to demonstrate a whole host of theorems that became a basic part of geometry. Examples beyond those already quoted follow: “The surface of any sphere is equal to four times the greatest circle in it” (On the Sphere and the Cylinder, Bk. I, Prop. 23); this is equivalent to the modern formulation S = 4π r2. “Any sphere is equal to four times the cone which has its base equal to the greatest circle in the sphere and its height equal to the radius of the sphere” (ibid., Prop. 34); its corollary that “every cylinder whose base is the greatest circle in a sphere and whose height is equal to the diameter of the sphere is 3/2 of the sphere and its surface together with its base is 3/2 of the surface of the sphere” is the proposition illustrated on the tombstone of Archimedes, as was noted above. The modern equivalent of Proposition 34 is V = 4/3 πr3. “Any right or oblique segment of a paraboloid of revolution is half again as large as the cone or segment of a cone which has the same base and the same axis” (On Conoids and Spheroids, Props. 21–22). He was also able by his investigation of what are now known as Archimedean spirals not only to accomplish their quadrature (On Spirals, Props. 24–28), but, in preparation therefore, to perform the crucial rectification of the circumference of a circle. This, then, would allow for the construction of the right triangle equal to a circle that is the object of On the Measurement of a Circle (Prop. I), above. This rectification is accomplished in On Spirals (Prop. 18): “If a straight line is tangent to the extremity of a spiral described in the first revolution, and if from the point of origin of the spiral one erects a perpendicular on the initial line of revolution, the perpendicular will meet the tangent so that the line intercepted between the tangent and the origin of the spiral will be equal to the circumference of the first circle” (see Fig. 5). It has also been remarked earlier that Archimedes employed statical procedures in the solution of geometrical problems and the demonstration of theorems. These procedures are evident in On the Quadrature of the Parabola (Props.6–16) and also in On the Method. We have already seen that in the latter part of On the Quadrature of the Parabola Archimedes demonstrated the quadrature of the parabola by purely geometric methods. In the first part of the tract he demonstrated the same thing by means of a balancing method. By the use of the law of the lever and a knowledge of the centers of gravity of triangles and trapezia, coupled with a reductio procedure, the quadrature is demonstrated. In On the Method the same statical procedures are used; but, in addition, an entirely new assumption is joined with them, namely, that a plane figure can be considered as the summation of its line elements (presumably infinite in number) and that a volumetric figure can be considered as the summation of its plane elements. The important point regarding this work is that it gives us a rare insight into Archimedes’ procedures for discovering the theorems to be proved. The formal, indirect procedures that appear in demonstrations in the great body of Archimedes’ works tell us little as to how the theorems to be proved were discovered. To be sure, sometimes he no doubt proved theorems that he had inherited with inadequate proof from his predecessors (such was perhaps the case of the theorem on the area of the circle, which he proved simply and elegantly in On the Measurement of the Circle [Prop. 1], as has been seen). But often we are told by him what his own discoveries were, and their relation to the discoveries of his predecessors, as, for example, those of Eudoxus. In the Preface of Book I of On the Sphere and the Cylinder, he characterizes his discoveries by comparing them with some established theorems of Eudoxus: 5 Now these properties were all along naturally inherent in the figures referred to..., but remained unknown to those who were before my time engaged in the study of geometry. Having, however, now discovered that the properties are true of these figures, I cannot feel any hesitation in setting them side by side both with my former investigations and with those of the theorems of Eudoxus on solids which are held to be most irrefragably established, namely, that any pyramid is one third part of the prism which has the same base with the pyramid and equal height, and that any cone is one third part of the cylinder which has the same base with the cone and equal height. For, though these properties also were naturally inherent in the figures all along, yet they were in fact unknown to all the many able geometers who lived before Eudoxus, and had not been observed by anyone. Now, however, it will be open to those who possess the requisite ability to examine these discoveries of mine. Some of the mystery surrounding Archimedes’ methods of discovery was, then, dissipated by the discovery and publication of On the Method of Mechanical Theorems. For example, we can see in Proposition 2 how it was that Archimedes discovered by the “method” the theorems relative to the area and volume of a sphere that he was later to prove by strict geometrical methods in On the Sphere and the Cylinder: 6 cone AEF = 8 (cone ABD); therefore sphere = 4 (cone ABD). (2) Through B, D draw VBW, XDY parallel to AC; and imagine a cylinder which has AC for axis and the circles on VX, WY as diameters for bases. Then From this theorem, to the effect that a sphere is four times as great as the cone with a great circle of the sphere as base and with height equal to the radius of the sphere, I conceived the notion that the surface of any sphere is four times as great as a great circle in it; for, judging from the fact that any circle is equal to a triangle with base equal to the circumference and height equal to the radius of the circle, I apprehended that, in like manner, any sphere is equal to a cone with base equal to the surface of the sphere and height equal to the radius. It should be observed in regard to this quotation that the basic volumetric theorem was discovered prior to the surface theorem, although in their later formal presentation in On the Sphere and the Cylinder, the theorem for the surface of a sphere is proved first. By using the “method” Archimedes also gave another “proof” of the quadrature of the parabola—already twice proved in On the Quadrature of the Parabola—and he remarks in his preface (see the quotation below) that he originally discovered this theorem by the method. Finally, in connection with On the Method, it is necessary to remark that Archimedes considered the method inadequate for formal demonstration, even if it did provide him with the theorems to be proved more rigorously. One supposes that it was the additional assumption considering the figures as the summation of their infinitesimal elements that provoked Archimedes’ cautionary attitude, which he presents so lucidly in his introductory remarks to Eratosthenes: 7 Seeing moreover in you, as I say, an earnest student, a man of considerable eminence in philosophy, and an admirer [of mathematical inquiry], I thought fit to write out for you and explain in detail in the same book the peculiarity of a certain method, by which it will be possible for you to get a start to enable you to investigate some of the problems in mathematics by means of mechanics. This procedure is, I am persuaded, no less useful even for the proof of the theorems themselves; for certain things first became clear to me by a mechanical method, although they had to be demonstrated by geometry afterwards because their investigation by the said method did not furnish an actual demonstration. But it is of course easier, when we have previously acquired, by the method, some knowledge of the questions, to supply the proof than it is to find it without any previous knowledge. This is a reason why, in the case of the theorems the proof of which Eudoxus was the first to discover, namely that the cone is a third part of the cylinder, and the pyramid of the prism, having the same base and equal height, we should give no small share of the credit to Democritus who was the first to make the assertion with regard to the said figure though he did not prove it. I am myself in the position of having first made the discovery of the theorem now to be published [by the method indicated], and I deem it necessary to expound the method partly because I have already spoken of it and I do not want to be thought to have uttered vain words, but equally because I am persuaded that it will be of no little service to mathematics; for I apprechend that some, either of my contemporaries or of my successors, will, by means of the method when once established, be able to discover other theorems in addition, which have not yet occurred to me. While Archimedes’ investigations were primarily in geometry and mechanics reduced to geometry, he made some important excursions into numerical calculation, although the methods he used are by no means clear. In On the Measurement of the Circle (Prop. 3), he calculated the ratio of circumference to diameter (not called π until early modern times) as being less than 3–1/7 and greater than 3–10/71. In the course of this proof Archimedes showed that he had an accurate method of approximating the roots of large numbers. It is also of interest that he there gave an approximation for namely, . How he computed this has been much disputed. In the tract known as The Sandreckoner, Archimedes presented a system to represent large numbers, a system that allows him to express a number , where P itself is . He invented this system to express numbers of the sort that, in his words, “exceed not only the number of the mass of sand equal in magnitude to the earth..., but also that of a mass equal in magnitude to the universe.” Actually, the number he finds that would approximate the number of grains of sand to fill the universe is a mere 1063, and thus does not require the higher orders described in his system. Incidentally, it is in this work that we have one of the few antique references to Aristarchus’ heliocentric system. In the development of physical science, Archimedes is celebrated as the first to apply geometry successfully to statics and hydrostatics. In his On the Equilibrium of Planes (Bk. I, Props. 6–7), he proved the law of the lever in a purely geometrical manner. His weights had become geometrical magnitudes possessing weight and acting perpendicularly to the balance beam, itself conceived of as a weightless geometrical line. His crucial assumption was the special case of the equilibrium of the balance of equal arm length supporting equal weights. This postulate, although it may ultimately rest on experience, in the context of a mathematical proof appears to be a basic appeal to geometrical symmetry. In demonstrating Proposition 6, “Commensurable magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to their weights,” his major objective was to reduce the general case of unequal weights at inversely proportional distances to the special case of equal weights at equal distances. This was done by (1) converting the weightless beam of unequal arm lengths into a beam of equal arm lengths, and then (2) distributing the unequal weights, analyzed into rational component parts over the extended beam uniformly so that we have a case of equal weights at equal distances. Finally (3) the proof utilized propositions concerning centers of gravity (which in part appear to have been proved elsewhere by Archimedes) to show that the case of the uniformly distributed parts of the unequal weights over the extended beam is in fact identical with the case of the composite weights concentrated on the arms at unequal lengths. Further, it is shown in Proposition 7 that if the theorem is true for rational magnitudes, it is true for irrational magnitudes as well (although the incompleteness of this latter proof has been much discussed). The severest criticism of the proof of Proposition 6 is, of course, the classic discussion by Ernst Mach in his Science of Mechanics, which stresses two general points: (1) experience must have played a predominant role in the proof and its postulates in spite of its mathematical-deductive form; and (2) any attempt to go from the special case of the lever to the general case by replacing expanded weights on a lever arm with a weight concentrated at their center of gravity must assume that which has to be proved, namely, the principle of static moment. This criticism has given rise to an extensive literature and stimulated some successful defenses of Archimedes, and this body of literature has been keenly analyzed by E. J. Dijksterhuis (Archimedes, pp. 289–304). It has been pointed out further, and with some justification, that Proposition 6 with its proof, even if sound, only establishes that the inverse proportionality of weights and arm lengths is a sufficient condition for the equilibrium of a lever supported in its center of gravity under the influence of two weights on either side of the fulcrum. It is evident that he should also have shown that the condition is a necessary one, since he repeatedly applies the inverse proportionality as a necessary condition of equilibrium. But this is easily done and so may have appeared trivial to Archimedes. The succeeding propositions in Book I of On the Equilibrium of Planes show that Archimedes conceived of this part of the work as preparatory to his use of statics in his investigation of geometry of the sort that we have described in On the Quadrature of the Parabola and On the Method. In his On Floating Bodies, the emphasis is once more largely on geometrical analysis. In Book I, a somewhat obscure concept of hydrostatic pressure is presented as his basic postulate: 8 Let it be granted that the fluid is of such a nature that of the parts of it which are at the same level and adjacent to one another that which is pressed the less is pushed away by that which is pressed the more, and that each of its parts is pressed by the fluid which is vertically above it, if the fluid is not shut up in anything and is not compressed by anything else. As his propositions are analyzed, we see that Archimedes essentially maintained an Aristotelian concept of weight directed downward toward the center of the earth conceived of as the center of the world. In fact, he goes further by imagining the earth removed and so fluids are presented as part of a fluid sphere all of whose parts weigh downward convergently toward the center of the sphere. The surface of the sphere is then imagined as being divided into an equal number of parts which are the bases of conical sectors having the center of the sphere as their vertex. Thus the water in each sector weighs downward toward the center. Then if a solid is added to a sector, increasing the pressure on it, the pressure is transmitted down through the center of the sphere and back upward on an adjacent sector and the fluid in that adjacent sector is forced upward to equalize the level of adjacent sectors. The influence on other than adjacent sectors is ignored. It is probable that Archimedes did not have the concept of hydrostatic paradox formulated by Stevin, which held that at any given point of the fluid the pressure is a constant magnitude that acts perpendicularly on any plane through that point. But, by his procedures, Archimedes was able to formulate propositions concerning the relative immersion in a fluid of solids less dense than, as dense as, and more dense than the fluid in which they are placed. Proposition 7 relating to solids denser than the fluid expresses the so-called “principle of Archimedes” in this fashion: “Solids heavier than the fluid, when thrown into the fluid, will be driven downward as far as they can sink, and they will be lighter [when weighed] in the fluid [than their weight in air] by the weight of the portion of fluid having the same volume as the solid.” This is usually more succinctly expressed by saying that such solids will be lighter in the fluid by the weight of the fluid displaced. Book II, which investigates the different positions in which a right segment of a paraboloid can float in a fluid, is a brilliant geometrical tour de force. In it Archimedes returns to the basic assumption found in On the Equilibrium of Planes, On the Quadrature of the Parabola, and On the Method, namely, that weight verticals are to be conceived of as parallel rather than as convergent at the center of a fluid sphere. Influence. Unlike the Elements of Euclid, the works of Archimedes were not widely known in antiquity. Our present knowledge of his works depends largely on the interest taken in them at Constantinople from the sixth through the tenth centuries. It is true that before that time individual works of Archimedes were obviously studied at Alexandria, since Archimedes was often quoted by three eminent mathematicians of Alexandria: Hero, Pappus, and Theon. But it is with the activity of Eutocius of Ascalon, who was born toward the end of the fifth century and studied at Alexandria, that the textual history of a collected edition of Archimedes properly begins. Eutocius composed commentaries on three of Archimedes’ works: On the Sphere and the Cylinder, On the Measurement of the Circle, and On the Equilibrium of Planes. These were no doubt the most popular of Archimedes’ works at that time. The Commentary on the Sphere and the Cylinder is a rich work for historical references to Greek geometry. For example, in an extended comment to Book II, Proposition I, Eutocius presents manifold solutions of earlier geometers to the problem of finding two mean proportionals between two given lines. The Commentary on the Measurement of the Circle is of interest in its detailed expansion of Archimedes’ calculation of σ. The works of Archimedes and the commentaries of Eutocius were studied and taught by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, Justinian’s architects of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. It was apparently Isidore who was responsible for the first collected edition of at least the three works commented on by Eutocius as well as the commentaries. Later Byzantine authors seem gradually to have added other works to this first collected edition until the ninth century when the educational reformer Leon of Thessalonica produced the compilation represented by Greek manuscript A (adopting the designation used by the editor, J.L. Heiber). Manuscript A contained all of the Greek works now known excepting On Floating Bodies, On the Method, Stomachion, and The Cattle Problem. This was one of the two manuscripts available to William of Moerbeke when he made his Lating translations in 1269. It was the source, directly or indirectly, of all of the Renaissance copies of Archimedes. A second Byzantine manuscript, designated as B, included only the mechanical works: On the Equilibrium of Planes, On the Quadrature of the Parabola, and On Floating Bodies (and possibly On Spirals). It too was available to Moerbeke. But it disappears after an early fourteenth-century reference. Finally, we can mention a third Byzantine manuscript, C, a palimpsest whose Archimedean parts are in a hand of the tenth century. It was not available to the Latin West in the Middle Ages, or indeed in modern times until its identification by Heiberg in 1906 at Constantinople (where it had been brought from Jerusalem). It contains large parts of On the Sphere and the Cylinder, almost all of On Spirals, some parts of On the Measurement of the Circle and On the Equilibrium of Planes, and a part of the Stomachion. More important, it contains most of the Greek text of On Floating Bodies (a text unavailable in Greek since the disappearance of manuscript B) and a great part of On the Method of Mechanical Theorems, hitherto known only by hearsay. (Hero mentions it in his Metrica, and the Byzantine lexicographer Suidas declares that Theodosius wrote a commentary on it.) At about the same time that Archimedes was being studied in ninth-century Byzantium, he was also finding a place among the Arabs. The Arabic Archimedes has been studied in only a preliminary fashion, but it seems unlikely that the Arabs possessed any manuscript of his works as complete as manuscript A. Still, they often brilliantly exploited the methods of Archimedes and brought to bear their fine knowledge of conic sections on Archimedean problems. The Arabic Archimedes consisted of the following works: (1) On the Sphere and the Cylinder and at least a part of Eutocius’ commentary on it. This work seems to have existed in a poor, early ninth-century translation. revised in the late ninth century, first by Isḥāq ibn Ḥunayn and then by Thābit ibn Qurra. It was reedited by Nasīr ad-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the thirteenth century and was on occasion paraphrased and commented on by other Arabic authors (see Archimedes in Index of Suter’s “Die Mathematiker and Astronomen”). (2) On the Measurement of the Circle, translated by Thābit ibn Qurra and reedited by al-Ṭusī. Perhaps the commentary on it by Eutocius was also translated, for the extended calculation of π found in the geometrical tract of the ninth-century Arabic mathematicians the Banū Mūsā bears some resemblance to that present in the commentary of Eutocius. (3) A fragment of On Floating Bodies, consisting of a definition of specific gravity not present in the Greek text, a better version of the basic postulate (described above) than exists in the Greek text, and the enunciations without proofs of seven of the nine propositions of Book I and the first proposition of Book II. (4) Perhaps On the Quadrature of the Parabola—at least this problem received the attention of Thābit ibn Qurra. (5) Some indirect material from On the Equilibrium of Planes found in other mechanical works translated into Arabic (such as Hero’s Mechanics, the so-called Euclid tract On the Balance, the Liber karastonis, etc,). (6) In addition, various other works attributed to Archimedes by the Arabs and for which there is no extant Greek text (see list above in “Mathematical Works”). Of the additional works, we can single out the Lemntata (Liber assumptorum), for, although it cannot have come directly from Archimedes in its present form, in the opinion of experts several of its propositions are Archimedean in character. One such proposition was Proposition 8, which employed a neusis construction like those used by Archimedes: 9 Proposition 8 If we let line AB be led everywhere in the circle and extended rectilinearly [see Fig. 7], and if BC is posited as equal to the radius of the circle, and C is connected to the center of the circle D, and the line (CD)is produced to E, arc AE will be triple arc BF. Therefore, let us draw EG parallel to AB and join DB and DG. And because the two angles DEG, DGE are equal, ∠GDC = 2∠DEG. And because ∠BDC = ∠BCD and ∠CEG = ∠ACE, ∠GDC = 2∠CDB and ∠BDG = 3∠BDC, and arc BG= arc AE, and arc AE = 3 arc BF; and this is what we wished. This proposition shows, then, that if one finds the position and condition of line ABC such that it is drawn through A, meets the circle again in B, and its extension BC equals the radius, this will give the trisection of the given angle BDG. It thus demonstrates the equivalence of a neusis and the trisection problem—but without solving the neusis (which could be solved by the construction of a conchoid to a circular base). Special mention should also be made of the Book on the Division of the Circle into Seven Equal Parts, attributed to Archimedes by the Arabs, for its remarkable construction of a regular heptagon. This work stimulated a whole series of Arabic studies of this problem, including one by the famous Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen). Propositions 16 and 17, leading to that construction, are given here in toto: 10 Proposition 17 We now wish to divide the circle into seven equal parts (Fig.9). We draw the line segment AB, which we set out as known. We mark on it two points C and D such that AD · CD = DB2 and CB · BD = AC2 and in addition each of the two segments AC and DB > CD, following the preceding proposition [i.e., Prop. 16]. Out of lines AC, CD and BD we construct Δ CHD. Accordingly CH = AC, DH = DB and CD = CD. Then we circumscribe about ΔAHB the circle AHBEZ and we extend lines HC and HD directly up to the circumference of the circle. On their intersection with the circumference lie the points Z and E. We join B with Z. Lines BZ and HE intersect in T. We also draw CT. Since AC = CH, hence ∠HAC = ∠AHC, and arc AZ = arc HB. And, indeed, AD · CD = DB2 = DH2 and [by Euclid, VI. 8] ΔAHD ∼ ΔCHD; consequently ∠DAH = ∠CHD, or arc ZE = arc BH, Hence BH, AZ and ZE are three equal arcs. Further, ZB is parallel to AH, ∠CAH = ∠CHD = ∠TBD; HD = DB, CD = DT, CH = BT. Hence, [since the products of the parts of these diogonals are equal], the 4 points B, H, C and T lie in the Circumference of one and the same circle. From the similarity of triangles HBC and HBT, it follows that CB · DB = HC2 = AC2 [or HT/HC = HC/HD] and form the similarity of ΔTHC and ΔCHD, it follows that TH · HD = HC2. And further CB = TH [these being equal diagonals in the quadrilateral] and ∠DCH= ∠HTC = 2∠CAH. [The equality of the first two angles arises from the similarity or triangles THC and CHD. Their equality with 2 ∠CAH arises as follows: (1) AHD = 2∠CAH, for ∠CAH = ∠CHD = ∠CHA and ∠AHD = ∠CHA + ∠CHD; (2) ∠AHD = ∠BTH, for parallel lines cut by a third line produce equal alternate angles; (3) ∠BTH = ∠DCH, from similar triangles; (4) hence ∠DCH = 2∠CAH.] [And since ∠HBA = ∠DCH, hence ∠HBA = 2∠CAH.] Consequently, arc AH = 2 arc BH. Since ∠DHB = ∠DBH, consequently arc EB = 2 arc HB. Hence, each of arcs AH and EB equals 2 are HB, and accordingly the circle AHBEZ is divided into seven equal parts q.e.d. And praise be to the one God, etc. The key to the whole procedure is, of course, the neusis presented in Proposition 16 (see Fig. 8) that would allow us in a similar fashion to find the points C and D in Proposition 17 (see Fig. 9) In Proposition 16 the neusis consisted in drawing a line from D to interest the extansion of AB in point Z such that ΔAZE = ΔCTD. The way in which the neusis was solved by Archimedes (or whoever was the author of this tract) is not known. Ibn al-Haytham, in his later treatment of the heptagon, mentions the Archimedean neusis but then goes on to show that one does not need the Archimedean square of Proposition 16, Rather he shows that points C and D in Proposition 17 can be found by the intersection of a parabola and a hyperbola. 11 It should br observed that all but two of Propositions 1–13 in this tract concern right triangles, and those two are necessary for propositions concerning right triangles. It seems probable, therefore, that Prositions 1–13 comprise the so-called Onthe Properties of the Right Triangle attributed in the Fihrist to Archimedes (although at least some of these propositions are Arabic interpolations). Incidentally, Propositions 7–10 have as their objective the formulation K = (s – a) · (s – c), where K is the area and a and c are the sides including the right angle and s is the semiperimeter, and Proposition 13 has as its objective K = s(s – b), where b is the hypotenuse. Hence, if we multiply the two formulations, we have Hero’s formula for the area of a triangle in terms of its sides—at least in the case of a right triangle. Interestingly, the Arab scholar al-Bīrūnī attributed the general Heronian formula to Archimedes. Propositions 14 and 15 of the tract make no reference to Propositions 1–13 and concern chords. Each leads to a formulation in terms of chords equivalent to . Thus Propositions 14–15 seem to be from some other work (and at least Proposition 15 is an Arabic interpolation). If Proposition 14 was in the Greek text translated by Thābit ibn Qurra and does go back to Archimedes, then we would have to conclude that this formula was his discovery rather than Ptolemy’s, as it is usually assumed to be. The Latin West received its knowledge of Archimedes from both the sources just described: Byzantium and Islam. There is no trace of the earlier translations imputed by Cassiodorus to Boethius. Such knowledge that was had in the West before the twelfth century consisted of some rather general hydrostatic information that may have indirectly had its source in Archimedes. It was in the twelfth century that the translation of Archimedean texts from the Arabic first began. The small tract On the Measurement of the Circle was twice translated from the Arabic. The first translation was a rather defective one and was possibly executed by Plato of Tivoli. There are many numerical errors in the extant copies of it and the second half of Proposition 3 is missing. The second translation was almost certainly done by the twelfth century’s foremost translator, Gerard of Cremona. The Arabic text from which he worked (without doubt the text of Thābit ibn Qurra) included a corollary on the area of a sector of a circle attributed by Hero to Archimedes but missing from our extant Greek text. Not only was Gerard’s translation widely quoted by medieval geometers such as Gerard of Brussels, Roger Bacon, and Thomas Bradwardine, it also served as the point of departure for a whole series of emended versions and paraphrases of the tract in the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Among these are the so-called Naples, Cambridge, Florence, and Gordanus versions of the thirteenth century; and the Corpus Christi, Munich, and Albert of Saxony versions of the fourteenth. These versions were expanded by including pertinent references to Euclid and the spelling-out of the geometrical steps only implied in the Archimedean text. In addition, we see attempts to specify the postulates that underlie the proof of Proposition I, For example, in the Cambridge version three postulates (petitiones) introduce the text: 12 “[1] There is some curved line equal to any straight line and some straight line to any curved line. [2] Any chord is less than its arc. [3] The perimeter of any including figure is greater than the perimeter of the included figure,” Furthermore, self-conscious attention was given in some versions to the logical nature of the proof of Proposition I. Thus, the Naples version immediately announced that the proof was to be per impossible, i.e., by reduction to absurdity. In the Gordanus, Corpus Christi, and Munich versions we see a tendency to elaborate the proofs in the manner of scholastic tracts. The culmination of this kind of elaboration appeared in the Questio de quadratura circuli of Albert of Saxony, composed some time in the third quarter of the fourteenth century. The Hellenistic mathematical form of the original text was submerged in an intricate scholastic structure that included multiple terminological distinctions and the argument and counterargument technique represented by initial arguments (“principal reasons”) and their final refutations. Another trend in the later versions was the introduction of rather foolish physical justifications for postulates. In the Corpus Christi version, the second postulate to the effect that a straight line may be equal to a curved line is supported by the statement that “if a hair or silk thread is bent around circumference-wise in a plane surface and then afterwards is extended in a straight line, who will doubt—unless he is hare-brained—that the hair or thread is the same whether it is bent circumference-wise or extended in a straight line and is just as long the one time as the other,” Similarly, Albert of Saxony, in his Questio, declared that a sphere can be “cubed” since the contents of a spherical vase can be poured into a cubical vase. Incidentally, Albert based his proof of the quadrature of the circle not directly on Proposition X.1 of the Elements, as was the case in the other medieval versions of On the Measurement of the Circle, but rather on a “betweenness” postulate: “I suppose that with two continuous [and comparable] quantities proposed, a magnitude greater than the ’lesser’ can be cut from the ’greater,’” A similar postulate was employed in still another fourteenthcentury version of the De mensura circuli called the Pseudo-Bradwardine version. Finally, in regard to the manifold medieval versions of On the Measurement of the Circle, it can be noted that the Florence version of Proposition 3 contained a detailed elaboration of the calculation of π. One might have supposed that the author had consulted Eutocius’ commentary, except that his arithmetical procedures differed widely from those used by Eutocius. Furthermore, no translation of Eutocius’ commentary appears to have been made before 1450, and the Florence version certainly must be dated before 1400. In addition to his translation of On the Measurement of the Circle, Gerard of Cremona also translated the geometrical Discourse of the Sons of Moses (Verba filiorum) composed by the Banū Mūsā. This Latin translation was of particular importance for the introduction of Archimedes into the West. We can single out these contributions of the treatise: (1) a proof of Proposition I of On the Measurement of the Circle somewhat different from that of Archimedes but still fundamentally based on the exhaustion method.(2) A determination of the value of π drawn from Proposition 3 of the same treatise but with further calculations similar to those found in the commentary of Eutocius. (3) Hero’s theorem for the area of a triangle in terms of its sides (noted above), with the first demonstration of that theorem in Latin (the enunciation of this theorem had already appeared in the writings of the agrimensores and in Plato of Tivoli’s translation of the Liber embadorum of Savasorda). (4) Theorems for the volume and surface area of a cone, again with demonstations. (5) Theorems for the volume and surface area of a sphere with demonstrations of an Archimedean character, (6) A use of the formula for the area of a circle equivalent to A = πr2 in addition at the more common Archimedean form, A = 1/2cr. Instead of the modern symbol π the authors used the expression “the quantity which when multiplied by the diameter produces the circumference,” (7) The introduction into the West of the problem of finding two mean proportionals between two given lines. In this treatise we find two solutions: (a) one attributed by the Banū Mūsā to Menelaus and by Eutocius to Archytas, (b) the other presented by the Banū Mūsā as their own but similar to the solution attributed by Eutocius to Plato.(8) The first solution in Latin of the problem of the trisection of an angle.(9) A method of approximating cube roots to any desired limit. The Verba filiorum was, then rich fare for the geometers of the twelfth century. The tract was quite widely cited in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, In the thirteenth, the eminent mathematicians Jordanus de Nemore and Leonardo Fibonacci made use of it. For example, the latter, in his Practica geometrie, excerpted both of the solutions of the mean proportionals problem given by the Banū Mūsā, while the former (or perhaps a continuator) in his De triangulis presented one of them together with an entirely different solution, namely, that one assigned by Eutocius to Philo of Byzantium. Similarly, Jordanus (or possibly the same continuator) extracted the solution of the trisection of an angle from the Verba filorum, but in addition made the remarkably perspicacious suggestion that the neusis by conic sections. Some of the results and techniques of On the Sphere and the Cylinder also became known through a treatise entitled De curvis superficiebus Archimenidis and said to be by Johannes de Tinemue. This seems to have been translated from the Greek in the early thirteenth century or at least composed on the basis of a Greek tract. The De curvis superficiebus contained ten propositions with several corollaries and was concerned for the most part with the surfaces and volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres. This was a very popular work and was often cited by later authors. Like Gerard of Cremona’s translation of On the Measurement of the Circle, the De curvis superficiebus was emended by Latin authors, two original propositions being added to one version (represented by manuscript D of the De curvis superficiebus) 13 and three quite different propositions being added to another (represented by manuscript M of the De curvis). 14 In the first of the additions to the latter version, the Latin author applied the exhaustion method to a problem involving the surface of a segment of a sphere, showing that at least this author had made the method his own. And indeed the geometer Gerard of Brussels in his De motu of about the same time also used the Archimedean reductio procedure in a highly original manner. In 1269, some decades after the appearance of the De curvis superficiebus, the next important step was taken in the passage of Archimedes to the West when much of the Byzantine corpus was translated from the Greek by the Flemish Dominican. William of Moerbeke. In this translation Moerbeke employed Greek manuscripts A and B which had passed to the pope’s library in 1266 from the collection of the Norman kings of the Two Sicilies. Except for The Sandreckoner and Eutocius’ Commentary on the Measurement of the Circle, all the works included in manuscripts A and B were rendered into Latin by William. Needless to say, On the Method, The CattleProblem, and the Stomachion, all absent from manuscripts A and B, were not among William’s translations. Although William’s translations are not without error (and indeed some of the errors are serious), the translations, on the whole, present the Archi medean works in an understandable way. We possess the original holograph of Moerbeke’s translations (MS Vat. Ottob. lat.1850). This manuscript was not widely copied. The translation of On Spirals was copied from it in the fourteenth century (MS Vat. Reg. lat. 1253, 14r-33r), and several works were copied from it in the fifteenth century in an Italian manuscript now at Madrid (Bibl. Nac. 9119), and one work (On Floating Bodies) was copied from it in the sixteenth century (MS Vat. Barb. lat. 304, 124r-141v, 160v-161v). But, in fact, the Moerbeke translations were utilized more than one would expect from the paucity of manuscrios. They were used by several Schoolmen at the University of Paris toward the middle of the fourteenth century. Chief among them was the astronomer and mathematician John of Meurs, who appears to have been the compositor of a hybrid tract in 1340 entitled Circuli quadratura. This tract consisted of fourteen propositions. The first thirteen were drawn form Moerbeke’s translation of On Spirals and were just those propositons necessary to the proof of Proposition 18 of On Spirals, whose enunciation we have quoted above. The fourteenth proposition of the hybrid tract was Proposition 1 from Moerbeke’s translation of On the Measurement of the Circle. Thus this author realized that by the use of Porposition 18 from On Spirals, he had achieved the necessary rectification of the circumference of a circle preparatory to the final quadrature of the circle accomplished in On the Measurement of the Circle, Proposition 1. Incidentally, the hybrid tract did not merely use the Moerbeke translations verbatim but also included considerable commentary. Infact, this medieval Latin tract was the first known commentary on Archimedes’ On Spirals. That the commentary was at times quite perceptive is indicated by the fact that the author suggested that the neusis introduced by Archimedes in Proposition 7 of On Spirals could be solved by means of an instrumentum conchoydeale. The only place in which a medieval Latin commentator could have learned of such an instrument would have been in that section of the Commentary on the Sphere and the Cylinder where Eutocius describes Nicomedes’ solution of the problem of finding two mean proportionals(Bk. II, Prop, 1). We have further evidence that John of Meurs knew of eutocius’ Commentary in the Moerbeke translation when he used sections from this commentary in his De arte mensurandi (Ch. VIII, Prop.16), where three of the solutions of the mean proportionals problem given by Eutocius are presented. Not only did John incorporate the whole hybrid tract Circuli quadratura into Chapter VIII of his De arte mensurandi (composed, it seems, shortly after 1343) but in Chapter X of the De arte he quoted verbatim many propositions from Moerbeke’s translations of On the Sphere and the Cylinder and On Conoids and Spheroids (which latter he misapplied to problems concerning solids generated by the rotation of circular segments). Within the next decade or so after John of Meurs, Nicole Oresme, his colleague at the University of Paris, in his De configurationibus qualitatum et motuum (Part I, Ch.21)revealed knowledge of On Spirals, at least in the form of the hybrid Circuli quadratura. Further, Oresme in his Questiones super de celo et mundo, quoted at length from Moerbeke’s translation of On Floating Bodies, while Henry of Hesse, Oresme’s junior contemporary at Paris, quoted briefly therefrom. (Before this time, the only knowledge of On Floating Bodies had come in a thirteenthcentury treatise entitled De ponderibus Archimenidis sive de incidentibus in humidum, a Pseudo-Archimedean treatise prepared largely from Arabic sources, whose first proposition expressed the basic conclusion of the “principle of Archimedes”: “The weight of any body in air exceeds its weight in water by the weight of a volume of water equal to its volume,”) Incontrovertible evidence, then, shows that at the University of Paris in the mid-fourteenth century six of the nine Archimedean translations of William of Moerbeke were known and used: On Spirals, On the Measurement of the Circle, On the Sphere and the Cylinder, On Conoids and Spheroids, On Floating Bodies, and Eutocius’ Commentary on the Sphere and the Cylinder. While no direct evidence exists of the use of the remaining three translations, there has been recently discovered in a manuscript written at Paris in the fourteenth century (BN lat.7377B, 93v-94r) an Archimedean-type proof of the law of the lever that might have beeninspired by Archimedes’ On the Equilibrium of Planes. But other than this, the influence of Archimedes on medieval statics was entirely indirect. The anonymous De canonio, translated from the Greek in the early thirteenth century, and Thābit ibn Quara’s Liber karastonis, translated from the Arabic by Gerard of Cremona, passed on this indirect influence of Archimedes in three respects:(1) Both tracts illustrated the Archimedean type of geometrical demonstrations of statical theorems and the geometrical form implied in weightless beams and weights that were really only geometrical magnitudes. (2) They gave specific reference in geometrical language to the law of the lever (and in the De canonio the law of the lever is connected directly to Archimedes). (3) They indirectly reflected the centers-of-gravity doctrine so important to Archimedes, in that both treatises employed the practice of substituting for a material beam segment a weight equal in weight to the material segment but hung from the middle point of the weightless segment used to replace the material segment. Needless to say, these two tracts played an important role in stimulating the rather impressive statics associated with the name of Jordanus de Nemore. In the fifteenth century, knowledge of Archimedes in Europe began to expand. A new Latin translation was made by James of Cremona in about 1450 by order of Pope Nicholas V. Since this translation was made exclusively from manuscript A, the translation failed to include On Floating Bodies, but it did include the two treatises in A omitted by Moerbeke, namely, The Sandreckoner and Eutocius’ Commentary on the Measurement of the Circle. It appears that this new translation was made with an eye on Moerbeke’s translations. Not long after its completion, a copy of the new translation was sent by the pope to Nicholas of Cusa, who made some use of it in his De mathematicis complementis, composed in 1453–1454. There are at least nine extant manuscripts of this translation, one of which was corrected by Regiomontanus and brought to Germany about 1468 (the Latin translation published with the editio princeps of the Greek text in 1544 was taken from this copy). Greek manuscript A itself was copied a number of times. Cardinal Bessarion had one copy prepared between 1449 and 1468(MS E). Another (MS D) was made from A when it was in the possession of the well-known humanist George Valla. The fate of A and its various copies has been traced skillfully by J.L. Heiberg in his edition of Archimedes’ Opera. The last known use of manuscript A occurred in 1544, after which time it seems to have disappeared. The first printed Archimedean materials were in fact merely Latin excerpts that appeared in George Valla’s De expetendis et fugiendis rebus opus (Venice, 1501) and were based on his reading of manuscript A. But the earliest actual printed texts of Archimedes were the Moerbeke translations of On the Measurement of the Circle and On the Quadrature of the Parabola(Tetragonismus, id est circuli quadratura etc.), published from the Madrid manuscript by L. Gaurico (Venice, 1503). In 1543, also at Venice, N. Tartaglia republished the same two translations directly from Gaurico’s work, and, in addition, from the same Madrid manuscript, the Moerbeke translations of On the Equilibrium of Planes and Book I of On Floating Bodies (leaving the erroneous impression that he had made these translations from a Greek manuscript, which he had not since he merely repeated the texts of the Madrid manuscript with virtually all their errors). Incidentally, Curtius Trioianus published from the legacy of Tartaglia both books of On Floating Bodies in Moerbeke’s translation (Venice, 1565). The key event, however, in the further spread of Archimedes was the aforementioned editio princeps of the Greek text with the accompanying Latin translation of James of Cremona at Basel in 1544. Since the Greek text rested ultimately on manuscript A, On Floating Bodies was not included. A further Latin translation of the Archimedean texts was published by the perceptive mathematician Federigo Commandino in Bologna in 1558, which the translator supplemented with a skillful mathematical emendation of Moerbeke’s translation of On Floating Bodies (Bologna,1565) but without any knowledge of the long lost Greek text. Already in the period 1534–1549, a paraphrase of Archimedean texts had been made by Francesco Maurolico. This was published in Palermo in 1685. One other Latin translation of the sixteenth century by Antonius de Albertis remains in manuscript only and appears to have exerted no influence on mathematics and science. After 1544 the publications on Archmedes and the use of his works began to multiply markedly. His works presented quadrature problems and propositions that mathematicians sought to solve and demonstrate not only with his methods, but also with a developing geometry of infinitesimals that was to anticipate in some respect the infinitesimal calculus of Newton and Leibniz. His hydrostatic conceptions were used to modify Aristotelian mechanics. Archimedes’ influence on mechanics and mathematics can be seen in the works of such authors as Commandino, Guido Ubaldi del Monte, Benedetti, Simon Stevin, Luca Valerio, Kepler, Galileo, Cavalieri, Torricelli, and numerous others. For example, Galileo mentions Archimedes more than a hundred times, and the limited inertial doctrine used in his analysis of the parabolic path of a projectile is presented as an Archimedean-type abstraction. Archimedes began to appear in the vernacular languages. Tartaglia had already rendered into Italian Book I of On Floating Bodies, Book I of On the Sphere and the Cylinder, and the section on proportional means from Eutocius’ Commentary on the Sphere and the Cylinder. Book I of On the Equilibrium of Planes was translated into French in 1565 by Pierre Forcadel. It was, however, not until 1670 that a more or less complete translation was made into German by J. C. Sturm on the basis of the influential Greek and Latin edition of David Rivault (Paris, 1615). Also notable for its influence was the new Latin edition of Isaac Barrow (London, 1675). Of the many editions prior to the modern edition of Heiberg, the most important was that of Joseph Torelli (Oxford, 1792). By this time, of course, Archimedes’ works had been almost completely absorbed into European mathematics and had exerted their substantial and enduring influence on early modern science. BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Original Works. 1. The Greek Text and Modern Translations. J. L. Heiberg, ed., Archimedis opera omnia cum commentariis Eutocii, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1910–1915). For the full titles of the various editions cited in the body of the article as well as others, see E.J. Dijksterhuis, Archimedes (Copenhagen, 1956), pp. 40–45, 417. Of recent translations and paraphrases, the following, in addition to Dijksterhuis’ brilliant analytic summary, ought to be noted: T. L. Heath, The Works of Archimedes, edited in modern notation, with introductory chapters (Cambridge, 1897), which together with his Supplement, The Method of Archimedes (Cambridge, 1912) was reprinted by Dover Publications (New York, 1953); P. Ver Eecke, Les Oeuvres complétes d’Archiméde, suivies des commentaires d’Eutocius d’Ascalon, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Paris, 1960); I. N. Veselovsky, Archimedes, Selections, Translations, Introduction, and Commentary (in Russian), translation of the Arabic texts by B. A. Rosenfeld (Moscow, 1962). We can also mention briefly the German translations of A. Czwalina and the modern Greek translations of E. S. Stamates. 2. The Arabic Archimedes (the manuscripts cited are largely from Suter, “Die Mathematiker and Astronomen” [see Secondary Literature], and C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, 5 vols., Vols, I-II [adapted to Suppl. vols., Leiden, 1943–1949], Suppl. Vols. I-III [Leiden, 1937–1942]). On the Sphere and the Cylinder and On the Measurement of the Circle; both appear in Nāţir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī, Majmū‘ al-Rasā’il, Vol. II (Hyderabad, 1940). Cf. MSS Berlin 5934; Florence Palat, 271 and 286; Paris 2467; Oxford, Bodl. Arabic 875, 879; India Office 743; and M. Clagett, Archimedes in the Middle Ages, I, 17, n, 8. The al-Ṭūsī edition also contains some commentary on Bk. II of On the Sphere and the Cylinder. Book of the Elements of Geometry (probably the same as On Triangles, mentioned in the Fihrist) and On Touching Circles; both appear in Rasā’il Ibn Qurra (Hyderabad, 1947, given as 1948 on transliterated title page). On the Division of the Circle into Seven Equal Parts (only Props. 16–17 concern heptagon construction; Props. 1–13 appear to be the tract called On the Properties of the Right Triangle; Props. 14–15 are unrelated to either of other parts). MS Cairo A.-N.8H.-N. 7805, item no. 15. German translation by C. Schoy, Die trigonometrischen Lehren des persischen Astronomen Abu ’l-Raihân Muh. ibn Ahmad al-Bîrûnî (Hannover, 1927), pp. 74–84. The text has been analyzed in modern fashion by J. Tropfke, “Die Siebeneckabhandlung des Archimedes,” in Osiris, 1 (1936), 636–651. On Heaviness and Lightness (a fragment of On Floating Bodies); Arabic text by H. Zotenberg in Journal asiatique; Ser. 7 13 (1879), 509–515, from MS Paris, BN Fonds suppl. Arabe 952 bis. A German translation was made by E., Wiedemann in the Sitzungsberichte der Physikalisch-medizinischen Sozietät in Erlangen, 38 (1906), 152–162. For an English translation and critique, see M. Clagett, The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages (Madison, Wis., 1959, 2nd pr., 1961), pp. 52–55. Lemmata (Liber assumptorum), see the edition in al-Ṭūsī, Majmū‘ al-Rasā’il, Vol. II (Hyderabad, 1940). MSS Oxford, Bodl. Arabic 879, 895, 939, 960; Leiden 982; Florence, Palat. 271 and 286; Cairo A.-N. 8 H.-N 7805. This work was first edited by s. Foster, Miscellanea (London, 1659), from a Latin translation of I, Gravius; Abraham Ecchellensis then retranslated it, the new translation being published in I. A. Borelli’s edition of Apollonii Pergaei Concicorum libri V, VI, VII (Florence, 1661). Ecchellensis’ translation was republished by Heiberg, Opera, II, 510–525. See also E. S. Stamates’ effort to reconstruct the original Greek text in Bulletin de la Societé Mathématique de Gréce, new series, 6 II Fasc. 2 (1965), 265–297. Stomachion, a fragmentary part in Arabic with German translation in H. Suter, “Der Loculus Archimedius oder das Syntemachion des Archimedes,” in Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik, 9 (1899), 491–499. This is one of two fragments. The other is in Greek and is given by Heiberg, Opera, II, 416. Eutocius, Commentary on the Sphere and the Cylinder, a section of Bk. II. MSS Paris, BN arabe 2457, 44°; Bibl. Escor. 960; Istanbul, Fatīh Mosque Library Ar. 3414, 60v-66v; Oxford, Bodl. Arbic 875 and 895. Various tracts and commentaries On the Sphere and the Cylinder, Bk. II, in part paraphrased and translated by F. Woepcke, L’Algebra d’Omar Alkhayâmmî (Paris, 1851), pp. 91–116. 3. The Medieval Latin Archimedes. A complete edition and translation of the various Archimedean tracts arising from the Arabic tradition have been given by M. Clagett, Archimedes in the Middle Ages, Vol. I (Madison, Wis., 1964). Vol. II will contain the complete text of Moerbeke’s translations and other Archimedean materials from the late Middle Ages. Moerbeke’s translation of On Spirals and brief parts of other of his translations have been published by Heiberg, “Neue Studien” (see below). See also M. Clagett, “A Medieval Archimedean-Type Proof of the Law of the Lever,” in Miscellanea André Combes, II (Rome, 1967), 409–421. For the Pseudo-Archimedes, De ponderibus (De incidentibus oin humidum), see E. A. Moody and M. Clagett, The Medieval Science of Weights (Madison, 1952; 2nd printing, 1960), pp. 35–53, 352–359. II. Secondary Literature. The best over-all analysis is in E. J. Dijksterhuis, Archimedes (Copenhagen, 1956), which also refers to the principal literature. The translations of heath and Ver Eecke given above contain valuable evaluative and biographical materials. In addition, consult C. Boyer, The Concepts of the Calculus (New York, 1939; 2nd printing, 1949; Dover ed. 1959), particularly ch. 4 for the reaction of the mathematicians of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to Archimedes. M. Clagett, “Archimedes and Scholastic Geometry,” in Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, Vol. I: L’Aventure de la science (Paris, 1964), 40–60; “The Use of the Moerbeke Translations of Archimedes in the Works of Johannes de Muris,” in Isis, 43 (1952), 236–242 (the conclusions of this article will be significantly updated in M. Clagett, Archimedes in the Middle Ages, Vol. II); and “Johannes de Muris and the Problem of the Mean Proportionals,” in Medicine, Science and Culture, Historical Essays in Honor of Owsei Temkin, L. G. Stevenson and R. P. Multhauf, eds. (Baltimore, 1968), 35–49. A. G. Drachmann, “Fragments from Archimedes in Heron’s Mechanices,” in Centaurus, 8 (1963), 91–145; “The Screw of Archimedes,” in Actes du VIII’ Congrés international d’Historie des Sciences Florence-Milan 1956, 3 (VinciParis, 1958), 940–943; and “How Archimedes Expected to Move the Earth,” in Centaurus, 5 (1958), 278–282. J. L. Heiberg, “Neue Studien zu Archimedes,” in Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik, 5 (1958), 278–282. J. L. Quaestiones Archimedeae (Copenhagen, 1879). Most of the biographical references are given here by Heiberg. S. Heller, “Ein Fehler in einer Archimedes-Ausgabe, seine Entstehung and seine Folgen,” in Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mathematischnaturwissenschaftliche Klasse, new series, 63 (1954), 1–38. E. Rufini, II “Metodo” di Archimede e le origini dell’ana lisi infinitesimale nell’antichita (Rome, 1926; new ed., Bologna, 1961). H. Suter, “Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre Werke,” in Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften, 10 (1892), in toto; “Das Mathematiker- Verzeichniss im Fihrist des Ibn Abī Ja’Kûb an-Nadîm,” ibid., 6 (1892), 1–87. B. L. Van der Waerden, Erwachende Wissenschaft, 2nd German ed. (Basel, 1966), pp. 344–381. See also the English translation, Science Awakening, 2nd ed. (Groningen. 1961), pp. 204–206, 208–228. E. Wiedemann, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften III,” in Sitzungsberichte der Physikalish-medizinischen Sozietät in erlangen, 37 (1905), 247–250, 257, A. P. Youschkevitch, “Remarques sur la méthode antique d’exhaustion,” in Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, I: L’Aventure de la science (1964), 635–653. Marshall Clagett b. Syracuse, 287 BCE, d. Syracuse, 212 BCE) mathematics, physics, pneumatics, mechanics. For the original article on Archimedes see DSB, vol. 1. The major contribution to Archimedean studies in the second half of the twentieth century is M. Clagett’s Archimedes in the Middle Ages. Other contributions have touched on partial or minor points, and the overall picture presented in the original article is by and large unchanged. The points emphasized in the present postscript are the alleged formation of Archimedes in Alexandria, his concern with astronomical matters, recent advances concerning transmission and authenticity of some of his treatises, the additional information gained by a new reading of the Archimedean palimpsest, a more satisfactory edition of the Arabic tract containing the construction of the regular heptagon ascribed to Archimedes, the edited tract On mutually tangent circles, and finally, the approximation for (3. Archimedes and Alexandria. It is usually assumed that Archimedes studied in Alexandria. However, no source asserts this and a critical assessment of the evidence commonly adduced suggests the contrary. Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca Historica,V.37.3) wrote that Archimedes invented the cochlias when he was in Egypt. As Archimedes wrote a treatise On spirals and the device was in fact extensively used in Egypt, the Diodorean claim is more likely his or others’ inference conflating two well-known facts, and at any rate it entails nothing about Archimedes’s studies in Alexandria. It is positively known that Archimedes addressed some of his works to Alexandrian scholars: Eratosthenes, Conon, and Dositheus. Eratosthenes was born in Cyrene, studied in Athens, and went to Alexandria not before 246 BCE. As a consequence, Archimedes could not have met him during his alleged Alexandrian formation: He simply addressed him as a personality of high institutional and scientific rank. Conon was very likely older than Archimedes and performed astrometeorological observations in Sicily, as Ptolemy’s Phaseis attests. Because Archimedes’s father was an astronomer, as noted in the prefatory letter of the Sand-reckoner, it is more likely that Conon and Archimedes were personally acquainted, if this ever happened, on the occasion of Conon’s stay in Sicily than during a hypothetical Alexandrian sojourn of Archimedes. Dositheus, whose observations too are recorded in Ptolemy’s Phaseis, was merely a substitute addressee after Conon’s death, and Archimedes’s prefatory letters appear to imply that he never met Dositheus. Finally, no sources at all support the commonly held view that some form of public or private teaching was established in Alexandria in connection with the activities of the museum. Archimedes and Astronomical Matters. Archimedes’s use in the Sand-reckoner of Aristarchus’s model is well known, as well as his attested interest in constructing a model planetarium. In the Sand-reckoner a remarkable feature is the estimate of the change in the apparent solar diameter when the observer shifts from the center to the surface of Earth. Two other items deserve mention. In Almagest III.1 Ptolemy quoted Hipparchus’s references to solstice observation reports by him and Archimedes that were supposedly accurate to the quarter-day. In the context it is clear that Hipparchus was talking about multiple observations. This would make Archimedes the first known Greek to have recorded solstice dates and times in successive years, not just in one particular calendrically significant epoch year as Meton and Aristarchus did. In Hippolytus’s Refutation of all Heresies, numbers are ascribed to Archimedes for the following: intervals between successive cosmic bodies, from Earth to the zodiac; the circumference of the zodiac; the radius of Earth; distances of cosmic bodies from the surface of Earth, the Moon and the zodiac being excluded. The numerals in the text are fairly corrupted and do not match, and the issue is complicated by the fact that the ordering of the series of cosmic bodies in (1) and (4) do not agree; Hippolytus surely drew from earlier epitomes. In fact, after suitable emendations, the two sequences of numbers in (1) and (4) can be made to agree and (1) has the form ma +nb, where m,n are integers and a,b are fixed lengths. The actual values of n suggest that Archimedes took up a pre-existing model, presumably of late Pythagorean origin, of cosmic distances arranged according to a musical scale, and adapted it to his own purposes, about which only conjectures can be made. A mark of Archimedean origin is that the numbers are named in accordance with the system of octads developed in the Sand-reckoner. Textual Tradition and Authenticity. Refined criteria suited to establish a chronological ordering of the Archimedean works have been proposed by Wilbur R. Knorr. The criteria are: The form of exhaustion procedure employed: The passage from the “approximation” form (allegedly the one at work in Elements XII) to the “difference” form and finally to the “ratio” form are successive refinements. This is the main criterion. The proportion theory employed: A pre-Euclidean proportion theory is at work in early works, whereas in Spiral lines the theory of Elements V is applied. The so-called lemma of Archimedes: It is introduced only in later works, whereas juvenile essays rest on the bisection principle implicit in Elements XII and later justified by Elements X.1. Resorting to mechanical methods as an heuristic background: This is typical of later works. The degree of formal precision in a proof: This increases after Conon’s death. Knorr’s main underlying assumption is that variations in the above usages should receive an historical and not a technical explanation. Terminological arguments have been developed by Tohru Sato supporting to some extent Knorr’s reconstruction. A distinction between an early and a mature group of works results. The former includes, in this order, Measurement of the Circle,Sand-reckoner, Quadrature of Parabola Props. 18 to 24, and Plane Equilibria I and II. Most of the mature treatises are ordered by internal references; the first and the last work in the series, which escape cross-referencing, would be respectively Quadrature of Parabola, Props. 4 to 17, and the Method. No one of the above criteria is conclusive, and the number of ad hoc assumptions and adjustments necessary to make the proposal a coherent whole reduces it merely to a plausible guess. Other scholarly contribution to problems of authenticity and transmission of the Archimedean corpus include: Knorr’s tentative reconstruction of the original text of the Measurement of the Circle, with particular emphasis on Alexandrian and late ancient editions and epitomes, and on the transmission of the resulting corpus of writings through antiquity and the Middle Ages; John Berggren’s analysis, based on internal consistency and mathematical relevance, of the spurious theorems in the Equilibria of Planes; Knorr’s reconstruction of a lost Archimedean treatise on the center of gravity of solids, with reduction to Archimedean sources of the whole extant tradition on the balance; by the same author, an assessment in the negative of the evidence about an Archimedean Catoptrics. The Archimedean Palimpsest. The Archimedean palimpsest reappeared in 1998 after it was stolen in the years around World War I. The considerable gain offered by the digital techniques employed in reading the underlying writing is balanced, at times overbalanced, by the dramatic decay of the material conditions of the manuscript. The very good photographic plates taken at the time of the discovery of the palimpsest, preserved at the Royal Danish Library in Copenhagen, Ms. Phot.38, and covering about two thirds of the relevant folia, are still an indispensable piece of evidence, as they portray the manuscript in a decidedly more acceptable state of conservation. It appears that the transcription of the first editor was fairly accurate: It is in principle to be expected that the text he procured will need only marginal corrections. Real advances can be hoped for only for those portions of text that were left unread by the first transcription. Only two, very short, fragments from the palimpsest have been edited so far, Proposition 14 of the Method and what remains of the Stomachion, and these provisional texts do not clearly distinguish the parts coming from a really new reading of the manuscripts from those in which resort to the photographs or to Johan Ludvig Heiberg’s text was necessary. A new edition of the Arabic fragment of the Stomachion is a desideratum. What remains of this work appears to refer to a square ADGB divided into 14 parts (see Figure 1, taken from the Arabic fragment), where E,H, M, N, C are middle points of BG,BE, AL, DG,ZG, respectively, EZ and HT are drawn perpendicular, A belongs to HK produced and O to BC produced. The Arabic fragment simply gives the values of the areas of the fourteen parts as fractions of the area of the whole square. Such areas turn out to be unit fractions of the whole; the only exception, the area of HEFLT, is written as a sum of unit fractions. The Greek fragment amounts to a short, initial introduction and to a partial construction of the diagram (the one implied by the Greek text actually makes AZEB a square). As a preliminary result it is proved that AB >BL, and as a consequence ∠AMB > ∠LMB, but then the text breaks off. The aim, stated by Archimedes in the introduction, is “finding out the fitting-together of the arising figures.” Just after that, Archimedes asserts that there is not a small multitude of figures made of them, because of it being possible to take them (the text is here hardly readable) into another place of an equal and equiangular figure, transposed to hold another position; and again also with two figures, taken together, being equal and similar to a single figure, and two figures taken together being equal and similar to two figures taken together-[then], out of the transposition, many figures are put together. (Netx, Acerbi, and Wilson, 2004, p. 93) One speculative possibility is that the Stomachion contained a first application of combinatorial techniques: to count in how many ways the initial configuration can be broken off into its constituent pieces and then recom-posed, with the pieces arranged in a different way. In Method 14, a passage unread by Heiberg, within a column of text that requires extensive restoration, reveals that Archimedes handles infinite multitudes of mathematical entities by setting them in one-to-one correspondence. One should not attach too much importance to this move as if it was an anticipation of modern set-theoretic treatment of infinities. The move adds nothing to the explicit character of Method 14, and in any case analogous features can be found outside Archimedes, for instance in Pappus, Collectio IV.34. The Regular Heptagon and Other Arabic Sources. A new edition of the Arabic treatise makes it possible to write in a correct form some passages in the construction of the regular heptagon ascribed to Archimedes. What follows should replace the text from “HD =DB” to “arc AH= 2 arc HB” in Proposition 17 (lines 14–33 of the second column on p. 225 of the original DSB article): Since ∠CHD = ∠DBT, and ∠CDH = ∠TDB, and HD =DB, then CD =DT, CH =TB and one circle contains the four points B,H, C, T. [Actually the equality CH =TB is of no subsequent use and the last statement follows directly from the equality of angles CHD and DBT.] Since CB.DB = AC2=HC2, and CB =TH, while DB =DH, TH.HD =HC2, and Δ THC ~ Δ CHD. So DCH = ∠HTC. But ∠DCH = 2∠CAH, so ∠CTH= 2∠CAH. But ∠CTD = ∠DBH, so ∠DBH = 2 ∠CAH, and arc AH = 2 arc HB. It may be added that the neusis involved in the construction of the heptagon can be solved in a straightforward way by a simple adaptation of the solution of the neusis reported in Pappus, Collectio IV.60, as a preliminary to the angle trisection. It turns out that the construction, by intersection of two hyperbolas, is identical with the one proposed by the Arabic mathematician al-Saghânî. The proof, if framed in analogy with Pappus, that the construction really solves the neusis is considerably simpler than that in al- Saghânî. The short Arabic treatise On mutually tangent circles, ascribed to Archimedes in the title, is a collection of fifteen lemmas concerning circles rather than a work with a discernible aim; only seven lemmas out of fifteen involve mutually tangent circles. If the original really dates back to Archimedes, what is read is most likely an epitome, possibly containing some accretions. A similar assessment should be extended to other compilations ascribed to Archimedes and redacted in the format of “Books of Lemmas,” such as the Liber assumptorum or the shorter version of the so-called Book of Lemmas whose longer version is credited to a certain Aqâtun in the transmitted Arabic version Two propositions of some interest can be singled out from On mutually tangent circles. The first is lemma 12 (see Fig. 2, representing one possible configuration). Two tangents AB and AG are drawn to the same circle, and the points of tangency B and G are joined by a straight line. From point D on that line another tangent is drawn, touching the circle at Z and intersecting the other two tangents at E and H. To prove that HD :DE =HZ :ZE. The easy proof draws the parallel ET to AB and argues by similar triangles and from the equality of tangents to a circle drawn from the same point. One interesting feature is that the lemma holds also when the two initial tangents are parallel: In this case the text displays two letters A denoting different points. The fact that Apollonius proposed similar theorems for conic sections in Conics III might be taken as supporting the Archimedean origin of lemma 12, because Apollonius shaped his Conics as a system of scholarly references to preceding authors. The second result is lemma 15, quoted also by al-Biruni and assigned by him to “Archimedes in the Book of Circles.” A broken line AGB, with AG >BG, is inscribed in a segment of circle (see Figure 3); bisect arc AB at D and drop perpendicular DE from D on to AG. To prove that AE =EG +GB three proofs are given, the first of which runs as follows. Take arc HD = arc DG and EZ =EG ; join DG,DZ, DA, DH, HA. A rather involved but elementary argument shows that Δ AZD = Δ AHD. Hence AZ = (AH =)BG. Summing EZ =EG to this equality, what is required is obtained. A very similar theorem is proven by Ptolemy in Almagest I.10 in order to calculate the chord of the half-angle. Because the latter result can be easily derived from the so-called Ptolemy’s theorem, the fact that Ptolemy himself does not do that suggests that the alternative approach he reports was the basis of earlier chord tables. Simplified variants of the same theorem as in Almagest I.10 are Prop. 14 of the treatise, ascribed to Archimedes, having the above-mentioned construction of the regular heptagon as Prop. 17, and lemma 3 of the Liber assumptorum. It is likely that both the theorem in the Almagest and lemma 15 were different cases of a more comprehensive Archimedean proposition; however, it is not said that he devised such a proposition for trigonometric purposes. Approximation for. . The approximation 1351-780 >ff3 >265/153 found in Measurement of the Circle, Prop. , appears to have received a fairly satisfactory explanation in the remark that the successive convergent fractions of the development in continued fraction of √27, when divided by 3, are 5/3, 26/15, 265/153, 1351/780. The approximated value ascribed to Archimedes in Diophanes20a (Diophantus, p. 22.16 Tannery) and implied for instance in Hero’s calculations in Metrica I.17 is 26-15. As these values can be obtained by a procedure of successive reciprocal subtractions, traces of which can be found in the Greek mathematical corpus, it is likely that the approximations at issue were obtained in that way. SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS BY ARCHIMEDES “On mutually tangent circles.” In Archimedis Opera Omnia, cum Commentariis Eutocii: vol. IV: Über einander berührende Kreise. Edited by I.L. Heiberg. Translated from the Arabic into German and with notes by Y. Dold-Samplonius, H. Hermelink und M. Schramm. Stuttgart, Germany: B.G. Teubner, 1975. The Arabic translation of the a tract ascribed to Archimedes. The edition proposes a German translation and a facsimile reproduction of the unique manuscript Bankipore 2468 rather than a critical text and apparatus. Dold-Samplonius, Yvonne, ed. “Book of Lemmas.” In Book of Assumptions by Aqâtun. Ph.D. diss., University of Amsterdam, 1977. Netz, Reviel, Fabio Acerbi, and Nigel Wilson. “Towards a Reconstruction of Archimedes’s Stomachion,”SCIAMVS 5 (2004): 67–99. New editions of fragments from the Palimpsest are available in the following articles. Netz, Reviel, Ken Saito, and Natalie Tchernetska. “A New Reading of Method Proposition 14: Preliminary Evidence from the Archimedes Palimpsest (Part 1).” SCIAMVS 2 (2001): 9–29. ———. “A New Reading of Method Proposition 14: Preliminary Evidence from the Archimedes Palimpsest (Part 2).” SCIAMVS 3 (2002): 109–125. OTHER SOURCES Berggren, John L. “A Lacuna in Book I of Archimedes’ Sphere and Cylinder.”Historia Mathematica 4 (1977): 1–5. A discussion of a specific problem in Archimedes’s writings is found here. ———. “Spurious Theorems in Archimedes’ Equilibria of Planes.”Archive for History of Exact Sciences 16 (1977): 87–103. See this text about some problems of authenticity in the Archimedean corpus. Clagett, Marshall. Archimedes in the Middle Ages. Vol. 1. TheArabo-Latin Tradition. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964; Vol. 2. The Translations from the Greek by William of Moerbeke. Memoirs 117. 2 tomes; Vol. 3. The Fate of the Medieval Archimedes 1300–1565. Memoirs 125. 3 tomes; Vol. 4. A Supplement on the Medieval Latin Traditions of Conic Sections (1150–1566). Memoirs 137. 2 tomes; Vol. 5. Quasi-Archimedean Geometry in the Thirteenth Century. Memoirs 157. 2 tomes. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976–1984. The entire mediaeval Archimedean tradition is now available in this masterful edition. Hogendijk, Jan P. “Greek and Arabic Constructions of the Regular Heptagon.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 30 (1984): 197–330. The Archimedean tract on the regular heptagon is best read in this edition. The proposed translation is from p. 289. Knorr, Wilbur R. “Archimedes and the Elements: Proposal for a revised Chronological Ordering of the Archimedean Corpus.”Archive for History of Exact Sciences 19 (1978): 211–290. The new chronological ordering of Archimedes’s works was proposed here. ———. “Archimedes’ Lost Treatise on the Centers of Gravity of Solids.” Mathematical Intelligencer 1 (1978): 102–109. ———.“Archimedes’ Neusis-Constructions in Spiral Lines.” Centaurus 22 (1978): 77–98. ———. “Archimedes and the Pre-Euclidean Proportion Theory.” Archives internationales d’histoire des sciences 28 (1978): 183–244. This article corrects in fact “Archimedes and the Elements,” which mainly focused on exhaustion procedures, so that what in the latter paper is adherence to Euclidean methods becomes in the present one a mark of pre-Euclidean provenance. Such a move is possible once entire portions of the Elements, for instance book XII, are regarded as simply reporting Eudoxean elaborations. ———. “Archimedes and the Spirals: The Heuristic Background.” Historia Mathematica 5 (1978): 43–75. ———.Ancient Sources of the Medieval Tradition of Mechanics. Greek, Arabic and Latin Studies on the Balance. Supplemento agli Annali dell’Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, 1982, Fasc. 2. The reduction to non-extant Archimedean sources of the whole extant tradition on the balance is argued at length here. ———. “Archimedes and the Pseudo-Euclidean Catoptrics: Early Stages. In the Ancient Geometric Theory of Mirrors.” Archives internationales d’histoire des sciences 35 (1985): 28–105. The nonexistence of an Archimedean Catoptrics, although attested by a number of sources, is argued in detail in this work. ———. “Archimedes after Dijksterhuis: A Guide to Recent Studies.” In Archimedes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987. A complete bibliography updated to 1987 can be found here. ———. “On Archimedes’ Construction of the Regular Heptagon.” Centaurus 32 (1989): 257–271. ———.Textual Studies in Ancient and Medieval Geometry. Boston, MA: Birkhäuser, 1989. Part III of this book presents a very ambitious reconstruction of the textual tradition of the Archimedean text Measurement of the Circle. ——— “On an Alleged Error in Archimedes’ Conoids, Prop. 1.” Historia Mathematica 20 (1993): 193–197. A discussions of a very specific problem in Archimedes’ writings is found here. ———. The Ancient Tradition of Geometric Problems. Boston, MA: Birkhäuser 1986. Reprint, New York: Dover 1993. Knorr offers a very good account of Archimedes’ mathematical techniques. Netz, Reviel. The Works of Archimedes: Translated into English, together with Eutocius’ Commentaries, with Commentary, and Critical Edition of the Diagrams.Vol. 1: The Two Books On the Sphere and the Cylinder. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2004. This is the first volume of a new English translation of Archimedes’s works. Neugebauer, Otto. A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. 3 vols. Berlin: Springer, 1975. Neugebauer offered the first discussion of the problem of the numbers for the distances of the cosmic bodies. Osborne, Catherine. “Archimedes on the Dimensions of the Cosmos.”Isis 74 (1983): 234–242. The difficult problem of the numbers for the distances of the cosmic bodies is tackled here. Schneider, Ivo. Archimedes: Ingenieur, Naturwissenschaftler und Mathematiker. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1979. The best overall account of Archimedes’s life and works after Dijksterhuis’s book. Sezgin, Fuat. Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums.Band V, Mathematik bis c. 430 H. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974. A fairly complete account of the Arabic Archimedes with detailed list of manuscripts is available here. Taisbak, Christian M. “An Archimedean Proof of Heron’s Formula for the Area of a Triangle; Reconstructed.” Centaurus 24 (1980): 110–116. ———. “Analysis of the So-called “Lemma of Archimedes” for Constructing a Regular Heptagon.” Centaurus 36 (1993): 191–199. This analysis of the Archimedean tract on the regular heptagon is very helpful. Tohru Sato.“Archimedes’ On the Measurement of a Circle Proposition 1: An Attempt at a Reconstruction.” Japanese Studies in the History of Science 18 (1979): 83–99. It is argued that the extant Latin translation by Gerard of Cremona was based on a better text than the extant Greek. ———. “Archimedes’ Lost Works on the Center of Gravity of Solids, Plane Figures, and Magnitudes.” Historia Scientiarum20 (1981): 1–41. Sato presents a different view from Knorr on reduction to non-extant Archimedean sources of the extant tradition on the balance. ———. “A Reconstruction of The Method 17, and the Development of Archimedes’ Thought on Quadrature. Part One.” Historia Scientiarum 31 (1986): 61–86. Linguistic arguments supporting the ordering proposed by Knorr are offered here and in the following article. ———. “A Reconstruction of The Method 17, and the Development of Archimedes’ Thought on Quadrature. Part Two.” Historia Scientiarum 32 (1987): 75–142. The article also contains a reconstruction of a lost Archimedean proposition. Vitrac, Bernard. “A propos de la chronologie des œuvres d’Archimède.” In Mathématiques dans l’Antiquité, edited by J.Y. Guillaumin. Saint-Étienne, France: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne 1992. Knorr’s unstated presuppositions and methods in establishing the Archimedean chronology are criticized in this work. Fabio Acerbi Syracuse Greek mathematician Archimedes is considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. He is also famed for his inventions and for the colorful—though unproven—ways he is believed to have made them. Early life Little is known about Archimedes's life. He probably was born in the seaport city of Syracuse, a Greek settlement on the island of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea . He was the son of an astronomer (someone who studies outer space, such as the stars) named Phidias. He may also have been related to Hieron, King of Syracuse, and his son Gelon. Archimedes studied in the learning capital of Alexandria, Egypt , at the school that had been established by the Greek mathematician Euclid (third century b.c.e.). He later returned to live in his native city of Syracuse. There are many stories about how Archimedes made his discoveries. A famous one tells how he uncovered an attempt to cheat King Hieron. The king ordered a golden crown and gave the crown's maker the exact amount of gold needed. The maker delivered a crown of the required weight, but Hieron suspected that some silver had been used instead of gold. He asked Archimedes to think about the matter. One day Archimedes was considering it while he was getting into a bathtub. He noticed that the amount of water overflowing the tub was proportional (related consistently) to the amount of his body that was being immersed (covered by water). This gave him an idea for solving the problem of the crown. He was so thrilled that he ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka!" (Greek for "I have discovered it!"). There are several ways Archimedes may have determined the amount of silver in the crown. One likely method relies on an idea that is now called Archimedes's principle. It states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up (pushed up) by a force that is equal to the weight of fluid that is displaced (pushed out of place) by the body. Using this method, he would have first taken two equal weights of gold and silver and compared their weights when immersed in water. Next he would have compared the weight of the crown and an equal weight of pure silver in water in the same way. The difference between these two comparisons would indicate that the crown was not pure gold. Archimedes also studied aspects of the lever and pulley. A lever is a kind of basic machine in which a bar is used to raise or move a weight, while a pulley uses a wheel and a rope or chain to lift loads. Such mechanical investigations would help Archimedes assist in defending Syracuse when it came under attack. Wartime and other inventions According to the Greek biographer Plutarch (c. c.e. 46–c. c.e. 120), Archimedes's military inventions helped defend his home city when it was attacked by Roman forces. Plutarch wrote that after Hieron died, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus (c. 268 b.c.e.–208 b.c.e.) attacked Syracuse by both land and sea. According to Plutarch Archimedes's catapults (machines that could hurl objects such as heavy stones) forced back the Roman forces on land. Later writers claimed that Archimedes also set the Roman ships on fire by focusing an arrangement of mirrors on them. Nevertheless, despite Archimedes's efforts, Syracuse eventually surrendered to the Romans. Archimedes was killed after the city was taken, although it is not known exactly how this occurred. Perhaps while in Egypt, Archimedes invented the water screw, a machine for raising water to bring it to fields. Another invention was a miniature planetarium, a sphere whose motion imitated that of the earth, sun, moon, and the five planets that were then known to exist. Contributions to mathematics Euclid's book Elements had included practically all the results of Greek geometry up to Archimedes's time. But Archimedes continued Euclid's work more than anyone before him. One way he did this was to extend what is known as the "method of exhaustion." This method is used to determine the areas and volumes of figures with curved lines and surfaces, such as circles, spheres, pyramids, and cones. Archimedes's investigation of the method of exhaustion helped lead to the current form of mathematics called integral calculus. Although his method is now outdated, the advances that finally outdated it did not occur until about two thousand years after Archimedes lived. Archimedes also came closer than anyone had before him to determining the value of pi, or the number that gives the ratio (relation) of a circle's circumference (its boundary line) to its diameter (the length of a line passing through its center). In addition, in his work The Sand Reckoner, he created a new way to show very large numbers. Before this, numbers had been represented by letters of the alphabet, a method that had been very limited. For More Information Bendick, Jeanne, and Laura M. Berquist. Archimedes and the Door to Science. Minot, ND: Bethlehem Books, 1997. Ibsen, D. C. Archimedes: Greatest Scientist of the Ancient World. Springfield, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1989. Cite this article Bibliography Burton, David. The History of Mathematics: An Introduction. New York: Allyn and Bacon, 1985. Johnson, Art. Classic Math: History Topics for the Classroom. Palo Alto, CA: Dale Seymour Publications, 1994. Internet Resources MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews. <http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians.html>. EUREKA! According to tradition, Archimedes discovered this first law of hydrostatics while trying to determine if a crown fabricated for King Hiero of Syracuse was solid gold or an alloy of gold and silver. While lowering himself into his bath, Archimedes observed that the water level rose. It struck him that the amount of water displaced equaled the immersed portion of his body. He was so over-come by this discovery that he immediately ran from his bath through the streets toward the royal palace shouting "Eureka!" (I have found it!). Cite this article
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What name, from the Greek for 'in low relief', is given to a plain white wallpaper with a raised pattern which can be painted over?
Can I paint over lining paper? :: DIY By Design DIY Tips Blog Can I paint over lining paper? :: Posted by: Admin on May 9th, 2012 Can I paint over lining paper? A popular search that often comes up is, “Can I paint over lining paper?” Many people are not sure what lining paper is meant for or how to use it. This post will hopefully answer any of your questions about lining paper and its uses. What is lining paper meant for Lining paper has always primarily been used to give a smooth base in which to wallpaper over, however, a few years back wallpaper wasn’t fashionable and plain emulsioned walls, were all the rage but people soon realised that their walls were not that perfect, hence why they had the woodchip or embossed anaglypta or highly pattered wallpaper they had on the walls. So, the answer was to line the walls before painting them with emulsion. So yes, you can paint over lining paper. About ten years ago it was rare to hang wallpaper but very common to remove wallpaper and line the walls and emulsion them. Even though plain emulsioned walls are still very common today there has been a return to wallpaper in the last few years and wallpapered feature walls have become very common, this is partly fashion but also cost, as wallpaper can be very expensive. Lining paper If you wish to emulsion your walls rather than wallpaper them but the plasterwork isn’t wonderful you can hang lining paper and then emsulsion over it, just remember, lininig paper will not give you wonderful smooth walls that are blemish free, it isn’t the quick and easy fix. You still need to fill and prepair the walls before lining them and you may still see some lumps and bumps. If this is the route you wish to take you need to know how to hang the lining paper. To cross line or not? Cross-lining is where the lining paper is hung horizontally rather the vertically like traditional wallpaper, normally if you are going to be emulsioning over the lining paper you could hang it as you would wallpaper, vertically. Once you have hung the lining paper you need to allow it to fully dry before you emulsion over it, this will take normally between 12 – 24 hours depending on drying conditions. Cost and budget We are all budget conscious these days and have to budget for all expenses, decorating is no exception. The cost of wallpaper these days can make decorating a room expensive, lining your walls and emulsioniing them is a good alternative to paying out for wallpaper for the entire room, having a wallpapered feature wall can make a focal point in any room. The advantage of emulsioning your walls is that you can change the look and feel of a room fairly cheaply just buy buying another colour of emulsion, you can keep on trend with the colour of the year rather than the latest fashionable wallpaper trend. Ware and tear if you have young children or pets may also sway your choice, if you pay £30 upwards for per roll of wallpaper and the kids decide to draw all over it you may not be best pleased! If they do it to an emulsioned wall you may not be best pleased still but it can be sorted out quickly and cheaply buy painting over it. June 1st, 2012 at 1:13 pm Hello. I have walls papered with lining paper and then emulsioned (matt paint). The finish is excellent and the wallpaper is very firmly on the wall. My question is: can I wallpaper over the top of this? I am converting the room into a child’s room and have found some great paper (black and white picture frames, for the child to draw/paint on) and want to just put this on one wall – not the whole room. Do I need to treat the wall first – or should I just strip the (perfectly good!) paper? Thanks! Admin December 6th, 2012 at 4:05 pm @Jo You can paper over emulsioned lining wallpaper, as long as the lining paper is sound there shouldn’t be any problems. No treatment is required before wallpapering. Sally January 24th, 2013 at 1:27 pm Hi I have painted lining paper a few times and find it soaks up the paint allot, someone told me you can use a mixture of flour and water to paint on before painting to save money! is this true or do you have any other ideas that would help? thanks! January 24th, 2013 at 1:42 pm @Sally I’ve not heard of that before, water and flour will make a paste, and a right mess! Two good coats of quality paint should be enough to cover lining paper. Pete February 22nd, 2013 at 8:28 am Hi. I have just moved into a house with lining paper in the lounge. We want to paint it a different colour. Whilst the paper is fairly flat in most parts there are areas where it isn’t smooth-manily small areas of depressions where the plaster hasn’t been great when it was papered. My question is whether there is anything I can do over the top of the lining paper to make it smooth? Thanks February 26th, 2013 at 9:14 am @Pete Some people may say fill the discrepancies with filler, but this is a decorators nightmare for when it comes to removing the lining paper at a later date. Also if you fill over the paper you will more than likely rip it and rough it up trying to rub the filler down which will more than likely show more than the discrepancies you have now. The only real option is to remove the lining paper where the discrepancies are, fill the walls and re-hang lining paper. If your painting a light colour you may not see the discrepancies as much, so best left alone sometimes. Gemma March 8th, 2013 at 8:09 am @Gemma Sadly lining paper will not cover the adhesive left from polystyrene tiles. You need to scrape it off or sand it, you may end up having to fill the ceiling also as you may damage the ceiling trying to get the adhesive off. I’ve had to do this many times. If you paper over it you will still see the lumps of adhesive show through. It maybe worth buying a heavy duty scrapper for a few pounds, these have a sharp blade and may tackle the job easier. sue March 11th, 2013 at 10:01 pm Hi, I have used lining paper for the hall, stairs and landing after I have filled and rubbed down. Can still see a few bumps etc… was told to put glue over the lining paper before painting as this would give a better finish… any feedback please? March 12th, 2013 at 9:20 am @Sue Not heard of this before, Sue, what kind of glue have you been told to use? I would imagine you would end up with the emulsion lifting the glue and leaving a right mess? You can paste lining paper with paste before hanging wallpaper though. Monica March 19th, 2013 at 12:05 pm Hi, I found your post very informative and interesting. I’m from Poland and here the lining paper is not so known and commonly used as in the UK therefore I haven’t had any experiences with it before. I want to paint walls in my room but their texture is not perfectly smooth and it won’t look nice when covered with paint. I was looking for ways to smooth them but wanted to avoid sanding and that’s how I came across lining paper. I’ ve read that you can buy thicker one to smooth the walls and then paint them. However, my concern is that you will still be able to see the joints? Or if applied correctly no joints will be visible? Please advice:) Thanks! March 21st, 2013 at 10:09 am @Monica Lining paper is NOT a miracle cure and you have to prepare the walls correctly, this means sanding them down otherwise the uneven wall surface will show through the lining paper and show once painted. Always prepare the walls before papering them. You can get thick lining paper (2000 gauge), this may lose some of the imperfections. Lining paper can shrink as it dries and the joints may show, My advice would be soak each length for a long time, a good 10 minutes, and soak each length for the same amount of time, butt the joints up and don’t overlap. If the paper shrinks, you can apply a surface filler in the joints and rub them down, but be careful you do not scratch up the surface of the lining paper. Tina June 25th, 2013 at 7:36 am @Simon Yes it could show, plaster has a very smooth finish whereas lining paper has a slight texture. Ideally all the wall should have the same surface before decorating. What is behind the lining paper on the top half, could this be taken off to leave plastered walls? Robert Wood July 10th, 2013 at 11:44 am Hello, The tilers have just finished my bathroom, three of my walls are half tiled. I have removed the old lining paper with a steamer but underneath is paint which has been done several coats. Some of the paint has flacked off especially where the shower screen is going to placed and the walls are flaky in places.. There are also fixing holes in the wall where the old towel radiator was. Whats the best smooth filler to use? Should i pva the walls before lining over the flaked walls? Whats the ideal bathroom paint to put on linning paper. What linning paper grade would be best? Thank you July 10th, 2013 at 2:09 pm @Robert If you use a smooth over filler, such as from polycell, you should be able to get away without lining the walls. If you want to line the walls use a general purpose / interior filler to smooth out the imperfections before painting. You can use a diluted PVA solution to help seal the walls if the paint is very flaky. If you go the lining paper route or the smooth over route you could use a cheap white emulsion to seal the walls before apply 2-3 coats of bathroom paint, as this can be expensive. As for the grade of lining paper, this depends on the walls it is going over but typically 1200 or 1400 should suffice. Vera July 13th, 2013 at 4:20 am Hi, I have very smooth emulsioned walls (matt) which I want to hang traditional pulp wallpaper on (Farrow and Ball type.) Do I still need to prime or/and line the walls to get a good result? Thanks July 18th, 2013 at 2:21 pm @Vera If the walls are smooth and in good condition you can simply wallpaper over the top of the emulsioned wall. A light sand down to remove and debris in the emulsion or on the wall should be enough. Alistair Lindsay July 28th, 2013 at 11:18 am Hi, hope you can help. I have given two coats of a coloured Matt emulsion to lining paper which had been painted much lighter, but it still looks really patchy. before I try a third coat, any tips. used a good quality roller with b&q own brand paint? July 28th, 2013 at 1:36 pm @Alistair When you say it looks patchy, do you mean the colour hasn’t covered and looks patchy or is it the finish looks patchy? I have never used B&Q own brand paint so am unsure of it’s opacity, it may not be as good as some of the more well known brands so more coats would be required to cover. If the finish looks patchy try rollering in a random way, for example roller a letter ‘W’, sometimes if you roller in straight horizontal and vertical lines it can show as ‘blocky’. Also, make sure you lap over enough from when you re-fill the roller and try and keep a ‘wet’ line as you cover an area. Further reading: July 31st, 2013 at 7:49 am @Pam If you mean the backing paper left after removing the top of the wallpaper then I wouldn’t emulsion over it. It may of been loosened as the top of the paper came off, the edges may become loose and the moisture in the emulsion could lift this backing paper. If you mean there is lining paper behind the wallpaper then depending on how much paste is left whether you paint it or not, again I wouldn’t as a rule. If you strip all the paper, let the walls dry and rub them down before painting, you shouldn’t have any problems. No, you need to use paste on a dry wall. keely October 1st, 2013 at 1:56 pm Hi I have just moved into a house and I have stripped 3 rooms in the house, the walls are really bumpy and have marks where the last owner must of tried filling and made a mess of it, if I sand these down and put lining paper up will it lessen the look of bumps and lumps, and I have heard that lining paper can bubble when painted is there anyway I can stop this from happening also what grade lining paper is best to use? Is the textured effect plain white wallpaper better to use? Thanks in advance October 3rd, 2013 at 2:59 pm @Keely If you rub down and fill the walls and then line them this will lessen the appearance of the bumpy wall. If the prep work is done and good paste is used and paper soaked long enough the lining paper should not bubble when painted over. I typically use 1400 gauge lining paper. If the walls are rubbed down and filled you could simply paint the walls, this would save any lining paper issues, if your worried about them. Carolyn October 10th, 2013 at 9:34 am These are great information, thanks! I have very textured walls and wanted to paint one wall with chalk paint–but because of the bumpy texture, writing on it would not look good. I was thinking of putting up Masonite but researched and found that because it is porous, chalk markers would not erase. I love the idea of paper wall lining (I’m thinking it’s not porous), but would it be simple to paint over with chalk paint after installation? (And perhaps painting over and over again within the next 10 or so years?) A worker at the Home Depot told me the paint may weigh it down and slide off my walls. :/ Jane October 22nd, 2013 at 7:30 am @Claire Leave it to dry and see if the bubbles go, sometimes when you emulsion over lining paper it can bubble but it can tighten up as it dries. If the bubbles do not go, you can take a sharp knife and cut the paper and try getting some paste behind the paper to stick it back. Anne October 30th, 2013 at 10:35 am Hi, I’m helping my daughter to line and paint the walls in her old house. The walls are uneven so the lining paper I put up had some gaps which I filled with a quick drying filler which can be painted over. Unfortunately I’ve marked the paper at the side of the gaps – not sure if it is excess filler or if I’ve scratched the paper when removing the excess filler. One coat of paint later, you can still see the marks on either side of the gaps. Do you think that a second coat of paint will cover up, or should I just bite the bullet and re-paper? Thanks for any advice you can offer November 2nd, 2013 at 12:19 pm @Anne It sounds as if the filler may of been hard to rub down, some pre mixed fillers are, I tend to use powder fillers so I can mix up the consistency I require, in the case of filling gaps in lining paper a fairly loose mix so it is easy to rub down. I would use a small foam sanding block that wasn’t too abrasive to rub down the filler. Some sandpapers can be to harsh for rubbing down, as it sounds as you have found out. As I see it, you have two choices, use a power filler and re-fill the gaps and over the scratches in the paper, then rub down and paint (the filler may still show). Or re-paper, you could hang the lining paper over what you have just put up, just ensure the edges of the paper do not lay on the ones under it as it could lift the first lot of paper off at the joints. I’m not sure painting over a second coat, or third for that matter would cover up the scratched paper, but you could always try painting over the filled areas first to see how it looks. Hope that helps. @Hayley Yes, it is OK to paint over the lining paper that has already been painted. As for changing colour, this post will answer that for you Tips for changing the colour of emulsion . Use a brush to cut in and a roller for going over the main part of the wall. Clif December 1st, 2013 at 2:04 pm 7 years ago in my living room I hung Vinyl. At some stage I peeled the Vinyl off, leaving the thin lining paper. I painted this as a ‘test,. couple of walls with plain white emulsion, relief walls with matt masonry paint (good quality).( all the paint was free ) I now intend to decorate and am thinking of hanging 1700 grade lining paper over the top and painting. Can you advise?..any forseeable problems??. My main worries are bubbling of the old paper and adhesion of the new. I might add that when hanging paper on bare walls, cause I take so long I paste both paper and wall. December 2nd, 2013 at 10:04 am @Cliff If you are happy the backing paper you have emulsioned over is sound and well stuck there shouldn’t be any problems. If you are unsure, best to remove it then put lining paper up. Do you need to go over existing paper with lining paper, can you not just re-paint over them? Clif December 2nd, 2013 at 1:57 pm As the lining paper from the old Vinyl is very thin I thought I’d redecorate with nice thick lining paper BUT you may well have a point..I will have to inspect the whole and see. I like cheap. Not to advertise but Poundlands Toolbox Masking Tape , 4 rolls for 1 pound is ‘ Low tack’. as I stripped and varnished all the woodwork 1996 ( 500 hours kitchen and bathroom alone) I always mask up first and this makes it cheap and easy, they also sell a pasting brush for 1 pound, 8 pounds in Wickes !!. Julie February 16th, 2014 at 1:00 pm Hi, I’ve just move in to a new house, the old occupaier has put lining paper over old painted walls. Then they have pained emulsion over the lining paper. The lineing paper is peeling from the top and all the wall feel like I can just ripe it off really easily. Why do you think this has happened? is there a why to fix it, or do I have to take it all off? February 17th, 2014 at 8:34 am @Julie The reason the paper is peeling off could be not enough paste used, wrongly mixed paste, badly prepared walls, if you can mix some paste up and stick the paper back you may be ok. However, the moisture from the emulsion when you paint the walls could loosen the paper even more. If it is that bad I would take it off and re-paper so I knew it would last OK. Tieyan February 17th, 2014 at 4:22 pm Hi, we’re moving into a flat and have started lining the walls in the living room, hallway and one of the bedrooms but there seems to be quite a lot of bubbling coming through, one corner of the bedroom still hasn’t fully dried after days, although there was a bit of mould in that area which I treated with mould repellent, do you think there could be a damp problem? And if we paint over it will it still dry properly and could the appearance of the bubbles be reduced? Thanks. February 19th, 2014 at 8:50 am @Tieyan Sounds to me as if there is a damp problem, the route of this issue needs to be sorted before decorating can be completed, otherwise it is just a waste of time and money and the mould will grow back. As for the other bubbles in the room, not seeing them I can’t say the cause, could just simply be air, or maybe it wasn’t left long enough to soak, if you cut the bubble with a sharp knife, you may be able to get some paste behind it and stick it down. Alternatively, the paper may have to be removed and new hung. February 19th, 2014 at 8:54 am @Jody Not seeing the area in question I can only assume the paper wasn’t left long enough to soak before hanging, or there is excess paste or air. You can try and piercing a the bubble and see what comes out, if it is air, cut with a knife and get some paste behind it and stick back. Adam February 20th, 2014 at 4:46 pm I have stripped wallpaper from two walls and found strips of polystyrene wall lining underneath. I am painting the other walls in the room. I don’t want to remove the polystyrene as it is useful where it is – can I stick lining paper over it and then paint the paper? If so what sort of adhesive should I use? Thanks. Janie February 21st, 2014 at 2:22 pm Heya. I was wondering why after I just painted lining paper with emulsion it started the peel off immediately at the slightest touch. The paint was dry, could it be to do with the paint that was under it? I just moved in to this house and it seems like a very cheap matt magnolia was used very sparingly to cover the walls. Thank you x February 22nd, 2014 at 8:52 am @Janie Without seeing it, it is hard to pinpoint the problem. If the paint is peeling off the walls it sounds as if the first coat wasn’t done properly. If the paint is ‘powdery’ then the paste wouldn’t of adhered to the wall well. The other thing it could be is the paste on the lining paper, if it wasn’t a good quality paste or mixed wrong the moisture from the emulsion applied on the top of the lining paper could soak into the paper and lift the paper off the wall. This could be the case if the emulsion is ‘watery’ like some cheaper paints are. It may be a case of having to remove all the lining paper, ensure the paint on the walls sound and good condition, the re-line and repaint. Karen March 7th, 2014 at 5:04 pm Hi, I have just had a bedroom decorated, with matt paint over old lining paper. In most of the room the finish is fine but on one wall it looks terrible when viewed from the side as you enter the room- incredibly patchy, with strange shiny places and dull bits. I have been over it now about four times and although it looks perfect when viewed face on, nothing is making any difference when looked at on entrance. It is a dulux matt paint in light and space range, and we have another from the range in another room which is totally fine. Could it be a problem with the lining paper? It looks horrible! March 9th, 2014 at 8:01 am @Karen It is hard for me to say without seeing it but it could be something on or under the lining paper that is affecting the emulsion, or how it is drying. As you say you have been over it four times it certainly isn’t a lack of paint that is the issue. A solution could be remove this one wall of lining paper to see if there is any issues on the wall, the re-line and paint. Corrie March 23rd, 2014 at 5:42 pm So i have moved into my first flat and am going to paint the walls, when I started stripping the walls I found that four (2bedroom, 2sitting room) are brick walls. Now i know that they can be papered as i have just taken woodchip paper off of them, what i am wondering though is can I use a water based paint on lining paper without it looking tacky or will the paper just rip as I paint it.. also any other advice would be great. April 19th, 2014 at 11:33 am @Debbie As long as the lining paper is securely stuck to the walls, painting over it shouldn’t peel the paper off the wall, as for painting over the cerise pink read this post http://www.rayfields.co.uk/blog/tps-for-changing-the-colour-of-emulsion/ Vanita June 2nd, 2014 at 10:29 am I steamed my wall yesterday to take down some wallpaper that was not hung correctly. In the process of steaming the paint (that was stuck to the old paper) has also come off. I now have a bare plastered wall all be it in good condition. My question is can I hang the new paper directly on the the plastered wall or do I need to primer and line the wall first, I want to finish the job this week as I have guest coming for the weekend and also work full time. I don’t want to spend a fortune as I had to buy more paper to correct the error. Vanita July 18th, 2014 at 4:04 pm @Alex Are they air bubbles? Could it be where the wasn’t enough paste and the paper has dried without sticking to the wall. Or perhaps some loose material on the wall? Or maybe filler that sucked all the paste up and allowed the paper to bubble. Have yo left the paper to dry after it has been painted? Sometimes it will shrink back as the emulsion dries. The only way to fix this issue if the above doesn’t work is to take a very sharp knife and to make a slit in the paper and by using a small paint brush get some paste onto the back of the paper and then push it back against the wall. You should also be able to see the reason for it bubbling or lifting. Helen July 22nd, 2014 at 6:51 pm Hi! I’ve got heavy duty Rock lining paper on my walls. Three walls are painted and one has vinyl paper. As I’ve hated the vinyl since I put it up last year I’ve just decided to remove it and paint the wall instead. Some of the lining of the vinyl paper is left on the Rock paper. Is there a quick and effective way to remove this before painting rather than the labourious method of gently scraping that we are doing right now? Obviously any moisture is going to lift the Rock lining,I suspect. Many thanks. August 1st, 2014 at 2:17 pm @Christine I’m not sure I would hang wallpaper over woodchip. The texture will more than likely show through the wallpaper. But to answer your question, Wallpaper paste will adhere to emulsion, and it will not lift off the woodchip with wallpaper paste. sue August 19th, 2014 at 4:33 pm Hi, I have some ready mixed wallpaper paste left over in a tub from about 10 months ago. It is good quality paste purchased with some harlequin paper as it was advised to use the “proper” stuff Question is I’m just about to line some other walls with lining paper, can I use this paste or would you advise I buy new? Thanks in advance. August 23rd, 2014 at 3:27 pm @Sue I would buy new paste. Lining paper needs to soak before hanging so a ‘mix your own’ paste is best. Tony August 25th, 2014 at 8:15 pm Hi, I have just stripped wallpaper from my lounge walls which has left rough plaster and flaking emulsion paint or bare plaster. The plaster is fairly sound and we want to paint over them. what can I Use to remove the wallpaper glue and what is best to flatten down the edges of emulsion paint left where it meets bare parts of plaster? I have been told that it may be easier to line with paper and then paint over this ? Advice please. September 6th, 2014 at 3:58 pm @Tony The best way is to use a sander on the walls once they are dry. You can fill the flaking paint edge then rub down. You can also use lining paper to give yourself a sound base to work from. Dorothy September 28th, 2014 at 12:46 pm hi can you help please. I have anaglypta type paper in hall which has been painted would like to change colour but notice wallpaper coming away at seams can get couple of fingers behind will this be ok to be pasted down again or wont it work or will it need stripped as it is hall and stairs and we are pensioners we feel too big a job to strip September 28th, 2014 at 5:23 pm @Dorothy Best thing to do is buy some border adhesive, overlap adhesive, this comes in ready mixed pots, you only need a small pot. Take a 1/2 inch paint brush, easy the lifted paper away from the wall, a scraper may be useful for this, apply the border adhesive behind the paper and on the wall, leave for a minute or two, then gently press the paper back to the wall with a sponge and ease any excess adhesive out. Wipe adhesive off the face of the paper, allow to dry for 12-24 hours, then paint Should do the trick, let me know!! sarah i December 4th, 2014 at 11:19 am @Catherine Yes you can paint over shiny (vinyl) wallpaper but it could need lots of coats of paint to cover and would need to be totally dry between each coat. There is also the possibility of the paint coming off as it will sit on top of the paper rather than soak in. Davey January 2nd, 2015 at 2:26 pm Hi there I’ve got walls lined with lining paper and decided the other night to repaint them, paint went on fine (in places) and I noticed some imperfections in the corners with bubbling. Anyway I painted over entire wall and all looked good, let it dry overnight and next day I’ve got what looks like cracking/broken egg shells like on parts of the wall? Any ideas why? And a fix? Thanks @Davey If I understand you correctly you have re-painted over lining paper? The only thing I can think of is that maybe there was some grease or dirt and the emulsion has reacted with this? If this is the case maybe cleaning the affected area’s off and then repainting them. I could understand this kind of reaction if the walls were painted direct on to plaster and it cracking but I assume the lining paper had been up for a while and just repainted. cathy January 7th, 2015 at 10:20 am hi, I have a bedroom which was papered with embossed paper – two of the walls were plaster and two wood. I stripped the paper off the plastered walls ok but it wouldn’t come off the wood so I thought I would use thick lining paper and paper over the embossed paper. I then emulsioned the walls with 3 coats of paint. Everything worked except one strip of lining paper which came unstuck. I tried re sticking it with paste but it happened again. Is there a special adhesive I could use? I used very thick lining paper because I thought the thinner stuff wouldn’t hide the embossed surface. Would perhaps PVA work as an adhesive? January 13th, 2015 at 2:11 pm @Graham You could gently rub the seams down, but be very careful otherwise you will end up with scratch lines rather than seam lines. You could feather them out with a filler then gently rub down, but again be careful about scratching the paper. roisin January 13th, 2015 at 6:50 pm Hi, I have just moved into a new house and want to start decorating. The walls are all painted without any lining/wallpaper underneath. I was thinking about either painting straight over, or hanging lining paper first and then painting over that. Obviously it’d be easier to paint only. But I was wondering what the advantages of lining are? Covering cracks, but does it also keep a room slightly warmer? And absorb sound to make it a little less echo-y? And if we do line the walls, can we do it straight over the paint? Thanks, Roisin January 31st, 2015 at 2:25 pm @Roslin The main usage of lining paper these days is to hide small hairline cracks, although lining paper is mainly used for creating a good sound base to wallpaper over. If the walls are good and miner repairs needed simply painting is the way to go, as for it’s acoustic and thermal properties, there are specialist papers for this although any paper would help. If you do line the walls you can paint over the existing wall finish, as long as it is sound. candy February 16th, 2015 at 3:44 pm I have removed old wallpaper from walls that have had wallpaper lining applied to the walls. Do I need to remove the old liner and reapply new? The walls have paneling so need some type of lining before new paper is put up. If I can use the old liner should I apply sizing so new wallpaper sticks? @Jason Allow the emulsion dry completely before doing anything, the paper may tighten back up. If it doesn’t tighten up use some border / overlap adhesive to stick back, you may have to use a sharp knife to cut the bubble to apply adhesive. jon b March 29th, 2015 at 5:32 pm Hi there you may have already answered this but I’m not sure so I apologise. I am wanting to use lining paper in my hallway, stairwell etc. My walls have the odd scratch and holes on them so i filled these. The walls also have large areas where paint has peeled in the past. I have scraped of most of the peeling paint as far as it is peeling but I am now left with a slight uneven surface. I have now painted over all of these walls with white matt emulsion hoping that lining paper will cover these imperfections. And am wondering whether there is any more I need to do before putting up lining paper which I will be painting after? Also do you have any tips/links for fitting lining paper? Many thanks for all of your information. May 30th, 2015 at 4:14 pm @John It sounds as if it could be the old paste, did it have a good rub down before painting? You could line the walls and then paper over them, or give the walls another rubdown to ensure they are smooth, then paint the walls again. If you line the walls the old adhesive shouldn’t cause any problems. chris June 4th, 2015 at 12:11 pm Hi, We have lined the walls of a new build making sure to size them first. The paper has been up for well over a month due to changing minds over the emulsion colour so is fully dry. However we’ve started to paint and the lining paper is coming away? Any ideas? Stacey June 4th, 2015 at 12:16 pm I have a large crack in my wall which has caused the painted lining paper (put on several years ago and otherwise adheres really well to the walls). Can I just fill it in or do I have to strip the paper too. I am planning to just repaint the walls and suspect the plaster is not 100%under the lining paper although the walls apart from the crack look fine. June 4th, 2015 at 8:06 pm @Stacey If you fill over the paper you aren’t really sorting out the issue. The filler really needs to go into the crack. Rake out crack and fill. It is always best to remove paper rather than fill over it. You could also damage the lining paper as you rub the filler down or fur it up, this would then show. Derek June 22nd, 2015 at 12:09 am Hi, I believe it is ok to wallpaper over emulsion painted lining paper but can you size the lining paper to help slide when hanging the new wallpaper Hi, I’ve got two short questions; 1) I’ve removed the wallpaper in my living room, and what’s left is what I *think* is lining paper. How can I be sure it’s not backing paper? Is there a way of telling? 2) The rest of the living room is painted on lining paper. Can I re-paint that (it’ll need several coats as it’s a very dark colour, and we’re going for a much lighter colour), or would it be best to strip the painted lining paper, apply new paper and then paint? Thanks in advance, and apologies if these questions have already been answered before. July 2nd, 2015 at 4:15 pm @Esme Lining paper is thicker than backing paper so the only real way is by looking and deciding which one it is, sorry no real way of knowing. You can paint over the rest of the lining paper, use a cheapish white or an obliterating emulsion to block out the colour, one coat maybe enough, then two of the new colour. If the paper that is on the wall is OK, I wouldn’t change it Esme July 2nd, 2015 at 4:29 pm Thanks for your fast response! I’ll have a proper look at home. The paper left on the wall is pretty smooth, without any traces of adhesive. It’s also the exact same width as the removed wallpaper, so I’m fearing it might be backing paper… :/ I guess I’ll try one or two strokes of lining paper over them and see how that goes. If it doesn’t come off, it’ll be good enough for me. Thanks again! If they were not there before you painted they should dry out OK. Amanda July 28th, 2015 at 11:50 pm I pulled down some wallpaper in a room I am repainting, as it was peeling and quite a mess. We found that there’s lining underneath. Some of the liner came off when we pulled the wallpaper down,but most of it stayed on. Will it be ok if I scrape the peeling parts off and paint over? I am worried that it will peel or BE a completely different color when all is said and done! -Thanks gonk August 10th, 2015 at 10:21 pm hi – The bedroom wall has paint over lining paper – seems in good nick, but the paint has quite greasy hand prints etc. Should I clean the lining paper with sugar soap or will that damage the lining paper? cheers August 14th, 2015 at 2:06 pm @Ruth It’s depends I guess, how much it will be used, it could get scratched a lot by the chalk? The paper should withstand it OK. Another solution is line walls and fit a board to the wall? Andy August 23rd, 2015 at 6:33 pm Hello, I’ve peeled the vinyl wallpaper off my bedroom wall and have exposed the backing paper. It is well stuck down and smooth. Can I emulsion over the backing paper or should I remove it to reveal the bare plaster beneath (no lining paper) and then paint the bare plaster instead? Many thanks:-) August 30th, 2015 at 4:48 pm @David You can use an acrylic paint, but I tend to use a bit of the colour I am going to paint the wall with to go over the filler, then a good two or three coats over the paper. As it is new paper it will soak in a fair amount. Kags September 4th, 2015 at 5:54 pm Hi, The house I’ve moved into had a lot of marks/stains on the walls. I cleaned them all with sugar soap and painted with emulsion and while it does look a lot nicer there are still visible marks coming through the paint. If I hung lining paper and painted that would this make a difference or would the marks just show through this as well? Kind regards Kags September 17th, 2015 at 3:43 pm @Kags It depends on what type of marks they are. If it is water stain, damp or mold you need to sort this first. You shouldn’t need to hang lining paper to cover marks. Chris September 21st, 2015 at 2:12 pm We have recently painted over lining paper. My wife has always used quite a small brush for emulsioning and never had problems before but this time even and after 3 coats, (one of a colour selected in error and 2 of the correct colour) there is significant shading. It almost looks as of you can see the brush strokes in the paint. When viewed from front on it is not as bad but on the stairway with a side on view it is very noticeable. Is it possible that a roller would be more suitable and do you think a further coat would solve the problem? The paint has been on for 2 months now so is completely dry despite the number of coats! September 23rd, 2015 at 3:16 pm @Chris Yes I think a roller would solve this problem, I find it far easier and quicker to cover large areas with a roller, it also avoids the shading or patchiness you mention. mark October 5th, 2015 at 4:26 pm I have a papered ceiling in my lounge which is an embossed anaglypta type paper painted in white emulsion. i want to change the paper for a different patterned/embossed one. the ceiling paper is sound but i’m not keen about stripping it off as i’m not sure of the state of the ceiling underneath (it does look sound though)- i think it may be lathe and plaster and i dont want to open up a can of worms when i strip the paper off! so i was wondering about papering over it. i was thinking of lining it first and then putting the new paper up so the original embossed pattern wouldnt show through the new paper. i know you should really take the old paper off first but do you think this would work? October 7th, 2015 at 6:49 pm @Mark The more layers of paper the more likely you are going to have problems. Will the new paper definitely cove the old pattern? If it was my house or job I would take it off and start from scratch. mark October 9th, 2015 at 10:29 pm been thinking about it and i’m actually not sure about papering over anyway as the original embossed pattern may leave some air pockets under the lining paper so i think i’m going to have to bite the bullet with it and strip the old stuff off. Thanks for the reply though. October 28th, 2015 at 2:21 pm @David Yes I don’t see why not. I prefer to use masonry paint or a oil based paint in porches if possible as they can get dirty or cold and damp. james litterick November 6th, 2015 at 7:13 pm i was wondering about your opinon of plaster paint. i have recently moved house and i have had to strip all the walls in the entire house as the previous tennant has intentionally pealed off one strip of wallpaper in each room so they are all stripped now and i was intending on puting up 1000 grade lining paper and then painting. however i have read some good reviews about lining paper as an alternative? any thoughts. also is 1000 grade lining paper ok as im new to decor and im a little worried about hanging lining paper and making a mess. November 7th, 2015 at 3:46 pm @James If the walls are OK, do some prep work and simply paint. If the walls need lining 1000 grade is thin but could be OK. whatever grade you use make sure you soak it for around 10 minutes each sheet and use plenty of good quality paste. Neal November 14th, 2015 at 9:55 pm The walls in a number of our rooms have hairline cracks that are visible through the old lining paper that has been emulsioned over by the previous owners. I stripped the lining papers and repaired the cracks . We also had rewiring and had casings done and replastered. End result is that we have a number of 4 inch vertical and diagonal areas of exposed plaster whilst remaining areas of walls have pretty sound lining paper. Should I: Strip all Lining paper off? Patch the areas with strips of lining paper Use thin coat of filler to try to level strips to remaining sound lining paper Before repainting. November 15th, 2015 at 9:13 am We have recently bought a new house, I think it’s either Edwardian or Victorian. We have had the master bedroom, bathroom, hallway, landing, stairs and reception rooms stripped of their wall paper, and have found mixed things underneath. I have a few questions: 1. The master bedroom has horizontally placed lining paper which seems in good condition but has been ripped in some areas when the wallpaper was removed, should we remove all of the lining paper and start again? Or just replace the. Torn or scuffed areas with sections of new lining paper? 2. The bathroom walls are back to a mixture of original lime plaster and then modern plaster that has ben skimmed in the bottom half leaving a ledge, I do not want to put lining paper in the bathroom, what is the best way to prep the walls before painting to get an even finish? 3. The reception rooms are back to the old lime plaster, this is a little uneven and rough, is it best to replaster or just line over this? In some areas the plaster has been pulled away leaving defects. 4. The hallway, landing and stairwell seem to be in slightly better condition, possibly more modern plaster, with a dadoe rail in place, is it best to just sand, prep and paint or would lining paper be best? Our decorator seems to want to just line everything, but has not mentioned prepping the walls at all first! I would really appreciate any help or advice you can offer, thank you! November 19th, 2015 at 5:15 pm @Laura Obviously your decorator has seen it, it is hard for me to say. Lining the walls will help ‘hold’ everything together as it were, and hide some of the defects in the plaster. sarafina samuel November 27th, 2015 at 11:33 am Hi, I recently just remove the previous tenant paper to discover how terrible the walls are. I am actually trying to save money, so I am looking the easy way out. I was told I can cover the walls with lining paper and paint over it and that’s job done. Is it this simple. I just want to see the walls looking a bit better, that’s all. can you advice, Rony November 28th, 2015 at 12:56 pm Hi there. I’m about to decorate my bedroom walls which have previously had vinyl silk painted on them (direct onto plastered walls). Who ever did the painting before did it with a brush so there are A LOT of brush marks giving a poor visual finish. I don’t want to roller over this as these brush marks will just show through again. I would like to hang lining paper and then put matt emulsion over that but my question is, Can you hang lining paper on vinyl silk walls ? My concern is that because the paint has quite a shine on it, the paste/paper wont stick. Thanks in advance. January 22nd, 2016 at 2:42 pm @Paul I would think most likely it is something behind the lining paper. I wouldn’t think it is either the paint or paper at fault? Could there of been something on the wall before papering? Best to stain block it a re-paint / touch up this area. Anna February 1st, 2016 at 12:57 pm Hello, First of all, I would like to say that I found your website very helpful and informative. Apologies if you had answer this question, but can I paint over painted lining paper if there are marks on it, such as something was taped to the wall and when they took it off it ripped out a little bit of lining paper. Also, as this is an old lining paper how do I deal with raised bumps which are already there. Thank you @Anna Glad you like the site, and will share with your friends You can paint over previously painted lining paper, where tape etc has been removed and torn the paper use a fine surface filler to fill these in, rub (gently) smooth and then paint. As for the raised bumps I’m guessing it is filler or rawl plugs under the paper, not as easy to remedy unless taking lining paper off and re papering. You could cut lining paper around the bump and remove to see what it is, then rectify it and fill over it before painting. Anne February 11th, 2016 at 6:11 pm Hi, a few years ago, I had a decorator put up lining paper and then he emulsioned it. Today, I emulsioned it and some of the seams have opened up. Why did this happen and what is the best way to stick them down without makin a gluey mess. Thank you. February 25th, 2016 at 2:22 pm @Carl Yes it is Ok to paint over silk emulsion. Sometimes the paint you apply may crack, I say sometimes as this has only happened twice to me in 20 years, you can key the surface to remove some of the sheen before painting. Neil moore March 5th, 2016 at 2:43 pm We’ve just moved into a flat which has textured Anaglypta,we cannot strip it because it’s stuck onto plasterboard. When we have tried the board paper and plaster start to come away. Could we put thick lining paper onto it to make it smooth and then paint it. March 18th, 2016 at 3:46 pm @Neil I never paper over paper. Soak the paper well, leave it for a while, then soak it again. Then leave again and try then. If the paper is soaked it should come of, just take your time and go carefully not to damage the underneath. Bernie April 7th, 2016 at 10:53 am We have just removed the wallpaper and its backing paper in our lounge. The walls are stud partition with plaster board. The plaster board has been painted sometime in the past. We have used a scraper to remove the paint that was flaking, but where the paint is still sound there is a ‘ridge’ between the remaining paint and the bare plasterboard. We want to emulsion the walls but know that these ridges will still be visible. Short of applying litres of paint remover or trying to lightly smooth the edges with filler and risk rubbing off the surface of the plasterboard do you have any suggestions. Is lining paper the only solution? @Jane It’s hard to say not seeing it for myself. Was the paint shiny before it was painted over? When you say wiped off, did it peel of come off on a cloth for example. What was it over painted with. My only guesses are the new paint was a non vinyl and it is coming off when damp and wiped, or the original paint was shiney and it the new paint is peeling off, this could be because the surface wasn’t prepared. But like I say hard to say without seeing. The solution I’m guessing would be to either repaint in a vinyl or bathroom paint, strip lining paper off and re-line and paint. Paul July 3rd, 2016 at 5:18 pm @Paul Was there any adhesive left on the face of the paper? If a ready mixed paste was used and left on the face of the paper it may cause a problem. Hope you get it sorted. Fran July 5th, 2016 at 4:50 pm Hi my son has decided to paint the room in his flat the walls were cream colour beforehand and he’s painting them white now using a Matt emulsion.. I think he has used too much paint because a large area has come away .. He’s made the mistake of peeling the paint off thus taking the lining paper off and revealing the plaster underneath.. Now will this area have to be lined again or could he just wait for it to totally dry and sandpaper down the edges of the paint and re paint the area ? Any help is very much appreciated.. Thank you July 9th, 2016 at 1:58 pm @Fran The best solution would be to re-line. Filling and or sanding down the edges may still result in the patch being visible. Iain August 9th, 2016 at 12:04 pm Hi, I’ve just lined a room that was previously painted with a gloss type paint in years past with lining paper (vertically) ahead of emulsion. However, my wife has now seen a wallpaper she wants to put on one wall that is a paste-the-wall type. I’m no fan of wallpapering as it is and have never used PTW before. Can I use it as directed without fear of a massive foul up, or should I treat the application differently somehow (e.g. just paste it as normal)? I’m concerned that the lining paper will make for an unstable base once soaked with adhesive again. Thanks. August 10th, 2016 at 3:22 pm @Iain As long as the lining paper is stuck well and dry it should be OK to paste the wall. I prefer to paste the paper myself even for paste the wall, but it’s personal preference really. Carole August 23rd, 2016 at 12:31 pm Hi We’ve just decorated my sons bedroom with lining paper but there are still patches of wet paper in odd areas.(24 hours ago)Some of the areas that are still wet were painted with a damp seal paint but some have dried . When will we be able to paint the walls and will it affect it if we paint over the wet parts. Thanks August 25th, 2016 at 11:43 am @Lionel Roller. Brushes can leave it patchy, stripes and brush marks. Rollers will give s far more even coat. And it’s quicker. Lyn August 25th, 2016 at 6:27 pm Hi I’ve stripped very old, emulsioned embossed wallpaper off my parents bedroom wall today and discovered even older (but well done) painted lining paper underneath. I’m happy to paint over this but it is covered in gunky and sticky old wallpaper paste. Can you tell me the most effective way to remove this? I’m thinking sugar soap, but would I need to rinse it off before painting? I don’t know what the paint is on the lining paper but it must be at least 40 years old. If I do manage to remove the old paste, would a modern matt emulsion react to it? Many thanks! August 25th, 2016 at 9:32 pm @Lyn Sugar soap should remove old paste. Be aware that with the amount of water used may lift the lining paper. If it’s still sound when you have removed paste allow the wall and lining paper to dry fully for 24-48 hours before emulsioning. Should be ok. Suzy September 4th, 2016 at 9:47 pm Hello! I’m renovating an old Victorian cottage that has thick lining paper on the living room ceiling which has several ripples/ long bubbles. Can it be repaired or do I need to strip it all off? I’m worried that it might take off the old lath and plaster with it and could be a big job as remainder of room is covered with lining paper too… Any advice gratefully received! September 5th, 2016 at 1:42 am Hi. I have a good idea of what to do from all of the great answers here. However, I just want to make sure that I understand completely what it is that I need to do. Our family room walls were paneled; actually more of a wide bead board, and the indentations are minimal, much less than 1/4 inch. We’ve removed two walls of paneling and scraped off the very old wallpaper. The walls are not in great shape so we are going to patch, sand and apply liner paper. A few questions: After applying the liner paper, we are going to paint using a similar color to compliment the wallpaper, in case of any gaps. Do we need to apply anything else to the painted liner before wallpapering? Do we have to apply sizing after painting, or can we paste and wallpaper directly onto the painted liner paper? We are thinking about leaving the bead board up on one wall and covering it with the liner paper and then applying the wallpaper. Do we need to apply anything to the beadboard first? It is in good condtion and I don’t think that the lines in the beadboard will show through the liner paper. Thanks very much.
Anaglypta
What was on the banned 'B' side of Jasper Carrot's 1975 hit record Funky Moped?
Can I paint over lining paper? :: DIY By Design DIY Tips Blog Can I paint over lining paper? :: Posted by: Admin on May 9th, 2012 Can I paint over lining paper? A popular search that often comes up is, “Can I paint over lining paper?” Many people are not sure what lining paper is meant for or how to use it. This post will hopefully answer any of your questions about lining paper and its uses. What is lining paper meant for Lining paper has always primarily been used to give a smooth base in which to wallpaper over, however, a few years back wallpaper wasn’t fashionable and plain emulsioned walls, were all the rage but people soon realised that their walls were not that perfect, hence why they had the woodchip or embossed anaglypta or highly pattered wallpaper they had on the walls. So, the answer was to line the walls before painting them with emulsion. So yes, you can paint over lining paper. About ten years ago it was rare to hang wallpaper but very common to remove wallpaper and line the walls and emulsion them. Even though plain emulsioned walls are still very common today there has been a return to wallpaper in the last few years and wallpapered feature walls have become very common, this is partly fashion but also cost, as wallpaper can be very expensive. Lining paper If you wish to emulsion your walls rather than wallpaper them but the plasterwork isn’t wonderful you can hang lining paper and then emsulsion over it, just remember, lininig paper will not give you wonderful smooth walls that are blemish free, it isn’t the quick and easy fix. You still need to fill and prepair the walls before lining them and you may still see some lumps and bumps. If this is the route you wish to take you need to know how to hang the lining paper. To cross line or not? Cross-lining is where the lining paper is hung horizontally rather the vertically like traditional wallpaper, normally if you are going to be emulsioning over the lining paper you could hang it as you would wallpaper, vertically. Once you have hung the lining paper you need to allow it to fully dry before you emulsion over it, this will take normally between 12 – 24 hours depending on drying conditions. Cost and budget We are all budget conscious these days and have to budget for all expenses, decorating is no exception. The cost of wallpaper these days can make decorating a room expensive, lining your walls and emulsioniing them is a good alternative to paying out for wallpaper for the entire room, having a wallpapered feature wall can make a focal point in any room. The advantage of emulsioning your walls is that you can change the look and feel of a room fairly cheaply just buy buying another colour of emulsion, you can keep on trend with the colour of the year rather than the latest fashionable wallpaper trend. Ware and tear if you have young children or pets may also sway your choice, if you pay £30 upwards for per roll of wallpaper and the kids decide to draw all over it you may not be best pleased! If they do it to an emulsioned wall you may not be best pleased still but it can be sorted out quickly and cheaply buy painting over it. June 1st, 2012 at 1:13 pm Hello. I have walls papered with lining paper and then emulsioned (matt paint). The finish is excellent and the wallpaper is very firmly on the wall. My question is: can I wallpaper over the top of this? I am converting the room into a child’s room and have found some great paper (black and white picture frames, for the child to draw/paint on) and want to just put this on one wall – not the whole room. Do I need to treat the wall first – or should I just strip the (perfectly good!) paper? Thanks! Admin December 6th, 2012 at 4:05 pm @Jo You can paper over emulsioned lining wallpaper, as long as the lining paper is sound there shouldn’t be any problems. No treatment is required before wallpapering. Sally January 24th, 2013 at 1:27 pm Hi I have painted lining paper a few times and find it soaks up the paint allot, someone told me you can use a mixture of flour and water to paint on before painting to save money! is this true or do you have any other ideas that would help? thanks! January 24th, 2013 at 1:42 pm @Sally I’ve not heard of that before, water and flour will make a paste, and a right mess! Two good coats of quality paint should be enough to cover lining paper. Pete February 22nd, 2013 at 8:28 am Hi. I have just moved into a house with lining paper in the lounge. We want to paint it a different colour. Whilst the paper is fairly flat in most parts there are areas where it isn’t smooth-manily small areas of depressions where the plaster hasn’t been great when it was papered. My question is whether there is anything I can do over the top of the lining paper to make it smooth? Thanks February 26th, 2013 at 9:14 am @Pete Some people may say fill the discrepancies with filler, but this is a decorators nightmare for when it comes to removing the lining paper at a later date. Also if you fill over the paper you will more than likely rip it and rough it up trying to rub the filler down which will more than likely show more than the discrepancies you have now. The only real option is to remove the lining paper where the discrepancies are, fill the walls and re-hang lining paper. If your painting a light colour you may not see the discrepancies as much, so best left alone sometimes. Gemma March 8th, 2013 at 8:09 am @Gemma Sadly lining paper will not cover the adhesive left from polystyrene tiles. You need to scrape it off or sand it, you may end up having to fill the ceiling also as you may damage the ceiling trying to get the adhesive off. I’ve had to do this many times. If you paper over it you will still see the lumps of adhesive show through. It maybe worth buying a heavy duty scrapper for a few pounds, these have a sharp blade and may tackle the job easier. sue March 11th, 2013 at 10:01 pm Hi, I have used lining paper for the hall, stairs and landing after I have filled and rubbed down. Can still see a few bumps etc… was told to put glue over the lining paper before painting as this would give a better finish… any feedback please? March 12th, 2013 at 9:20 am @Sue Not heard of this before, Sue, what kind of glue have you been told to use? I would imagine you would end up with the emulsion lifting the glue and leaving a right mess? You can paste lining paper with paste before hanging wallpaper though. Monica March 19th, 2013 at 12:05 pm Hi, I found your post very informative and interesting. I’m from Poland and here the lining paper is not so known and commonly used as in the UK therefore I haven’t had any experiences with it before. I want to paint walls in my room but their texture is not perfectly smooth and it won’t look nice when covered with paint. I was looking for ways to smooth them but wanted to avoid sanding and that’s how I came across lining paper. I’ ve read that you can buy thicker one to smooth the walls and then paint them. However, my concern is that you will still be able to see the joints? Or if applied correctly no joints will be visible? Please advice:) Thanks! March 21st, 2013 at 10:09 am @Monica Lining paper is NOT a miracle cure and you have to prepare the walls correctly, this means sanding them down otherwise the uneven wall surface will show through the lining paper and show once painted. Always prepare the walls before papering them. You can get thick lining paper (2000 gauge), this may lose some of the imperfections. Lining paper can shrink as it dries and the joints may show, My advice would be soak each length for a long time, a good 10 minutes, and soak each length for the same amount of time, butt the joints up and don’t overlap. If the paper shrinks, you can apply a surface filler in the joints and rub them down, but be careful you do not scratch up the surface of the lining paper. Tina June 25th, 2013 at 7:36 am @Simon Yes it could show, plaster has a very smooth finish whereas lining paper has a slight texture. Ideally all the wall should have the same surface before decorating. What is behind the lining paper on the top half, could this be taken off to leave plastered walls? Robert Wood July 10th, 2013 at 11:44 am Hello, The tilers have just finished my bathroom, three of my walls are half tiled. I have removed the old lining paper with a steamer but underneath is paint which has been done several coats. Some of the paint has flacked off especially where the shower screen is going to placed and the walls are flaky in places.. There are also fixing holes in the wall where the old towel radiator was. Whats the best smooth filler to use? Should i pva the walls before lining over the flaked walls? Whats the ideal bathroom paint to put on linning paper. What linning paper grade would be best? Thank you July 10th, 2013 at 2:09 pm @Robert If you use a smooth over filler, such as from polycell, you should be able to get away without lining the walls. If you want to line the walls use a general purpose / interior filler to smooth out the imperfections before painting. You can use a diluted PVA solution to help seal the walls if the paint is very flaky. If you go the lining paper route or the smooth over route you could use a cheap white emulsion to seal the walls before apply 2-3 coats of bathroom paint, as this can be expensive. As for the grade of lining paper, this depends on the walls it is going over but typically 1200 or 1400 should suffice. Vera July 13th, 2013 at 4:20 am Hi, I have very smooth emulsioned walls (matt) which I want to hang traditional pulp wallpaper on (Farrow and Ball type.) Do I still need to prime or/and line the walls to get a good result? Thanks July 18th, 2013 at 2:21 pm @Vera If the walls are smooth and in good condition you can simply wallpaper over the top of the emulsioned wall. A light sand down to remove and debris in the emulsion or on the wall should be enough. Alistair Lindsay July 28th, 2013 at 11:18 am Hi, hope you can help. I have given two coats of a coloured Matt emulsion to lining paper which had been painted much lighter, but it still looks really patchy. before I try a third coat, any tips. used a good quality roller with b&q own brand paint? July 28th, 2013 at 1:36 pm @Alistair When you say it looks patchy, do you mean the colour hasn’t covered and looks patchy or is it the finish looks patchy? I have never used B&Q own brand paint so am unsure of it’s opacity, it may not be as good as some of the more well known brands so more coats would be required to cover. If the finish looks patchy try rollering in a random way, for example roller a letter ‘W’, sometimes if you roller in straight horizontal and vertical lines it can show as ‘blocky’. Also, make sure you lap over enough from when you re-fill the roller and try and keep a ‘wet’ line as you cover an area. Further reading: July 31st, 2013 at 7:49 am @Pam If you mean the backing paper left after removing the top of the wallpaper then I wouldn’t emulsion over it. It may of been loosened as the top of the paper came off, the edges may become loose and the moisture in the emulsion could lift this backing paper. If you mean there is lining paper behind the wallpaper then depending on how much paste is left whether you paint it or not, again I wouldn’t as a rule. If you strip all the paper, let the walls dry and rub them down before painting, you shouldn’t have any problems. No, you need to use paste on a dry wall. keely October 1st, 2013 at 1:56 pm Hi I have just moved into a house and I have stripped 3 rooms in the house, the walls are really bumpy and have marks where the last owner must of tried filling and made a mess of it, if I sand these down and put lining paper up will it lessen the look of bumps and lumps, and I have heard that lining paper can bubble when painted is there anyway I can stop this from happening also what grade lining paper is best to use? Is the textured effect plain white wallpaper better to use? Thanks in advance October 3rd, 2013 at 2:59 pm @Keely If you rub down and fill the walls and then line them this will lessen the appearance of the bumpy wall. If the prep work is done and good paste is used and paper soaked long enough the lining paper should not bubble when painted over. I typically use 1400 gauge lining paper. If the walls are rubbed down and filled you could simply paint the walls, this would save any lining paper issues, if your worried about them. Carolyn October 10th, 2013 at 9:34 am These are great information, thanks! I have very textured walls and wanted to paint one wall with chalk paint–but because of the bumpy texture, writing on it would not look good. I was thinking of putting up Masonite but researched and found that because it is porous, chalk markers would not erase. I love the idea of paper wall lining (I’m thinking it’s not porous), but would it be simple to paint over with chalk paint after installation? (And perhaps painting over and over again within the next 10 or so years?) A worker at the Home Depot told me the paint may weigh it down and slide off my walls. :/ Jane October 22nd, 2013 at 7:30 am @Claire Leave it to dry and see if the bubbles go, sometimes when you emulsion over lining paper it can bubble but it can tighten up as it dries. If the bubbles do not go, you can take a sharp knife and cut the paper and try getting some paste behind the paper to stick it back. Anne October 30th, 2013 at 10:35 am Hi, I’m helping my daughter to line and paint the walls in her old house. The walls are uneven so the lining paper I put up had some gaps which I filled with a quick drying filler which can be painted over. Unfortunately I’ve marked the paper at the side of the gaps – not sure if it is excess filler or if I’ve scratched the paper when removing the excess filler. One coat of paint later, you can still see the marks on either side of the gaps. Do you think that a second coat of paint will cover up, or should I just bite the bullet and re-paper? Thanks for any advice you can offer November 2nd, 2013 at 12:19 pm @Anne It sounds as if the filler may of been hard to rub down, some pre mixed fillers are, I tend to use powder fillers so I can mix up the consistency I require, in the case of filling gaps in lining paper a fairly loose mix so it is easy to rub down. I would use a small foam sanding block that wasn’t too abrasive to rub down the filler. Some sandpapers can be to harsh for rubbing down, as it sounds as you have found out. As I see it, you have two choices, use a power filler and re-fill the gaps and over the scratches in the paper, then rub down and paint (the filler may still show). Or re-paper, you could hang the lining paper over what you have just put up, just ensure the edges of the paper do not lay on the ones under it as it could lift the first lot of paper off at the joints. I’m not sure painting over a second coat, or third for that matter would cover up the scratched paper, but you could always try painting over the filled areas first to see how it looks. Hope that helps. @Hayley Yes, it is OK to paint over the lining paper that has already been painted. As for changing colour, this post will answer that for you Tips for changing the colour of emulsion . Use a brush to cut in and a roller for going over the main part of the wall. Clif December 1st, 2013 at 2:04 pm 7 years ago in my living room I hung Vinyl. At some stage I peeled the Vinyl off, leaving the thin lining paper. I painted this as a ‘test,. couple of walls with plain white emulsion, relief walls with matt masonry paint (good quality).( all the paint was free ) I now intend to decorate and am thinking of hanging 1700 grade lining paper over the top and painting. Can you advise?..any forseeable problems??. My main worries are bubbling of the old paper and adhesion of the new. I might add that when hanging paper on bare walls, cause I take so long I paste both paper and wall. December 2nd, 2013 at 10:04 am @Cliff If you are happy the backing paper you have emulsioned over is sound and well stuck there shouldn’t be any problems. If you are unsure, best to remove it then put lining paper up. Do you need to go over existing paper with lining paper, can you not just re-paint over them? Clif December 2nd, 2013 at 1:57 pm As the lining paper from the old Vinyl is very thin I thought I’d redecorate with nice thick lining paper BUT you may well have a point..I will have to inspect the whole and see. I like cheap. Not to advertise but Poundlands Toolbox Masking Tape , 4 rolls for 1 pound is ‘ Low tack’. as I stripped and varnished all the woodwork 1996 ( 500 hours kitchen and bathroom alone) I always mask up first and this makes it cheap and easy, they also sell a pasting brush for 1 pound, 8 pounds in Wickes !!. Julie February 16th, 2014 at 1:00 pm Hi, I’ve just move in to a new house, the old occupaier has put lining paper over old painted walls. Then they have pained emulsion over the lining paper. The lineing paper is peeling from the top and all the wall feel like I can just ripe it off really easily. Why do you think this has happened? is there a why to fix it, or do I have to take it all off? February 17th, 2014 at 8:34 am @Julie The reason the paper is peeling off could be not enough paste used, wrongly mixed paste, badly prepared walls, if you can mix some paste up and stick the paper back you may be ok. However, the moisture from the emulsion when you paint the walls could loosen the paper even more. If it is that bad I would take it off and re-paper so I knew it would last OK. Tieyan February 17th, 2014 at 4:22 pm Hi, we’re moving into a flat and have started lining the walls in the living room, hallway and one of the bedrooms but there seems to be quite a lot of bubbling coming through, one corner of the bedroom still hasn’t fully dried after days, although there was a bit of mould in that area which I treated with mould repellent, do you think there could be a damp problem? And if we paint over it will it still dry properly and could the appearance of the bubbles be reduced? Thanks. February 19th, 2014 at 8:50 am @Tieyan Sounds to me as if there is a damp problem, the route of this issue needs to be sorted before decorating can be completed, otherwise it is just a waste of time and money and the mould will grow back. As for the other bubbles in the room, not seeing them I can’t say the cause, could just simply be air, or maybe it wasn’t left long enough to soak, if you cut the bubble with a sharp knife, you may be able to get some paste behind it and stick it down. Alternatively, the paper may have to be removed and new hung. February 19th, 2014 at 8:54 am @Jody Not seeing the area in question I can only assume the paper wasn’t left long enough to soak before hanging, or there is excess paste or air. You can try and piercing a the bubble and see what comes out, if it is air, cut with a knife and get some paste behind it and stick back. Adam February 20th, 2014 at 4:46 pm I have stripped wallpaper from two walls and found strips of polystyrene wall lining underneath. I am painting the other walls in the room. I don’t want to remove the polystyrene as it is useful where it is – can I stick lining paper over it and then paint the paper? If so what sort of adhesive should I use? Thanks. Janie February 21st, 2014 at 2:22 pm Heya. I was wondering why after I just painted lining paper with emulsion it started the peel off immediately at the slightest touch. The paint was dry, could it be to do with the paint that was under it? I just moved in to this house and it seems like a very cheap matt magnolia was used very sparingly to cover the walls. Thank you x February 22nd, 2014 at 8:52 am @Janie Without seeing it, it is hard to pinpoint the problem. If the paint is peeling off the walls it sounds as if the first coat wasn’t done properly. If the paint is ‘powdery’ then the paste wouldn’t of adhered to the wall well. The other thing it could be is the paste on the lining paper, if it wasn’t a good quality paste or mixed wrong the moisture from the emulsion applied on the top of the lining paper could soak into the paper and lift the paper off the wall. This could be the case if the emulsion is ‘watery’ like some cheaper paints are. It may be a case of having to remove all the lining paper, ensure the paint on the walls sound and good condition, the re-line and repaint. Karen March 7th, 2014 at 5:04 pm Hi, I have just had a bedroom decorated, with matt paint over old lining paper. In most of the room the finish is fine but on one wall it looks terrible when viewed from the side as you enter the room- incredibly patchy, with strange shiny places and dull bits. I have been over it now about four times and although it looks perfect when viewed face on, nothing is making any difference when looked at on entrance. It is a dulux matt paint in light and space range, and we have another from the range in another room which is totally fine. Could it be a problem with the lining paper? It looks horrible! March 9th, 2014 at 8:01 am @Karen It is hard for me to say without seeing it but it could be something on or under the lining paper that is affecting the emulsion, or how it is drying. As you say you have been over it four times it certainly isn’t a lack of paint that is the issue. A solution could be remove this one wall of lining paper to see if there is any issues on the wall, the re-line and paint. Corrie March 23rd, 2014 at 5:42 pm So i have moved into my first flat and am going to paint the walls, when I started stripping the walls I found that four (2bedroom, 2sitting room) are brick walls. Now i know that they can be papered as i have just taken woodchip paper off of them, what i am wondering though is can I use a water based paint on lining paper without it looking tacky or will the paper just rip as I paint it.. also any other advice would be great. April 19th, 2014 at 11:33 am @Debbie As long as the lining paper is securely stuck to the walls, painting over it shouldn’t peel the paper off the wall, as for painting over the cerise pink read this post http://www.rayfields.co.uk/blog/tps-for-changing-the-colour-of-emulsion/ Vanita June 2nd, 2014 at 10:29 am I steamed my wall yesterday to take down some wallpaper that was not hung correctly. In the process of steaming the paint (that was stuck to the old paper) has also come off. I now have a bare plastered wall all be it in good condition. My question is can I hang the new paper directly on the the plastered wall or do I need to primer and line the wall first, I want to finish the job this week as I have guest coming for the weekend and also work full time. I don’t want to spend a fortune as I had to buy more paper to correct the error. Vanita July 18th, 2014 at 4:04 pm @Alex Are they air bubbles? Could it be where the wasn’t enough paste and the paper has dried without sticking to the wall. Or perhaps some loose material on the wall? Or maybe filler that sucked all the paste up and allowed the paper to bubble. Have yo left the paper to dry after it has been painted? Sometimes it will shrink back as the emulsion dries. The only way to fix this issue if the above doesn’t work is to take a very sharp knife and to make a slit in the paper and by using a small paint brush get some paste onto the back of the paper and then push it back against the wall. You should also be able to see the reason for it bubbling or lifting. Helen July 22nd, 2014 at 6:51 pm Hi! I’ve got heavy duty Rock lining paper on my walls. Three walls are painted and one has vinyl paper. As I’ve hated the vinyl since I put it up last year I’ve just decided to remove it and paint the wall instead. Some of the lining of the vinyl paper is left on the Rock paper. Is there a quick and effective way to remove this before painting rather than the labourious method of gently scraping that we are doing right now? Obviously any moisture is going to lift the Rock lining,I suspect. Many thanks. August 1st, 2014 at 2:17 pm @Christine I’m not sure I would hang wallpaper over woodchip. The texture will more than likely show through the wallpaper. But to answer your question, Wallpaper paste will adhere to emulsion, and it will not lift off the woodchip with wallpaper paste. sue August 19th, 2014 at 4:33 pm Hi, I have some ready mixed wallpaper paste left over in a tub from about 10 months ago. It is good quality paste purchased with some harlequin paper as it was advised to use the “proper” stuff Question is I’m just about to line some other walls with lining paper, can I use this paste or would you advise I buy new? Thanks in advance. August 23rd, 2014 at 3:27 pm @Sue I would buy new paste. Lining paper needs to soak before hanging so a ‘mix your own’ paste is best. Tony August 25th, 2014 at 8:15 pm Hi, I have just stripped wallpaper from my lounge walls which has left rough plaster and flaking emulsion paint or bare plaster. The plaster is fairly sound and we want to paint over them. what can I Use to remove the wallpaper glue and what is best to flatten down the edges of emulsion paint left where it meets bare parts of plaster? I have been told that it may be easier to line with paper and then paint over this ? Advice please. September 6th, 2014 at 3:58 pm @Tony The best way is to use a sander on the walls once they are dry. You can fill the flaking paint edge then rub down. You can also use lining paper to give yourself a sound base to work from. Dorothy September 28th, 2014 at 12:46 pm hi can you help please. I have anaglypta type paper in hall which has been painted would like to change colour but notice wallpaper coming away at seams can get couple of fingers behind will this be ok to be pasted down again or wont it work or will it need stripped as it is hall and stairs and we are pensioners we feel too big a job to strip September 28th, 2014 at 5:23 pm @Dorothy Best thing to do is buy some border adhesive, overlap adhesive, this comes in ready mixed pots, you only need a small pot. Take a 1/2 inch paint brush, easy the lifted paper away from the wall, a scraper may be useful for this, apply the border adhesive behind the paper and on the wall, leave for a minute or two, then gently press the paper back to the wall with a sponge and ease any excess adhesive out. Wipe adhesive off the face of the paper, allow to dry for 12-24 hours, then paint Should do the trick, let me know!! sarah i December 4th, 2014 at 11:19 am @Catherine Yes you can paint over shiny (vinyl) wallpaper but it could need lots of coats of paint to cover and would need to be totally dry between each coat. There is also the possibility of the paint coming off as it will sit on top of the paper rather than soak in. Davey January 2nd, 2015 at 2:26 pm Hi there I’ve got walls lined with lining paper and decided the other night to repaint them, paint went on fine (in places) and I noticed some imperfections in the corners with bubbling. Anyway I painted over entire wall and all looked good, let it dry overnight and next day I’ve got what looks like cracking/broken egg shells like on parts of the wall? Any ideas why? And a fix? Thanks @Davey If I understand you correctly you have re-painted over lining paper? The only thing I can think of is that maybe there was some grease or dirt and the emulsion has reacted with this? If this is the case maybe cleaning the affected area’s off and then repainting them. I could understand this kind of reaction if the walls were painted direct on to plaster and it cracking but I assume the lining paper had been up for a while and just repainted. cathy January 7th, 2015 at 10:20 am hi, I have a bedroom which was papered with embossed paper – two of the walls were plaster and two wood. I stripped the paper off the plastered walls ok but it wouldn’t come off the wood so I thought I would use thick lining paper and paper over the embossed paper. I then emulsioned the walls with 3 coats of paint. Everything worked except one strip of lining paper which came unstuck. I tried re sticking it with paste but it happened again. Is there a special adhesive I could use? I used very thick lining paper because I thought the thinner stuff wouldn’t hide the embossed surface. Would perhaps PVA work as an adhesive? January 13th, 2015 at 2:11 pm @Graham You could gently rub the seams down, but be very careful otherwise you will end up with scratch lines rather than seam lines. You could feather them out with a filler then gently rub down, but again be careful about scratching the paper. roisin January 13th, 2015 at 6:50 pm Hi, I have just moved into a new house and want to start decorating. The walls are all painted without any lining/wallpaper underneath. I was thinking about either painting straight over, or hanging lining paper first and then painting over that. Obviously it’d be easier to paint only. But I was wondering what the advantages of lining are? Covering cracks, but does it also keep a room slightly warmer? And absorb sound to make it a little less echo-y? And if we do line the walls, can we do it straight over the paint? Thanks, Roisin January 31st, 2015 at 2:25 pm @Roslin The main usage of lining paper these days is to hide small hairline cracks, although lining paper is mainly used for creating a good sound base to wallpaper over. If the walls are good and miner repairs needed simply painting is the way to go, as for it’s acoustic and thermal properties, there are specialist papers for this although any paper would help. If you do line the walls you can paint over the existing wall finish, as long as it is sound. candy February 16th, 2015 at 3:44 pm I have removed old wallpaper from walls that have had wallpaper lining applied to the walls. Do I need to remove the old liner and reapply new? The walls have paneling so need some type of lining before new paper is put up. If I can use the old liner should I apply sizing so new wallpaper sticks? @Jason Allow the emulsion dry completely before doing anything, the paper may tighten back up. If it doesn’t tighten up use some border / overlap adhesive to stick back, you may have to use a sharp knife to cut the bubble to apply adhesive. jon b March 29th, 2015 at 5:32 pm Hi there you may have already answered this but I’m not sure so I apologise. I am wanting to use lining paper in my hallway, stairwell etc. My walls have the odd scratch and holes on them so i filled these. The walls also have large areas where paint has peeled in the past. I have scraped of most of the peeling paint as far as it is peeling but I am now left with a slight uneven surface. I have now painted over all of these walls with white matt emulsion hoping that lining paper will cover these imperfections. And am wondering whether there is any more I need to do before putting up lining paper which I will be painting after? Also do you have any tips/links for fitting lining paper? Many thanks for all of your information. May 30th, 2015 at 4:14 pm @John It sounds as if it could be the old paste, did it have a good rub down before painting? You could line the walls and then paper over them, or give the walls another rubdown to ensure they are smooth, then paint the walls again. If you line the walls the old adhesive shouldn’t cause any problems. chris June 4th, 2015 at 12:11 pm Hi, We have lined the walls of a new build making sure to size them first. The paper has been up for well over a month due to changing minds over the emulsion colour so is fully dry. However we’ve started to paint and the lining paper is coming away? Any ideas? Stacey June 4th, 2015 at 12:16 pm I have a large crack in my wall which has caused the painted lining paper (put on several years ago and otherwise adheres really well to the walls). Can I just fill it in or do I have to strip the paper too. I am planning to just repaint the walls and suspect the plaster is not 100%under the lining paper although the walls apart from the crack look fine. June 4th, 2015 at 8:06 pm @Stacey If you fill over the paper you aren’t really sorting out the issue. The filler really needs to go into the crack. Rake out crack and fill. It is always best to remove paper rather than fill over it. You could also damage the lining paper as you rub the filler down or fur it up, this would then show. Derek June 22nd, 2015 at 12:09 am Hi, I believe it is ok to wallpaper over emulsion painted lining paper but can you size the lining paper to help slide when hanging the new wallpaper Hi, I’ve got two short questions; 1) I’ve removed the wallpaper in my living room, and what’s left is what I *think* is lining paper. How can I be sure it’s not backing paper? Is there a way of telling? 2) The rest of the living room is painted on lining paper. Can I re-paint that (it’ll need several coats as it’s a very dark colour, and we’re going for a much lighter colour), or would it be best to strip the painted lining paper, apply new paper and then paint? Thanks in advance, and apologies if these questions have already been answered before. July 2nd, 2015 at 4:15 pm @Esme Lining paper is thicker than backing paper so the only real way is by looking and deciding which one it is, sorry no real way of knowing. You can paint over the rest of the lining paper, use a cheapish white or an obliterating emulsion to block out the colour, one coat maybe enough, then two of the new colour. If the paper that is on the wall is OK, I wouldn’t change it Esme July 2nd, 2015 at 4:29 pm Thanks for your fast response! I’ll have a proper look at home. The paper left on the wall is pretty smooth, without any traces of adhesive. It’s also the exact same width as the removed wallpaper, so I’m fearing it might be backing paper… :/ I guess I’ll try one or two strokes of lining paper over them and see how that goes. If it doesn’t come off, it’ll be good enough for me. Thanks again! If they were not there before you painted they should dry out OK. Amanda July 28th, 2015 at 11:50 pm I pulled down some wallpaper in a room I am repainting, as it was peeling and quite a mess. We found that there’s lining underneath. Some of the liner came off when we pulled the wallpaper down,but most of it stayed on. Will it be ok if I scrape the peeling parts off and paint over? I am worried that it will peel or BE a completely different color when all is said and done! -Thanks gonk August 10th, 2015 at 10:21 pm hi – The bedroom wall has paint over lining paper – seems in good nick, but the paint has quite greasy hand prints etc. Should I clean the lining paper with sugar soap or will that damage the lining paper? cheers August 14th, 2015 at 2:06 pm @Ruth It’s depends I guess, how much it will be used, it could get scratched a lot by the chalk? The paper should withstand it OK. Another solution is line walls and fit a board to the wall? Andy August 23rd, 2015 at 6:33 pm Hello, I’ve peeled the vinyl wallpaper off my bedroom wall and have exposed the backing paper. It is well stuck down and smooth. Can I emulsion over the backing paper or should I remove it to reveal the bare plaster beneath (no lining paper) and then paint the bare plaster instead? Many thanks:-) August 30th, 2015 at 4:48 pm @David You can use an acrylic paint, but I tend to use a bit of the colour I am going to paint the wall with to go over the filler, then a good two or three coats over the paper. As it is new paper it will soak in a fair amount. Kags September 4th, 2015 at 5:54 pm Hi, The house I’ve moved into had a lot of marks/stains on the walls. I cleaned them all with sugar soap and painted with emulsion and while it does look a lot nicer there are still visible marks coming through the paint. If I hung lining paper and painted that would this make a difference or would the marks just show through this as well? Kind regards Kags September 17th, 2015 at 3:43 pm @Kags It depends on what type of marks they are. If it is water stain, damp or mold you need to sort this first. You shouldn’t need to hang lining paper to cover marks. Chris September 21st, 2015 at 2:12 pm We have recently painted over lining paper. My wife has always used quite a small brush for emulsioning and never had problems before but this time even and after 3 coats, (one of a colour selected in error and 2 of the correct colour) there is significant shading. It almost looks as of you can see the brush strokes in the paint. When viewed from front on it is not as bad but on the stairway with a side on view it is very noticeable. Is it possible that a roller would be more suitable and do you think a further coat would solve the problem? The paint has been on for 2 months now so is completely dry despite the number of coats! September 23rd, 2015 at 3:16 pm @Chris Yes I think a roller would solve this problem, I find it far easier and quicker to cover large areas with a roller, it also avoids the shading or patchiness you mention. mark October 5th, 2015 at 4:26 pm I have a papered ceiling in my lounge which is an embossed anaglypta type paper painted in white emulsion. i want to change the paper for a different patterned/embossed one. the ceiling paper is sound but i’m not keen about stripping it off as i’m not sure of the state of the ceiling underneath (it does look sound though)- i think it may be lathe and plaster and i dont want to open up a can of worms when i strip the paper off! so i was wondering about papering over it. i was thinking of lining it first and then putting the new paper up so the original embossed pattern wouldnt show through the new paper. i know you should really take the old paper off first but do you think this would work? October 7th, 2015 at 6:49 pm @Mark The more layers of paper the more likely you are going to have problems. Will the new paper definitely cove the old pattern? If it was my house or job I would take it off and start from scratch. mark October 9th, 2015 at 10:29 pm been thinking about it and i’m actually not sure about papering over anyway as the original embossed pattern may leave some air pockets under the lining paper so i think i’m going to have to bite the bullet with it and strip the old stuff off. Thanks for the reply though. October 28th, 2015 at 2:21 pm @David Yes I don’t see why not. I prefer to use masonry paint or a oil based paint in porches if possible as they can get dirty or cold and damp. james litterick November 6th, 2015 at 7:13 pm i was wondering about your opinon of plaster paint. i have recently moved house and i have had to strip all the walls in the entire house as the previous tennant has intentionally pealed off one strip of wallpaper in each room so they are all stripped now and i was intending on puting up 1000 grade lining paper and then painting. however i have read some good reviews about lining paper as an alternative? any thoughts. also is 1000 grade lining paper ok as im new to decor and im a little worried about hanging lining paper and making a mess. November 7th, 2015 at 3:46 pm @James If the walls are OK, do some prep work and simply paint. If the walls need lining 1000 grade is thin but could be OK. whatever grade you use make sure you soak it for around 10 minutes each sheet and use plenty of good quality paste. Neal November 14th, 2015 at 9:55 pm The walls in a number of our rooms have hairline cracks that are visible through the old lining paper that has been emulsioned over by the previous owners. I stripped the lining papers and repaired the cracks . We also had rewiring and had casings done and replastered. End result is that we have a number of 4 inch vertical and diagonal areas of exposed plaster whilst remaining areas of walls have pretty sound lining paper. Should I: Strip all Lining paper off? Patch the areas with strips of lining paper Use thin coat of filler to try to level strips to remaining sound lining paper Before repainting. November 15th, 2015 at 9:13 am We have recently bought a new house, I think it’s either Edwardian or Victorian. We have had the master bedroom, bathroom, hallway, landing, stairs and reception rooms stripped of their wall paper, and have found mixed things underneath. I have a few questions: 1. The master bedroom has horizontally placed lining paper which seems in good condition but has been ripped in some areas when the wallpaper was removed, should we remove all of the lining paper and start again? Or just replace the. Torn or scuffed areas with sections of new lining paper? 2. The bathroom walls are back to a mixture of original lime plaster and then modern plaster that has ben skimmed in the bottom half leaving a ledge, I do not want to put lining paper in the bathroom, what is the best way to prep the walls before painting to get an even finish? 3. The reception rooms are back to the old lime plaster, this is a little uneven and rough, is it best to replaster or just line over this? In some areas the plaster has been pulled away leaving defects. 4. The hallway, landing and stairwell seem to be in slightly better condition, possibly more modern plaster, with a dadoe rail in place, is it best to just sand, prep and paint or would lining paper be best? Our decorator seems to want to just line everything, but has not mentioned prepping the walls at all first! I would really appreciate any help or advice you can offer, thank you! November 19th, 2015 at 5:15 pm @Laura Obviously your decorator has seen it, it is hard for me to say. Lining the walls will help ‘hold’ everything together as it were, and hide some of the defects in the plaster. sarafina samuel November 27th, 2015 at 11:33 am Hi, I recently just remove the previous tenant paper to discover how terrible the walls are. I am actually trying to save money, so I am looking the easy way out. I was told I can cover the walls with lining paper and paint over it and that’s job done. Is it this simple. I just want to see the walls looking a bit better, that’s all. can you advice, Rony November 28th, 2015 at 12:56 pm Hi there. I’m about to decorate my bedroom walls which have previously had vinyl silk painted on them (direct onto plastered walls). Who ever did the painting before did it with a brush so there are A LOT of brush marks giving a poor visual finish. I don’t want to roller over this as these brush marks will just show through again. I would like to hang lining paper and then put matt emulsion over that but my question is, Can you hang lining paper on vinyl silk walls ? My concern is that because the paint has quite a shine on it, the paste/paper wont stick. Thanks in advance. January 22nd, 2016 at 2:42 pm @Paul I would think most likely it is something behind the lining paper. I wouldn’t think it is either the paint or paper at fault? Could there of been something on the wall before papering? Best to stain block it a re-paint / touch up this area. Anna February 1st, 2016 at 12:57 pm Hello, First of all, I would like to say that I found your website very helpful and informative. Apologies if you had answer this question, but can I paint over painted lining paper if there are marks on it, such as something was taped to the wall and when they took it off it ripped out a little bit of lining paper. Also, as this is an old lining paper how do I deal with raised bumps which are already there. Thank you @Anna Glad you like the site, and will share with your friends You can paint over previously painted lining paper, where tape etc has been removed and torn the paper use a fine surface filler to fill these in, rub (gently) smooth and then paint. As for the raised bumps I’m guessing it is filler or rawl plugs under the paper, not as easy to remedy unless taking lining paper off and re papering. You could cut lining paper around the bump and remove to see what it is, then rectify it and fill over it before painting. Anne February 11th, 2016 at 6:11 pm Hi, a few years ago, I had a decorator put up lining paper and then he emulsioned it. Today, I emulsioned it and some of the seams have opened up. Why did this happen and what is the best way to stick them down without makin a gluey mess. Thank you. February 25th, 2016 at 2:22 pm @Carl Yes it is Ok to paint over silk emulsion. Sometimes the paint you apply may crack, I say sometimes as this has only happened twice to me in 20 years, you can key the surface to remove some of the sheen before painting. Neil moore March 5th, 2016 at 2:43 pm We’ve just moved into a flat which has textured Anaglypta,we cannot strip it because it’s stuck onto plasterboard. When we have tried the board paper and plaster start to come away. Could we put thick lining paper onto it to make it smooth and then paint it. March 18th, 2016 at 3:46 pm @Neil I never paper over paper. Soak the paper well, leave it for a while, then soak it again. Then leave again and try then. If the paper is soaked it should come of, just take your time and go carefully not to damage the underneath. Bernie April 7th, 2016 at 10:53 am We have just removed the wallpaper and its backing paper in our lounge. The walls are stud partition with plaster board. The plaster board has been painted sometime in the past. We have used a scraper to remove the paint that was flaking, but where the paint is still sound there is a ‘ridge’ between the remaining paint and the bare plasterboard. We want to emulsion the walls but know that these ridges will still be visible. Short of applying litres of paint remover or trying to lightly smooth the edges with filler and risk rubbing off the surface of the plasterboard do you have any suggestions. Is lining paper the only solution? @Jane It’s hard to say not seeing it for myself. Was the paint shiny before it was painted over? When you say wiped off, did it peel of come off on a cloth for example. What was it over painted with. My only guesses are the new paint was a non vinyl and it is coming off when damp and wiped, or the original paint was shiney and it the new paint is peeling off, this could be because the surface wasn’t prepared. But like I say hard to say without seeing. The solution I’m guessing would be to either repaint in a vinyl or bathroom paint, strip lining paper off and re-line and paint. Paul July 3rd, 2016 at 5:18 pm @Paul Was there any adhesive left on the face of the paper? If a ready mixed paste was used and left on the face of the paper it may cause a problem. Hope you get it sorted. Fran July 5th, 2016 at 4:50 pm Hi my son has decided to paint the room in his flat the walls were cream colour beforehand and he’s painting them white now using a Matt emulsion.. I think he has used too much paint because a large area has come away .. He’s made the mistake of peeling the paint off thus taking the lining paper off and revealing the plaster underneath.. Now will this area have to be lined again or could he just wait for it to totally dry and sandpaper down the edges of the paint and re paint the area ? Any help is very much appreciated.. Thank you July 9th, 2016 at 1:58 pm @Fran The best solution would be to re-line. Filling and or sanding down the edges may still result in the patch being visible. Iain August 9th, 2016 at 12:04 pm Hi, I’ve just lined a room that was previously painted with a gloss type paint in years past with lining paper (vertically) ahead of emulsion. However, my wife has now seen a wallpaper she wants to put on one wall that is a paste-the-wall type. I’m no fan of wallpapering as it is and have never used PTW before. Can I use it as directed without fear of a massive foul up, or should I treat the application differently somehow (e.g. just paste it as normal)? I’m concerned that the lining paper will make for an unstable base once soaked with adhesive again. Thanks. August 10th, 2016 at 3:22 pm @Iain As long as the lining paper is stuck well and dry it should be OK to paste the wall. I prefer to paste the paper myself even for paste the wall, but it’s personal preference really. Carole August 23rd, 2016 at 12:31 pm Hi We’ve just decorated my sons bedroom with lining paper but there are still patches of wet paper in odd areas.(24 hours ago)Some of the areas that are still wet were painted with a damp seal paint but some have dried . When will we be able to paint the walls and will it affect it if we paint over the wet parts. Thanks August 25th, 2016 at 11:43 am @Lionel Roller. Brushes can leave it patchy, stripes and brush marks. Rollers will give s far more even coat. And it’s quicker. Lyn August 25th, 2016 at 6:27 pm Hi I’ve stripped very old, emulsioned embossed wallpaper off my parents bedroom wall today and discovered even older (but well done) painted lining paper underneath. I’m happy to paint over this but it is covered in gunky and sticky old wallpaper paste. Can you tell me the most effective way to remove this? I’m thinking sugar soap, but would I need to rinse it off before painting? I don’t know what the paint is on the lining paper but it must be at least 40 years old. If I do manage to remove the old paste, would a modern matt emulsion react to it? Many thanks! August 25th, 2016 at 9:32 pm @Lyn Sugar soap should remove old paste. Be aware that with the amount of water used may lift the lining paper. If it’s still sound when you have removed paste allow the wall and lining paper to dry fully for 24-48 hours before emulsioning. Should be ok. Suzy September 4th, 2016 at 9:47 pm Hello! I’m renovating an old Victorian cottage that has thick lining paper on the living room ceiling which has several ripples/ long bubbles. Can it be repaired or do I need to strip it all off? I’m worried that it might take off the old lath and plaster with it and could be a big job as remainder of room is covered with lining paper too… Any advice gratefully received! September 5th, 2016 at 1:42 am Hi. I have a good idea of what to do from all of the great answers here. However, I just want to make sure that I understand completely what it is that I need to do. Our family room walls were paneled; actually more of a wide bead board, and the indentations are minimal, much less than 1/4 inch. We’ve removed two walls of paneling and scraped off the very old wallpaper. The walls are not in great shape so we are going to patch, sand and apply liner paper. A few questions: After applying the liner paper, we are going to paint using a similar color to compliment the wallpaper, in case of any gaps. Do we need to apply anything else to the painted liner before wallpapering? Do we have to apply sizing after painting, or can we paste and wallpaper directly onto the painted liner paper? We are thinking about leaving the bead board up on one wall and covering it with the liner paper and then applying the wallpaper. Do we need to apply anything to the beadboard first? It is in good condtion and I don’t think that the lines in the beadboard will show through the liner paper. Thanks very much.
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"During which crisis did the then American Secretary of State Dean Rusk make the comment ""We're eyeball to eyeball and the other fellow just blinked""?"
An ‘eyeball to eyeball’ moment that never happened - The Washington Post An ‘eyeball to eyeball’ moment that never happened The inside track on Washington politics. Be the first to know about new stories from PowerPost. Sign up to follow, and we’ll e-mail you free updates as they’re published. You’ll receive free e-mail news updates each time a new story is published. You’re all set! By Glenn Kessler June 23, 2014 Follow @GlennKesslerWP “There was a moment at the height of the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962 when Soviet ships approached to within just a few miles of a U.S. naval blockade and then, at the last minute, turned back — prompting then-Secretary of State Dean Rusk to utter one of the most famous lines from the Cold War:  ‘We’re eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked.’” — opening sentence of a column, “ Putin Blinked ,” by Thomas L. Friedman, the New York Times, May 27, 2014 The Fact Checker does not normally assess the accuracy of claims of pundits, keeping our gaze generally on politicians and political ads. But we are going to make an exception in this case, in part because this is an interesting case brought to our attention by our old colleague Michael Dobbs , who first started The Fact Checker in 2007. The issue is this: When new primary source documents demonstrate that a historical myth has been proved incorrect, shouldn’t people who repeat the discredited myth admit their error? An even odder element here is that the Times has previously publicized the fact that the myth was wrong, citing this very research, and yet it refuses to correct the error in Friedman’s column. The Facts The myth in question is the supposed “eyeball to eyeball” confrontation of U.S. and Soviet ships during the Cuban Missile Crisis — an event spun at the time by the Kennedy White House as a pivotal moment that demonstrated courage and coolness under fire. But Dobbs, in his 2008 book “ One Minute to Midnight ,” demonstrated conclusively that there was no high seas engagement. Sixteen missile-carrying Soviet ships had already been turned around on the orders of Premier Nikita Khrushchev the day before. (Here’s an English translation of the minutes of a Soviet Communist Party presidium meeting  ratifying the decision.)  The orders were issued early in the morning of Oct. 23, 1962. Of course, President John F. Kennedy and his aides did not know that on the morning of Oct. 24 as they awaited a potential clash. An aircraft carrier group led by the USS Essex had orders to intercept the Kimovsk and her submarine escort. Kennedy nervously canceled the intercept, issuing an order to the Essex: “Secret. From Highest Authority. Do Not Stop And Board. Keep Under Surveillance.” At the time, Dobbs concluded, Kimovsk was nearly 800 miles away from the Essex, not “just a few miles.” This was all eventually figured out by U.S. intelligence analysts — here are the CIA records obtained by Dobbs — but the White House failed to correct the historical record. After all, the eyeball to eyeball imagery was simply too good for political memoirs. In the book, Dobbs printed a map showing the ship positions. Courtesy of Michael Dobbs, “One Minute to Midnight.” It’s worth noting that Dobbs’s book received a rave review on the cover of the New York Times Book Review from the late diplomat Richard Holbrooke, who praised it for revelations “that will change the views of experts and help inform a new generation of readers.” Four years after Dobbs’s book was published, Robert Caro published the fourth volume of his history of Lyndon B. Johnson, “ The Passage of Power ,” and included a brief mention of Johnson’s role during the Cuban Missile Crisis. He repeated the myth about Russian ships being “within a few miles of the [quarantine] line.”  (Page 213.) The Caro book is magnificent, with new and revelatory material about Johnson in the Kennedy White House and during the aftermath of Kennedy’s assassination. But checking the source notes, it is clear that Caro did not rely on primary documents for this particular fact; in fact, no source is cited at all. For these pages, Caro appeared to rely heavily on Robert F. Kennedy’s self-serving 1968 memoir of the crisis, “ Thirteen Days .” Sheldon M. Stern, a former historian at the John F. Kennedy library who has listened to the secret tapes made of the crisis meetings, in 2012 wrote  that RFK’s memoir “cannot be taken seriously as an historical account.” (A Caro representative did not respond to queries.) Dobbs, in an article titled “ The Price of a 50-Year Myth ” that was published by the New York Times in 2012, highlighted Caro’s error and explained why the new research proves the high-seas moment never took place. “Kennedy was certainly bracing for an ‘eyeball to eyeball’ moment, but it never happened,” Dobbs wrote. “There is now plenty of evidence that Kennedy — like Khrushchev — was a lot less steely-eyed than depicted in the initial accounts of the crisis, which were virtually dictated by the White House. Tape-recorded transcripts of White House debates and notes from participants show that Kennedy was prepared to make significant concessions, including a public trade of Soviet missiles in Cuba for American missiles in Turkey and possibly the surrender of the United States naval base at Guantánamo Bay.” Surprisingly, when Dobbs pointed out that Friedman had repeated historical fiction in his column, the Times refused to correct the mistake. Sewell Chan, deputy editor of Op-Ed/Sunday Review, even cited Caro’s book as example of the fact that the historical debate is not settled. “Your conclusion that the ships never got that close remains very interesting, but the distance from the blockade line hardly seems like a matter of settled historical fact, notwithstanding your commendable research,” Chan wrote to Dobbs. “Even if it were settled fact, frankly, Tom’s point was an anecdote surrounding Dean Rusk, not an account of the Cuban Missile Crisis.” One presumes that before running Dobbs’s article challenging Caro, the Times’s editors did due diligence on the underlying facts — which makes it very odd that Chan would now cite Caro as evidence there was still debate on the issue. As we noted, Caro was not relying on primary documents for this fact. Chan willfully ignores the actual records of the CIA analysts tracking the ships — as well as Khrushchev’s order to turn around the ships the day before. None of that is in dispute, and it easily trumps official White House propaganda from a half-century ago (which simply asserted the ships were a few miles apart without providing documentation to back up that claim). Since 2008, other historians, such as David Coleman of the University of Virginia, have cited the same CIA data about the Kimovsk and other Soviet ships when writing about the Cuban Missile Crisis. Friedman, in an e-mail to The Fact Checker, said: As my editors explained to Michael Dobbs, I used the Dean Rusk quote — “the other fellow just blinked” — in the context in which Dean Rusk made it — that he believed Soviet naval vessels had gotten very near our blockade in 1962 and turned around, averting a crisis. My column was not about either Rusk or the precise longitude and latitude of the Soviet ships per se. I was writing about another moment in history when our statesmen thought the leader in the Kremlin blinked. Obviously historians have different views on this, since Robert Caro, as Dobbs notes, used the same story in the 2012 edition of his giant biography of Lyndon Johnson. Michael disputes that and we printed his essay saying so. I have not done a survey of the historical literature to know whether all historians now agree on that fact. It was not what I was writing about. I was writing about what Rusk said and believed when he said it. With all due respect to Friedman, this is simply a matter of reading the primary source documents. There is no historical debate. As far as we know, no historian has disputed what Dobbs uncovered; it is merely a matter of people such as Friedman still reciting the previously inaccurate account of what happened. Friedman would be on stronger ground if, as he claims, he had actually made clear that he was depicting the scene as Rusk imagined it had happened. But that’s not the case. He states the “few miles” gap —and that the ships turned around at “the last minute” —as undisputed historical facts: “There was a moment at the height of the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962 when Soviet ships approached to within just a few miles of a U.S. naval blockade and then, at the last minute, turned back — prompting then-Secretary of State Dean Rusk to utter one of the most famous lines from the Cold War:  ‘We’re eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked.’” The Pinocchio Test We often knock politicians for refusing to admit error. But journalists appear equally reluctant to admit a mistake. It would not take much to correct the record, and one would think that historical accuracy would be important at a newspaper that prides itself on being the newspaper of record. Friedman, as a three-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize for writing on foreign affairs, should be equally dedicated to making certain that readers know ground historical truth. Some might argue this is an historical curiosity, but as Friedman’s column demonstrates, the image of a successful eyeball to eyeball confrontation continues to influence the conduct of American foreign policy. The difference between “a few miles” and “hundreds of miles” is too important to ignore. Four Pinocchios
Cuban Missile Crisis
What role on film has been played by Colin Clive, Peter Cushing and Kenneth Branagh among others?
Cuban missile crisis was a triumph of diplomacy, not brinksmanship - Salon.com Saturday, Oct 13, 2012 12:26 PM UTC Cuban missile crisis was a triumph of diplomacy, not brinksmanship Historians are re-evaluating the Kennedy administration's seminal success Topics: Cuba , Cuban Missile Crisis , From the Wires , International relations , John F. Kennedy , Russia , News , Politics News HAVANA (AP) — The world stood at the brink of Armageddon for 13 days in October 1962 when President John F. Kennedy drew a symbolic line in the Atlantic and warned of dire consequences if Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev dared to cross it. An American U-2 spy plane flying high over Cuba had snapped aerial photographs of Soviet ballistic missile sites that could launch nuclear warheads with little warning at the United States, just 90 miles away. It was the height of the Cold War, and many people feared nuclear war would annihilate human civilization. Soviet ships carrying nuclear equipment steamed toward Kennedy’s “quarantine” zone around the island, but turned around before reaching the line. “We’re eyeball-to-eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked,” U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk famously said, a quote that largely came to be seen as defining the crisis. In the five decades since the nuclear standoff between Washington and Moscow, much of the long-held conventional wisdom about the missile crisis has been knocked down, including the common belief that Kennedy’s bold brinksmanship ruled the day. On the eve of the 50th anniversary of the Cuban missile crisis, historians now say it was behind-the-scenes compromise rather than a high-stakes game of chicken that resolved the faceoff, that both Washington and Moscow wound up winners and that the crisis lasted far longer than 13 days. Declassified documents, oral histories and accounts from decision-makers involved in the standoff have turned up new information that scholars say provides lessons for leaders embroiled in contemporary crises such as the one in Syria, where President Bashar Assad has ignored international pleas to stop attacks on civilians in an uprising that has killed more than 32,000 people. Another modern standoff is over Iran, which the West accuses of pursuing a nuclear weapons program. In a recent U.N. speech, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu drew a red line on a cartoon bomb to illustrate that a nuclear Tehran would not be tolerated. “Take Iran, which I have called a Cuban Missile Crisis in slow motion,” said Graham Allison, author of the groundbreaking study of governmental decision-making “Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis.” “This same process is looming on the current trajectory, inexorably, toward a confrontation at which an American president is going to have to choose between attacking Iran to prevent it becoming a nuclear weapons state or acquiescing and then confronting a nuclear weapons state,” Allison said. “Kennedy’s idea would be, ‘Don’t let this reach the point of confrontation,'” he added. “The risks of catastrophe are too great.” Among the common beliefs about the Cuban missile crisis that have been reevaluated: ___ CONVENTIONAL WISDOM: The crisis was a triumph of U.S. brinkmanship. REALITY: Historians say the resolution of the standoff was really a triumph of backdoor diplomacy. Kennedy resisted pressure from aides advising that he cede nothing to Moscow and even consider a preemptive strike. He instead engaged in intense behind-the-scenes diplomacy with the Soviets, other countries and the U.N. secretary-general. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy met secretly with the Soviet ambassador on Oct. 27 and conveyed an olive branch from his brother: Washington would publicly reject any invasion of Cuba, and Khrushchev would withdraw the missiles from the island. The real sweetener was that Kennedy would withdraw Jupiter nuclear missiles from U.S. installations in Turkey, near the Soviet border. It was a secret pledge known only to a handful of presidential advisers that did not emerge until years later. “As the historical record has expanded, the image of the resolute president has given way to the resolution president,” Cuba analyst Peter Kornbluh wrote in an article in the November issue of Cigar Aficionado, an advance copy of which was made available to The Associated Press. Nevertheless, the brinkmanship myth persists, with President George W. Bush in 2002 citing the missile crisis as a historical lesson in fortitude that justified a preemptive invasion of Iraq. “The storyline is a lot easier that Kennedy stood steely-resolved, faced Khrushchev down and that’s it,” said Allison, a professor at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government and former senior defense adviser to several Democratic and Republican administrations. “If you hang tough enough the other guy will eventually yield — that is actually the lesson that became part of the popular mythology.” ____ CONVENTIONAL WISDOM: Washington won, and Moscow lost. REALITY: The United States came out a winner, but so did the Soviet Union. The Jupiter missiles are sometimes described as nearly obsolete, but they had come online just months earlier and were fully capable of striking into the Soviet Union. Their withdrawal, along with Kennedy’s assurance he would not invade Cuba, gave Khrushchev enough to feel he had saved face and the following day he announced the imminent dismantling of offensive weapons in Cuba. Soon after, a U.S.-Soviet presidential hotline was established and the two nations initiated discussions that led to the Limited Test Ban treaty and ultimately the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. “The major lesson is the necessity of compromise even when faced with a crisis like that,” said Robert Pastor, an international relations professor at American University and former national security adviser for Latin America under President Jimmy Carter. Pastor said he had many discussions about the missile crisis over the years with his late father-in-law, Robert McNamara, who was Kennedy’s defense secretary. Pastor said domestic politics made it tough for both Kennedy and successive presidents to heed that lesson, as evidenced by Kennedy’s intense efforts to keep the deal secret. President Barack Obama, for example, faces considerable pressure to maintain a tough line on Cuba. Among the issues are the U.S. embargo, demands for political change, an American government subcontractor imprisoned in Cuba as an alleged spy and five Cuban intelligence agents serving long sentences in the United States. “Look at U.S.-Cuban relations right now,” Pastor said. “I don’t think Obama would consider a compromise, because the pressure on him that ‘You gave in to the Cubans’ is too great.” __ CONVENTIONAL WISDOM: It was a high-seas showdown. REALITY: It’s true the missile crisis was full of tense moments. On Oct. 27, a U.S. warship dropped depth charges over a nuclear-armed Soviet sub and the Soviets shot down a U-2 spy plane over Cuba. It was “the darkest, most dangerous day of the crisis,” Kornbluh said. Yet after Kennedy on Oct. 22 announced a U.S. naval quarantine around the island to prevent more military equipment from arriving, Khrushchev recalled ships carrying nuclear equipment the following day, according to the 2008 book “One Minute to Midnight” by Michael Dobbs, which was based on newly examined Soviet documents. That means that on Oct. 24, when Secretary of State Rusk made his famous “eyeball-to-eyeball” statement reacting to supposedly up-to-the-minute intelligence, the vessels were already hundreds of miles away, steaming home. “This thing about eyeball-to-eyeball, it never was. That confrontation never took place,” said Kornbluh, who is a Cuba analyst at the nongovernment National Security Archive, which has spent decades working to get missile crisis documents declassified. ___ CONVENTIONAL WISDOM: It was an intelligence coup for the CIA. REALITY: Along with being a day late on the turnaround by Soviet ships, the CIA missed several key developments that would have helped Kennedy and his advisers navigate the crisis. The CIA learned late in the game about the ballistic missiles’ presence in Cuba, and they were already operational by the time Kennedy was informed of their existence. The agency was also unaware of other, tactical nuclear missiles in Cuba that could have been deployed against a U.S. attack. The Soviets had even positioned nuclear-tipped missiles on a ridge above the U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay in preparation for an invasion. “They were going to obliterate the base,” Kornbluh said. ___ CONVENTIONAL WISDOM: The crisis lasted just 13 days. REALITY: This myth has been perpetuated in part by the title of Robert F. Kennedy’s posthumous memoir, “Thirteen Days,” as well as the 2000 movie of the same name starring Kevin Costner. Indeed it was 13 days from Oct. 16, when Kennedy was first told about the missiles, to Oct. 28, when the Soviets announced their withdrawal. But the “October Crisis,” as it is known in Cuba, dragged on for another tense month or so in what Kornbluh dubs the “November Extension,” as Washington and Moscow haggled over details of exactly what weapons would be removed. The Soviet Union also had problems dealing with Fidel Castro, according to a Soviet document made public this month by Svetlana Savranskaya, a Russia analyst for the National Security Archive. Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan traveled to Cuba that Nov. 2 and spent 20 days in tense talks with the Cuban leader, who was angry the Soviets had reached a deal without consulting him. Castro lobbied hard but unsuccessfully to keep the tactical nuclear weapons that the Americans had not learned about. ____
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The material known as scagliola has, since antiquity, been used to imitate which other material?
Real Finishes: Scagliola Friday, November 25, 2011 Scagliola The highest expression of the plasterer’s art has been created, lost and rediscovered. Yet for the past two millennia Scagliola has never ceased to fascinate nor witness its aura of mystery diminish. Part sculpture, part science, the sophisticated process that gives birth to Scagliola demands the focused mind and precision of a chemist, the hands of an experienced plasterer and the subtle, sensitive eye of an artist. History Scagliola results from a meticulously programmed sequence of tinting, blending and arranging plasters to imitate marble. Archaeologists have discovered that the Romans and the Egyptians employed methods, long since forgotten, to imitate marble in plaster. However, it was in the 16th century Italian Renaissance that the contemporary approaches to Scagliola were conceived and perfected to effect complicated inlays in furniture surfaces. By the early renaissance many desired marbles were rare or had been exhausted. Scagliola could imitate such marbles as well as create colours and patterns that did not exist in nature. The use of Scagliola soon expanded to casting in ornament, column shafts and even entire walls, a process that became known as Stucco Marmo. The use of Stucco Marmo expanded throughout continental Europe and finally to Britain in the 18th century. Prominent uses of Stucco Marmo Scagliola in England include column and pilaster shafts at Buckingham Palace and the Syon House by Robert Adam. A significant breakthrough in plaster technology was achieved in the mid 19th century with the advent of Keen’s cement. Keen’s paved the way for a new method for producing Scagliola called Marezzo, known in the United States as American Scagliola due to its ready acceptance and prominent use from the mid 1800’s until the Great Depression. There are countless recipes, historical and contemporary, in all cases secret and proprietary for the ingredients and mixing of Scagliola. Let’s attempt to at least partially pull back the curtain of secrecy with a basic explanation of Scagliola manufacture. Manufacture Traditional Scagliola can be done in situ (in place) or on a bench. Work performed in situ requires several precautions in preparation of the substrate. In all cases the work environment should be clean, warm and dry. Finely ground Plaster of Paris is used as the base material. Animal hide glue high in collagen such as rabbit or isinglass is prepared the day of manufacture to retard the plaster and add strength to the work. Dry mineral pigments can be introduced directly into the dough, mixed with dry gypsum, or emulsified depending on desired effect. Optional ingredients include whiting or selenite (ground gypsum) as filler, linseed oil to complement the glue as a retarder and aid in workability, and marble chips for decorative effect. Much like a bread maker working with flour, yeast and water, the artisan kneads Plaster of Paris and glue water to the consistency of firm dough. This is best accomplished by forming a ring of dry plaster surrounding a central "castle" of plaster. The "moat" is filled with glue water and the process of cutting and kneading begins. Through a series of slicing, addition of pigments, folding and re-joining the whole of the mass is mixed and set aside as large balls placed in ratios and arrangements that achieve the desired result: a counter-type of true marble or a fanciful creation. Depending on the desired outcome, from the initial mixing colored slurries and other preparations are set aside for decorative effects. Much of the artisanship lies in a process of mental reverse engineering. One must conceive the desired outcome, have all materials on hand and systematically take steps to accomplish the effect. Typically the plaster is built up to 1/2” to 5/8” thickness, leaving 1/8” for cutting of the surface. Once the material has achieved an initial set it can be planed with an appropriate cutting tool such as a Berthelet or French razor, removing the 1/8” excess to realize a flat surface. At this point the material is still malleable and can be allowed to cure as a flat panel. Alternatively, slices of Scagliola can be pressed into a mould or directly on a keyed plaster substrate in situ. For ornamental work such as balusters, urns and column shafts, the Scagliola can be wrapped around an appropriate base and turned on a lathe. Once the Scagliola has been allowed to set and dry naturally the work of polishing can commence. Traditionally, after cutting the Scagliola natural pumice stones and damp sponges are used to smooth the work. The final smoothing and polishing historically was achieved with Water of Ayr, a natural snake stone from Scotland renowned principally as a hone for polishing barber straight razors. Modern polishing techniques arrive at a similar result with increasingly fine grit wet/dry sandpaper. The finished surface can be rubbed with linseed oil to increase luster, hardness and add a measure of protection from stains. The Marezzo or “American Scagliola” technique was a true innovation that followed a distinct methodology. Cutting of the surface is not required as the veining and coloration is done on the face of the mould in a thin layer for ornamental pieces. Flat panel work is typically carried out on thick plate glass so the patterns created can be seen from below. The Marezzo plaster mix is based on Keen’s cement, a slow-setting gypsum cement that does not necessitate the use of retarders or hardeners. Silk threads are used for veining and dry mineral tints can be used to provide color. Conclusion Scagliola has enjoyed a rich history adorning many of Europe’s most prestigious works of architecture from the Renaissance through the Neoclassical periods. Likewise in the United States Marezzo figured prominently in many of our architectural triumphs of the 19th century and still is to be admired in the grand entrances of court houses, state capitols, railway stations and fine hotels across the country. This article was coauthored by Patrick Webb and Sloan Houser Photo by Walter Cipriani
Marble
What name is given to the type of wallpaper produced by applying wool fibres to the paper to give a velvety surface?
Imitation | Article about imitation by The Free Dictionary Imitation | Article about imitation by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/imitation imitation, in music, a device of counterpoint counterpoint, in music, the art of combining melodies each of which is independent though forming part of a homogeneous texture. The term derives from the Latin for "point against point," meaning note against note in referring to the notation of plainsong. ..... Click the link for more information.  wherein a phrase or motive is employed successively in more than one voice. The imitation may be exact, the same intervals being repeated at the same or different pitches, or it may be free, in which case numerous types of variation are possible. Imitation was much used in both vocal and instrumental compositions of the 15th and 16th cent. The ricercare, canzone, capriccio, and fantasia—instrumental forms of this period—employed imitation to a great extent and without formal plan. They were forerunners of the fugue. The strictest form of imitation is the canon canon, in music, a type of counterpoint employing the strictest form of imitation. All the voices of a canon have the same melody, beginning at different times. Successive entrances may be at the same or at different pitches. ..... Click the link for more information. . While imitation is found to some extent in the music of nearly all periods, it is of special significance in Renaissance music. Imitation The representation of one material using another, generally implies copying the color and surface appearance of another material; one of the most common form is wood graining and marbleizing. imitation the copying of another's behaviour. Imitation as a means of learning has been investigated by social learning theorists (e.g. Bandura, 1977) who regard it as a significant means of learning, and an alternative to the CONDITIONING theories of behaviourists such as Skinner. The term modelling is also used in this context. Research suggests that strength of imitation depends on various environmental conditions, and especially the qualities of the model. Particularly significant are the nurturance and power of the model, and whether it is the same sex as the observer. See also IDENTIFICATION . Imitation   in contrapuntal music, the exact or inexact restatement by a voice or a part of the melody previously heard in another voice or part. The technique arose in popular polyphonic singing; in the 13th century it gradually took hold in professional music as a method of exposition and development of the thematic material. The melody can be imitated in turn by several voices; two and three simultaneously sounded melodies can be imitated to a polyphonic texture. Canonic imitation, or canon, represents the technique in its most consistent form. Imitation is categorized by the time of entrance of the imitating voice and by the interval the imitation forms with the basic statement of the melody (imitations in unison, at intervals of an upper and lower second, third, or fourth). Since the 15th century imitations at the intervals of the fourth and fifth, which created the basis of the fugue, have prevailed. Besides imitation in direct movement, composers also employ imitations in inversion form, in retrograde movement, and in rhythmic reduction and expansion (for example, the duration of each tone is doubled). So-called free imitation has also been developed, in which the imitating voice preserves only the basic outlines of the melodic figure or one characteristic rhythm of the theme. Dominant in the time of J. S. Bach, imitationalforms have since been usually employed within large homophonic forms. T. F. M Imitation   (1) In aesthetics, a concept that has been widely used since antiquity to denote the essence and purpose of art as a means of reproducing reality. The idea of imitation (Greek, mimesis) was thoroughly elaborated in classical aesthetics. First articulated by Democritus, it was subsequently developed by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. According to Plato’s idealist point of view, art imitated not the world of things but the world of ideas. Thus, imitation was considered a weak and incomplete reflection of the absolute beauty of the eternal ideas. In opposition to Plato, Aristotle developed a materialist conception of imitation as the essence of art. All types of art are by nature imitative. Imitation has two functions: a cognitive function and an aesthetic one. By means of imitation, people acquire their first knowledge about the world and, at the same time, experience pleasure, even when the subject imitated is itself unpleasant or revolting. The idea of mimesis as the imitation of nature originated in Hellenistic aesthetics, particularly Stoicism and Epicureanism. In classical aesthetics, imitation was characteristically conceived of not as the artistic creation of something new but as the realization of something already existing in nature. The idea of creativity in general was alien to classical philosophy. According to Aristotle, the products of art are the result of a combination of the eternal forms and matter. The artist does not create forms; he merely imitates the beauty of the cosmos. A new understanding of artistic imitation was developed by the aesthetics of Neoplatonism. According to Plotinus, art imitates not nature or visible things, but ideal eide—the prototypes and forms of all things; the World Mind (nous); or the activity of the Demiurge. Medieval Christian aesthetics, which considered art the imperfect, sensuous reflection of the ideal divine beauty of the world, emphasized the allegorical and symbolic interpretation of art. Like Plotinus and the Neoplatonists, medieval philosophers regarded art not as an imitation of a “most beautiful cosmos” but as an imitation of the divine principle or ideal “archetype” of things. Thomas Aquinas believed that forms are not invented by the artist but are contained in his soul from the beginning and are merely applied by him to matter. The idea of art as a “mirror” of nature was extensively developed by Renaissance thinkers and artists (for example, L. B. Alberti and A. Dürer). They were the first to interpret imitation as a creative principle: the artist does not apply a ready form to matter but creates all the forms of things. For example, Marsilio Ficino conceived of the design of a house primarily as the invention or creation of the very form and idea of the building. The artist is like god, for he seems to re-create all of nature, endowing it with an ideal pattern of harmony and proportion. In Renaissance aesthetics the principle of imitation was interpreted broadly and associated with “divine” enthusiasm, inspiration, and fantasy. Imitation became a universal category regarded as the essence of all art—not merely painting but, in particular, poetry and music. F. Patrizi’s Poetics (1586), a critique of the theory of imitation written in the mannerist tradition, juxtaposes the concepts of “imitation” and “expression,” asserting that the distinguishing feature of poetry and of art in general is the expression of the artist’s inner spiritual world. The juxtaposition of imitation and expression was adopted in the 17th century by baroque aesthetics and later, by the aesthetics of the Sturm und Drang movement in Germany, as well as by the German and French romantics. The principle of imitation was widely accepted in classicist aesthetics, which interpreted it as the imitation of a rationally treated nature, thus limiting the role of fantasy and imagination in art (C. Batteux). In Enlightenment aesthetics the principle of imitation was most clearly formulated by the British philosopher E. Burke, who believed that imitation, like sympathy, is one of the chief social passions, determining man’s habits, opinions, and entire way of life. In Germany the idea of the imitation of nature was developed by A. G. Baumgarten, J. G. Sulzer, J. J. Winckelmann, and G. E. Lessing. The principle of imitation was profoundly criticized in the aesthetics of German classicist idealism. According to I. Kant, “genius” is the opposite of the spirit of imitation. F. W. J. von Schelling believed that art does not imitate nature. On the contrary, nature itself is built on the very principles that are revealed through art. Marxist aesthetics notes the elements of a dialectical understanding of artistic creativity in the concept of imitation but overcomes the historical limitations of the concept, including passive contemplativeness, through a theory of art as a reflection of reality. REFERENCES
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A thick fillet steak served with a bearnaise sauce is named after which French statesman?
Chateaubriand - definition of Chateaubriand by The Free Dictionary Chateaubriand - definition of Chateaubriand by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Chateaubriand Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Cha·teau·bri·and also cha·teau·bri·and  (shă-tō′brē-äN′) n. A double-thick, tender center cut of beef tenderloin, sometimes stuffed with seasonings before grilling. [After Vicomte François René de Chateaubriand.] Chateaubriand (French ʃɑtobrijɑ̃) n 1. (Biography) François René (frɑ̃swa rəne), Vicomte de Chateaubriand. 1768–1848, French writer and statesman: a precursor of the romantic movement in France; his works include Le Génie du Christianisme (1802) and Mémoires d'outre-tombe (1849–50) 2. (Cookery) a thick steak cut from the fillet of beef Châ•teau•bri•and 1. François René, Vicomte de, 1768–1848, French author and statesman. 2. (often l.c.) a large, thick tenderloin, broiled and served with béarnaise or other sauce. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Chateaubriand - a very thick center cut of beef tenderloin filet , fillet - a boneless steak cut from the tenderloin of beef Translations Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Vicomte de Chateaubriand References in classic literature ? How, as by an enchanted wand, have its scenes been changed, since Chateaubriand wrote his prose-poetic description of it,[1] as a river of mighty, unbroken solitudes, rolling amid undreamed wonders of vegetable and animal existence. View in context The bidet purchased at Chateaubriand completed the metamorphosis; it was called, or rather D'Artagnan called it, Furet (ferret). He had discovered, besides, since his departure from Chateaubriand, that nothing would be impossible for Furet under the impulsion of M. View in context All the well-known people of that period, from Alexander and Napoleon to Madame de Stael, Photius, Schelling, Fichte, Chateaubriand, and the rest, pass before their stern judgment seat and are acquitted or condemned according to whether they conduced to progress or to reaction. View in context Pierre to Chateaubriand, from Chateaubriand to Victor Hugo; it has no doubt some obscure relationship to those pantheistic theories which have greatly occupied people's minds in many modern readings of philosophy; it makes as much difference between the modern and the earlier landscape art as there is between the roughly outlined masks of a Byzantine mosaic and a portrait by Reynolds or Romney.
François-René de Chateaubriand
Who composed the music of the opera Moses and Aaron ?
Chateaubriand Recipe : The Reluctant Gourmet 1 thick, center cut tenderloin steak, approximately 1 pound 2 tablespoons unsalted butter Salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste 1 shallot, minced 4 oz. full-bodied red wine 4 oz. demi glace 2 teaspoons minced fresh tarragon Whole tarragon leaves, for garnish How To Prepare At Home Preheat your oven to 375º F. Liberally sprinkle salt and pepper on the steak. Preheat an oven-safe heavy skillet or saute pan over medium-high heat. Depending on your stove, this could take 4 or 5 minutes. I set a timer to make sure I'm not rushing. Add the butter and oil to the pan. When the butter stops foaming, sear the meat on all sides until well browned. Place the meat in the hot pan, and do not move it for at least 2 minutes. With tongs, turn the meat and continue searing. If the meat sticks to the pan, leave it for another few seconds. When the sear is complete, the meat will release on its own, so be gentle and patient. Keep an eye on the heat, you may need to adjust it up or down to maintain a good "sizzle ' without burning the meat. Remove the meat from the pan, and place an oven-safe rack in the cooking pan. Put the meat on the rack and roast in the oven until the meat has reached an internal temperature of 125º F. Use a probe thermometer so you don't have to keep opening the oven. Alternately, check the internal temperature with an instant read thermometer after ten or twelve minutes. Remove from the oven. Put the meat on a warmed platter to rest for about 15 minutes. The temperature will continue to rise, and your meat will be a perfect medium rare. While the meat is resting, prepare the sauce. You should have plenty of oil/butter left in the cooking pan. Place the pan over medium heat - careful, it has been in the oven. Make sure you have an oven mitt, because the handle can burn you. Add the minced shallot and saute until translucent, but not browned. Add the red wine. Turn the heat up to medium high and reduce by half. Add the demi-glace to the pan and reduce for a couple of minutes until the mixture is somewhat syrupy. Taste for seasonings, and add salt and pepper if necessary. Stir in the minced tarragon and remove from the heat. Swirl in the softened butter right before serving. This will help to further thicken the sauce and impart a lovely sheen. For a classic presentation, slice your Chateaubriand in half diagonally and serve on warmed plates with the sauce spooned over. Garnish with some fresh tarragon leaves. The traditional accompaniment to Chateaubriand is Chateau potatoes, but you may serve it with any side dishes you like. Steamed or sauteed vegetables make a light and colorful foil to the rich main dish. 3.1
i don't know
What term used in the USA for a half-tamed horse means rough in Spanish?
Cowboy's Glossary of Horse Terms - Cowboy Showcase Cowboy Showcase Mexico Cowboy Glossary - Horse Terms ALAMAR KNOT:  decorative knot used to tie a mecate around a horse's neck.   In traditional Old California horse training, when a  horse had graduated to become a finished  bridle horse, the alamar knot was tied from two coils of a mane hair mecate draped over the horse's neck and the knot worn on the horse's chest to denote him as a bridle horse. Link to a site showing how to tie the Alamar Knot   Bell Mare:  generally older mares wearing a bell, used as leaders in pack trains or put in a remuda to locate where horses are grazing at night. Bell:  To trim an animal's tail into a distinctive bell shaped pattern.   Often used on mules.  The pattern is used for identification,  for instance to show where a horse or mule should be in a pack string. Bronco:  an animal that has never been broken to saddle or harness use. Also bronc.  (Spanish:  rough) Bronc: Rodeo term used to designate the bucking horses that are ridden with a saddle. Rough string: saddle horses that buck every time they are saddled. Some never become gentle.   (Caballada):  Spanish for a band of horses.   Saddle horses maintained by a ranch.  Also see remuda or cavvy. Cavvy:   (caviada) Buckaroo term for a ranch outfit's saddle horses.  The cavvy horses are gathered by a horse wrangler and brought "to the ropes."  This is a rope corral, sometimes temporary, at which the "day horses" are roped.  The jigger boss, second in command, does the roping.  The buckaroo calls out which horse he wants based on the instructions the cow boss has given for the day's work.  Term used mainly in the Great Basin and northwest. Parada:  a relay of horses and the place the change is made.  Similar to cavvy.  Group of broke horses. Remuda: all saddle horses on a roundup that are thrown together and constitute the remount horses for the cowboys. The remuda is in the charge of a cowboy whose duty is to herd and bunch the animals when the cowboys want a fresh mount.  This term is used most often in the southwest and Texas.  North of U.S. Highway 50 the term most often used is cavvy or cavvietta.  Also see  'caballada', cavvy.   Cold-backed:  A horse that has a tendency to buck when initially mounted in the morning.   Sun fish:  when a bronc bucks and twists its body into a crescent, and throws head alternately to right and left...looks as though he is trying to sun both sides of his body. Swap ends: when a bronc is bucking and goes up facing one direction but lands facing the opposite direction.   Croup:  The croup is the rump of the horse, the top of the hind quarters from the tail to the kidney area (loin). Rafter-hipped:  horses with a low tail set. Mustang types lacking a rump often show this fall-off from the hipbone to the tail. Arabs and Tbreds have a straight topline (flat croup), but some Quarter Horses show a lot of slope from the loin down to the tail.  Donkey:  common name for a member of the ass family.  The Spanish brought donkeys, called "burros" in Spanish, to North America beginning in the late fifteenth century.  They were the favored beast of burden used by prospectors in the desert Southwest of the United States.  A male donkey (jack) can be crossed with a female horse to produce a mule. A male horse can be crossed with a female donkey (jennet or jenny) to produce a hinny.   Rocky Mountain Canary: a burro, also  sometimes called a Colorado Mocking bird.  Mule:  cross between a male ass and a female horse (mare)  Sure footed and hard working animal.  Photo shows a mule with its horse mother. Gouch eared:  Having ragged or cropped ears.  Sometimes a horse will lose part of an ear to frostbite or an accident. Ground-Tie:  The horse is taught to stand still with the reins dropped on the ground rather than tied to an object.   Handy, but not fool-proof. Hazing:  Rodeo term referring to bulldogging.  The bulldogger rides his horse on the left side of the steer. The hazer rides on the right. When the steer is released from the box, the hazer attempts to keep the steer between his horse and the bulldogger's horse so that the bulldogger has a better chance to get off on the steer and throw it down. The word "haze" is used to mean push or herd the animal. Rim-fire:  When a cowboy gets his rope caught under his horse's tail, usually while roping cattle.  This can cause a severe wreck when the horse takes exception to the position of the rope. Rollers:  "blowing rollers"  A snorting, rattling sound made by a horse when he is spooked. Stray:  an animal found strayed away from its owner or from the range where it belongs. String:  A group of several horses designated for use by a cowboy.  Each horse has a different athletic ability and disposition.  A cowboy chooses his mount for the day according to the work to be done that day:  corral work, big-circle, gather, etc. String:  a cowboy's rope or a line of pack-animals. War Bridle:  a type of head control that just uses a loop around the lower jaw of the horse.  There are other types that include nose bands and a loop over the poll.  Those types are often used as training aids for problem horses.  As shown here, the war bridle is not severe, is used very lightly, and much is communicated to the horse using the rider's legs and body. At the ropes:  horses are gathered at a ranch into a rope corral.  They are trained to stand with their heads facing the rope and and are roped by the jigger or cowboss for the cowboys from behind using a hoolihan loop.  The cowboy asks for his horse for the day according to the work to be done.  (Caballo): Spanish for horse Cow horse: a horse that is trained to roping, cutting, working out a cow-herd. Cow sense: What a horse has when it has a natural ability to use for roping, cutting and general cow work.  Cutting horse: certain cow-horses used at a round-up in cutting out cattle for ownership and brand; today, a whole branch of horsemanship and horse use. Critter: often in speaking of cows or horses a cowboy calls them a "Critter."  Other animals can also be critters. Bangtail:  Mustang mare, (not necessarily limited to mares).  In older days, uncombed tails were a sign of an unbroken horse.   Broom-tail:  a class of range horses that are considered not worth much. Cayuse: a range-bred horse. Owl-headed horse:  A horse that looks around a lot.  Mustang: (MESTEÑO) a feral horse.  From the Spanish word mestizo meaning mixed blood. Buckskin: a tan or yellow colored horse with black mane & tail. Dun:  "Dun factor doesn't not mean dun color, it's a type of gene inheritance. Dun factor acts on the base coat color and usually lightens it a shade or two. Also, many dun factor horses have a stripe down the back and lines on the legs, neck, and ear tips, etc."  courtesy of Kathy Kadash-Swan  Flaxey:  Blonde colored or flaxen mane or tail on a horse.  Grulla: (pronounced groo-ya)  a mouse colored horse, a mousy-dun.  The dun version of a black horse.  (Mexican:  grullo)  Note the dark dorsal stripe, tiger striped legs and white ear tips. Palomino: a golden colored horse with a light or white colored mane and tail.  Pinto: a paint or spotted horse. Glass-eyed:  Blue or white eyed horse.  An old-wives' tale says blue-eyed horses do not see well or are night blind, but most see as well as any other horse.   Gelding: it is a range custom to let a male colt run on the range until he becomes a 2-year old.  He is then castrated and becomes a gelding.  Horses are gelded to help ensure good temperament. The old way was that only geldings were used by cowboys.  Mares were turned out with a stallion in stud bands to raise a new crop of colts.  Locoed: horses and cattle become addicted to the eating of Loco weed, thereby causing the victim to become thin; with injury to eyesight, muscular control and brain; causes an abnormal growth of hair on the mane and tail of horses - on cattle an extra increase of hair on flanks.malnutrition, often effecting an animal's thinking. Weedy:  same as above, but caused by eating too much black sage or other plant instead of a normal diet and causing Re-ride:  To ride again, such as to check a pasture or allotment for cattle not gathered the first time. Also with reference to riding a bronc or bull in a rodeo, if the animal does not buck as should be expected, the rider is given a different horse or bull in the hopes they can score their best. Stallion:  an adult male horse.  Usually kept mainly for breeding purposes although many are shown and ridden.   Another term is "stud." Stud Band: a group of mares turned out on open range with a stallion.  In the days before Taylor Grazing and lots of fenced deeded ground, most horses and cattle were run this way. Two-rein horse:  In the vaquero tradition, the "two-rein" is a step in the horse's training progression.  The horse goes from snaffle bit to hackamore to two-rein to bridle.  A "bosalito" or thin bosal, used with a mecate goes under a second headstall that uses a half-breed bit with California-style rawhide reins and romal. Tattoo on a thoroughbred horse.  These numbers are tattooed on the inside of the upper lip and registered with the Jockey Club.  This is a permanent manner of identification, however not easily seen.   War Knot:   tail knot used to keep the horse's tail out of the way while working.  Used by buckaroos and vaqueros. Wheel Team : first team attached to a wagon that requires more than one team, such as in a "four up" or "six up".
Bronco
Who wrote the music of the opera The Love of Three Oranges ?
Dirty Slang Dictionary | Masturbation | Sexual Intercourse Dirty Slang Dictionary Dirty Slang Dictionary   Find hundreds of slang terms for dirty words such as penis, vagina, oral sex, masturbation,boobs, erection, and more.   The head of the penis. Alaskan Fire Dragon - Get the chick on her knees for a BJ. Right after youblow your load, clamp her mouth shut, and whisper in her ear, "I've gotsyphillis." The spooge should shoot out her nose in record time. Angel - Male who pays for sexual acts. Angry Dragon - Immediately after you blow your load in a girl's mouth, smack the back of herhead and make it come out her nose. When she gets up she'll look like an angry dragon. Auntie - An aging male homosexual. Animal play - When one or both partners pretend to be an animal (Ex - dog, horse) in a roleplay. Areola - The dark red or light brown ring of skin surrounding the nipple. Auto -Eroticism - Performing fellatio (oral sex) on one`s own penis Arabian Goggles - A "seldom-seen" maneuver when you put your testicles over her eyesockets while getting head. (Picture it: ass on forehead) It may be anatomically impossible,but what the fuck else is new Aeroplane Blonde - One who has bleached / dyed her hair but still has a 'black box. Around the World - The act of kissing the entire body as a prelude to sex. Aussie Kiss - similar to a French Kiss, but given down under. Auxiliary Intercoure - Sexual climax achieved by moving the erect penis back and forth inthe armpit Azozoospermia - Semen containing no sperm, either because the testicles cannot makesperm or because of blockage in the reproductive tract.    A euphemism for the anus. Badly Packed Kebab - A vulgar (but still excellent) term for the female genitalia Butch - A lesbian who prefers traditionally masculine dress, style, expression, or identity. Bag - To have sexual intercourse with. Ball - To have intercourse. Ballsacking - Takes some luck of the gene pool, but if you're able to do it, always great fun.While you are straddling her, take your nutsack and spread it out over her face like pizzadough. Balloon Knot - When you bend over and I can see up right up the wazoo.That's a balloon knot that you see. Bag it - wearing a condom during intercourse. Back Yard - Perform anal intercourse. Bait N' Tackle - The sailors used this one in the old Navy days. Before you go off for a long,lonely voyage, get yourself a tall jar and fill it completely with earthworms. When you getlonely, open the jar and fuck away. The earthworms will provide some slithery stimulation,and your protein load will keep them nicely fed. Gone fishing! Barely Legal - Girls who have reached the age of 18, or look like they've just turned 18,newbies to porn. Barebacking - - A homosexual (male) Bimbot - A pornslut who is as cold and unfeeling during sex as her plastic boobs, lips,cheeks, etc. Bismarck - During oral sex, right before you are about to cum, you pull out,shooting your load all over her face. Follow that with a punch and smear theblood and cum together. Beer Dick - This is what most guys get after a good night of drinking. They tend to fuckanything with a pussy while experiencing beer dick Blue Balls - Severe need to experience sexual orgasm. Blowjob - The act or an instance of fellatio. Brownie Queen - Passive partner in anal intercourse. Bear Claw - A synonym for extremely large pussy lips. Bronco, The - You start by going doggy style and then just when she is really enjoying it, yougrab her tits as tight as possible and yell another girls name. This gives you the feeling ofriding a wild bronco as she desperately tries to buck you off. Brown Bagging It - Sometimes you meet a girl with a body like there's no tomorrow but aface like a mangy dog. Don't let that body go to waste and let her hideousness stop you fromfucking her though. Just draw the smiley face on a brown paper bag, place it over her head,and fuck away while keeping your composure and piece of mind. Butter Face - When you see a chick with an awesome body, "but her face", is nasty. Bukkake - Showering a person with sperm from one or many men. In ancient Japan, there isa legend that unfaithful women were publicly humiliated in the town center by being tied upwhile every man in town ejaculated all over her to show their distaste. Butt Plug - A dildo specially designed for insertion into the anus. Usually has a flared base toprevent it from going in too far. Bull Dagger - an extremely masculine lesbian. The term is often used negatively. Betty - Slang term for an attractive female. Blumpkin - - Body Of Baywatch, Face Of Crimewatch. Bone Of Contention - A hard-on that causes an argument, e.g. one that arises when a manis watching Olympic beach volleyball on TV with his girlfriend. Booty Call - Slang term for a late -night or last minute phone call with the intention ofattaining sex. Boink/Bonk - To have intercourse with. Boiler Suit - The prosecution charge that you did wilfully, and with phallus aforethought,score with a BOBFOC last night. This charge is usually brought by a kangaroo court of yourfriends in the pub on Saturday night. Boff, boffed boffing, boffs - To have sexual intercourse with. v. intr. To engage in sexualintercourse . Brown Eye - The chocolate coloration of various shades found around many female'sassholes. It assumed that a girl possessing such will always do anal sex. Brown Necktie - You're about halfway through ass-wrecking a chick, and instead of filling upher keister with your demonseed, you pull out and proceed to tittie fuck her, leaving a brownstreak between the funbags. Brownie Queen - Passive partner in anal intercourse. Bruce Lee - Erect nipple (as in, a hard Nip). Brunski - When a man puts his face between a woman's breasts and quickly moves his headback and forth while saying "Brunski" in a very drawn out and exaggerated manner. (Thereare many other variant names.) Bonk -
i don't know
Meaning 'Huntsman' in French, what name is given to a sauce made from mushrooms, shallots, tomatoes and white wine?
Chasseur | Define Chasseur at Dictionary.com chasseur [sha-sur; French sha-sœr] /ʃæˈsɜr; French ʃaˈsœr/ Spell [sha-surz; French sha-sœr] /ʃæˈsɜrz; French ʃaˈsœr/ (Show IPA) 1. (in the French army) one of a body of cavalry or infantry troops equipped and trained for rapid movement. 2. a uniformed footman or attendant; liveried servant. 3. a hunter. 4. Also called hunter's sauce. French Cookery. a brown sauce, usually containing mushrooms, tomatoes, shallots, white wine, etc. Origin of chasseur
Chasseur
Composed by Eric Coates, what is the title of the signature tune of Radio 4's Desert Island Discs?
Food Glossary & Classic French Garnishes | Chefsopinion Food Glossary & Classic French Garnishes Food Glossary & Classic French Garnishes > 2) Classic French Garnishes / Descriptions —————————————————————— À emporter (adj) to go (as opposed to sur place, for here). À l’ancienne old-fashioned, as in une baguette à l’ancienne. À point (adj) medium rare. Abats (m. pl.) offal. Aiguillette (f) in a bird (mostly duck or chicken), the tip of the breast meat. Ail (m) garlic. Aligot (m) potatoes mashed with fresh mountain cheese; a specialty from Auvergne. Amande (f) almond. Amuse-bouche (m) or amuse-gueule. Savory nibbles served before the meal, to arouse the appetite. Ananas (m) pineapple. Andouillette (f) chitterlings sausage. Aneth (m) dill. AOC (f) Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée. A certification granted to certain food items (such as varieties of cheese or produce) made in a specific area, according to a specific production process. Apéritif (m) or apéro. A pre-dinner drink. Also: a general term for the drinks and savory nibbles served before dinner. It is also a widespread custom to invite people over just for l’apéro, which is a more casual way to entertain than a full-blown dinner invitation. Arachide (f) peanut. Avoine (m) oat. B Baba au rhum (m) a spongy yeast cake soaked with rum syrup, often served with whipped cream. Badiane (f) star anise. Bar (m) bar, or sea bass. Basilic (m) basil. Beaufort (m) firm cow  cheese  from the area of Beaufort, in the French Alps. Beignet (m) fritter, donut. Berceuse (f) mezza-luna; a chopping tool with two handles and two half-moon blades. Literally: lullaby, because of the rocking movement made while using it. Betterave (f) beetroot. Beurre (m) butter. Beurre doux is unsalted, beurre salé is salted. Bien cuit (adj) well done. Bière (f) beer. Bio (adj) (short for biologique) organic. Biscotte (f) rusk. Biscuit (m) cookie. Biscuit rose de Reims (m) a pink, rectangular ladyfinger and a specialty from Reims, it was designed for dipping in a glass of Champagne. It keeps its shape when moistened, which makes it perfect for charlottes. Blanc (adj) white. Blanc-manger (m) a set pudding made with almond milk. Blanquette (f) a creamy stew, generally of veal, cooked with carrots, onions, and mushrooms. Blé (m) wheat. Blettes (f. pl.) also: bettes. Swiss chard. Bleu (adj) very rare. Literally: blue. Boeuf (m) beef. Boeuf bourguignon (m) a stew of beef, red wine, and vegetables; a specialty from Burgundy. Bonbon (m) candy. Bouchon (m) cork. Boudin antillais (m) spicy blood sausage. A twist on boudin noir and a specialty from the Antilles, the French Carribeans. Boudin blanc (m) a soft white sausage. Boudin noir (m) blood sausage. Bouteille (f) bottle. Brandade de morue (f) salt cod mashed with olive oil and milk until smooth; sometimes made with potatoes, too; a specialty from Provence. Brasserie (f) originally, a restaurant that served beer (the literal meaning of brasserie is brewery) and a simple hearty fare, often of Alsatian inspiration. The term is now used, more broadly, for traditional restaurants that are larger than bistros and offer a longer menu served around the clock (choucroute, grilled meat, shellfish platters, etc.). Bresaola (f) air-dried Italian beef. Brick (f) (alternate spelling: brik) a very thin wheat dough used in North African cuisine, similar to phyllo dough but slightly thicker and grainier. Brioche (f) a lightly sweet yeast pastry, made with eggs and butter. Brochet (m) pike. Brochette (f) skewer. Brousse (f) a type of fresh cheese from Provence. It is called brocciu when made in Corsica. Brut (adj) crude, rough. Café (m) coffee; when ordered in a café or restaurant: espresso. Café allongé (m) espresso with added water. Café crème (m) coffee with milk. Cake (m) a cake baked in a loaf pan. Calamar (m) squid. Calisson (m) an almond shaped confection from Aix-en-Provence, made with almond paste, sugar, and crystallized melons, with wafer paper at the bottom and a crisp sugar glaze on top. Canard (m) duck. Canelé (m) (alternate spelling: cannelé) a small cake from the city of Bordeaux, caramelized and crusty on the outside, soft and chewy on the inside. Cantine (f) school or office cafeteria, it is sometimes used to mean a restaurant that has a laid-back and relaxed atmosphere, and where you could see yourself having lunch or dinner everyday. Caquelon (m) fondue pot. Carambole (f) starfruit. Caramel au beurre salé (m) salted butter caramel. Carbonade flamande (f) a stew of beef, beer, and onions; a specialty from the French Flanders and Belgium. Cari (m) curry (in créole cuisine). Carré (m) rack (as in a rack of lamb). Literally: square. Carte (f) menu. Carte des vins (f) wine list. Cassis (m) blackcurrant. Cassonade (f) a soft brown cane sugar. Cassoulet (m) a stew from the South-West of France, involving white kidney beans and various meats cooked in goose fat. Céleri-rave (m) celery root. Cerfeuil (m) chervil. Cerise (f) cherry. Cervelle de canut (f) fromage blanc flavored with herbs and garlic; a specialty from Lyon. Literally: silkweaver’’s brain (silkweaving was the traditional craft of Lyon). Chalumeau (m) blowtorch; can be used to caramelize the sugar topping on crèmes brûlées. Champignon (m) mushroom. Chapelure (f) dried breadcrumbs. Charcuterie (f) a store halfway between a butcher’s shop and a deli. Also, the variety of sausages and pork products (jambon, saucisson, salami, mortadelle, pâté…) sold in such stores. Charlotte (f) a no-bake dessert in which the mold is lined with ladyfingers, then filled with layers of fruit, and layers of custard or fromage blanc. (f) a variety of small potatoes, tender-fleshed and sweet. Châtaigne (f) chestnut. (f) goat. (m) short for fromage de chèvre, goat cheese. Chichi (m) an elongated donut similar to the Spanish churro, usually sold by beach-side vendors, rolled in sugar and served in a paper wrapping. Sometimes called chouchou. Chicorée (f) chicory. Chocolat (m) the best edible thing on Earth. Chocolat au lait (m) milk chocolate. Chocolat blanc (m) white chocolate. Chocolat noir (m) dark chocolate. Chocolatier (m) an artisan who makes and sells chocolate confections. Chocolatière (f) like a teapot, but for hot chocolate. Chou (m) cabbage. Chou rouge (red cabbage), chou blanc (white cabbage), chou frisé (Savoy cabbage), chou-fleur (cauliflower)… Chou à la crème (m) cream puff. Choucroute (f) sauerkraut. Choucroute garnie (f) sauerkraut served with assorted sausages and cured meats. Chouquette (m) a golf-ball-sized pastry puff sprinkled with pearl sugar. Ciboulette (f) chive. Citronnelle (f) lemongrass. Civet (m) stew. Clafoutis (m) a simple, grandmotherly dessert in which a pudding batter (usually made of flour, sugar, milk and eggs, sometimes butter) is poured over fruit (most commonly cherries, to makeclafoutis aux cerises) and baked. A specialty from the Limousin region. Clou de girofle (m) clove. Cochon (m) pig. Coco-fesse (f) a coconut shaped exactly like a pair of buttocks that’s unique to the Seychelles and is said to have aphrodisiacal virtues. Cocotte (f) a heavy (most often cast-iron) pot with a lid. Cocotte-minute (f) pressure cooker. Cointreau (m) an orange-flavored liqueur. (Cointreau is a brand name.) Colvert (m) mallard. Literally: green neck. Complet (adj) full (for a restaurant), or whole (for a grain). Compote (f) a dessert made of fruits cooked slowly with sugar or syrup. Also used, by extension, for vegetables or meat cooked the same way. Comptoir (m) counter. Comté (m) semi-firm cow cheese from the Jura, a mountain range in the East of France. Confit (m) applies to any preparation that’s cooked in its own fat, or cooked slowly until very soft. Confit de canard (m) a duck leg, salted and cooked slowly, then packed in its own fat. A typical dish from the South-West of France. Confiture (f) jam. Confiture d’oignon (f) onion jam. Confiture de lait (f) milk jam. It is the French equivalent of dulce de leche, i.e. a creamy caramel spread made with evaporated milk and sugar. Confrérie (f) brotherhood. Coque (à la) (f) in the shell. Oeuf à la coque is a soft-boiled egg served in the shell. Coquetier (m) egg cup. Coquillage (m) seashell, or shellfish. Coquille Saint-Jacques (f) sea scallop. Coriandre (f) cilantro/coriander. Côte (f) rib, or chop. Côtelette (f) chop. Couteau (m) knife. Crème anglaise (f) vanilla custard sauce. Crème brûlée (f) a custard-like dessert served in a round and shallow earthenware ramekin, and sprinkled with a layer of sugar that’s blowtorched into a caramel crust just before serving. Literally: burnt cream. Crème de cassis (f) blackcurrant liqueur, typically blended with white wine to make a kir cocktail. Crème de marron (f) sweetened chestnut purée. Crème fleurette (f) also: crème liquide. Whipping cream. Crème fraîche (f) thick, slightly sour cream, that doesn’t curdle when heated (it’s the fat content, you see…). Substitute heavy cream or sour cream, preferably a mix of the two. Crêpe (f) large and thin pancake. A specialty from Brittany. Crêperie (f) restaurant that specializes in crêpes and galettes. Cresson (m) watercress. Crevette (f) shrimp. Croquant de Provence (m) a crunchy almond cookie from Provence. Croque au sel (à la) (f) a style of eating raw vegetables, with salt as the only seasoning. Used for radishes especially (radis à la croque au sel). Croque-madame (m) a croque-monsieur with a fried egg on top. Croque-monsieur (m) a grilled sandwich of cheese and ham, sometimes topped with a béchamel sauce. Croustillant F Faire moit’ moit’ (v) to split dishes. Short for moitié moitié, which means “half half”. Farci (adj) stuffed, as in “stuffed zucchini”, not “I’m stuffed” (that would be j’ai assez mangé, I’ve had enough, or j’ai trop mangé, I’ve eaten too much). Farine (f) flour. Fécule de maïs (f) corn starch. Also referred to by the brand name Maïzena. Fécule de pomme de terre (f) potato starch. Fenouil (m) fennel. Ferme-auberge (f) a farm-inn, i.e. a farm that also operates as a casual restaurant, in which the farm’s products are cooked and served. Fermier (adj) farm-made or farm-raised. Feuille guitare (f) a sheet of plastic that chocolatiers use to ensure their confections have a shiny finish. Literally: guitar sheet. Fève (f) fava bean/broad bean. Filet de boeuf (m) beef tenderloin. Filet de poulet (m) chicken breast. Financier (m) a small almond cake shaped like a gold ingot. Fleur de sel (f) flecks of sea salt collected at the surface of salt marshes. Grey-white and slightly moist, it has a distinctive and delicate taste. Florentin (m) small disks of slivered almonds and candied fruits, baked together in sugar, honey, butter and/or cream, and dipped in chocolate. Recipe  here . Florilège (m) a selection of the best items in a category. Foie (m) liver. Foie gras (m) the liver from a fatted duck or goose. Fondue bourguignonne (f) a type of fondue in which you cook cubes of meat (generally beef) in hot oil then eat them with a variety of dipping sauces. Fondue savoyarde (f) cheese fondue, made with white wine and cheeses from Savoie, a region on the French side of the Alps. Formule (f) a limited selection of dishes offered for a set price, usually cheaper than a menu. Four (m) oven. Four à bois (m) woodfire oven. Fourchette (f) fork. Fourme d’Ambert (m) blue cheese from Auvergne, a mountain range in the center of France. Frais (adj) fresh. Frit (adj) fried. Frites (f. pl.) French fries. Friture (f) something fried. Specifically: tiny fried fish served in the South of France, and the fish-shaped Easter chocolates meant to represent them. Froid (adj) cold. Fromage blanc (m) a smooth, unsalted fresh cheese, similar to yogurt. Fromage frais (m) fresh cheese. Fruits de mer (m. pl.) shellfish. Fruits déguisés (m. pl.) literally: fruits in disguise. A traditional Christmas confection, in which dried fruits (dates and prunes mostly) have their pit replaced with a piece of brightly colored marzipan. Fruits secs (m. pl.) dried fruits. Nuts are sometimes included in that category. Fumé (adj) smoked. G Galette (f) a savory crêpe made with buckwheat flour. Also: any preparation that’s flat and circular, or patty-shaped. Galette des rois (f) a puff pastry pie filled with frangipane, which is a mix of almond cream and pastry cream. It is one of the traditional cakes served on the Epiphany, a Christian holiday celebrated on January 6. Gambas (f. pl.) jumbo shrimp. Ganache (f) a smooth preparation of chocolate melted with cream and/or butter. It is used in filled chocolates and chocolate tarts in particular. Gâteau (m) cake. Gressin (m) pencil-shaped breadstick cracker, similar to the Italian grissino. Grillé (adj) grilled. Gruyère (m) firm cow cheese from the town of Gruyères, in the Swiss Alps. H Hareng (m) herring. Haricot (m) bean. Haricot vert = green bean, haricot blanc = white bean, haricot rouge = red bean. Haricot mangetout (m) snow pea. Literally: the eat-everything bean (unlike regular peas, you eat the pod as well). Haricot tarbais (m) white kidney-shaped bean from Tarbes in the Pyrénées. It is the only bean to be protected by a Label Rouge and regional appellation, and can only be hand-picked. Harissa (f) red chili garlic paste from North Africa. Homard (m) lobster. Huître (f) oyster. I Ile flottante (f) egg whites beaten until stiff then poached or baked, and served in a cup of crème anglaise. Literally: floating island. Infusion (f) herbal tea. Lisette (f) a small mackerel. Lotte (f) monkfish. M Macaron (m) a cookie made with ground almonds and egg whites. The macaron parisien in particular is made of two delicate meringue-like cookies sandwiched together by a creamy filling. Mâche (f) lamb’s lettuce, i.e. a salad green that comes in small bouquets of mild-flavored leaves shaped like drops (or lambs’ ears). Madeleine (f) a small, butter-rich teacake baked in an oval mold that gives it a vaguely scallop-like shape. The dough rises in the oven to form a characteristic bump which is, to some, the tastiest part of the madeleine. Magret (m) the breast of a fattened duck or goose. Maigre (adj) lean. Maison, or Fait maison homemade. Maquerau (m) mackerel. Marché (m) farmer’s market. Marron glacé (m) candied/glazed chestnut, i.e. a chestnut that is cooked in several baths of sugar syrup until meltingly tender. A typical Christmas delicacy. Mélasse (f) molasses. Membrillo (Spanish) quince. Mendiant (m) a disk of chocolate topped with dried fruit and nuts. Also: any preparation (cake, ice cream, chocolate tart…) that involves chocolate, dried fruits, and nuts. Menthe (f) mint. Mérou (m) grouper. Mi-cuit (adj) half-cooked. Mie (f) the crumb of a loaf of bread. Not to be confused with miettes, crumbs. Miel (m) honey. Miette (f) crumb, as in “there are crumbs all over the table.” Mille-feuille (m) A napoleon, i.e. a rectangular pastry made of alternating layers of puff pastry and vanilla pastry cream, iced with white fondant or sprinkled with confectioner’s sugar. Also: any dish involving layered ingredients. Literally: one thousand sheets. Mimolette (f) a bright orange cheese from the North of France. It is labeled extra-vieille (“extra-old”) when aged for a long time until brittle and very sharp. Mirabelle (f) small yellow plum. Moelle (f) marrow. Moelleux (adj) soft, mellow. When referring to wine: sweet. Mont d’Or (m) a soft cow cheese from the Jura with a thicker rind wrapped in pine bark and sold in a round wooden box. A popular way to serve it is the boîte chaude (hot box), in which the Mont d’Or is oven-baked in its box, with a splash of white wine, and eaten warm. Morue (f) fresh or salt cod. Mouillette (f) a finger of toasted bread, usually spread with butter, to be dipped into a soft-boiled egg. Moule (f) mussel. Moule à gâteau (m) cake pan. Moût (m) must. Navet (m) turnip. Also: a bad movie. Noisette (f) hazelnut. Noix (f) walnut. Noix de coco (f) coconut. Nougatine (f) a crunchy mixture of caramel and chopped almonds, often used in pastries as a layer or as a decoration. O Oeuf (m) egg. Oeuf cocotte (m) an egg baked in a ramekin over other ingredients — usually ham and crème fraîche, with an optional topping of grated cheese. Oie (f) goose. Oignon (m) onion. Onglet (m) hanger steak. Orangette (f) a chocolate confection in which a strip of candied orange rind is dipped in dark chocolate, sometimes with chunks of almonds. Recipe  here . Orge (m) barley. Os à moelle (m) marrow bone. Oseille (m) sorrel. Pain d’épice (m) a honey spice cake, litterally “spice bread”. Pain de campagne (m) rustic bread. Literally: country bread. Pain perdu (m) French toast, i.e. slices of day-old bread or brioche dipped in an egg batter and sautéed in butter until golden. Pain Poilâne (m) rustic starter bread, sold by the Poilâne bakery. Pain polaire (m) a soft, flat round of bread with dimples from Sweden. Palombe (f) wood pigeon. Pamplemousse (m) grapefruit. Panais (m) parsnip. Panisse (m) a fried chickpea flour patty. It is a specialty from Marseilles, typically sold by beach-side vendors. Papillote (f) a technique in which ingredients (fish, most often) are wrapped in foil or parchment paper and baked in the oven. Pâques (f. pl.) Easter. Patate douce (f) sweet potato. Pâté (m) a mixture of finely chopped or pureed seasoned meat, usually used as a spread on bread. Pâte à choux (f) choux pastry. A soft dough made of butter, flour, salt, water and eggs, that puffs up when baked. It is used to make a variety of pastries: chouquettes, éclairs, salambô, Saint-Honoré, profiterolles, gougères… Pâte brisée (f) a flaky pastry dough made with flour, butter, eggs, and, if it is to be used for a sweet preparation, sugar. Pâte d’amande (f) almond paste, or marzipan. Pâte de fruit (f) fruit paste. Pâte feuilletée (f) puff pastry. Pâte sablée (f) sweet and crumbly pastry dough. Pâtisserie (f) pastry. Also: pastry shop. Pâtissier (m) pastry chef. Pavé (m) a rectangular piece of meat or fish. Literally: paving stone. Peau (f) skin. Pendaison de crémaillère (f) housewarming party. (Une crémaillère is a trammel, the adjustable hook that was used to hang pots in the fireplace; a housewarming party was thrown on the day that this essential piece of equipment was added to a new house.) Persil (m) parsley. Petit beurre (m) a crisp, rectangular butter cookie. Petit déjeuner (m) breakfast. Petit gris (m) a small snail. Petit pois (m) pea. Petit suisse (m) fresh unsalted cheese sold in small cylindrical cartons. Pétoncle (f) bay scallop. Pignon (de pin) (m) pine nut. Piment (m) chili pepper. Pintade (f) guinea fowl. Piperade (f) stewed bell peppers, tomatoes, and onions combined with scrambled eggs; a specialty from the French Basque country. Pissaladière (f) an onion tart with black olives and anchovies, on a thin bread-like crust. A specialty from Nice, in the South of France. The name comes from pissalat, a condiment made with pureed anchovies, cloves, thyme and bay leaves, which was traditionally spread on the tart before baking. Pistache (f) pistachio. Pistou (m) a paste made of basil, olive oil, garlic, and sometimes cheese, equivalent to the Italian pesto. A specialty from Provence. Plat (m) dish, or main dish. Plat du jour (m) today’s special. Plat principal (m) main dish. Plateau (m) platter. Poêlée (f) any preparation cooked in a skillet. Poire (f) pear. Pois gourmand (m) snow pea. Poisson (m) fish. Poisson d’eau douce (m) freshwater fish. Poisson de mer (m) seawater fish. Poitrine (f) breast, or, for pork, belly. Poitrine fumée (f) bacon. Poivre (m) pepper. Poivron (m) bell pepper. Pomme (f) apple. Sometimes also used to mean potato, short for pomme de terre, as in pommes sarladaises, pommes sautées, pommes frites, pommes dauphines, etc. Pomme de terre (f) potato. Literally: earth apple. Pommes sarladaises (f. pl.) potatoes sautéed with garlic (and sometimes mushrooms) in duck fat. A specialty from Sarlat, in the Périgord region. Porc (m) pork. Pot-au-feu (m) a stew of beef with carrots, onions, turnips, and leeks. Potimarron (m) winter squash with a delicate chestnut flavor. Its French name is a portmanteau of potiron (pumpkin) and marron (chestnut). Potiron (m) pumpkin. Poulet (m) chicken. Poulpe (m) octopus. Pounti (m) (also: pountari) a terrine of pork, swiss chard, and prunes; a specialty from Auvergne. Pourboire (m) tip. Note: in France, menu prices include a 15% service charge. Pousse (f) sprout, or young leaf. Praire (f) clam. (f) a paste made of ground caramelized nuts and chocolate. (f) a chocolate bite filled with the above paste. (f) a caramelized nut, usually an almond or a peanut. Praline rose (f) a sugar-coated almond with a pink coloring; a specialty from Lyon. Pré-dessert (m) an intermediary course served after the main or cheese course, to cleanse the palate and prepare it for the dessert. Pressé (m) a pressed terrine. Prune (f) plum. Purée (f) mashed potatoes, or any mashed preparation. Q Quenelle (f) an oval dumpling, classically flavored with pike, served poached or baked. Also used to designate the shape of such a dumpling. Quetsche (f) an oval plum with purple skin and green flesh. It is similar to the damson plum, but sweeter. Queue (f) tail. Raffiné (adj) refined. Non raffiné means unrefined — whole (for flour) or raw (for sugar). Ragoût (m) stew. Raisin (m) grape. Rascasse (f) rockfish. Ratatouille (f) a vegetable stew made with tomatoes, zucchini, eggplant, peppers, onions, herbs and olive oil; a specialty from Provence. Ratte (f) a small, nutty potato, similar to the fingerling potato. Réglisse (f) liquorice. Reine claude (f) a round, green-skinned plum. Literally: Queen Claude. Rince-doigt (m) a moist towelette with a citrus smell on which to wipe one’s fingers after eating seafood. Also: a small bowl filled with citrus water, serving the same purpose. Ris (pl, m) sweetbreads, of veal or lamb. Riz (m) rice. Riz au lait (m) rice pudding. Rocamadour (m) an individual round goat cheese, produced around the town of Rocamadour, in the Périgord region. Rocher à la noix de coco (m) coconut macaroon. Literally: coconut rock/boulder. Rognon (m) kidney. Roquette (f) rucola or arugula, a peppery and tangy spear-leaved salad green. Rosé (adj) rare, when referring to the cooking stage for duck or lamb. (m) rosé wine. Rösti (m) a potato pancake with cheese. Rôti Sommelier (m) a member of the wait staff of a restaurant who specializes in wine. Souris d’agneau (f) lamb shank. Speculoos (m) crunchy cinnamon and cassonade cookie from Belgium. Sucre (m) sugar. Sucre de canne (m) cane sugar. Sucre glace (m) confectioner’s sugar. Sucre roux (m) brown sugar. Supion (m) small squid. Sur place (adj) for here (as opposed to à emporter, to go). Surgelé (adj) frozen. T Tapenade (f) green or black olive paste. Tartare (m) a dish that involves a raw ingredient, chopped or diced finely, and seasoned. The most classic example is steak tartare, made with raw beef, but the term is also used for preparations of raw fish or vegetables. Tarte flambée (f) a thin Alsatian tart usually garnished with crème fraîche, onions, and lardons. Tarte tatin (f) fruit pie (traditionally made with apples) baked with the crust atop the fruit, but flipped before serving. Tartine (f) originally, a slice of bread, toasted or not, with something spread on it, usually eaten for breakfast. More recently, a main dish of one or two slices of bread on which ingredients are laid, creating a sort of open-faced sandwich. Terrine (m) a preparation of meat, fish or vegetables, cooked or assembled in an earthenware dish and served cold, in slices. Also: the earthenware dish used for such preparations. Tête de moine (f) a wheel-shaped Swiss cheese. It is traditionally served in thin shavings, cut from the top of the cheese with a rotating knife planted in the center of the wheel. Literally: monk’s head. Thym (m) thyme. Tiède (adj) lukewarm, or slightly warm. Timbale (f) tumbler, can be used for any dish served in a small cup, or shaped like a small cup. Tisane (f) herbal tea. (m) an ice cream and meringue cake. (m) another name for Mont d’Or cheese. Vapeur (adj) steamed (it then stands for cuit à la vapeur). Veau (m) veal. Velouté (m) a smooth and velvety soup. Vergeoise (f) a soft brown (or light brown) sugar made from sugar beets, and a specialty from Belgium. Verre (m) glass. (f) a ball jar used in canning. (f) any dish served in a jar or glass. Viande (f) meat. Vinaigre (m) vinegar. Vinaigre balsamique (m) balsamic vinegar. Violet (m) a type of shellfish with a soft and deeply wrinkled shell that looks like a rock covered with seaweed, and bright yellow flesh. Also called biju or patate de mer. Volaille (f) poultry. – f : feminine noun – use with la/une – m : masculine noun – use with le/un – pl : plural noun – use with les/des …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2  Classic French Garnishes / Descriptions 1. Africaine : In the African style, as practiced the French Chefs. Dishes that bear this title must convey the style of foods consumed in the vast continent of North, West, Central and East Africa and the Union of South Africa. It was, however indiscriminately applied by the French0 Chefs, to dishes during the reign of Napoleon III when Meyerbeer a opera L’Africaine enjoyed great popularity. The principal ingredients used as garnishes, giving dishes the right to bear this title are : chicken, mushroom, tomatoes, eggplant, tomatoes cooked in oil, curried and spiced foods, dishes garnished with savoury rice or flavoured with garlic or pimento and groundnuts, coconut and pistachio nuts find their way in the sweet course. 2. Ailerons : Wing tips of chicken. Foods garnished with small wings of poultry of fins of certain types of fish. Eg. Consomme Ailerons. Chicken consommé garnished with stuffed chicken wings and cooked rice. 3. Aioli : A provencal olive-oil cum garlic sauce. In province, the aioli is the name of the dish itself whether it be fish, vegetables or snails when served with this cold sauce. Sauce : Garlic flavoured mayonnaise sauce with hard boiled eggs added, sprinkled with cayenne. Mashed potatoes could be used to thicken. 4. Alaska : Formerly called Russian America, is a territory of the United States of America. Eg. (i) Sole Alaska – Poached whole sole in white wine, half coated with a pink shrimp sauce and the other half with white wine sauce (made from fish liquor) garnished with poached oysters and noisette potatoes. (ii) Baked Alaska is America’s famous dessert. It is frozen vanilla ice cream placed on a sponge cake base covered quickly with meringue and baked in a hot oven to brown the meringue immediately. (iii) Cantaloupe Alaska – cut cantaloupes into 2, fill with ice cream top with meringue and browned. 5. Alexandra : Was the consort (the queen) of Edward VII, a king of Great Britain & Ireland in whose honour many dishes were named. Indicates inclusion of Aspargus tips. Eg. (i) Consomme Alexandra : Chicken consommé thickened with tapioca garnished with shredded chicken, lettuce and aspargus tips. (ii) Chicken sauté Alexandra. Cook the chicken breasts in butter, mask with thin soubise sauce reduced with cream, and garnish with asparagus tips. 6. Allemande : In the German style, dishes garnished with sauerkraut or pickled salt pork or smoked sausages. Eg. (i) Consomme thickened with tapioca flour garnished with julienne of red cabbage and slices of smoked sausages. (ii) Salade Allemande : Slides of apple, new potatoes, beetroot mixed with smoked herring fillets ad gherkins sprinkled with chopped parsley and vinaigrette dressing. 7. Amabassadrice : Literally means wife of the Ambassador. Eg. (i) Sole : Crayfish encased in rolled filets of sole. Poached and served with sauce normande. (ii) Pudding : A rich custard flavored with kirsch with a layer of strawberries, served with strained strawberry jam flavored with kirsch. 8. Americaine : In the American style as practiced by French chefs. A garniture for fish with slices of lobster tail and truffles. Sauce : Tomato sauce, enrich with cream, blended with pounded coral butter and tail meat. Reduce with rich fish stock. Bombe : Ice cream bombe lined with strawberry ice cream flavored with grenadine, alternated with pistachio ice cream. Salade : Sliced potatoes, tomatoes, celery, rings of onions, sliced hard boiled eggs with a French dressing. 9. Andalouse : In the Andalusian style. A Spanish province. Chicken consommé garnished with diced tomatoes, cucumber and cooked vermicelli. A cold sauce – Mayonnaise, tomato puree mixed with finely chopped brunoise of capsicum. 10. Anglaise : In the English style as prepared by French Chefs. It indicates a “Plainly prepared” dish. Garniture for chicken : Mixed vegetable (carrots, French beans, turnips, potatoes, cauliflower) cooked, in salted water. Cotelettes de veau : Grilled breaded cutlets garnished with par boiled potatoes fried in butter. 11. Anna : The first name of Anna Amelia Duchesse of Saxony, bon 24th October 1739, Chiefly applied to a certain manner of cooking potatoes invented by Chef Duglere who was Chef yet Cam D’ anglaise in Paris, in pre-war days. Potatoes : Peeled, sliced thinly, arranged in a shall mould with melted butter and seasoning. Baked in oven to golden yellow. 12. Argentuil : Name of a district in France famous a for its asparagus. Potage : Asparagus soup thickened with rice and garnished with asparagus points. Chicken : Large flat fillet, poached and coated with preme sauce to which aspargus puree has been added. Garnished with asparagus tips. 13. Au Bleu : Meats cooked fresh and simply soon after killing, Truite au bleu Trout brought to the kitchen alive stunned and gutted just before cooking in water and white wine. Flavored with herbs and vinegar served with parsley, potatoes, Hollandaise sauce or melted butter. 14. Aurore : Dawn, break of day. The Roman Goddess of Dawn (Aurore). Consomme of veal stock with tomato puree added garnished with diced chicken. Sauce : Bechamel sauce flavoured with tarragon and lightly coloured with tomato puree or lobster butter in case of fish. Oeufs : Julienne of had oiled eggs in Allemande sauce with grated cheese browned under the grill. Fruits : Cold desserts, made from fruits in season on strawberry ice cream with a Zabaiene (Sabayon) sauce flavoured with curacoo. 15. Baba : Turkish for father. It is generally acknowledged that the invention of the cake Baba au rhum belongs to King Stanishlaus of Russia. The king used to reed tales of a 100 nights and has named this after one of his favorite heroes Alibaba. Babaau Rhum : A light yeast dough batter, sweetened and enriched with butter and eggs. While hot it is soaked in hot sugar syrup strongly flavoured with rum, whipped cream is piped on top of the cake. Baba au Kirsch as aboveus in kirsch instead of rum. 16. Bataille : Brittle, fight, bottle array or batailey – a chateau of the Bordeaux district. Potatoes : Cut in ½” squares and deep fried in fat. 17. Battenburg : The name of the family of German Counts which died out about 1314. The title was revived in 1851. Batterburg Cake :A lattice pattern of pink, yellow and chocolate Genoese sponge cake encased in rich almond paste. 18. Bavroise: A Bavarian cream, Bevarian style. Example of Bavarian creams flavoured custard using double the volume of cream (in relation to milk). Sauce : Rich Hollandaise sauce flavoured with cray fish puree and paprika. 19. Bayonnaise : The city in Spain was famous for its ham and pork products. It is said Mayonnaise was first spelled “Bayonnaise, Spain claims Mayonnaise as one of her culinary creations. Cancape : A circle of rye toast heaped with minced ham. Poulet Saute : Young chicken fried with chopped ham stewed in brown sauce and served with boiled rice. 20. Bearnaise : From the province of bean in the French Pyrencess. Sauce : Bearnaiseis named by the Chef of Henry IV at St. Germain who first introduced this sauce. Yolks of eggs warmed in double boiler, with chopped shallots and herbs with butter added piece by piece until the sauce is as thick as mayonnaise, lemon juice and cayenne pepper added. Chauteaubriand : Double fillet of beef, brushed with olive oil, broiled, garnished with watercress and carved with sauce Bearnaise. 21. Bechamel : Marqquis de Bechamel, a courtier in the service of King Louis SiV said to have invented the Bechamel sauce. Lobster : Diced and mixed with béchamel returned to shell and baked. Artichokes : Boiled artichokes served with Behcamel sauce. 22. Belle Helene : Presumably named for the opera. ‘Belle Helen’ by often back produced 1864. Tournedoss de boeuf : Small fillets of beef, grilled, garnished with straw potatoes, watercress and artichoke bottoms filled with sauce Bearnaise. Desserts : Fresh fruits like pears, peaches, stewed in vanilla flavoured sugar syrup. When cold placed on ice cream and covered with rich glossy chocolate sauce garnished with whipped cream and nuts. 23. Belle Paesse : A rich, creamy Italian cheese of milk flavour weighing 2-5 lbs each. 24. Bercy : It is a suburb and market of Paris. Potage : Puree offspring turnips thickened with cream and egg yolks. Sauce : Thin, meat glaze with chopped shallots reduced in white wine and enriched with fresh butter, lemon juice and chopped parsley. Sole : Rolled fillets offish, cooked under cover, in butter with chopped shallots, mushrooms liquor, white wine and chopped parsley masked with Bercy sauce. 25. Bigarade : A bitter Seville orange from Spain. Canard sausage : Wild duck served with orange salad and sauce bigarde. Caneton : Duckling cooked underdone. The fillet is sliced and served with sauce bigarde. Sauce : Gravy from duck, reduce with very fine shreds of orange and flavoured with orange juice and a little redcurrant jelly. 26. Bolognaise (a la) : In the style of Bologna, a city in Italy famous for its Bogognais sausages. Spaghetti : Cooked in salted water, strained, combined with diced/minced beef tossed in butter with minced onions moistened with veal stock, flavoured with garlic and tomato. 27. Bonne Femme : (Good woman) – Housewife style Potage : Thick white bean and chicken soup with julienne of vegetables (leeks) and sorrel carrots and turnips. Sauce : Creamy white sauce made with finely chopped mushrooms and shallots, blended with butter, seasoned, thickened with cream and egg yolk and flavoured with white wine. Sole : Poached fillets of sole, cooked with chopped shallots, mushrooms parsley, fish stock and white wine. Mask with fish veloute sauce and browned. Poulet sauce : Young chicken sauteed with rich gravy reduced with white wine, garnish with diced bacon and button onions. 28. Bordelaise (a la) : In the style of the city of Bordeaux. Sauce ; Rich brown sauce reduced with red wine and chopped shallots, tarragon and parsley. 29. Boudin Noir : Traditional grilled, blood sauce sausage for the festivities of Christmas Eve in Germany (Alcase). 30. Bouilli A Baisse : A provencal world, indicates to boil up and then stop. Bouillabaise – A mediterranean fish stew of several kinds of fish cut into small pieces and tossed in oil with chopped, herbs and onions moistened with white wine seasoned with saffron, tomatoes and garlic. Garnish with chopped parsley. Very popular with the fisherman on the water front in Marseillaize who prepare this for a late breakfast with the leftovers of the morning sale. 31. Bouillon (Stock) : Broth, principally of beef. 32. Bouquetiere (a la) : In the manner of ‘flower girls’ usually a garnish consisting of small fine vegetables dressed in small heaps around the meat. 33. Bourbon : Name of a family of French rulers. Consomme : Chicken consommé thickened with tapioca garnished with truffles cut into fancy shaped (hearts, diamonds, crescent etc.) and finally chopped chervil. 34. Bourguignonne (a la) : Burgundy style : As a rule dishes in the preparation of which Burgundy wine is added. Sauce Espagnole : Sauce flavoured with finely minced shallots, thyme, parsley, tarragon and mace. Burgundy wine is usually added. Garniture for joint (roasts) : Button mushrooms and onions tossed in butter with small dices of lean bacon and Burgundy wine. 35. Bressane (a la) : Style of Bresse French Provencal district famous of its fattened chicken. Poulardes des Bresse. Crème : Cream of Pumpkin soup, garnished with mezzanelli (Italian paste) enriched with cream. 36. Brillat – Savarin : Noted French gastronome and author of culinary works,chiefly famous for his book. “La Physiologie du gout” (the physiology of taste). The well known light, spongy yeast cake made in ring form is named after him. 37. Brunoise : Brunoy a district in France celebrated of its spring vegetables finely diced cooked root vegetables for a consommé garnish. Consomme : A rich beef, consommé garnished with small diced carrots, leeks, onion, turnip, celery, all browned in a little butter, cooked in the consommé. 38. Cardinal : The highest dignitary of the Roman catholic church, after the, Pope. A s a cardinal wears a distinctive scarlet, dress and a scarlet cap, the kitchen term stands of any dish of that colour. Usually lobster coral plays an important part in the fish dishes. Consomme : Chicken consommé ‘flavoured with tomato puree garnished with finely cut julienne of vegetable, strips of truffles and lobster dumplings. Lobster : Cubed Lobster mixture mixed with sauce Americaine and filled in shells, sprinkle with cheese and breadcrumbs and brown in the oven. Sauce : Rich, white fish sauce blended with pounded lobster coral togive it a correct colour, flavoured with essence or anchovies and tarragon. Garniture for fish : diced lobster, truffle, shrimps o prawn and caroinal sauce. Dessert : Strawberries, peaches or pears poached in syrup and dressed on strawberry or raspberry ice cream with raspberry or strawberry sauce and sprinkled with sliced roasted almonds and little pistachio nuts. 39. Careme : Antoin Careme (1784 – 1833) Chef to king George IV and later the Austrian Emperor Francis II and the Russian Czar Alexandra I and author of many culinary works. Many dishes are named after this most famous chef. 40. a. Carmen Sylva : was the nom-de-plumeo Elizabeth, Queen of Romania, born 29th December 1843. b. Star role in the opera of the same name by Bizet which was first produced in Paris at the Opera Comedie on 3rd March 1875. Consomme : Clear beef consommé well coloured with tomato puree garnished with star shapes of pimento boiled rice and chervil. 41. Charlotte : Charlotte mould (tall, straight sided mould) lined with over-lapping wager biscuits and filled with strawberry of raspberry cream, mixed with a little melted gelatin and cream. 42. Celestine (a la) : The Celestines were recognized as a branch of the Benedictines, Celestine being a monk so named after Pope Celesten. Several dishes bear this name and are of an exquisite character. St. Celestine is commenmorated on 6th April each year. Consomme : Clear broth garnished with shredded pancake and chopped herbs. 43. Chantilly : City and district of France, famous for its rich cream and fine green peas. Sauce : (a) Hot, rich béchamel sauce blended with lightly whipped cream (b) Cold mayonnaisesauce : blended with whipped cream, flavoured with lemon juice. 44. Charcutiers : In the manner of pork butche’s style. Sauce : Demiglaze mixed with chopped onions julienne of gherkins reduced with white wine and mustard to finish. 45. Chartreuse : The conventknown as La Grande Chartereuse near Grenole, France form seat of the Carthusian monks. These monks who were strict vegetarians invented a vegetable composition (liqueur) usually made and cooked in moulds in a very elaborate way. When the monks were driven from France they given this title including Chartreuses of meat, game, poultry etc. Strictly speaking however all dishes bearing the name chartreuse should have the vegetarian liqueur. It is a sweet liqueur originally made in Spain. The secret of the recipe is closely guarded. Colours – yellow and green 46. Chasseur : A chaser, a hunter a style from the famous chasseurs of light infantry of cavalry Sauce : Demi glace and tomato regiments who hunted for their food in forest or on mountain heights. Consomme ; A rich clear game soup garnished with game quenelles made from as many varieties of game as possible. Sauce : Minced shallots and mushrooms sauted and reduced with white wine and demi-glace, chopped parsley. Poulet sauté : Chicken sauteand finished in a casserole in the oven with tomatoes, brown chicken sauce, sliced mushroom, chopped shallots and sprinkled with chopped parsley. 47. Chateau : Castle, feudal fortress, stronghold; also wine growing establishments with vineyards. Chateau potatoes are quartered potatoes with all sharp corners rounded off; cooked a few minutes in butter in a sauté pan and then roasted in an oven used extensively to garnish roast. 48. Chateaubriant : Vicomte Francois Auguste Chateaubriand was born at St. Malo on14.09.1763, died 04th July 1848. French author and a great gourmet. The favouritedish of a double fillet steak is named afterhim. Chef Montmireil (chef to Vicomte de Chateaubriand) formed a pocket in a thick tenderloin steak to steak to stuff it with chopped shallots and bone marrow. English cooks would sandwich their rump steaks with sliced shallots. The double fillet of beef is no served in so many different ways. The original chateaubriand as invented by Chef Monmireil was slit and filled with chopped shallots tossed in pan with bone marrow to which was added meat glaze chopped chives, seasoned with cayenne and salt. Sauce : Rich brown sauce made with well reduced stock to half glaze enriched with butter and flavoured with lemon juice, red-currant jelly, cayenne pepper and chopped parsley. 49. Chaud-Froid : It is considered that the prototype of the chaud-froid was first introduced by the Marquis de chaufroix, who called for the cold bird to be brought back to the table in its congealed sauce and approved of it in this state. Sauce (white) : This is a masking sauce made with well reduced veloute blended with sufficient dissolved gelatine or aspic to set the sauce when cold. Sauce Brown : Well reduced brown meat or game sauce treated as above. Also available in red (tomato) and green(white sauce and spinach puree). 50. Chiffonade : Chiffon means rag. Literally vegetables in rags – long shreds of vegetables (leafy vegetables such as cress, lettuce, spinach). Consome : Clarified soup, garnished with finely shredded lettuce leaves. Spring onion heads and other such vegetables, seasoned with fresh green mint and tarragon leaves. 51. Claremont : Consomme : Clear beef consommé garnished with fried onion rings and diced custard royale. 52. Cock-A-Leckie : Large quantities of this famous Scottish soup were consumed at the Burns centenary festival at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham 1859.It is hard to trace the origin of this soup. Some say it originated from the days of cock fighting, the defeated cock being thrown into a pot, with leeks to give added flavour. This soup was then handed around with parts of the bird, to the spectators. Another version is that in olden times when the cock had passed its youth the last purpose it served still is a grand dish. This soup is also claimed to be originally from Wales whose emblem is the leek. 53. Colbert : Two famous dishes – sole a la Colbert and consome a la Colbert are in constant demand. The sole is named after Charles Colbet de Croissy, famous French Diplomat while he delicious soup’s named after Jean Bapiste Colbert, statesman of France in the reign of Louis XIV. The Consomme is distinguished by being garnished with poached eggs while the sole is noted for its stuffing of Maitre d’hotel butter placed inside before being sent to the table. Colbert sauce : rich, thin brown sauce and finely chopped herbs and lemon juice. Sole : Whole sole carefully opened along centre and backbone removed. Egged, crumbed and fried, stuff space with Colbert butter. 54. Choron : Alexander Etienne Choron born at Coen, France, 21st October 1771, die in Paris 29th June 1834. A French composer wholename is often confused with Chorin or Chiron. Sauce Choron : Bearnaise sauce blended with a good concantrade of tomato puree. 55. Conde : 1. Name of some twenty villages in France 2. Also an old French family, Prince Louis de Conde Desserts fruits, apricots, pineapple, peaches or pears, poached in syrup, and dressed on a bed of creamed rice, coated appropriate fruit sauce and decorated with preserved cherries angelica served hot o cold. 56. Crecy : was the site of an important battle fought by Napoleon. City and District of France, use of carrots. Puree : of young carrots thickened with barley. Consomme ; Rich beef consommé garnished with julienne of carrots. 57. Cider : Juice of apple both fermented and unfermented. The flavour and general quality of all types of cider depend on fruit and skin used in preparation. Hard cider is that which has been fermented until the sugars are changed t alcohol. It is a fermented drink with apple base, it is refreshing and less alcoholic than wine. Special apples are used – sweet acid, tart, A good syrup is made with 1/3rd sweet and 2/3rd sour and acid apples. 58. Claret : The name of the fine red wines of Bordeaux. The excellence of claret and the reason why it may rightly claim precedence overall other red wines, it that it is the most harmonious and natural of all. 59. Dame Blanche 1. French white Bordeaux wine 2. “White Lady” A comic opera 3. Dame is the English legal designation of the wife or widow of a Baronet or knight. Onely dishes white in colour should bear this name Bombe Lined outside with vanilla ice cream and inside filled with almond paste, garnished with whipped vanilla cream and spun sugar. Consomme : Chicken consommé garnished with diced chicken breast and almond flavoured royale. Crème : Chicken veloute garnished with sago and diced breast of chicken. 60. Daube : Ancient term for a provencal dish of raised meat or poultry. A “pot roast” of a meat stew, braised en daube i.e. in a stew pot more or less hermetically sealed. The old way was to seal the edges of lid of the pot with a stiff dough of flour and water which when baked was discarded. Daubiere : A special stewpan in which meat en daube is cooked. 61. Dauphine : The part of France which comprised the duchy of the Kings’ eldest sons when France was a kingdom, especially under the Valois and Bourbon families. Consomme ; Chicken consommé with a garnish of asparagus tips, tarragon leaves and royale cut in fancy shapes. Potatoes : Duchesse potatoes mixture mixed choux paste, shaped in walnut sized balls deep fried. 62. Dauphinoise : Foods sprinkled with grated swiss cheese and butter and baked brown. 63. Diable A La : Devil-devilled, a slightly spicy dish, sharp highly seasoned accompanied by sauce diable. Diablotins : Small dumplings, strongly spiced mixed with grated cheese, broiled browned under-trill. Appetizers or soup garnish. Sauce : Chopped shallots sauté, reduce in vinegar, plus demi-glace red wine, Worcestershire sauce and Cayenne pepper. 64. Diana : Roman goddess of the moon and hunting, identified with bows and arrows and crescents. Any game preparation garnished with crescent shaped croutes. 65. Dippoise (a la) : In the style of Dieppe, a coastal city of northern France, seafood style. Crème : Rich fish veloute, garnished with shrimp tails, mussels, sliced mushrooms finished with cream. Garnish of Shrimp tails, mussels and mushrooms rich fish veloute sauce. 66. Forestierre : Poulet sauté forestierre : Chicken jointed and sautéed in butter, add sliced mushrooms, diced shallots and swill the pan with white wine and all reduced meat glaze coat with the sauce and garnish with rolls of grilled bacon and parmentier potatoes. 67. A La Francaise : French style- term applied to a number of French dishes cooked and prepared in a simple manner and chiefly denotes a style of the district in which the chef of cook originally lived. Eg”s (a) Sole a la franciase 68. France : The art of French hospitality was introduced in France by Catherine de Medict during the early 16th century. This art was soon developed by the French cooks whose imaginative and creative ability brought about improvements upon the Italians heavier way of preparing dishes. Most of the French dishes bore the name of either a saint, some mythical God or some Italian event or celebrity and these show marked evidence of having been created in some other country than France. Gradually even actresses, actors singers and poets have all been honoured by great French chef for eg. Dame Nelli Melba has her name perpetuated for all time by that still popular dish peches Melba. 69. Garibaldi 1. Famous Italian patriot born at Nice, 4th July 1807 died at Caperia 2nd June, 1882. 2. Guisieppe Garibaldi an Italian General of world war I, born at Melbourne, 29th July, 1879. Grandson of Italian Patriot. 70. Genoise : Pertaining to Genoa an Italian city. In the style of Genoa as practiced by French cooks. It was the name of a sauce served only with fish coated in court boil lion (Salmon and salmon trout in particular). In confectionery, cakes made from a genoise mixture are called “Genoise Sponge”. 71. Gree (a la Greque) : Greem, in the Greek style as practiced by French cooks, dishes a la grecque should be of Greek origin in the method of preparation but in practice this is seldom the case though it sometimes happens that a dish called a la grecque on a restaurant menu is really of Greek origin. More often than not the name is given to dishes of French origin. Eg. Potage a la Grecque – puree of peas cooked in mutton broth garnished with vegs cut julienne style. 72. Germany : Many of the favourite foods are of German origin specially Frankfurters and Hamburgers. The Germans are fond of cooking many foods “Sweet and Sour” a combination of fruit sugar, spices, Lemon and sometimes raisins often given the desired sweet and sour flavour. German cooks are meticulous and often following their own methods in preparing and cooking traditional dishes of their country. To Germany we owe a way of treating vegs (especially cabbage) which makes them palatable and tasty. 73. Gloucester : 1. Name of along line of Earls and Dukes dating back, to 1121. It would be correct to features dishes so named on the birthday of the present Duke. 2. A city, port and country town, Gloucestershire, England Eg’s. Sauce Gloucester : Mayonnaise sauce mixed with sour cream, chopped tarragon and flaovured with chilly vinegar, mustard. Gloucester Royal pie – This was a pie made in olden times of campreys court in severn. These pies were richly decorate with banners bearing the gloucester court of aims. 74. Grimaldi : 1. Giovanni Francesco, Italian architect painter and engraver, born at Bolgna, 18th September 1606. 2. Joseph Grimaldi, noted actor, born 18th December 1779. Consomme Grimaldi – clear beef broth, flavoured with tomato and garnished with celeriac cut julienne style. Sole grimaldi – Rolled or folded fillets poached and dressed in a casserole on abed of cooked sphagetti coats nantua sauce and topped with sliced truffle. 75. Haggis : Haggis may be regarded as the National dish of Scotland when this dish is served at certain large banquets in Scotland, it is accompanied by an escort of pipers when paying homage to their national poet Robert Burns, the Scots have Haggis presented and served with due pomp and ceremony. It is carried into room by a servant who is proceeded by a piper and it is customary to drink whiskey, whilst eating. The dish consists of the thymus gland stuffed with a mixture of stuffed offals and coats and then baked. 76. Hamburger : In early part of eighteenth century. France obtained its best beef from Triesianplains via Hamburg, a sea port of Germany. Theanimals were driven in herds over the roads of Europe. The delicious hamburger steaks have become world famous. Eg’s Maburger steaks : Finally minced beef steak seasoned with salt pepper, nutmeg mixed with raw egg, shaped like a noisette floured and fried in butter, garnished with fried onion and fried egg placed on top. 77. A la Hollandiase : In the style of Netherlands as practiced by French cooks Dutch style. Dutch cookery is closely related to that of Belgium and not Germany. Being a country of rich pasture land, there is an abundance of high quality dairy products specially cheese, which represents one of the countries largest exports. Holland is a country equally devoted to stock farming and fishing, so the Dutch table features a wide variety of characteristics and salted and smoked fish Herring is the staple food of Dutch people. 78. Hongroise : Hungarian, in the Hungarian style as practiced by French Chefs. Dishes prepared a la Hongroise are cooked in a cream sauce seasoned with paprika. 1. Entrecote a la Hongrois – beef steak cooked in butter coated with Hongrois sauce (veloute sauce blended with sour cream and white wine seasoned well with paptrika) and garnish of bacon. 79. Indienne a la : Indian style as practiced by French cooks a Croquettes a l’ indienne : Lobster and rice, seasoned with curry power shaped into croquettes fried and served with curry sauce. Potage a l’indienne – Mullagutwany soup with addition of coconut milk and well washed cooked rice. 80. Italienne : Italian – Italianmanner as practiced by French cooks – A name given to various dishes made to meat, poultry, fishes contain finely chopped mushroom. The name a italianne is also given to method of preparing maccroni or either pastas. Italian cuisine is one of the oldest in Europe. It is derived from Greek Gourmet tradition, these being derived in their turn from oriental cuisine. Choose any ordinary Italian dish and it is the replica of one that was once enjoyed by gourmands reclining on their balconies in ancient Rome. Italian Polenta is the same as the pulse that the Romans prepared en route when they set out of conquer the world. They toasted grains of wheat, crushed them and made a gruel from the result the only difference is the polenta is now made from coarse maize flour. Italian cuisine is considered the mother of all European cuisine. 81. Jardineters : Garden a style with a variety of vegs. Name given to a garnish made of fresh vegs – carrots and turnips (shaped with a plain or flutted, ball scoop, cut with a hallow tubular cutter or diced) green peas, small kidney beans, French beans diced or cut into lozenges, cauliflower etc. The vegs are cooked separately, some boiled, others glazed. They are arranged around the main dish in separate groups. This garnish is served with roast, stewed or braised meats and pot roasted poultry. Consomme Jardiniere – clear soup garnished with a variety of cooked garden veg’s. 82. Julienne : Jean Julich was a noted French Chef who first made a clear vegetable soup in 1785 with vegs cut into strips. The name is now applied to all vegs garnishes cut in this manner. 83. Lasagne : Ribbon maccroni, an Italian pasta prepared in any of the ways as given for macaroni and noodles. Lasagne Lisci and Lasagne Ricci are Lasagne with both sides grooved in waves. The above names are given to soups containing these pastes as a garnish. Now flavoured with spinach (green) tomato (red/pink) and squid ink (black) lending a wise variety. 84. Lorette : A parasian woman of the better class, a glamorous woman. Potatoes : mashed and creamed, mixed with choux pastry, moulded into crescents and fried in deep fat. 85. Lourraine : Province of Alasca – Iorraine District of high gastronomic repute. Here the connoisseur of good cooking will savour many succulent dishes and will find white, rose and red wines all delightful. Though some are more fragnant than others, the dishes or lorraine are for the most part substantial, heading the list of culinary specialties of what was once an ancient province. 86. Lyonnaise : Lyons, city of France, in the style of or pertaining to Lyons. The Lyonnaise district has an abundance of good quality potatoes as well as excellent onions such as those of Roanne which are used in the preparation of a large number of special dishes. 87. Maltaise : Pertaining to the Island of Malta. Potage Maltaise – A thin veal soup with a garnish 3 diced oranges a little shredded capsicum, chillies and 2 oz of very smalljulienne of orange peel. Ris-de Veau Lamtaise – Braised with Bearnoise sauce decorated with Maltaise cross in forece meat sauce maltaise + Hollandaise + (blood) orange juice. 88. Mandarine : The French form of Mandarin is a small orange from which a liqueur is made Glace Mandarin – Fill the shells of Mandarin oranges with oranges ice topped with meringue and baked quickly. 89. Marengo : North Italian village where the famous battle of Marengo took place on 14th June 1820 between Napolean Bonaparte and the Austrians which victory was perpetuated by Chef by his creation of a chicken dish on the battle field itself : poultry sauté Marengo. 90. Marnite : Stock pot, metal or earthernware, covered pot with or with out feet depending on whether it is used for cooking in the hearth or on the stove. Petit marnite – Name of a clear savoury broth, a type of hot pot cooked and served in an earthernware pot. This broth was invented in Paris and is much prized by gourmete. 91. Maryland : One of the original 13 stages of USA famous for its culinary creations. Chicken Maryland – crumb fried joints, garnished with corn fritters. Bacon rashers, grilled tomato and fried bananas. 92. Mayonnaise : Speculation says that this sauce was invented by chef to the Duke Richelieu after the victory of MaHON (Mahonnaise). Others are convinced that Spain should be given credit for its origins. Mayonnaise is probably a corruption of moyeinoise derived from the old French world Moyeu which means egg yolk. Basically it is a cold sauce with the basic ingredients of 93. Melba : Dame Nili, Melba a British Operatic Soprano. Her real name was Helen Porter Mitchell. She adopted the stage name Melba as she was a native of Melbourne Australia. 94. Meringue : Small patisserie made from eggs white and sugar. It is said that the dish was invented in 1720 by a Swiss pastry cook called Gasparine who practiced his art in meringham a small town in the state of Saxe-Coburg. Up to the beginning of the 19th Century meringque’s were shaped in a spoon as the pastry forcing bag had not yet been invented. 95. Meuniere : Miller,Miller’s wife style – Method of cooking fish which is seasoned lightly, floured and fried in butter. To serve, squeeze a few drops of lemon juice, cover it. Sprinkle with parsley and pour on the cooking butter piping hot eg. Sole meuniere. 96. Maxicaine : Pertaining to the Republic of Mexico in the Mexican style as prepared by French Chefs. Potage Mexican – Puree of tomato soup with seaonsed consommé. Poulet sauté Mexicaine : Mushrooms, capsicum tomato (garnish). 97. Mignonette : Small & delicate Potatoes – Cut thicker than match potatoes (alumettes) and cook the same way. 98. Milanaise: In the style of Milan, an Italian city. The usual garnish is spaghetti with shredded tongue, truffles, mushrooms blended with a puree of tomato and sprinkled with grated cheese (parmesan). Breaded meats have grated cheese mixed with bread crumbs and are served with tomato sauce. Eg’s 1. Choufleru milanaise – cooked buds of cauliflower sautes in butter, sprinkled with grated cheese, buttered and baked. 2. Souffle milanaise : Lemon flavoured soufflé, coated with biscuit crumbs and spiked with pistachio nuts. 99. Mills Feuille : “Thousand Leaves” puff paste – a pastry very much in vogue in Paris. It is made by arranging thin layers of flaky pastry one on top of the other with layers of cream or some other rilling in between. Mille feuille can be baked in the form of a large sweet decorated in various ways or as in Paris Patisseries in small individual portions by cutting the flaky pastry in pieces 5 cm wide and laying them one on top of the other sandwich as mentioned before. 100. Minute : 60 seconds – something small or short a la minute hurriedly prepared sole and other such fish when filleted are cooked muniere style. Minute Tenerloins – These are 4-5 oz size, cut thin and sauté with minced shallots and herbs. Pommes minute : small dice fried. 101. Mirepoix : Due de’French Noble Family. Foundation ingredients of most brown soups, sauce and the first step in braising, being the preparation of the fat, vegetables, herbs etc. saute to gain a brown colour. 102. Normony : 1. Philip De Plessis Mornay, French Protestant, born 5th November, 1549. 2. Name given to a rich creamy sauce loaded with Parmesan Chesses. Sole Mornay – Poached and coated with Mornay sauce glazed. 103. Nantua : A town in France – Sauce : Bechamel reduced with rich fish fumet, finished with crayfish or prawn butter. Garniture for fish – Crayfish (or prawn) tails with nantua and slices of truffle. Omelet – filled with chicken and truffle salpicon sauce nantua. 104. Napolitaine : In the stule of Naples city of Southern Italy often applied to dishes containing 3 distinct colours. Consomme : Clear game soup garnished with shreds of ham and celery and a generous amount of macaroni. Sauce : Brown sauce reduced with clearet and red current jelly with minced ham shallots grated horseradish flavoured with bayleaf, cloves and thyme. Glace – Ice cream layered in 3 distinct colours and flavoures in oblong moulds and cut into oblong slices. 105. Navarin : Pertaining to the great town of Navarine in Italy the scene of a battle on 20th October, 1827. Navarin Printanier – A rich brown lamb or mutton stew with carrots, turnips and potatoes. 106. Nicoise : In the style of Nice, city of Southern France. Consomme – Consomme vermicelli and peeled tomatoes cut in small squares. Bring to boil, sere grated cheese separately. puree. Garniture for fish – chopped tomatoes sauté with garlic, lemon slices and anchovy fillets topped with capers. Salad – French beans, tomatoes, potatoes, olives and anchovy. 107. Noisette : Hazelnut also term, applied to small, round boneless, fatless piece of meat such as small loins of lamb, rolled, thin cuts into dainty rounds. a. Butter – clarified butter browned hazelnut colour. b. Sauce – supreme sauce, noisitle butter, pounded hazelnut. c. Potatoes – small hazelnut sized potatoes sauted in butter or fried in deep fat to golden yellow. 108. Normande : In the style of Normany, north western province of France, Chief characteristics of fish dishes being mussles, oysters and shrimps with apples features in most meat, poultry and game recipes. Sauce : White sauce finished with egg yolks and butter flavoured with lemon juice reduced cream. Potatoes : Sliced, cooked in casserole with milk, onions and leeks browned on top under a grill. 109. Orientale : Pertaining in to the Oriental, Eastern style. Consomme : Carrots and turnips shaped like half moons, boiled, served hot in consommé with plain boiled rice. Sauce : Americaine, diced onion sauté lightly flavoured curry. 110. Orly : Bernard Van Orly noted Flemmesh painter. Fish or meat coated with rich egg batter, fried in deep fat and usually served with tangy tomato sauce. Sauce : Rich white sauce blended with meat extract and loaded with tomato puree. 111. Paloise : Pertaining to palus, the low lying vineyards of Gironde is France producing the cheaper types of claret. Sauce – Bearnaise sauce with an infusion of fresh mint. 112. Parisienne : In the style of Paris, dishes usually dressed elaborately. a. Consomme –Garnish of white vegetables white leeks and custard royale. b. Sauce – Rich brown sauce with chopped parsley and shallots, amdeira and meet glaze with fresh butter fines herbs. Chicken sauté – Jointed chicken sauted in butter, season when done, cooked in tomato sauce with fresh sliced mushrooms for 2 minutes. Serve chicken dressed on a platter cover with sauce and garnish with macaroni in cream. 113. Parmentier : Antoine August in (1737-1813) French agriculturist, writer and food expert. I n1786 he introduced the potato to France and created many styles of cooking this tuber. Potatoes : Cut into large dice blanch and cook in casserole with butter and chopped parsley. 114. Parmesan : Cheese made in parma, Italy from cow’s milk, very hard used as a garnish for most Italian past dishes, soups and chicken for which it is a proper partner. 115. Paysanne : In the peasant style, farmer’s wife style. Usually dishes prepare din a pot or casserole with onions, salt, pork and artichoke bottoms. Potatoes – Sliced smothered and chopped onions sorrel and chervil baked in the oven with pork dripping. 116. Perigourdine/A la Perigourd : Pertaining to Perigold – dishes finished with truffles from that district. Sauce Perigourdine – Demiglace with foie grass puree garnished with slices of truffles. 117. Poivrade : A piquant pepper sauce Sauce : A brown pepper sauce flavoured with ham, onions, celery, bayleaf, thyme reduced with vinegar and black pepper. 118. Polonaise : Polish style as practiced by French chefs. Sauce : Veloute with sour cream, chopped fennel lemon juice and grated horse radish. 119. Pomadour : Jeans Antoinette Poisson le Normand d’Etrores Marquis de Paapadour, Mistress of Louis XV of France, born 29th December 1721 had a great influence in the politics of France. Consomme – Chicken consommé garnished with turnips and carrots, pink, green and plain royale, fancily cut. Salad – Sprigs of cooked cauliflower, sliced potatoes, celeriac, seasoned with celery, salt. 120. Porterhouse : Porterhouse steak – a thick steak cut from the middle of the ribs of beef ½” – 2” thick. 121. Portugaise Consomme – rich clear beef soup with stored and halved prunes, diced ripe tomatoes, strips of leeks. Sauce – Tomato sauce reduced with rich veal gravy flavoured with garlic and onion and chopped parsley. 122. Poulette – Name of a very popular velvet like sauce made with an egg liaison. Sauce – rich white sauce flavoured with herbs thickened with egg yolks and fresh butter, finished with lemon juice and chopped parsley. 123. Prince, Princesse, Princiers (Prince, Princess, Princely) Consomme – clear chicken broth garnished with diced chicken and asparagus points. Sauce : White fish sauce, enriched with cray fish, butter finely shredded cray fish and truffles. 124. Printanier a la Printaniere, printeemps : Springs like spring, spring time. Potage Printanier – soup made of spring vegetable. Consomme – a clear soup garnished with spring vegetables which may be ball shaped or cut finely. Sauce – rich veloute and puree of green vegetables with finely cubed green vegetables. 125. Provencale : of province, formerly maritime province of France. A la Provencale in the style of that region usually empires that garlic, olive oil have been used. Sauce – Demiglace with tomato puree finely chopped fried mushrooms, onions, parsley, olives, garlic and lemon juice. 126. Ratafia : The word is believed to stem from malay Tafia, a spirit or liqueur made from cane sugar. This has taken on certain occasions to ratify a treaty or agreement. The drink is now a light liqueur with a slightly bitter almond flavour. 127. Ravigote, Ravigoter : To revive, refresh Sauce (hot) a white sauce flavoured and fine herbs reduced with white wine and vinegar and finished with butter and cream. Sauce (cold) a spicy mayonnaise coloured green with spinach puree, mixed with finely chopped chives parsley andtarragon. 128. Reforme : After the style of the famous London Reform Club where Alexis Soyer was the Chef. Garniture for cutlets and entrees – Julienne of ham, tongue, truffles, boiled white of egg, mushrooms, carrots and beet root and gherkins Reform Sauce. Sauce : Poivrade sauce diluted with port wine and red currant jelly. 129. Richelieu ; Cardinal Armand Jean du Pressis de Bonn in Paris Consomme – Beef consommé garnished chicken guenelles, julienne of carrots and turnips with shredded chervil. Sauce – Rich brown sauce with Madeira wine and meat extract. 130. Rrisotoo : Italian rice, fried, moistened with broth. Seasoned steamed in covered pan without stirring. White wine, butter and grated cheese are then added. 131. Robert : 1. Name of one of the earliest kings of France. 2. King of Naples, sons of Charles II Sauce – Rich brown sauce and chopped sautéed onions reduced with chilli vinegar, red wine and prepared mustard, spicy and pungent. Potatoes – Sliced and stewed in Robert sauce or baked, scooped out pulp flavoured with chives shaped into patties and shallow fried. 132. Romaine : In the manner pertaining to Rome. Potage – Chicken stock, rice, onions carrots, celery, cream 133. Roquefort : French cheese made from ewe’s milk which has attained a world wide reputation. The green mottling develops around bread crumbs that are used in preparing it. 134. Rossini : Groaechine Antonio Famous Italian Opera composer born at Pasio, friend of cooks and maitre de hotel in the cosmopolitan restaurants of Europe. Tournedos and Filets Migonons – Italian method – Saute in butter, placed on a lightly fried slice of bread and garnished with asparagus tips, braised white (Italian) truffles and small grilled tomatoes. Surround with demi glace. French Method – The boiled tenderloin is topped with sliced fois gras tossed in butter, mashed with Madeira sauce. 135. Royal, Royale, a la Royale – Egla – Kindly styles : Custard Royal – seasoned eggs with milk or consommé steamed, cut into cubes may be flavoured with/or covered variously with puree of vegetables, poultry or game. Consomme – Beef consommé garnish with plain royale custard. 136. Russia – Russians were real gourmet. They know how to eat and how to prepare a dish that was lay was delicious to the palette. Their Zakouski is a somewhat elaborate overturn in a meal. The famous Russian cavier is relished on the French table. Bortsch – Beef soup cooked with red beets, onions, celery, cabbage, potatoes and carrots. Serve sour cream. Blini – Pancakes made of buckwheat flour served with smoked sturgeon or salmon and caviare, sour cream and malted butter. Shashlik Moscow – Loin of pork pickled and broiled on a spi before an open fire served with cooked or raw vegetables. Baklava – Original pastry dough made of dough, honey, nuts and butter. Russian Rum Babha – a delicious cake flavoured with salt, sugar, spiced with cinnamon and cooked in rum. 137. Sabayon : An Italian wine cream or egg punch served as a dessert sweet in glasses and eaten with a spoon. 138. St. Germaine : Suburb of Paris when a castle was built by Louis VI, Treaty of St. Germaine – was signed here. 139. Soubise – Charles de Rohan, Prince de Soubise, peer and marshal of France. Sauce – A rich creamy sauce blended with onion puree seasoned with sugar, salt, pepper, nutmeg. 140. Spain – Spanish food is highly flavoured and colourful with the use of pimentos and tomatoes. Spaniards claim to have first made mayonnaise and sauce Espagnole. A characteristics feature of Spanish cooking is a mixture of a number of ingredients in one dish. Most of their cooking is done in oil as butter is expensive. 141. Stanley – Sir Homry morton/famous British explorer of Africa. Sauce – Rich cream sauce with grated horseradish and curry poweder. 142. Strudel : A Viennese dessert speciality of water thin dough in roll form with chopped apples, pistachios, raisins, sugar lemon rind, cinnamon. 143. Supreme 2. The best parts of poultry breast of chicken Sauce – Rich white velvet sauce made from well clear chicken broth enriched with cream. Lobster – diced lobster mixed with chopped olives, hard boiled eggs, capers, French dressing, chilled and served on a bed of crisp lettuce, surround alternately with slices of cucumber and tomato, garnish with lobster claws. 144. Suzettee : Said to be the name of the lady friend of a V.I.P. at the end of the 19th Century during whose visit to a humble. Parisian cabaret, the crepes suzette were created in her honour by Chef Henry Charpentier. Crepes – Thin pancake doused in a thick sauce of orange juice, lemon juice, butter, sugar flavoured with rind and orange liqueur flambed with brandy and served hot. 145. Thermidor : Name given during the French Revolution to the 11th month of the year in the Republican calendar. 146. Tutti Frutti : An Italian term used in connection with ice cream where various kinds of candied fruit are used. 147. Tyrolienne : In the manner of Tyrol an Austrian province in the Alps. Sauce (cold) – Tomatoed mayonnaise sauce. Sauce (hot) – Rich hollandaise with tomato puree. 148. Verdi : Guissepppe Fortino Francesso – famous Italian operative composer and singer. Born in 1813. Sole – Folded fillets, poached in wine, dressed on cooked macaroni mixed with shreds of truffle and lobster coated with cheese sauce and glazed. 149. Veronique : French form of veronica, characterized by use of seedless, grapes. Sole : Rolled, poached fillets dressed with 3-4 grapes (peeled and pipped) on each and coated with a blend of sauce hollandaise and sauce Vin Blanc. 150. Vert-Pre : Green meadow – dishes served with fresh green vegetables. Garnish for chicken consommé. Green peas, asparagus tips, frenchbeans, lettuce, chervil, S. Chicory. 151. Vichy :City of France noted spa Vichy Celestine is practically flavourless and may be used as table water. Potage – Puree of red carrots with cream liaison. Carrots – Grazed with butter, sugar, salt, parsley, in Vichy water. 152. Virginia : Southern state of U.S.A. noted for its food. Ham – A fine ham, flat, lean of the ‘rapos’ back pig peanut fed, chicory smoked. Chicken – Saute filets in butter moisten with cream braise to finish. Serve on a slice of Virginia ham, sauté and corn fritters garnish. 153. Waldorf : One of New York’s famous hotel. The Waldorf Astoria, the old Waldorf having being named after the village of Waldorf near Heidelberg, Germany.  
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"Which stately home in Derbyshire was once described as ""more glass than wall""?"
Historic Houses in Derbyshire England > Derbyshire > Gazetteer of Historic Houses Historic Houses in Derbyshire A plain, almost stark exterior belies an interior full of unusual objects ammassed by a succession of eccentric owners. Here you will find fossils, stuffed birds, mammals, and other peculiar artefacts. Ticknall, Derby, Derbyshire, England, DE73 7LE Heritage Rating: A Grade-II listed Georgian manor house in a lovely setting within the Peak District National Park. The site has been occupied for almost 2000 years, and sections of Roman buildings are incorporated into the foundations of the current house. Ashbourne, Derbyshire, England, DE6 2BA Heritage Rating: Catton Hall An attractive Georgian manor house of red brick, set in parkland beside the River Trent. Catton has been the home of the Nelson family since 1405, but the current house was designed by James Wyatt and built by Smith of Warwick in 1742. The house remains almost unchanged from that time, and is beautifully furnished with fine art and period furniture. Catton, Walton-on-Trent, Derbyshire, England, DE12 8LN Heritage Rating: Chatsworth One of the great country houses of England, set in superb parklands, Chatsworth is the home of the Dukes of Devonshire. The house was begun as an Elizabethan mansion by Bess of Hardwick, then rebuilt starting in 1686 to create an opulent 'statement' of the family's wealth and status. Everything at Chatwsorth is on a massive scale, extravagant and designed to impress (it does). The interior are full of fineart and furniture. You can't run out of superlatives about Chatsworth. Bakewell, Derbyshire, England, DE45 1PP Heritage Rating: Haddon Hall A superb historic house, begun by Peveril, the illegitimate son of William the Conqueror. That early Hall was heavily altered in the Tudor and Jacobean periods, but the State rooms have remained essentially unaltered since the 18th century. At the centre of the house is the marvellous 14th century Great Hall. Bakewell, Derbyshire, England, DE45 1LA Heritage Rating: Hardwick Hall Hardwick Hall is an Elizabethan mansion built in 1590 by Bess of Hardwick, Countess of Shrewsbury. One of the most remarkable women of the Elizabethan age, Bess built an extraordinary house that amazed her contemporaries with its huge expanse of windows. At a time when window glass was extremely expensive, such a show of wealth and extravagance earned Hardwick fame as a popular rhyme suggests: "Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall". Hardwick is exceptional in that so much of the interior furnishings have remained unchanged since the house was built over 400 years ago. Look for Whiteface Woodland sheep and Longhorn cattle in the country park that surrouds the house, or enjoy a walk through the walled courtyards which enclose formal gardens, an orchard, and a herb garden. Doe Lea, Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England, S44 5QJ Heritage Rating:
Hardwick Hall
What term used in the USA to describe a piebald horse means 'painted' in Spanish?
BBC - Derby - People - Bess of Hardwick You are in: Derby > People > Profiles > Bess of Hardwick Bess of Hardwick Bess of Hardwick Bess of Hardwick was the proverbial legend in her own lifetime. From an unremarkable family, she became the second richest woman in England - only surpassed by Queen Elizabeth herself. Elizabeth Countess of Shrewsbury, or Bess of Hardwick, lived through the reigns of four monarchs and was responsible for the building and repair of may halls and houses. She married four times and had eight children, but Bess not only founded a family dynasty she built her way into the history books. Hardwick Hall The old Hardwick Hall, where she was born, was added to and adapted, but couldn't contain her ambitions as the first lady of Tudor society. The new hall, with its famous acres of glass (Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall), was a constant work-in-progress during her lifetime. Bess built the original Chatsworth house, too... though grand and lavish, it barely resembled the Chatworth we know today. It was bought for and developed by her heirs, and, with the present Duke of Devonshire, remains in family hands! Throughout her life, Bess is known to have manipulated her family's wealth through marriage and astute business dealings - and was considered one of the great 'social climbers' of her day. She was once lady in waiting to Queen Elizabeth and the obvious fact about her four husbands is that each was substantially richer than the previous one. She would, no doubt, have been overjoyed to know that events after her death meant that she would become an ancestor of our Queen Elizabeth II. Bess of Hardwick's tomb True to form Bess even designed her own memorial, which sits impressively in the Cathedral above the vault which contains her coffin. The funeral itself was a grand affair, with the Hall draped in black, a huge funeral cortege, and the mourners left in no doubt about Bess's significance. Her legacy, whether her lineage or her love of architecture, ensures we're in little danger of underestimating that lady's significance four centuries on. last updated: 25/09/2008 at 16:15 created: 13/02/2008
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'Sweet Caroline' and 'Forever in Blue Jeans' are among the compositions of which American singer and songwriter?
1000+ images about Neil Diamond on Pinterest | Legends, Barbra streisand and Diana Pinterest • The world’s catalog of ideas Neil Diamond
Neil Diamond
It's name deriving from the Gaelic for 'large sword', which two-edged sword was traditionally used by Scottish highlanders?
Honda Center: NEIL DIAMOND NEIL DIAMOND Tuesday, Aug 21, 2012 - 8:00 PM Rock and Pop Icon Neil Diamond, a 2011 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Inductee and 2011 Kennedy Center Honoree, will take his greatest hits on the road on a much-anticipated North American tour, which includes an August 21 stop at Honda Center! The 2012 tour will feature all of Neil Diamond's classic favorites. The tour comes on the heels of the recently released THE VERY BEST OF NEIL DIAMOND - THE ORIGINAL STUDIO RECORDINGS. The album features 23 of the most popular hits and signature tracks from America's quintessential singer-songwriter. This is the first Neil Diamond collection to draw from the artist's complete studio discography and includes tracks such as "Forever In Blue Jeans." "Cherry, Cherry," "Sweet Caroline," "I'm A Believer," "Girl, You'll Be A Woman Soon," "You Don't Bring Me Flowers," "Red, Red Wine," "America" and many more. Across a musical career spanning nearly five decades, Neil Diamond has sold more than 125 million albums worldwide, with a remarkable track record of 16 Top Ten albums, and 37 Top Ten singles. A Grammy Award-winning artist, Neil Diamond has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Songwriter's Hall of Fame and is a recipient of the Sammy Cahn Lifetime Achievement Award. Among Diamond's many other honors, he has received a Golden Globe Award, 12 Grammy nominations and was named the 2009 MusiCares Person of the Year.
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In heraldry, what term describes figures standing on either side of a shield as if upholding it and guarding it?
About the RHSC   [click for larger image] ONTARIO: On May 26, 1868, the year following Confederation, Ontario was granted arms within the new Dominion of Canada. The supporters, crest, and motto, designed by Toronto barrister Edward Marion Chadwick, were added on Feb 27, 1909 by Royal Warrant from King Edward VII. The shield of arms consists of three gold maple leaves on a green background, above which is a wide white band with a red St. George's cross. The crest is a black bear standing on a gold and green wreath. The supporters are a moose and a deer at the sides of the shield. Below the shield is a scroll with the Latin motto. The maple leaves on the shield are of course the symbol of Canada. The cross of St. George recalls the historic connection with Britain in Upper Canada and pays tribute to the namesake of the monarch, George III, while the black bear, moose, and deer are indigenous to Ontario. Heraldic Description Shield: Vert a sprig of three leaves of maple slipped Or, on a chief Argent a Cross Gules Crest: Upon a wreath of the colours a bear passant Sable Supporters: On the dexter side a moose, and on the sinister side, a Canadian deer, both proper Motto: UT INCEPIT FIDELIS SIC PERMANET - As Loyal it began, so it remains [top of page] [click for larger image] QUEBEC: As a founding province in Confederation, Quebec was granted arms on May 26, 1868 by Royal Warrant. Design changes were made in 1939 by the Quebec government to achieve the current armorial bearings, which include the royal crown and a motto. The shield of arms is divided into three horizontal fields: the first bearing three fleurs-de-lis on a blue background; the second a gold lion on a red background; and the third, three green maple leaves on a gold background. The shield is surmounted by the royal crown and accompanied underneath by a silver scroll bearing the motto in blue letters. The fleurs-de-lis symbolize the orgins of Quebec as New France. The gold lion originates from the royal arms, and the maple leaves symbolize the new land of Canada in which are joined the traditions of royalist France and Britain. The motto was authored by E. Tache, who used it in the architectural design of the Quebec Legislative Buildings. Heraldic Description Shield: Tierced in fess: Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or; Gules a lion passant guardant Or armed and langued Azure; Or a sugar maple sprig with three leaves Vert Crest: A Royal Crown proper Motto: JE ME SOUVIENS - I remember [top of page] [click for larger image] NOVA SCOTIA: The ancient arms of Nova Scotia were granted to the Royal Province of Nova Scotia (New Scotland) in 1625 by King Charles I in support of the first British colonial effort on the Canadian mainland. The shield displays a blue saltire (St Andrew's cross) -- the emblem of Scotland -- upon a white or silver background (this is the reverse of its use in Scotland). On the cross is a small shield bearing the Royal Arms of Scotland. The royal helm (in gold, with the bars facing the viewer) indicates sovereignty over the new colony. Above it is the crest: two joined hands, one armoured and the other bare, supporting a spray of laurel for peace and a thistle for Scotland. On the left of the shield is the royal unicorn of Scotland and on the right a 17th-century representation of a North American Indian. Entwined with the thistle of Scotland at the base is the mayflower, floral emblem of Nova Scotia which was added on January 19th, 1929 by Royal Warrant. The motto is placed on a scroll above the achievement of arms, as is done for many Scottish grants. Heraldic Description Shield: Argent, a cross of St. Andrew Azure, charged with an inescutcheon of the Royal Arms of Scotland Crest: On a wreath of the colours, a branch of laurel and a thistle issuing from two hands conjoined, the one armed and the other naked proper Supporters: On the dexter side, an unicorn Argent, armed crined and unguled Or, crowned with the Imperial Crown proper and gorged with a coronet composed of crosses patee and fleurs-de-lis, a chain affixed thereto passing through the forelegs and reflexed over the back Or. And on the sinister side, a savage holding in the exterior hand an arrow proper Motto: MUNIT HAEC ET ALTERA VINCIT - One defends, the other conquers [click for larger image]   NEW BRUNSWICK: Arms were granted to New Brunswick by Royal Warrant on May 26th, 1868 as one of the founding provinces in the Dominion of Canada. These arms were based upon the first Great Seal of the province. The principal charge of the shield is an ancient galley, symbolizing the maritime province's links to the sea. Above is a gold lion on a red background, symbolizing England, as well as the family connection of the royal House of Hanover with the Duchy of Brunswick in Germany, after which the colony was named. The motto, 'Hope was restored', -- added in 1966 -- refers to the province's having acted as a haven for Loyalist refugees who fled there during and after the American Revolution. On September 25, 1984, to mark the province's bicentennial, the arms were augmented by Queen Elizabeth II with a crest, supporters and compartment. The crest, an Atlantic salmon leaping, arises from a coronet of maple leaves and bears a representation of the Royal Crown upon its back. The supporters are white-tailed deer wearing wampum collars, hanging from which are small shields, that on the left showing the "Union Jack" of Great Britain and that on the right the three fleurs-de-lis of Royal France. These commemorate the colonization of New Brunswick by the two countries.The compartment below the shield is adorned with purple violets -- the provincial flower -- and fiddlehead ferns. Heraldic Description Shield: Or, on waves of water, a lymphad or ancient galley with oars in action proper, on a chief gules, a lion passant guardant Or Crest: Upon a helm with wreath Or and Gules mantled Gules doubled Or, within a coronet comprising 4 maple leaves (3 manifest) set upon a rim of water barry wavy Azure and Argent an Atlantic salmon leaping, upholding on its back a Royal Crown, both proper Supporters: On either side a white tailed deer, each gorged with a collar of Maliseet wampum proper and pendant therefrom an escutcheon, that to the dexter bearing the Union badge and that to the sinister the arms Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or, otherwise France modern Compartment: Comprising a grassy mount with the floral emblem of the said Province of New Brunswick, the purple violet and young ostrich fern (commonly called fiddlehead) growing all proper Motto: SPEM REDUXIT - Hope was restored [top of page] [click for larger image] MANITOBA: The arms of the Province of Manitoba were assigned by Royal Warrant of King Edward VII on May 10, 1905. The principal charge on the shield is a bison and above it the Cross of Saint George, a symbol of England. On October 23, 1992, Manitoba received an augmentation of arms from the Canadian Heraldic Authority during a special ceremony in the Legislative Assembly in Winnipeg. The grant celebrated Manitoba's heritage and 125 years of Confederation. Above the shield were added a gold helmet symbolizing Manitoba's co-sovereign status in Confederation, and upon it the crest: a beaver holding a prairie crocus (the Province's floral emblem), and upon its back the Royal Crown. The newly granted supporters were: on the left, a white unicorn -- derived from the Royal Arms -- which, being symbolic of Scotland, represents the early Scottish settlers of Manitoba. Around its neck is a collar from which hangs the wheel of one of the famous Red River carts. On the right of the shield is a white horse, an animal vital to the culture of the prairie-dwelling First Peoples, the Metis and the European settlers. Around its neck is a bead and bone collar, hanging from which is a First Nations symbol for the nature and meaning of our existence, the sacred cycle of life. The supporters and the shield rest on a base which depicts the grain fields and forests of Manitoba above the blue and white waters of its lakes and rivers. The scroll below bears the Latin version of the provincial motto, "Glorious and Free." Heraldic Description Shield: Vert on a Rock a Buffalo statant proper, on a Chief Argent the cross of St. George Crest: Upon a helm in trian aspect Or mantled Gules doubled Argent and wreathed of these colours a beaver sejeant upholding with its back a representation of the Royal Crown proper, its dexter forepaw raised holding a prairie crocus (Anemone patens) slipped also proper Supporters: Dexter a unicorn Argent armed crined and unguled Or gorged with a mural coronet Vert masoned and encircled with maple leaves Argent, pendant therefrom the wheel of a Red River cart Vert. Sinister a horse Argent crined queued and unguled Or gorged with a collar of Prairie Indian beadwork proper, pendant therefrom a Cycle of Life medallion Vert Compartment: A mound bearing seven prairie crocuses slipped proper between to the dexter a wheat field Or and to the sinister a forest of white spruce (Picea glauca) proper the whole rising above barry wavy Argent and Azure Motto: GLORIOSUS ET LIBER - Glorious and Free [top of page] [click for larger image] BRITISH COLUMBIA: The Arms and Motto of British Columbia were granted by King Edward VII, March 31,1906. The augmentation of crest, supporters and compartment were issued by Royal Warrant of Queen Elizabeth II, on October 15th 1987, although the Province had assumed the same supporters and a similar crest for many years previously. The shield features a representation of the sun setting into the ocean, symbolizing the province's location on the Pacific, and above it a Union Jack with an antique crown at its centre, suggestive of the Province's name and its strong connection with Britain. On top of the helmet is the Queen's royal crest, a gold lion standing on all fours, facing the viewer and wearing the royal crown. With Her Majesty's agreement, the Royal Crest was granted for the first time in history to another sovereign entity -- albeit with a mark of difference. The B.C. lion has an appropriate differencing mark, wearing about his neck a garland of dogwood, the provincial flower. The supporters are a wapiti stag and a bighorn sheep. The wapiti of Vancouver Island and the bighorn sheep of the Mainland symbolize the two separate colonies which united to form British Columbia in 1866. To learn more about the armorial achievement of British Columbia visit the website of the Government of British Columbia's Protocol and Events Branch . Heraldic Description Shield: Argent, 3 bars wavy azure, issuant from the base a demi-sun in splendour proper, on a chief, the Union Device charged in the centre point with an antique crown Or Crest: Upon a helm with a wreath argent and gules the royal crest of general purpose of our royal predecessor Queen Victoria differenced with the lion thereof garlanded about the neck with the provincial flower that is to say the pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttalli) with leaves all proper mantled gules doubled argent Supporters: On the dexter side, a wapiti stag (Cervus canadensis) proper and on the sinister side a bighorn sheep ram (Ovis canadensis) argent armed and unguled Or Compartment: Beneath the shield a scroll entwined with pacific dogwood flowers slipped and leaved proper Motto: SPLENDOR SINE OCCASU - Brilliance without setting [click for larger image]   PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND: The arms of Prince Edward Island were assigned by Royal Warrant on May 30th, 1905. The shield shows a large oak tree on the right and three young saplings on the left. The mature tree represents England, while the three saplings stand for the three counties of Prince Edward Island. The upper section displays a gold lion on a red background, derived from the arms of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, after whom the province was named in 1799, and also from the arms of King Edward VII. All rise from the same foundation, symbolic of England and the province as islands. On December 13, 2002, Her Excellency Adrienne Clarkson, the Governor General of Canada, presented a full achievement of arms to the Province, an augmentation to the original 1905 arms being granted by Vice-regal Warrant from the Canadian Heraldic Authority ( read the Governor General's presentation speech ). Above a golden helmet, a symbol of co-sovereign status in Confederation, is a blue jay -- the avian emblem of Prince Edward Island -- wearing a replica of the Royal Crown of St. Edward, and in its beak a leaf from the red oak, the silvan emblem of the province. On each side of the shield stands a silver fox. The foxes represent the ranched-fur industry and further symbolize inspiration, ingenuity and perseverance. Agriculture and fisheries are also represented, since one fox wears a garland of potato blossoms around its neck and the other, a length of fishing net. Below the shield is an eight-pointed star of porcupine quill, a symbol used by Mi'kmaq people for centuries to represent the sun. Around the star are other natural symbols of the early settlers; the rose for England, the thistle for Scotland, the shamrock for Ireland, the lily for France. The scroll reads PARVA SUB INGENTI which was derived from the Great Seal of the Province and is traditionally translated as 'The small under the protection of the great'. To learn more about the armorial achievement of Prince Edward Island visit the Government of Prince Edward Island's website. Heraldic Description: Shield: Argent, on an island Vert, to the sinister an oak tree fructed, to the dexter thereof three oak saplings sprouting all proper, on a chief Gules, a lion passant guardant Or Crest: On a grassy mount a blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) reguardant crowned with the Royal Crown and bearing in its beak a leaf of the red oak tree (Quercus rubra L.) fructed proper Supporters: Two foxes (Vulpes fulva) Sable embellished Argent, that to the dexter gorged with a collar of potato blossoms proper, that to the sinister gorged with a length of fishnet Argent Compartment: A mount Vert set with a Mi'kmaq star Azure between lady's slipper flowers (Cypripedium acaule), red roses, thistles, shamrocks and white lilies proper [top of page] [click for larger image] SASKATCHEWAN: The arms of Saskatchewan were assigned by Royal Warrant on August 25th, 1906, one year after the Province was formed from the Districts previously known as Athabaska, Assiniboia, and Saskatchewan. The shield displays three gold wheat sheaves representing the importance of agriculture as the principal occupation and source of weath in the area. Above the wheat sheaves is a red lion, derived from the arms of the sovereign and those of the heir apparent, the Prince of Wales. The Prince of Wales is also the Earl of Chester and the arms of that earldom consist of three sheaves of wheat. By Royal Warrant in 1986, the Province was granted an augmentation to the arms consisting of a crest, supporters, and motto. Atop the Shield is the Royal Helm, red and white mantling and wreath. On the wreath is a beaver, a national symbol of Canada, holding in its right paw the official flower of Saskatchewan, the Western Red Lily. Above the beaver is the Royal Crown, representing Saskatchewan's co-sovereignty in Confederation. To the left of the shield is a gold Royal Lion and to the right a white-tailed deer, Saskatchewan's official animal. Both animals wear collars of Prairie Indian beadwork. Suspended from the lion's collar is a six-sided star bearing a red maple leaf, a national symbol of Canada. From the deer's collar hangs a similar star bearing a Western Red Lily, the official floral symbol of Saskatchewan. The Motto, MULTIS E GENTIBUS VIRES, means 'From Many Peoples Strength',. representing Saskatchewan's multicultural heritage, including Native contributions and the vital role immigration played in Saskatchewan's early history. The Motto scroll is also entwined with Western Red Lilies. Heraldic Description Shield: Vert three Garbs in fesse Or, on a Chief of the last a Lion passant guardant Gules Crest: Upon a Helm mantled Gules doubled Argent with a Wreath Argent and Gules a Beaver upholding with its back Our Royal Crown and holding in the dexter fore-claws a Western Red Lily (Lilium philadelphicum andinum) slipped all proper Supporters: On the dexter side a Lion Or gorged with a Collar of Prairie Indian beadwork proper and dependent therefrom a six-pointed Mullet faceted Argent fimbriated and garnished Or charged with a Maple leaf Gules and on the sinister side a White tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) proper gorged with a like Collar and dependent therefrom a like Mullet charged with a Western Red Lily slipped and leaved proper Motto: Beneath the Shield a Scroll entwined with Western Red Lilies slipped and leaved proper inscribed with MULTIS E GENTIBUS VIRES - From many peoples strength [top of page] [click for larger image] ALBERTA : On May 30th, 1907, arms were assigned by Royal Warrant to the Province of Alberta. Two years earlier, the Province had been formed from an area previously under the viceregal power of the Hudson's Bay Company. The shield displays the Cross of St. George in the chief to commemorate this association, the red cross on a white background being the principal charge in the arms of the Hudson's Bay Company. Below the cross is a pictorial representation of geographic features of the Province: a range of mountains, hills, and prairies all above a field of wheat. In celebration of the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Province of Alberta, an augmentation to the arms -- crest and supporters -- was issued by Royal Warrant from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, on July 30th, 1980. Upon a helmet with a red and white wreath sits a beaver, supporting on his back a Royal Crown. The beaver is a national symbol of Canada and also recalls the role of the Hudson's Bay Company in the early exploration and governance of the region. The supporters, a gold lion and a pronghorn antelope, are standing on a grassy mount with wild roses, the official flower of the Province. For more information visit the Government of Alberta's website, Emblems. Heraldic Description Shield: Azure, in front of a range of snow mountains proper a range of hills Vert, in base a wheat field surmounted by a prairie both also proper, on a chief Argent a St. George's cross Crest:Upon a Helm with a Wreath Argent and Gules a Beaver couchant upholding on its back the Royal Crown both proper Supporters: On the dexter side a Lion Or armed and langued Gules and on the sinister side a Pronghorn Antelope (Antilocapra americana) proper Compartment: Comprising a grassy mount with the Floral Emblem of the Said Province of Alberta the Wild Rose (Rosa acicularis) growing therefrom proper Motto: FORTIS ET LIBER - Strong and free [top of page] [click for larger image] NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR: Armorial bearings were assigned to Newfoundland by letters patent under the seal of Sir John Borough, Garter Principal King of Arms, on January 1st 1638. The red shield is divided by a large white cross, bringing to mind the Arms of the Knights of St. John, a possible connection to the founding of Newfoundland by John Cabot on the day of that Order's patronal feast. The cross is also a reversal in colour of England's cross of St. George. In the four quadrants between the arms of the cross are alternating crowned gold lions and white unicorns, chosen from the supporters of the British Royal Arms borne since 1603. The letters patent call for an elk above the shield as the crest, but elk are not native to the island and it is generally accepted that the animal of the crest was meant to be a caribou. The figures on each side of the shield are stylized depictions of the indigenous people, the Beothuks, dressed and armed for war. The motto was taken from St. Matthew's Gospel, "Seek ye first the Kingdom of God.". Heraldic Description Shield: Gules a cross Argent, between in the 1st and 4th quarters a lion passant guardant crowned Or, and in the 2nd and 3rd quarters a unicorn passant also Argent, armed crined and unguled Or, gorged with a coronet a chain affixed thereto passing between his forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or Crest: Upon a wreath Or and Gules, an elk passant proper; mantled Gules, doubled Argent Supporters: On each side a savage of the clime armed and habited as for war Motto: QUARITE PRIME REGNUM DEI - Seek ye first the kingdom of God [top of page] [click for larger image] YUKON: The arms of the Yukon Territory were granted by royal warrant from Queen Elizabeth II in 1956. The lower portion of the shield is blue, divided vertically by a pair of wavy white lines representing the Yukon River and the gold-bearing creeks of the Klondike. On either side are stylized mountains charged with gold discs representing the rich mineral resources of the Territory. The top portion of the shield bears a cross of St. George, a reference to Britain and to the early English explorers of the area. Placed at the centre of the cross is a symbol of the fur trade - a circular figure with a blue-and white pattern known as vair (vair being an heraldic term for fur). Above the shield and the gold-and-red wreath is a Malamute (Husky) dog standing on a mound of snow. From the earliest days of exploration, the strong and quick Malamute played an important role in opening up the Territory to settlement. Yukon's armorial bearings were commissioned by the federal Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and designed by Alan Beddoe, first President of the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada. Heraldic Description Shield: Azure, on a pallet wavy Argent, a like pallet of the field, issuant from base two piles reversed Gules, fimbriated also Argent, each charged with two bezants in pale, on a chief Argent a cross Gules, surmounted of a roundel vair Crest: On a wreath Or and Gules, a malamute standing on a mount of snow proper [top of page] [click for larger image] NORTHWEST TERRITORIES: Armorial bearings were assigned by royal warrant from Queen Elizabeth II to the Northwest Territories on February 7, 1957. The lower part of the shield is divided diagonally symbolizing the treeline. The lower green section represents the forested areas to the south of that line, while the upper red section suggests the tundra to the north. On the green background are gold "billets" (bars) and on the red background the head of a white fox, both charges depicting northern wealth by symbolizing mineral resources and the fur trade. The white upper portion of the shield has a lower serrated edge recalling an icefield and is crossed by a wavy blue band, both symbolic of the Northwest Passage. Surmounting the shield is a crest showing two gold narwhals upon a wreath of red and white, guarding a compass rose. The narwhals are a species found in the high arctic waters of the Northwest Territories, while the compass rose symbolizes the North Magnetic Pole, which is currently located within the Territory. To learn more about the symbols of the Northwest Territories visit The Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories . Heraldic Description Shield: Per bend wavy Gules and Vert billety Or, in sinister chief the mask of an arctic fox Argent, on a chief indented also Argent, a barrulet wavy Azure Crest: On a wreath Argent and Gules, a compass rose proper between two narwhals haurient and addorsed Or [top of page] [click for larger image] NUNAVUT: On April 1st, 1999, Nunavut was presented with armorial bearings created under the direction of the Canadian Heraldic Authority and designed with input from individuals across the area, and Territory leaders in Rankin Inlet, Baker Laker, Cape Dorset, Iqaluit, and Pangnirtung. On a circular shield coloured gold and blue to symbolize the riches of the environment, is an inuksuk and a quillia. Inuksuks are stone monuments used by the Inuit people to denote sacred places and provide guidance to travellers. The quilliq or stone lamp is symbolic of the warmth of family and community. In the blue section of the shield is a concave arc of five gold circles representing the sun moving across the sky, and one single star Niqirtsuituq, the North Star, which is a traditional reference for navigation. Above the shield on a wreath of blue and silver is an igloo which stands for the traditional lifestyle and the means of survival. Atop the igloo is a Royal Crown signifying Nunavut's participation as a partner in Confederation. An animal native to the Territory supports the shield on either side, one taken from the land; a tuku (caribou), and one from the sea; qilalugaq tugaalik (narwhal). The base of the shield shows the geography of land and sea, and features three different species of Arctic wild flowers. The motto written in Inuktituk means - Nunavut, our strength. Visit the government of Nunavut's website for more information about emblems and symbols. An article, Creation of the Coat of Arms of Nunavut describes the collaborative process used in designing Nunavut's coat of a bgcolor="green"rms. The speech made at the presentation of the armorial bearings can be read online; Presentation of a Flag and Coat of Arms to Nunavut . Heraldic Description Shield: Or dexter a qulliq Sable enflamed Gules sinister an inuksuk Azure on a chief also Azure above five bezants in arc reversed issuant from the lower chief a mullet (Niqirtsuituq) Or Crest: On a wreath Argent and Azure an iglu affronty Argent windowed Or and ensigned by the Royal Crown proper Supporters: On a compartment dexter of Land set with Arctic poppies, dwarf fireweed and Arctic heather proper sinister ice floes Argent set on barry wavy Azure and Argent dexter a caribou sinister a narwhal both proper Motto: "Nunavut Our Strength"
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'The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq and Willem Van Ruytenburch' is the proper title of which Rembrandt painting?
Full text of "Heraldry of fish. Notices of the principal families bearing fish in their arms" See other formats THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES V %i)t Heraltir|) of jFtsfn i.ondon: printed by samurl hk.nti.kv, BANOOH llol'SK, SIIOK l.ANK. eralbrp of Jistfn NOTICES OF THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES BEARING FISH IN THEIR ARMS. BY THOMAS MOULE. I nest Mia gratia parvis." ILLUSTRATED RY ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. LONDON: JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW M.DCCC.XLIT. ^; v Library > ' PREFACE. Tibi res antiquse laudis et artis Agraredior. Virgil. The prevailing desire for information on heraldry does not appear to have been encouraged by the pro- duction of books in proportion to the interest the subject excites, as, amidst the vast range of modern publications very few indeed arc found to relate to heraldry. A sufficient reason may perhaps be found in the fear of encountering its boundlessness without the probability of incurring a serious charge of prolixity, by venturing to grasp at once the Avhole of this extensive subject ; an- other more obvious cause preventing the attempt from being rashly made, is the number of engravings required for its support and illustration, few publishers being will- ing to risk the great expense attending this very neces- sary part of the undertaking. It is not to be denied, that the research which unfolds the progress of heraldry in the days of chivalric enterprise, and supplies the means of tracing its history through the different periods of time, would prove a most attractive and entertaining employment of leisure ; but the knowledge of its origin, and of the importance it began to acquire at an early epoch, its improvement, and its perfection, with all the 3100323 VI PREFACE. circumstances to which heraldry owes its power of pleas- ing, is only to be found in books very rarely met with in modern libraries. The present attempt was suggested by the author's de- sire to compress the opinions advanced into a reasonable compass, and bring within a single volume the various illustrations required.* Great facility has been afforded for its prosecution by the liberality of the publisher, and by the additional satisfaction of having all the drawings with which the work is embellished, made upon the wood under the author's own inspection, by his daugh- ter, Sophia Barbara Moule, an advantage which will be best appreciated by those who know the great difficulty of obtaining heraldic drawings correctly executed, in which the beauty, in a great measure, depends on the character of the different periods of art. In the limited view of heraldry here taken, calculated rather to excite than gratify curiosity, it has not been considered merely with reference to the contents of the shield, or the simple coats of arms, as found on the ban- ners of the Paladins of Europe.f The custom of mar- shalling, in which the arms are blended by family alli- ances, has been the means of affording some illustrations. The modes of representing heraldry on the baronial and municipal seals, exhibiting no want of invention, and differing from the arrangement on the ancient standards, * In France, where Heraldry meets with great encouragement, two volumes have appeared on the fleur-de-lis alone, by M. Rev, in 1837. t Those Rolls of Arms which have been printed, forming the best source of information on English Heraldry, arc enumerated in the Rev. J. A. Montagu's excellent "Guide to the Study of Heraldry ;" and since that elegant publication appeared, a MS. collection of the arms and quartcrings of the Council of the Marchers, chiefly of the time of Elizabeth, has been printed, by the Hon. R. H. Clivc, among the " Documents connected with the History of Ludlow," 1841. PREFACE. Vii are here shown. The lordly cognizance and the house- hold badge have both been noticed ; these were in con- stant use from the time of King Richard II. to that of King Henry VII, when the number of the retainers in- dicated the greatness of the family. The most magnificent display of heraldry was afforded by the splendid ceremonial of the tournament, Where throngs of knights and harons hold In weeds of peace high triumphs hold. The irregular luxuriance of these o-onreous assemblages gave rise to the tenans, and supporters of arms, addi- tional appendages of rank requisite to be known ; almost equal splendour was shown in the rich ecclesiastial em- bellishments used by the higher orders of prelates, and not less interesting is the monkish rebus, rendered vene- rable by antiquity. Another description of illustration is derived from coins and tokens, the devices on which have an interest in connexion with the subject. The badges of tenure, the badges of trade, and of merchants enriched by com- merce, the marks of printers, and even the signs of inns, have been found entitled to inquiry. The examples afforded by this variety of representation furnish models which may prove useful to the artist who wishes to cul- tivate, successfully, heraldic embellishments. In a pro- fessional point of view, the utility of heraldry will be readily admitted ; its devices form evidence, in many cases, connected with property and honours, and fre- quently identify or separate persons of the same name when other means fail — a difficulty constantly occurring. Its use also, without overrating its claims, soon becomes apparent to all who wish to attain any proficiency in Mil PREFACE. history, where its importance in fixing in the memory the series and connexion of events proves its value. The painter will do well to seek the assistance of he- raldry in his representations of historical subjects ; he who feels its introduction as an accessary to pictorial effect, need not be told, that chronological accuracy in armorial design is equally requisite with fidelity of costume or the correct portraiture of the persons re- presented. To the architect heraldry affords an un- limited extent of enrichment in exterior sculpture ; and the judgment of C.Barry, R. A., the architect of the House of Lords, has admitted it, as an important feature, in the principal facade of that splendid edifice. The introduction of arms in windows and pavements also renders it necessary that the architect should be acquainted, not only with the rules, but with the pecu- liar character of the heraldry of different periods. To the naturalist it is not entirely without interest : the late illustrious Cuvier added a knowledge of heraldry to his other pursuits ; and the patient investigation of the swan-marks of antiquity by Mr. Yarrell, in his " History of British Birds," shows considerable attention to the subject: some of these marks, as the key, the crozier, and the arrow, on the swans of the Lord Chamberlain, the Abbot of Swinstead, and of Eton College, bear a close affinity to the devices of heraldry. It has been the custom, from the time that heraldry was first reduced to system, to arrange the variety of armorial bearings under the natural and artificial fijrures of which they arc composed; the division of natural his- tory relating to fish forms but a very small part of the principal books in use whenever heraldry is required. PREFACE. IX Guillim, in his celebrated Display, devotes one chapter* to skinned and scaled fish, and in anotherf he treats of crusted and shelled fish. Nisbet, the herald of Scot- land, also, in his System,! describes the heraldry of fish in general ; but both writers are necessarily very brief. This part of the subject appeared capable of sustaining a more minute inquiry, without descending into tedious- ness ; there is found to be no want of distinguished names to give attraction to the particular branch the author has chosen, in which he has endeavoured to explain the prin- ciples of early heraldry, which is shown to have been rather territorial than personal. A greater number of the various species of fish have been enumerated ; the dolphin, the herring, and the fish of the sea, have afforded several engravings, but the salmon and trout, with the pike, barbel, and roach, and the other fish of the rivers, present the widest field for inquiry ; where the illustra- tions selected for this work are professedly taken from old examples, the copy has been rigidly followed, and in the original designs the peculiar characters of the differ- ent fish are given with the same attempt at accuracy which the ancient heralds would have practised with the same opportunities : this feature will not be overlooked by the angler, the naturalist, or the antiquary. Although military service was the principal tenure by which lands were anciently held, yet the different modes of taking fish by the spear, the net, or the hook, are shown to have been indicated in the armorial ensigns of the lords of manors deriving revenue from the produce of the fishery. The boats employed in the same service, which were * Chapter xxii. of his third section. t Chapter xxiii. + Chapter \i. of the second part. X PREFACE. at the command of the sovereign in time of war, and formed the original Navy of Britain, distinguish the en- signs of the maritime lords, and the corporate bodies to whom the jurisdiction of the ports was entrusted. Heraldry partaking largely of allegory, it became ne- cessary to allude to the mythological and religious em- blems consisting of fish, as well as to notice the many compound animals, the fanciful creations of the classical poets ; these conceptions, which excite so much inquiry, rendered it more difficult to do justice within a small space to a subject which appeared to merit farther in- vestigation. March, 1842. ILLUSTRATIONS.* Page 1. Vignette, containing the arms of Rosengrun, Dornheim, and Hanf- stengel, described at page 129 . . . . .1 2. Announcement of a Mermaid ..... 3 3. Pisces, from the Zodiac of Denderah . . . . .4 4. Pisces, from MS. in British Museum .... 5 5. Pisces, from Pavement in Canterbury Cathedral . . .6 6. Anns of Pfreimbt ...... 7 7. Medal of Vitellius . . . . . . .7 8. Dolphins, from the Loggie of the Vatican. ... 8 9. Amphitrite, from an antique gem . . . . .9 10. Arms of Admiral Lord Havvke ..... 10 11. Oporinus's Mark . . . . . . .11 12. Vesica Piscis, on a paving-tile at Exeter .... 12 13. Example of fish hauriant . . . . . .13 14. Ditto naiant ....... 13 15. Syracusan Coin , . . . . . .15 16. Medal of Brutus . . . . . . .16 17. Ditto, Vespasian . . . . . . .17 18. Byzantine Coin . . . . . . .17 19. Courtcnay Standard in the time of Henry VIII. . . .18 20. Arms of Courtcnay Bishop of Winchester ... 19 21. Aldus's Mark . . . . . . .20 22. Pickering's Mark, including the Arms of Walton and Cotton . 21 23. Banner of Dauphine ...... 22 24. Anns of the Dauphin . . . . . .23 25. Arms of Franklin ...... 25 26. Arms and Crest of Sir Thomas Frankland, Bart. . . .26 27. Anns of Dolfin of Venice ..... 27 28. Ditto ........ 28 29. Crest of Lord Godolphin ...... 29 30. Anns and Crest of Monypenny , . . . .30 31. Anns and Crest of Sir John Leman .... 32 32. Arms of Vandeput . . . . . .33 33. Anns of Bishop Fyshar, from the Parliament Roll . . 34 * There being so few opportunities for the exercise of female talent, it becomes a plea- sure to mention that the engravings in this work were, with two or three exceptions, executed by Marv and Elizabeth Clint ; a satisfactory proof of their rising ability. XII ILLUSTRATIONS. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 40. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 02. 03. 04. 05. 66. 07. 08. 0!). 70. 71. 72. 7i). so. Page Arm* of Fleet . . . . . . .35 Seal of the Dean of Booking . . . . .36 Anns of Fryer . . . . . . .37 Anns of Bishop James, from stained glass at Oxford . . 39 Arms and Crest of Fitz James . . . . .40 Ancient carved Oak Panel ..... 42 Anns of the Watermen's Company, with Supporters . . 43 Anns and Supporters of Sir William Burnabv ... 44 Dolphins at sea . . . . . . .45 Anns of Whalley Ahbey ...... 46 Arms of Whalley . . . . . . .47 Anns of Vaughan ...... 48 Harpoon, from Rondelet . . . , . .48 Arms of Lucy ....... 50 Arms of the Duke of Northumberland, K. G. . . .51 Anns and Quarterings of the Earl of Sussex, from glass at Newhall 53 Arms of Calder Abbey . . . . . .54 Vane at Charlecote . . . . . .55 Anns of Lucy, from stained glass at Charlecote . . .56 Stained glass at Kingsdown Church .... 57 Arms of Brougham, from stained glass at St. Saviour's Church . 58 Arms of Fontenay de Luc ..... 59 Arms of Geddes . . . . . . .60 Anns of Gcdney . . . . . . .61 William Pickering's Mark . . . . . .02 Arms and Crest of Gascoigne ..... 03 Anns of Fishacre . . . . . . .65 Arms of Bishop Robinson ..... 06 Anns of Garmston . . . . . . .67 Banner of John de Bar ...... 68 Seal of the Earl of Warren and Surrey . . . .09 Seal of his Countess, Joan of Bar .... 70 Anns and Mantle of Lorraine . . . . .72 Stafford Badge ....... 73 Anns of Count Graville, K.G. . . . . .74 nns of Colston ....... 75 rms of Riviere . . . . . . .70 nns and Crest of Karpfen ..... 77 nns of De Blocg . . . . . . .78 lie Mahi of Mogul ...... 79 nns of Viscount Lake . . . . . .80 indu Fish and Lotus ...... 80 nns of Gobyon . . . . . . .81 v)\\^ of the Ear] of Lanesborough .... 82 rms of Goujon . . . . . . .83 nns of ( hioltzbacli ...... 85 nns of Tcuchc . . . . . . .87 ILLUSTRATIONS. Xlll Pago 81. Arms and Crest of Sir Fisher Tench, Bart. . . .88 82. Anns of Breame ...... 89 83. Arms of Abbot de la Mare . . . , .90 84. Arms of Chohb ....... 91 85. Seal of Thomas Lord de la Roche ..... 93 SO. Murder of St. Thomas a Becket, from Abp. Arundel's seal . 94 87. Arms of Tropenell, impaling Roche, from Chalfield Church . 95 88. Arms of Roche ....... 96 89. Arms of Huyshe . . . . . . .97 90. Crest of Beckford ...... 98 91. Arms of Picton ....... 99 92. Crest of Fisher of Stafford ..... 100 93. Arms of Durneford . . . . . . .101 94. Arms of Chabot, Count of Xewblanch, K.G. . . . 102 95. Crest of Gumey ....... 104 96. Arms of Tubbe, from stained glass at St. Neot's Church . 105 97. Arms of Raoul . . . . . . 106 98. Crest of Edridgc . . . . . .107 99. Arms of Graded ........ 110 100. Arms of Von Praromon ..... Ill 101. Arms of Gloucester ...... 112 102. Seal of Kingston . . . . . .113 103. Seal of Lostwithiel . . . . . .114 104. Seal of Coleraine ...... 115 105. Arms of the Earl O'Neill . . . . . .116 106. Anns of Ord . . . . . . .117 107. Arms and Crest of Lord Bolton ..... 117 108. Arms and Crest of Sea . . . . . .118 109. Arms of Way . . . . . . .119 110. Arms and Crest of the Princes of Salm . . . .120 111. Arms and Crest of Knight of Gloucester .... 122 112. Arms of Sambrooke . . . . . .123 113. Anns of Sevington ...... 124 114. Arms of the See of Glasgow ..... 126 115. Device of the Fish and the Ring ..... 127 116. Anns and Crest of Die Prov von Findelstein . . . 128 ] 17. Anns id' Glynn ....... 130 118. Crest of Von Ehnet ...... 131 119. The Pheon . . . . . . .131 12n. Seal of the town of Stafford ..... 133 121. The Hungerford Horn . . . . .134 122. Crest of Penrose ...... 135 123. Arms and Crest of Troutbeck ..... 136 124. Knights mounted; with their armorial tabards and housing's, from a MS. temp. Henry VI. . . . . . . 137 125. Anns of Everhard Duke of Wirtemberg, from his monument at Tubingen . . , . ... . 139 XIV ILLUSTRATIONS. 126. Banner of Pfirdt, from the Triumph of Maximilian 127. Crest of Jane .... 128. Arms of lloten . 129. Arms of Medville . 130. Arms of Smelt . 131. Arms of Cardinal Bentivenga 132. Arms of Umhrell 133. Arms of Proude 134. Seal of the Borough of Yarmouth 135. Seal of Yarmouth Priory 136. Southwold Token 137. Arms of Hcringham 138. Arms of Archbishop Herring 139. Arms and Crest of Harene 140. Arms of Cobb . 141. Arms of Harrington, from a print by Elstrackc 142. Arms of Militon 143. Seal of Truro 144. Looe Token 145. Arms of Bishop Sprat, from Westminster Abbey 146. Arms of Sartine 147. Arms of Mackerell . 148. Crest of Haddock 149. Arms of the Abbey of Petershausen 150. Crest of Von Eytzing . 151. Arms of Beck 152. Capital in Canterbury Cathedral 153. Arms of the Saltfishmongers . 154. Arms of the Stockfishmongers . 155. Arms of the Fishmongers' Company 156. Arms of Iceland 157. Highland Fishing-boat, from a sculpture in Iona 158. Seal of Campbell of Craiginch 159. Seal of the Barons of Dover 160. Arms of Habgood 161. Seal of Wexford 162. Anns of Hackct 163. Arms of Whiting . 164. Arms of Caldwell 165. Arms of Bishop Cheney ](!(!. Arms of Soles . 1(>7. Arms and Crest of Turhutt 168. Crest of Lawrence 169. Crest of Britwcsill . 170. Arms of Bukens 171. Arms of Fisher of Scotland 172. Arms and Crest of Butts Page 140 141 143 144 145 146 147 148 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 158 159 160 161 161 162 163 165 166 167 168 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 178 180 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 19(1 191 192 193 ILLUSTRATIONS. XV Page 173. Anns of Ellis of Trevearc ..... 195 174. Crest of Sir John Styell . . . . .190 175. Arms of Cardinal Guzman ..... 197 176. Badge of Lord Williams of Thame . . . .198 177. Anns of Foleborne ...... 198 178. Arms of Stratele . . . . . . .199 179. Anns of Conghurst ...... 200 1 80. Arms of the town of Lynn ...... 201 181. Arms of Radford ...... 202 182. Anns of Sturgeon . . . . . . .204 183. Arms of Gesse ....... 205 184. Arms and Crest of Sir Robert Harland, Bart. . . .206 185. Anns of Tucker ...... 208 186. Anns of Usedom . . . . . . .209 187. Anns of Ley Earl of Marlborough .... 210 188. Crest of Die Rietter . . . . . .213 189. Seal of Sir William Briwere ..... 214 190. Badge of Sir John Wallop, K. G. ..... 215 191. Arms of Prestwich . . . . . .216 192. Arms and Crest of Die Erstenberger . . . .217 193. Arms of Sir Isaac Heard, Garter King of Anns . . . 218 1 94. Banner of Lord Scales ...... 220 195. Badge of Goldingham ...... 221 196. Saint James, from the banner in the Royal Armoury at Madrid . 222 197. Badge of the Order of Saint James .... 223 198. Arms of Lord Dacre . . . . . .224 199. Arms and Crest of Von Strachwitz .... 226 200. Anns of Shelley . . . . . . .227 201. Arms and Crest of Von Melem ..... 228 202. Anns of Bishop Attwater, from the Parliament Roll . . 230 203. Arms of Bridger ...... 231 204. Arms of Alstanton ....... 232 205. Vignette, containing the arms of Bawde,* and Jugerde,t and the crest of the Counts Von Windischgratz + . . . 233 * Mentioned at page 175. f Page 1.0.9. J Page l]l). Cfje Heraltirp of fi$>* HERALDRY, in its general application, is the symbol of a name ; and amies parlantes, the admiration of the heralds, and of general use throughout Europe, were undoubtedly the earliest devices ; none are more ancient than the well-known ensigns of Castile and Leon. The banner of the feudal lord sometimes bore the particular produce of the domain, as the pomegranate, which gave at once the name and arms to the kingdom of Granada. The mode of tenure was shown by the cups adopted by the Butlers of Senlis in France, and allusions were made in the arms of the nobility to other sources of their power and jurisdiction ; the ancient Counts of Wernigerode, Master Fishers of the empire of Germany, bore a fish as an ensign of dignity.* These marks of honour, admirably adapted to the different branches of the feudal system, include many forms then familiar which have now become obsolete ; but these specimens of he- raldry, even in its state of rudeness, are not undeserving of in- vestigation, as reflecting the manners of the times in which they were composed. * Nisbet's Heraldry. B I THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The language used in English heraldry is derived from and partakes much of the old French, the same language which generally prevailed in the court, the camp, and the convent during the dynasty of the Norman Kings of England, and even down to the reign of Edward III. Without the aid of a glossary, in explanation of many terms now disused, the whole import of the subject can hardly be comprehended. Distinguished names, also, naturally give rise to historical associations ; and the in- terest which the allusion is capable of inspiring must conse- quently be proportionate to the previous knowledge possessed of more than the leading points of early history. In the primitive ages learning was not easy of acquisition, and natural history was almost unknown : from works constructed upon the models of Pliny, Dioscorides, and Aristotle, the know- ledge of fish to be obtained is perfectly valueless to the enquirer of the present day. The Roman author enumerates one hundred and seventy-six kinds of fish, but it is now well known that there are not less than two hundred and sixty species of British fish alone ; of these, one cabinet, that of Mr. Yarrell, a persever- ing naturalist, contains upAvards of one hundred and sixty dis- tinct specimens. Such has been the rapid advance of inform- ation in recent times, that in his work on the subject he has been enabled to describe a greater number by one-fourth than had yet appeared in any British catalogue of fishes. It is understood that nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered with water, and that the Pacific ocean alone is greater than the whole dry land of the globe put together. In the British Museum are now preserved nearly one thousand five hundred different species of fish ; and in the Museum at Paris, which is considered to be extremely rich in specimens of the finny tribe, there are not less than five thousand, a number annually increased by discovery from the vast resources now at the command of science. Heralds are not inattentive to natural history, the whole range of which is employed by them ; but they use the variety of sub- jects afforded by that delightful study with reference only to their own particular pursuit, and not always without indulging in fables. Heraldry also partakes of much, in common with poetry, which delights in fiction, and both are found important assistants in the representation of early manners. By this constant refer- ence to antiquity are the heralds guided in their appropriation THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 3 of the different species of the animal kingdom, which is pro- ductive of an arrangement of subjects widely differing from that of the scientific naturalist, whose theory and classification is purposely intended for practical use, and for the immediate benefit of mankind. Few points of natural history were formerly less known than fish ; the dolphin and the whale, belonging in modern science to a class which is yet but imperfectly investigated, were fishes to the earlier naturalists. The seal, or sea-calf of heraldry, was also considered a fish, and permitted by the monkish rules to be eaten on fish-days. The otter, it is true, had a like dis- tinction, which is noticed by Isaak Walton. The tritons and mermaids of classical mythology were purely emblematical ; but, upon not improbable grounds, have been derived from the amphibious habits of the seal. The last mermaid that engaged the attention of the naturalists is now known to have been skil- fully manufactured by a Chinese from the upper parts of a monkey and the tail of a salmon, for the purpose of deception. This singular creature was brought to Batavia from some of the neighbouring islands in a perfect state of preservation. The lower part of the body, enveloped in its scaly covering, was lost in the natural form of a fish ; but its appearance was little cal- culated to realize the fanciful idea of an animal famed for its personal beauty. Bishop Cosin\s account of a whale, also, stated to have been taken on the coast of Durham in the reign of Charles II, an ingenious fiction, tor a time deceived the zoologists of the present day. a -1 4 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Deeply occupied in the advancement of his favourite science, the enlightened naturalist has not often either time or patience to investigate the quaint devices of antiquity, or to trace the heraldic badge to its origin, which invariably attract the notice of the poet and the consideration of the antiquary : to them the heraldry of early ages is a subject of inexhaustible interest. The earliest known device of fish, the Zodiacal sign, is em- blematical of the fishery of the Nile, commencing in the month of February, about the time when the sun enters Pisces, which is the best season for fishing, according to Pliny ; and of the great abundance and delicacy of the fish in Egypt all authors ancient and modern are agreed. Modern travellers relate that the walls of the temple of Den- derah are literally covered with magnificent sculpture and paint- ing. The figures representing the Zodiac are on the ceiling of the portico, and are engraved in the great work on Egypt pub- lished by order of the French government. The signs of the Zodiac were frequently sculptured on the exterior of ancient churches, presenting a sort of rural calendar for the labours of the field each month in the year, which was of practical use When in the Zodiac the fish wheel round, Thoy loose the floods and irrigate the ground. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 5 111 his directions to the husbandman for the month of February, old Tusser says, To the coast, man, ride, Lent stuff to provide ; with another couplet in encouragement of the fisherman, The land doth will, the sea doth wish, Spare sometimes flesh, and feed off fish. The Zodiacal signs also appear as an ornament on antique vases, coins, pavements, &c. ; and are painted in bright colours on the inside of several mummy cases now in the British Mu- seum. A manuscript in the Cottonian Library* shows the sign Pisces having a connecting line from the tail of each fish. The most interesting portions of the sculpture on the porch of the Virgin, in the cathedral of Notre Dame at Paris, are the compartments representing the signs of the Zodiac, and the labours of the different months, all which were originally painted and gilt. Another curious Zodiac on the porch of the church of Saint Nicholas, at Civray, in Poitou, is engraved in Willemiifs " Monumens Frainjais.'" The Anglo-Norman doorway of Saint Margaret's church in Walmgate, York, is enriched with four mouldings, one of which is sculptured with the signs of the Zo- diac alternately with the agricultural labours of the months. They are also carved on one of the porches of Merton College, Oxford ; and the sign Pisces appears on the western doorway of IfhVy church, one of the most beautiful specimens of Anglo- Norman architecture in the kingdom. * MS. Tib. B. 5. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. At the east end of the cathedral of Canterbury, in a chapel near Becketfs crown, are considerable remains of a pavement executed in an early stage of art ; the large stones, rudely inlaid, bear figures of the Zodiacal signs in circular compart- ments. That of the sign Pisces is here shown. This pavement attracts the notice of the curious as the only indication of the once magnificent shrine of Saint Thomas a Becket, and was probably designed and executed in the reign of Edward I. during the prelacy of Archbishop Peckham, when many costly additions were made to this Cathedral under the direction of Henry Eastry, one of the Priors distinguished for his taste and liberality, and who is recorded to have enriched the choir with carvings. The revenues of the convent and church were then very considerable, and were increased by treasures which flowed in at the celebration of the festival of Saint Thomas, an anniversary of the highest splendour, and to which we arc indebted for one of the earliest poems in the English language, " The Canterbury Tales " of Chaucer. A solitary modern instance of the application of these em- blems is at Penrhyn Castle, the seat of the late G. H. Dawkins Pennant, Esq., a mansion on the site of a palace of one of the Princes of Wales, erected in a castellated style of architecture, near Bangor. Two large and beautiful windows in the great hall contain the signs of the Zodiac, with representations of the labours of the corresponding months, all of the richest colours, painted by Willemcnt in 1835. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 7 One of the signs, Sagittarius, assumed as the heraldic ensign of King Stephen, is said to be in allusion to the Zodiacal position of the sun at the time he ascended the throne of England. A similar reference to the month of February may have influenced the assumption of arms resembling the sign Pisces, borne by the town of Pfreimbt in Germany. They are here copied from Sibmacher's " Wapenbuch," 1605 ; the fish and rays are white, in an azure field, with stars of gold. The sign Pisces, according to some of the French heralds, is composed of dolphins, which Venus placed in the Zodiac ; a dolphin is sculptured at her feet, in the most celebrated statue of this goddess at Florence, to indicate her origin from the sea : but the favourite of Venus, amongst fish, was the minnow, one of the most beautiful in its form and marks. The dolphin, in the mythology, Mas sacred to Apollo, and is represented on a tripod in the reverse of a medal struck in the reign of Vitellius.* * Ant. Augustini Numism. Rom. 1654. 8 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. As an emblem of the sea, the dolphins appear in brilliant colours in the Rose de Mer, or large western window of Amiens cathedral. The sixteen compartments into which this circular window is divided, are filled with stained glass, representing dolphins and sea-shells of several kinds, together with the rebus and arms of Nicholas de Coquerel, one of the canons of Amiens, who died in 1465. The dolphin is also introduced in the ara- besque ornaments of the beautiful stained glass windows of Mou- lins cathedral. In allegory, the dolphin was often employed as an emblem of the sea : it is rudely sculptured on several of the Etruscan sar- cophagi forming part of the collection of antiques in the British Museum, and is found painted as an ornament in many apart- ments of the houses at Pompeii, with little resemblance to the dolphin of natural history. The same disregard of its true form is exhibited by the earlier painters, particularly in the celebrated Loggie of Raphael. The walls of the Vatican, painted by him, are designed upon the model of classical decorations which he had discovered in the baths of Titus, where the dolphins had been introduced, with propriety, as a marine emblem. Without ascribing to heraldry any positive connection with classical allegory, it yet appears requisite to notice the badges of antiquity as the probable prototype of many existing bearings in coat armour. This view of the subject has not been entirely overlooked. " A discourse of the origin of heraldry, demonstrat- ing upon what rational foundation the science is established,"" was published in 1672 by Thomas Philipot, a poet and anti- quary, the son of Somerset Herald. This work refers chiefly to antique coins and medals, and the symbols impressed upon them. It is of little use to the heraldic enquirer, as the author has omitted all allusion to the history of the middle ages, with which his subject was so closely connected. A few instances are here given of the dolphin employed as a poetical representation of the sea, to show the reason of its frequent heraldic application in the same manner. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 9 To obtain favour of Amphitrite, who had made a vow of eternal celibacy, Neptune assumed the form of a dolphin ; and the nymph, as emblematical of her passion for the sea, is always represented in a car drawn by dolphins, as in the beautiful antique cornelian formerly in the Earl of ClanbrassiFs cabinet, and etched by Worlidge, in his Collection of Gems, in 1768. The ocean was a deity, whose protection was invoked by the Romans on the occasion of any voyage : he is represented seated on waves with grapes in his hair and dolphins in his beard. By the goddess Tethys, whose name is familiar as a poetical expres- sion for the sea, he was the father of the Oceanides, who ruled the tempest. To his son Proteus, Oceanus confided the care of the fish, or, as Virgil says, translated by Dryden, "to keep bis scaly flocks.'' 1 High o'er the main in watery pomp he rides, His azure car and finny coursers guides. Neptune himself, with his classical attributes, or, as the heralds describe the figure, proper, was made the subject of a grant of arms, for eminent services at sea, to Admiral Lord Hawke of Towton, whose signal victory over the French fleet under Ad- miral Conflans, in November 1751), was obtained during one of the most violent storms ever witnessed by the oldest seaman. 10 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. By the gallant commander's intrepid conduct a long prepared invasion of the enemy was broken and dispelled, in a manner that brought forcibly to mind the design and fate of the Spanish Armada ; the defeat of which was, at that time, the safety of England, and the lasting renown of the English navy.* An instance of Neptune employed in heraldry had been pre- viously given in the crest of the family of Monypenny, with the motto " Imperat a^quor," he governs the sea ; in allusion probably to their estate on the coast of Fifeshire. An engraving of this device will be found in a subsequent page. The dolphin of the ancients is more particularly famed in the story of Arion, the celebrated musician of Lesbos, the melodious sweetness of whose lyre attracted a number of dolphins round his ship ; and when afterwards he threw himself into the sea, in fear of his life, one of them carried him safely on his back to shore. * The arms of Lord Ilawke of Towton in Yorkshire, are, argent, a chevron erminois between three boatswains whistles erect, proper. Crest, on a wreath a hawk rising proper, charged on the breast with a fleur-de-lis. Supporters, on the dexter side Neptune crowned, standing upon a dolphin, and bearing in his right hand the trident, all propel'; on the sinister a sea-horse holding an union flag in his dexter paw, proper. Motto, Strike. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 11 A cinque cento version of this classical fable, encircled with the heroic motto, " Invia virtuti nulla est via, 11 implying that valour and virtue surmount everything-, was adopted in 1560 as a mark by Oporinus, one of the famous German printers. In this device, one amongst a number of grotesque and extra- ordinary ornaments of the early press, A fiddler on a fish through waves advanced ; He twang'd his catgut, and the dolphin danced. John Herbst of Basle, better known by the name of Oporinus, was highly esteemed in his profession ; he printed none but the best manuscripts, and published no book which he had not him- self corrected. Having joined in partnership with llobert Win- ter, they both, agreeably to the practice of the learned men of that period, adopted classical names ; Herbst assuming that of Oporinus, a Greek word signifying autumn ; and Winter, for the same reason, took that of Chimerinus, apparently to humour the lines of Martial's epigram : Si daret Autumnus raihi nonien, Oporinus esseni. Horrida si Brumae sidcra, Chimerinus. — Ep. ix. 12 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. There are very few fishes named in the sacred Scriptures, the most interesting portion of ancient literature ; Dag, the Hebrew for fish, appears to be a general name of aquatic animals. As the Greek word for fish, Ictis, contained initials emblematical of Christ, a fish was a very favourite symbol of the early Chris- tians ; and the vesica piscis, a rough outline of a fish, formed of two curves meeting in a point at their extremities, was made to enclose the holy symbol . This image was sculptured upon tombs and sepulchral urns, as well as upon seals and rings, and its form is shown on part of a pavement found near the conduit in South Street, Exeter, in September 1833. The same figure is also upon one of the tiles preserved at Caen in Normandy : both have been engraved in the Gentleman's Magazine. The Virgin in a canopy, or Vesica piscis round which the four Evangelists are disposed, is not uncommon in the old churches. It is mentioned in Mr. Hope's " Historical Essay on Architecture," at Ravenna, where the fish also appears on the ancient convex marble ambones, or pulpits, which have been in- serted in the walls of the modern cathedral. On the origin of tliis custom the curious may consult Encyclop6die Methodique Antiq. torn. iii. Of all classes of natural history, that of fishes is the most diffi- cult to divide into orders, as remarked by Cuvier, who devoted his life to the study of the science. There is, indeed, nothing more remarkable than tin; infinite variety and singularity of the figures and shapes of fishes : their forms are considered to be more extraordinary than those of any other department of the animal kingdom. The attention of heralds was directed merely to the chief characteristic features of animals, and the most generous and THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 13 noblest qualities belonging to the- species are usually described. Beasts of savage nature are represented in fierce agency : the lion rampant is a lion prepared for action ; the boar is shown with tusks, and the stag with his proper attire ; the horse is represented in full speed, or courant ; the greyhound coursing, and the deer tripping ; but the wolf is described as passant, agreeably to his natural disposition, moving step by step. As the symbol of a name, almost all fish have been used in heraldry ; and in many instances fish have been assumed in arms in reference to the produce of the estate, giving to the quaint device a twofold interest. They are borne upright and extended, and when feeding are termed devouring ; Allume, when their eyes are bright, and Pame, when their mouths are open. All the terms used in describing their positions are old French. Hauriant, a word now obsolete, means fish raised upright, in which manner, with their heads above water, fish refresh them- selves by sucking in the air ; Naiant, from the same ancient source, denotes the swimming position. The arrangement of subjects having but very slight reference to the classification of the naturalist, is adopted to explain the heraldic application of the several species offish. 14 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. I.— The DOLPHIN and the WHALE. H._The PIKE, LUCE, or GED, and FLYING-FISH. III.— The BARBEL, CARP, GUDGEON, TENCH, BREAM, ROACH, DACE, CHUB, MINNOW, and LOACH. IV.— The CHABOT, GURNARD, MULLET, and PERCH. V._ The SALMON, TROUT, SMELT, and GRAYLING, with their enemy the OTTER. VI.— The HERRING, PILCHARD, and SPRAT. VII.— The MACKAREL. VIII.— The HADDOCK, COD, HAKE, LING, WHITING, and BURBOT. IX.— The SOLE, TURBOT, PLAICE, and FLOUNDER. X.— The EEL, CONGER, and LAMPREY. XL— The STURGEON. XII.— The DOG-FISH, SEA LIONS, and other monsters. XIII.— The SEAL, MERMAID, and TRITON. XIV.— SHELLFISH. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 15 tEJje 13olp6itt an& tfie S^fiale* The dolphin by heralds is considered the chief of fish, as the lion is of beasts and the eagle of birds; so distinguished pro- bably from the beauty of its form, and from its being found more frequently depicted in heraldic bearings than any other particu- lar species : this arises from the dolphin being used as a general type offish, as in the arms of the Fishmongers 1 Company, in which it is conspicuous, and also from its being sometimes as- sumed in relation to naval affairs. The heraldic representations of the dolphin are supposed to be little consonant with truth ; but an apologist is found in one of the most able and accomplished naturalists of the present day. Mr. Bell, in his History of the Cetacea, gives a descrip- tion of its form and colour, which is blackish on the back, greyish on the sides, and glittering white beneath. After the fullest particulars of its organization, he says, " It requires some stretch of the imagination to identify the blunt round-headed creature, with its curved back and spiny fins, as it is pictured, with the straight sharp-beaked animal," of which a true repre- sentation is prefixed to his account. But even here, the learned author continues, " there are exceptions to this general censure, and there is no difficulty in at once recognising the common dolphin in the animal which is represented on the reverse of a Syracusan coin in the British Museum, of which this engraving is an accurate copy. 11 * Bull's British Quadrupeds, p. 4G5. 16 THE TIEKALDRY OF FTSH. Tlie naturalist very properly disregards those peculiarities of outward form, the tins and the tail, so necessary to the dolphin as an inhabitant of the sea ; and, upon a firm principle of or- ganization, both the dolphin and the whale, fishes in heraldry, now form under the head of Cetacea a peculiar class of mam- malia, Ray and Pennant being the last naturalists who admitted them as fish. Some difference has been attempted to be made between the dolphin of natural history and the dolphin of poetry, or that which is depicted in heraldry ; but there is no satisfactory reason to doubt that one and the same animal or fish is intended. In the tropical regions numbers will follow and surround a ship with the most eager delight, and hence has arisen their reputed attachment to mankind. They are described by mariners as glistening most beautifully in the sun, and displaying the most extraordinary agility ; their gambols being accompanied by jets of water from their nostrils, and their brilliant coats sparkling and flashing in the sun quite splendidly.* The dolphin is found on the shores of Great Britain, and occasionally in the rivers Ribble and Severn. It was employed on the early Greek coins of Sicily as an emblem of the sea ; and was subsequently used on the money of the Roman consul, Cains Marius, the son of a peasant of Arpinum, as a rebus on his name. A dolphin surmounting an anchor, represented on one of the medals struck during the consulate of Lucius Junius Brutus, was intended to denote the dominion of the republic of Rome in the Mediterranean. f * See Captain Basil Hall's Fragments of Voyages. t Ant. Augustini Numism. Regum. Imp. Horn. 1054, tab. 5. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 17 Imperial Rome affords an instance of nearly the same device, on a medal of Vespasian ; a dolphin entwining 1 an anchor was used to indicate the Emperor's naval superiority. The birth of Vespasian was not noble, and it was in his advanced age that he was raised to the throne of the Caesars. In Parading " Heroical Devises," the dolphin and anchor is attributed to Vespasian, with the motto " Festina lente," afterwards used by the Shrop- shire family of Onslow, as a play upon their name. Byzantium, from its advantageous position, appeared to have been formed for the centre and capital of a great monarchy ; the Propontis being renowned for an inexhaustible store of the most exquisite fish, that were taken in their stated seasons without skill and almost without labour, and the profits of this fishery con- stituted the principal revenue of the city. The device on the more ancient coins is a dolphin entwined on the trident, or sceptre of Neptune.* A dolphin, one of the ensigns of the Greek empire, is borne by the Courtenay family as representatives of a branch of that illus- trious house, which once bore the title of Augustus, and sustained the honours of the purple as Emperors of Constantinople. * Gibbon's Rome, and Ball's Antiquities of Constantinople. 18 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The Lords of Courtenay in Gatinois, vassals of the crown of France, were amongst the heroes of the first crusade : a daughter of Reginald Courtenay formed an alliance with the Sang Royal. Peter Courtenay, their son, became Emperor of Constantinople in 1217; and his two sons, Robert and Baldwin, successively enjoyed the same dignity. Reginald, Lord of Okehampton, descended from the Courte- nays of France, was the patriarch of the Courtenays, Earls of Devonshire, who contracted alliances with the noblest families : their arms, denoting affinity with Godfrey of Bouillon, and the old Counts of Boulogne, or, three torteauxes, with a label azure, are heraldic-ally described in the contemporary poem of the Siege of Carlaverock. The name of Courtenay is found conspicuous in the original list of the Knights of the Garter ; and in the wars of the Plantagenets the family were adherents of the house of Lancaster. One of the daughters of King Edward IV. married William Earl of Devonshire ; and their son, Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter, a favourite of King Henry the Eighth, broke a lance with the French monarch on the field of the cloth of gold. Sir William Courtenay of Povvderham Castle, a lineal de- scendant of Hugh, the first Earl of Devonshire, in the same reign bore on his emblazoned standard dolphins, the device of dominion, in reference to " the purple of three Emperors.'" ■" i i " '■""■" "■ r : The standard, four yards in length, differed from a banner in form : the latter, nearly square, contained the arms, and in this form the royal standard at Windsor Castle is now made ; but the ancient standard of a knight, long and narrow, and split at THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 19 the end, bore the cross of Saint George, and was also charged with his badge or crest, and motto, bnt not with the arms.* This noble and illustrious family also attained the highest honour in the church. William Courtenay, the son of Hugh Earl of Devonshire, by Margaret Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford, became successively Bishop of Hereford and London, and in 1881 Archbishop of Canterbury. The college he founded at Maidstone is a proof of his munificent spirit. Another learned and accomplished prelate, Peter Courtenay, son of Sir Philip Courtenay of Powderham, by Elizabeth, daughter of Lord Hun- gerford, was Bishop of Exeter in 1478, and Bishop of Winchester in 1487. His arms, environed by the dolphins of Constantinople, are represented on a compartment of one of the chimney-pieces in the episcopal palace at Exeter. This piece of sculpture appears not to have been executed until after the bishop's removal to Winchester, as it bears the arms of that sec, a sword between two keys, the united emblems of the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, commemorative of the dedication of Winchester Cathedral. The knowledge of the history of the house of Courtenay has been rendered more familiar than that of any other noble family * Excerpta Ilistoriea, 1831, a work of much information respecting the progress of the arts, including heraldry, and whatever presents characteristic features of former ages. c2 20 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. by the eloquent narrative of Gibbon. The present nobleman is the tenth Earl of Devon ; but the title was dormant from the year 1556 till 1831, when it was adjudged by the House of Lords to William Viscount Courtenay, cousin of the present Earl of Devon, to whom his lordship succeeded in 1885.* As a well-known symbol of the principal seat of the Greek empire, the dolphin was adopted as a device by the celebrated Aldus, the best but not the earliest printer of Greek, whose works are known to every scholar : as an original benefactor to the literature of the age in which he lived, he stood high ; and as an editor he was considered of the first rank. The state of the manuscripts he prepared for the press required the assistance of the most learned amongst his contemporaries. By his son and grandson the business of a printer was continued till the death of the latter in ] 597 ; and with him ended the glory of the Aldine press, established in the fifteenth century, the productions of which are of the highest value both for accuracy and beauty. The classical and tasteful device of Aldus, a dolphin entwined on an anchor, was adopted by Mr. Pickering for his Aldine edition of the British Poets ; with an eye probably to this pro- phetic distich, Would you still be safely landed On the Aldine anchor ride : Never yet was vessel stranded With the dolphin by its side.+ Mr. Pickering's device is also shown in an ornamental com- * Report of Proceedings on the Claim to the Earldom, with notes and an appendix, by Sir Harris Nicolas, 1832. + Gentleman's Magazine for 183G. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 21 partment between the mark of honest Izaak Walton and the arms of his friend and contemporary Charles Cotton, of Beresford in Staffordshire, both distinguished names in piscatory annals. This is affixed to his very splendid edition of Walton and Cotton's Complete Angler, an indispensable manual, embellished with illustrations by those eminent artists Stothard and Inskipp. The mark of Walton in this design appears on the dexter shield, between the arms of his two wives Fludd and Kenn ; and the arms of Cotton on the sinister shield, between those of his wives Hutchinson and Russell. Ornaments of this description con- tribute greatly to the beauty of a book, and the complete device must be acknowledged to exhibit much spirit and heraldic taste in the composition. Heraldry, it may be remarked, is essentially of military ori- gin ; and the ensign under which the feudal vassals assembled round their lord became the distinctive mark of hereditary sove- reignty and honour : thus the well-known devices, the wivern of Milan, the black cross of Genoa, and the lion of St. Mark at Venice, were borne by the Banner'd host, Tinder spread ensigns marching. At the very dawn of heraldry the vassals of Dauphine rallied under a dolphin, a mark easily descried and one that all under- stood : the form was of course derived from the classical repre- sentations, and adopted as symbolical of the name of the pro- vince. A golden dolphin in an azure field was borne by Andrew the Dauphin, Count of Viennois, contemporary with King Henry III. of England, and patriarch of the Dauphins descended from 22 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. tlie houses of Burgundy and La Tour. It was also boruo by the Dauphins, as they were subsequently styled, Lords of Auvenme. Humbert, Dauphin of Viennois, oppressed by continual war with his neighbour, Amadeus VI. Count of Savoy, known as the Green Earl, granted his seignory to Philip of Valois, King of France, in the year 1349 ; stipulating that the King's son should be styled eldest son of France and Dauphin of Viennois, and always bear the arms of this extensive province. The Emperor Charles IV. in 1379 visited Charles, the first who assumed the title of Dauphin ; and, waving all pretensions to the fief, constituted him perpetual Vicar of the Empire in the Dauphinate. In England the word dolphin was used for the French name of Dauphin, as in the old play of " King John, 11 who, it may be remarked, died more than a hundred years before the title was in existence, " Lewis the Dolphin and the heire of France." Shakspeare 1 s subsequent introduction of the Dauphin in the time of King John is amply atoned by his transcendent genius ; but in the recent pictorial edition of his plays, the readers are presented with a portrait of the Dauphin taken from the Arclneologia ! a less pardonable error either of the editor or the antiquary. After her marriage at Notre Dame in 1558, Mary Queen of Scots saluted the Dauphin as King of Scotland ; and their mar- riage was declared by the titles also of " Dolphin and Dolphiness of France. 11 A rare gold coin bears the arms of the Dauphin impaled with the royal arms of Scotland.* * The coin, in the collection of Dr. William Hunter, was engraved in 179B. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 23 The arms of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV, the most dis- tinguished person who bore the title, are under his portrait by H. Rigaud, which is engraved by Drevet, and are placed on a car- touche shield environed by the collars of the orders of St. Mi- chael and the Holy Ghost, and surmounted by the Dauphin's coronet, the bows of which are formed by dolphins. The frontispiece prefixed to the Delphin Classics shows Arion in the act of springing out of the ship, with a dolphin ready to receive him ; and bears the motto used by the Dauphin of France, trahitvr . dvlcedine . cantvs . alluding to the reputed fondness of the dolphin for music. The suggestion of a series of the classics " In usum Delphini,"" made by the Prince's governor, the Duke de Montausier, was carried into execution by his preceptors, IFuet and Uossuet ; and the device of Arion was not unaptly adopted, the name of Dauphin signifying equally the Prince and the fish. Arioifs preservation was a favourite subject in the spectacles exhibited upon the water in the days of Queen Elizabeth : during the visit to Kenilworth, Arion rode upon the back of a dolphin twenty-four feet in length, which contained in its body 24 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. a rude kind of harmonicon. In one of the plays of later date,* a cook, boasting of his skill in allegorical embellishment, says, " For fish I '11 make you a standing lake of white broth, And pikes shall come ploughing up the plums before them, Arion on a dolphin playing Lachrymse." An allusion to this classical subject is again made by the same dramatists,"|" " May 't rain above all almanacks, till The carriers sail, and the King's fishmonger Rides, like Arion, upon a trout to London." Azure, a man riding on a dolphin and playing on a harp, the arms of Walterton, or Walterstown, of Scotland, shows the same subject treated heraldically. The Dolphin inn, a large house formerly on the eastern side of Bishopsgate street, was enriched on its front with fleurs-de-lis and dolphins ; and is said, in some descriptions of London, to have been a residence of the Dauphin of France. More pro- bably it was prepared for some of the French ambassadors to England, in compliment to whom the Dolphin inn at South- ampton, one of the largest in the kingdom, might also have derived its sign. When signs were of general use, the dolphin was by no means uncommon : the Spectator, projected by Addison, was published daily in 1711 at the Dolphin in Little Britain, then the shop of the learned bookseller Samuel Buckley, editor of Thuanus, and of the first daily newspaper, the " Daily Courant," in 1709, and who also published Sir Richard Steeled " Crisis," with other political works, in his zeal for the Hanover succession, for which he was eminently distinguished. The dolphin is conspicuous in the arms borne by families of the name of Franklin, as well as the fleur-de-lis in those of the name of France. Argent, a clump of trees proper ; in the centre of the branches a fleur-de-lis or ^ on a chief wavy azure, three fleurs-de-lis of the third, are borne by the family of France of Bostock, on the banks of the river Dane in Cheshire ; a grant of arms evidently intended to typify both the names of person and estate. Vert, a saltier argent ; on a chief or, three fleurs-de-lis azure, are the arms of the family of France of North Britain. " The " Bloody Brother," by Beaumont and Fletcher. I' Weber's edition, vol. ii. p. 55. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 25 The recorded miracle of the transmission of the lis from heaven to Clovis the first Christian King- of France, may be traced to Louis VII.'s reception of a consecrated flower from Pope Alex- ander III. This King 1 , who is sometimes called Ludovicus Floras, bore on his signet a fleur-de-lis, but probably assumed it in allusion to his name, then usually spelt Loys ; one of the earliest instances of the punning device, and whence France was poetically termed IS Empire des Lis. The Franklin is finely drawn by Chaucer as hospitable and not unaccomplished : the name implies a freeholder of consider- able property ; and Waterhouse, an heraldic author, says, " There are many now grown into families called Franklin, who are men in the county of Middlesex and other parts." * Argent, on a bend azure three dolphins of the field ; crest, a dolphin embowed proper, pierced through the sides with two fishing spears in saltier or, were the armorial ensigns of William Franklin. Sheriff of Hertfordshire in 1 6*13, and of Sir Richard Franklin of More Park in the same county, created Baronet by Kiny Charles II. in 1G60. Dolphins are also borne in the arms of the family of Franklin of Maverns in Bedfordshire, one of whom was Sheriff of the county in 1600. In the church of Bolnhurst, among other memorials of this family, is a. monument to Sir John Franklin, one of the Masters in Chancery, who died in 1707. They after- wards resided at Great Barford, and one of the branches of the family at Pavenham, both in the same county. Argent, on a bend between two lions" heads erased gules, a dolphin naiant between as many birds close or: crest, a dolphin's * Commentary on Fortescue, 1663. 26 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. head erect argent; between two branches vert, are the armorial bearings of another family of Franklin of Rainham in Norfolk. The ancestral family of the celebrated American philosopher, Benjamin Franklin, were, it is well known, industrious smiths at Ecton in Northamptonshire, which village his father Josias left for America in the year 1682. Azure, a dolphin naiant or ; on a chief of the second, three saltiers gules : crest, an anchor erect sable, entwined by a dol- phin argent, are the armorial ensigns of the Frankland family, originally of Hertfordshire, but which was afterwards seated at Thirsk in Yorkshire. William Frankland, Esq. of Thirkleby, was the father of Sir Henry Frankland, whose son William was created Baronet by King Charles II. in 1660. Sir Thomas Frankland, Postmaster-Creneral in the reign of Queen Anne, is thus mentioned in Mackay's " Characters of the Courtiers :" " He is chief of a very good family in Yorkshire, with a very good estate ; his being my Lord Fauconberg's nephew, and marrying a grand-daughter of Oliver Cromwell, first recommended him to King William, who at the Revolution made him Commissioner of the Excise, and in some years after Governor of the Post-office. By abundance of application he understands that office better than any man in England ; and, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 27 notwithstanding we had no intercourse with France last war, he improved that revenue to ten thousand pounds a year more than it was in the most flourishing- years." The lineal descendant of this family, Sir Robert Frankland Russell, Baronet, of Thirklehy in Yorkshire, acrmired Chequers in Buckinghamshire, as repre- sentative of the Russells of Chippenham in Cambridgeshire, who were allied to the Protectoral house of Cromwell by frequent intermarriages. At Chequers the dolphin of the Franklands is introduced in the armorial enrichments of modern additions from designs by Mr. E. B. Lamb, architect. Azure, a bend or, between two dolphins embowed argent, are the arms of a family of French of Essex ; but the noble family of Ffrench, who have resided at Castle French in the county of Galway in Ireland for many generations, bear the dolphin only as a crest. The arms, azure, three fleurs-de-lis or, with a dolphin em- bowed as a crest, were borne by Peter P. Metge, Esq. of Ath- lumney in the county of Meath, who was related to John Metge, Esq. formerly M.P. for Dundalk, and Deputy Auditor-General in the Irish Treasury. Simplicity is one of the principal characteristics of heraldry, and a dolphin is frequently borne in reference to the name. The English family claim Venetian origin, and in a list of the nobility of Venice the arms of Dolfm are found : per pale, azure and argent, a dolphin naiant or. The Venetian nobility, among the most authentic in Europe, were once so jealous of their Libro d'Oro, the celebrated book of genealogy, that a proposal to open it during the Candian war, and admit twenty new members, Avas indignantly spurned by Michielli, one of the Elettorali, a descendant of one of the twelve original families, who exclaimed " Vender i figli, ma non mat 28 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. vender la nobilita?" that he would sell his children, but never his nobility. Some families of Brescia, Treviso, and other places, were how- ever subsequently inscribed in the Libro d'Oro, whose only claim to the honour was the zeal with which they prostrated their country at the feet of the republic. It is this historical truth which gives force to the poet's rebuke — Thy oligarchy's Book of Gold Shut against humble virtue's name, But opened wide for slaves who sold Their native land to thee and shame. Mooiie. Iii the same list of the nobility of Venice* are the arms of another family of Dolfin, azure, three dolphins naiant or; the same arms were also borne by the English family of Dolphin. Vert, three dolphins naiant in pale or, are the family arms of Dolphinley ; and, sable, a dolphin hauriant or, those of Dolfin- ton. A dolphin naiant proper, is borne as a crest by the family of Browne of Dolphinton in Lanarkshire, in allusion to the name of their estate. As a crest, a dolphin embowed was borne by the Earl of Godolphin, K. G. a nobleman of distinguished abilities, Lord High Treasurer to Queen Anne. His immediate progenitors were distinguished in the cabinet and the field, and for their loyalty during the civil war: he himself sat in the first parlia- ment after the Restoration as M.P. for Helston in Cornwall, whence he rose rapidly into political consequence. The manor of Godolphin, or Godolian, near Helston, was held by a family * Ak.ma Gentilicia, sive Insignia vera Nobiliii omnium magnificentissime Civitatis Venetiaruni vivcntium, Anno Domini 15G] ; a curious manuscript in the library of Woburn Abbev. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 29 of the same name even before the Conquest, and which originally bore for arms, argent, three dolphins embowed sable. John Godolphin was Sheriff of Cornwall in 1 504* ; and at Pengersick Castle, a seat of the Militon family, erected in the reign of Henry VIII, is a chamber painted with proverbs, one of which is a comparison of an affectionate sovereign to a dolphin, indicating the kindness received from the house of Godolphin, whence the Lord of Pengersick married his lady.* On the death of Francis Lord Godolphin, the last male heir of this noble race, in 1758, the estates descended to the Duke of Leeds, grandson of the first Earl of Godolphin. The ancient family device, a dolphin embowed sable, finned or, is now borne as a crest by Francis Godolphin Osborne, created Lord Godol- phin in 1832, the son of Francis Duke of Leeds, by Baroness Conyers, and brother to the present Duke. A dolphin, as a marine emblem, is borne as a charge in the arms of some families, typical of certain jurisdiction over part of the sea or harbours held under the sovereign. A dolphin naiant azui-e, is the crest of the Marquess of Ailsa, a title derived from an island on the coast of Ayrshire. The noble family of Ken- nedy possessed large estates in Carrick as early as the reign of Edward III, and the title of Earl of Cassilis in 150.9. At the tournament held at Eglintoun Castle in 1839, the Earl of Cassilis bore his family cognisance on his helmet and housings, and when armed for the tilt was distinguished as the Knight of the Dolphin. * Lysons's Cornwall, from Lelaiid's Itineiary, vol. iii. so THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Argent, a dolphin embowed azure, are the arms of the family of Monypenny, who quarter the arms of Oathcart, and bear for a crest, Neptune bestriding a dolphin on the waves, with his trident in his hand, and holding the reins : over the crest the motto, Imperat sequor. David Monypenny had a grant of Pitmilly, King's Barns, on the coast of Fifeshire, from the Prior of St. Andrews, who was contemporary with Henry III. King of England. Sir William Monypenny was created a Baron by King James II. in 1450 ; but his son Alexander was the last who held the title. A considerable branch of this family is now seated at Holvenden in the Weald of Kent ; and Captain Thomas Crybbon Monypenny is M.P. for Rye. Corporations of those towns which have arisen into importance, and where a successful fishery is established, bear a dolphin on their common seal. At Brighton, now the first of fashionable watering-places, the mackarel season is still of great interest, and a fish-market is held on the beach. The Steyne, a spacious lawn and promenade, was the spot formerly used by the fishermen for drying their nets. The common seal of the town bears two dolphins embowed within a shield. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 31 The trade of Poole, a sea-port of Dorsetshire, consists chiefly in the Newfoundland fishery. The arms of the corporation were probably assumed in reference to the Court of Admiralty, held there for a particular jurisdiction : barry wavy gules and or, a dolphin embowed argent ; in chief, three escallops of the second : the crest, a mermaid holding in her right hand an anchor cabled, and in her left a mound, the emblem of sovereignty. A dolphin also forms a charge in the arms of the town of Dun- kirk, on the North Sea, a place of considerable trade in fish ; and in the arms of Otranto, a port on the Adriatic, in the dominions of the King of Naples. Arms were assumed at an early period by the merchants of the city of London. King Charles V. allowed arms to the burgesses of Paris in 1371 ; but the helmet was for some time afterwards reserved as a distinction of the gentry of France. The members of the Fishmongers'' Company seem to have assumed the dolphin in their arms as an emblem of trade ; but the cod, hake, and ling were the stockfish for which the great demand existed, and were the principal source of their wealth and renown. Sir William Askham, Lord Mayor of London in 1404, bore gules, a fess or, between three dolphins embowed argent. Sir John Rainwell, citizen and fishmonger, Lord Mayor in 142G, bore for arms, a chevron between three dolphins em- bowed. Sir William llennington, citizen and fishmonger, the son of Robert Rennington of Boston in Lincolnshire, and Lord Mayor in 1500, bore, gyronny of eight, ermine and azure, a dolphin embowed gules. Sir William Holleys, Lord Mayor in 1539, bore, sable, on a bend argent, between a talbot courant in chief, and a dolphin em- bowed in base of the second, three torteauxcs. Other branches of the Holleys family have the bend charged with roses or an- nulets gules. Sir Thomas Curteis, citizen and fishmonger, son of John Curteis of Enfield in Middlesex, and Lord Mayor in 1557, bore, barry wavy argent and sable, a chevron or, between three be- zants ; on a chief of the third, two dolphins addorsed between as many anchors azure. Sir John Cootes, son of Thomas Cootes of Bierton in Bucking- hamshire, Lord Mayor in 1 542, bore, per pale or and azure, two 32 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. dolphins liauriant, addorsed and counterchanged ; on a chief sahle, a covered cup or, between two dovecotes argent. Azure, a fess between three dolphins embowed argent ; crest, a lemon-tree ; were the armorial ensigns of Sir John Leman, a native of Beccles in Suffolk, where he founded a free school. He was Lord Mayor in 1616, and on his death in 1632 was buried in St. Michael's church, Crooked Lane. This church, which was demolished in 1831 to form a better approach to London Bridge, had been rebuilt by John Lovken, a stockfish- monger, four times Lord Mayor of London in the reign of Richard II. Sir William Walworth, another renowned fish- monger, was also a liberal benefactor to this church. In Fishmongers 1 Hall, among the archives is a roll represent- ing a grand pageant, which was prepared at the charge of that company to grace the inauguration of Alderman John Leman to the dignity of Lord Mayor. In this procession-roll is represented I. The fishing buss. 2. The crowned dolphin. 3. The King of the Moors. 4. A lemon-tree, the Lord Mayor's peculiar badge ; and 5. The bower of Sir William Walworth. A description of this pageant, entitled " Ohiwsanaleia, the golden fishing, or Honours of Fishmongers," &c. was written by Anthony Munday, and has been printed. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 33 Alderman Leinan's estates, situated in Goodman's Fields, and in the counties of Hereford, Huntingdon, and Cambridge, de- scended to liis nephew William Leman Esq. of Northaw in Hertfordshire, whose son William was created a Baronet by King Charles II. in 1664. He was Sheriff of the county in 1676; and at his death in 1701 was succeeded by his grandson Sir William Leman, the last Baronet, who died in 1741. Sir John Leman, who died at Wakefield in 1839, assumed the title, but failed in establishing his claim to the estate. The late Rev. Thomas Leman, of Bath, was of the same family, and in one of his manuscripts he has given a genealogical account of its several branches. His fondness for the name was shown in his own house, where one of the rooms was painted with a view of Lake Leman. This gentleman was best known by his careful investigation of the early roads and earth- works of Great Britain, the details of which, with his topographical collections, were left at his death in 1826 to the Bath Institution, of which he was one of the founders. Or, three dolphins hauriant azure, are the arms of the family of Vandeput, formerly merchants of London, descended from Henry Vandeput of Antwerp, who in 1568 came to England in consequence of the persecution of the Duke of Alva. A monument in memory of several members of this family was erected in the church of St. Margaret Pattens, by Sir Peter Vandeput, in 1686. His son Peter was created a Baronet by King George I. in 1723, and was father of Sir George Van- deput, Bart, who contested the city of Westminster in 1748 : he died in 1784; and another distinguished member of this family, Admiral Sir George Vandeput, died in 1790. The dolphin, the general emblem of fish, is used in heraldry as 34 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. a play upon the names of Fisher and Fish. Azure, a fess wavy or, between two crescents in chief and a dolphin in base argent, were the arms of the late John Fish, Esq. of Kempton Park, Middlesex. Gules, a dolphin or, and chief ermine, are the arms of the family of Fisher of Witlingham in Norfolk ; that of Fisher of Kent bears for arms, per fess gules and argent, in chief a dolphin of the second. Another family of Fisher of Warwickshire bears, gules, a fess vaire, between two falcons volant in chief, and a dolphin embowed in base, within a border engrailed argent. Azure, a dolphin embowed between three ears of wheat or, were the personal arms of John Fyshar, Bishop of Rochester, who was the son of a merchant of Beverley in Yorkshire. This prelate's arms are sometimes found quartered with an- other coat relative to fishing; argent, three eel-spears erect sable, on a chief azure, a lion passant guardant or:* but the above example is copied from a fac-simile of the Parliament Roll of 1515, pub- lished by Mr. Willement,-f- in which the arms are impaled with * Roll of Parliament, 8th of Henry VIII. in the College of Arms. + The original is in Mr. Willement's possession ; and is valuable as affording evidence of armorial bearings, and as a specimen of heraldic drawing at the beginning of the six- teenth century. A Procession Roll, in the time of Henry VIII. before the dissolution of religious houses, is described in the Gentleman's Magazine for \7!)o as about a foot wide and twenty feet long, containing figures of all the Lords of Parliament on horseback, coloured. This roll in 1774 was in the possession of the Rev. J. Allen, Rector of Tarporley. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 35 those of his see. Rochester Cathedral is dedicated to St. An- drew, and the hearing- has reference to the instrument of his martyrdom. Bishop Fyshar, a zealous champion of the church of Rome, was beheaded in 1535 : his death was not improbably hastened by his accepting the title of Cardinal, when the King- enraged said, " Let the Pope send him a hat when he will ; Mother of God, he shall wear it on his shoulders ! ,1 As con- fessor to Margaret Countess of Richmond, Bishop Fyshar was mainly instrumental in the foundation of St. John's and Christ's Colleges at Cambridge. The rapidity of fish, which is remarkable, may have suggested the adoption of the dolphins in the arms of Fleet, granted in 1691 : azure, on a bend wavy or, between two dolphins em- bowed argent, three escallops gules. The form of the generality of fish is particularly calculated for swift and easy motion ; and they never seem exhausted by fatigue, or to require repose. It has been remarked, in opposition to the curved form of the dolphin, that it is not only the straightest fish that swims, but also the swiftest, and that for this last property it is indebted to the first. Sir John Fleet was Lord Mayor in 1692 ; and on his feast-day their Majesties dined at Guildhall. A drawing of the procession on this occasion is preserved in the Pepysian library at Magdalen College, Cambridge ; and the description of the pageant, entitled " The Triumphs of London, " was printed by Elkanah Settle, the last of the City Poets. Azure, three fishes naiant in pale argent, within a border ermine, are the arms of the family of Southflete. D 2 36 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Party per pale gules and sable, six dolphins naiant argent, are the arms assigned to Bartholomew Iscan, Bishop of Exeter, one of the luminaries of the English Church ; with the motto, Nil amatum, nisi cognitum. He died in 1184, and was buried in his own cathedral, where amongst the archives his official seal is yet preserved. The authority for this very early instance of bearing arms is weak,* and it is known that arms are sometimes attributed to ancestors which were in reality first adopted by descendants. The original arms of the most ancient families can rarely now be ascertained before the commencement of the thirteenth century. The seal of the Dean of Bocking, in the reign of Elizabeth, furnishes an example of the heraldic dolphin ; but the decanal seals, important ecclesiastical instruments, are not inscribed with the names of the deans but the office, which, with few excep- tions, was temporary. The seal of the Deanery of Hingham in Norfolk bears the emblem of the patron saint of the parish church, St. Andrew's cross raguly ; the seal of the Deanery of Sunning in Berkshire bears the royal arms in the time of Edward VI. ; that of the Dean of Bocking in Essex, is charged with a shield bearing a cross between four dolphins naiant, and inscribed sigillvm . de- cani . DECANATVS . DE . HOCKING . IN . COM . ESSEX . 1596. It is eil- oraved one half the length of the original. As the Cathedral Dean had authority over ten prebendaries, so had the Rural Dean over ten incumbents or parishes, under a commission from the Bishop of the diocese ; but the particular jurisdiction of the rural deaneries has been amply illustrated in the " Horse Deeaniccc Rurales, 11 by the Rev. W. Dansey, a work abounding in solid ecclesiastical and antiquarian learning. Iwuike'b Ilibtoiy of Exeter. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 37 Fryer, an ancient family of Clare in Essex, bore for arms, sable, a chevron between three dolphins embowed argent ; possi- bly in reference to the fry or swarm of fishes. The sounds and seas, each creek and bay With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals Offish, that with their fins and shining scales Glide under the green wave. Francis Fryer of London had a grant of the same arms, with a canton ermine, in 1572. His descendant, Sir John Fryer, who had been created a Baronet by King George I. in 1714, was Lord Mayor in 1721 : the title is now extinct, but the arms are borne as a quartering by the family of Iremonger of Wher- well in Hampshire. Sable, on a chevron between three dolphins argent, three castles triple-towered of the field, were the arms granted in 1602 by Camden as Clarencieux, to John Frear of London, M.D. Sable, a chevron or, between three dolphins embowed argent, were the arms of Edmund Leversege of Vallis House, Frome, in Somersetshire, in the reign of Edward IV. The heiress of the family married Lionel Seaman, Esq.; and in 1706 the estate 38 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. passed to the Seamans, and the arms were afterwards quartered by their descendants. Gules, a chevron between three dolphins embowed proper, were the arms of the family of Blenerhasset, anciently seated at a manor of that name on the banks of the Ellen, near Maryport in Cumberland, and afterwards at Flimby Hall in the same county. Branches of this family are settled in various parts of England and in Ireland : the Norfolk branch bears the name of Bleverhasset ; and in Frense church, amongst other monuments of the family, is an engraved brass of Sir Thomas Bleverhasset, who died in 1531, represented in a tabard of his arms quartering those of the families of Lowdham, Orton, and Keldon.* AzAire, a chevron between three dolphins hauriant argent, w r ere the arms of Sir George Wynne of Lees Wood in Flint- shire, created a Baronet by King George II. 9th August 1731. His crest was a dolphin embowed argent. In consequence of the assumed fondness of the dolphin for the society of man, it appears to have been adopted in the arms of the family of James, the several branches of which bear the dolphin as a principal charge on the shield, and generally with the punning motto, J'ayme a jamais, I love everlastingly. Sable, a dolphin naiant between three cross crosslets or, were the arms confirmed by Camden to the family of James of Barrow Court in Somersetshire, who also bore a dolphin for a crest. The arms of Dr. William James, Bishop of Durham, here given from a compartment of a large window of the library of University College, Oxford, were executed by Mr. Willement, and exhibit the excellence of the glass stainer, not only in the brilliancy of the colours, but in the facility with which that artist adapts his designs to the period intended to be illustrated. When painted glass is introduced, its effect is made to ap- proach nearer to the ancient specimens by no attempt to con- ceal the leads. The more ambitious but less effective system now generally followed, arises out of a mistaken notion of the native beauty and of the real capabilities of the art. There is science as well as art in the arrangement of a painted window ; and the science and the art are equally separate from other pro- vinces of the artist's dominion. -f- * Engraved in Cotman's Sepulchral Brasses, 1819. t This view of the subject is taken by the Rev. G. A. Poole on the Structure .and Decoration of Churches, lfi-H. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 39 Dr. James was the son of John James of Little On in Stafford- shire, and was a student of Ohristchurch : he was elected Master of University College in 1572, and Bishop of Durham in 1606; a see which derived privileges from the grant to St. Cuthhert, the Apostle of the North, hy Egfrid King of Northumberland. In right of this see the Bishop, a Count Palatine, held the Earl- dom of Sadberg, and, in consequence of this combination of the ecclesiastical and military state, a sword was presented to the Bishop at his first entrance to the county by one of his vassals, who held their lands by military tenure. This peculiarity in the see of Durham occasioned the armorial bearings to be surmounted by a plumed mitre : sometimes a helmet was placed under the mitre, as on the seal of Bishop Hatfield, in the reign of Edward III., the same ecclesiastic who is represented in West's picture of the battle of Nevile's Cross, where the Bishop defeated the Scots. Bishops in earlier times often appeared in the field of battle : Odo, the martial Bishop of Bayeux, was with his bro- ther, William the Conqueror, at the battle of Hastings. 40 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The arms of the see of Durham, azure, a cross or, between four lions rampant argent, are those of King Oswald, the original founder of the bishopric, and in whose memory they have been retained. They are impaled with gules, a dolphin embowed argent, between three cross crosslets or, the paternal arms of Bishop James. Azure, a dolphin embowed argent, are the arms of the family of James of Wyke House near Gillingham in Dorsetshire. Sir Walter James of Langley in Berkshire, created a Baronet by King George III. in 17.91, bore for arms, gules, a dolphin naiant or, with the motto, J'ayme a jamais. His family, lineally descended from that of Head, on succeeding to this estate, took the name of James. Quarterly, vert and gules, a cross argent, charged with a ship in full sail proper, between four anchors erect azure ; in the first and fourth quarters a dolphin naiant of the third, between three cross crosslets or ; in the second and third a lion passant guard- ant of the last, between three trefoils slipped argent, are the arms of Sir John Kingston James of Killiney in Ireland, who was created a Baronet in 1823. ft . ft Azure, a dolphin embowed argent, finned or, between three mullets or, are the arms of the family of Fitz-James of Dorset- shire and Somersetshire ; with a singular crest, which is here copied from a book of armorial drawings in the reign of Elizabeth. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 41 The same arms were borne by Dr. Richard Fitz-James, the son of John Fitz-James of Redlynch in Somersetshire, by Alice Newburgh heiress of the Barony of Poinz. He was Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and successively Bishop of Rochester, Chichester, and London. Ant. Wood says he died in a good old age in 1522, "after good deeds had trod on his heels even to Heaven's gates. 1 "' His arms, impaled with those of the see of Rochester, are sculptured on the inner gatehouse of Merton College ; as Bishop of London, his arms, within an enriched border of vine leaves, are in one of the windows of Fulham Palace: and in the Parliament Roll of 1515,* the arms are quartered with those of Draycot, with a remark that " the Bishop of London claimeth to have precedence in sitting before all other bishops of the province of Canterbury, as Chancellor episcopal." Sable, a dolphin embowed devouring a fish proper, were the arms of Symonds of Norfolk ; the crest of the Ormsby branch is a dolphin embowed, and over it the motto, Rectus in Curvo. A portrait of Richard Gwynne of Taliaris in Carmarthenshire, President of the Society of Sea Sergeants in 1747, bears their device of a dolphin ; it was painted by R. Taylor, and en- graved by Faber. Two dolphins hauriant, and entwined saltierwise or, finned azure, the crest of the family of Upton of Sussex, was granted in 1569. One of the names given by the French to the dolphin is derived from the great projection of its nose, whence it is termed Bee cPOie. A dolphin forms part of the arms of Beck, a family of foreign extraction. Sir Justus Beck, created a Baronet by King George I. in 1714, bore for arms, quarterly, 1st. or, a blackbird proper ; 2nd. and 3rd. sable, a mullet or ; 4th. azure, a dolphin hauriant or. In a stained glass window of the parlour at Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, are portraits of several ancestors of the noble family of Fielding, descended from the house of Hapsburg. One of this genealogical series, the portrait of Dame Jellys Russeyl, lady of Sir Everard Fielding, who was created a Knight of the Bath at the marriage of Prince Arthur in 1501, presents an instance not very common of the armorial mantle worn by ladies of rank, and embroidered with her family insignia : * Noticed at page 34. 42 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. or, a dolphin naiant, and chief azure. In the same compart- ment of the window the knight is also shown.* The following specimen, taken from a carving on the oaken door of a cabinet, is in the possession of an heraldic collector. It is apparently of French workmanship about the time of Henry IV; and the arms are well arranged, and executed with much spirit. The only instance of fish being used as heraldic supporters is afforded by the dolphin, and the earliest example may be found in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The origin of figures placed on each side of the shield, which they seem to support, is derived from the custom at tournaments, or military sports, of the middle ages. The knights challengers hung their shields of arms on the barriers, or on trees near the appointed place of just- * Engraved in Dugdale's History of Warwickshire, and also in Nichols's History of Leicestershire. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 43 ing, to be watched by their henchmen or pages, disguised in the skins of lions, bears, &c. or attired as Saracens and wild men ; these gave notice who accepted the challenge by touching the shield. There are more ancient instances of figures standing and holding a banner of arms, which also probably originated in part of the pageantry of a tournament. The Watermen's Company of London, whose business it is to row their boats on the river Thames, may be supposed very ancient ; but it was not incorporated until the reign of Queen Mary in 1556. The lightermen, who are employed amongst the shipping, were afterwards united to the company. Their arms, barry wavy argent and azure, a boat or ; on a chief of the second, a pair of oars saltierways of the third, be- tween two cushions of the first, arc supported by two dolphins proper : the crest is a hand holding an oar ; and their motto is, Jussu superiorum, being ever at the command of their superiors. The portrait of one of the distinguished members of this com- pany, John Taylor the water poet, is in the picture gallery at Oxford : he had served at the taking of Cadiz under the Earl of Essex in 1596, and was waterman to King James I. He also called himself the King's water poet, and used as a motto, Tho' I deserve not, I desire The laurel wreath, the poet's hire. 44 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. One of his very numerous works is entitled, " The Dolphin's Danger and Deliverance ; a Sea-fight in the Gulph of Persia famously fought by the Dolphin of London against five of the Turks' 1 Men-of-war and a Sattie, Jan. 12, 1616." He wore the royal badge, and there is extant a whole-length portrait of him holding an oar. A silver oar is the badge of the maritime ju- risdiction of the Corporation of London, and is worn by the Water Bailiff as conservator of the rivers Thames and Medway. Two dolphins are the supporters of the arms of the ancient family of Trevelyan of Cornwall, by whom a dolphin was also used as a badge. The arms of Admiral Sir William Burnaby, Bart, of Brough- ton Hall in Oxfordshire, show the dolphins as supporters, in re- ference, probably, to his professional services by sea. Argent, two bars gules, in chief a lion passant guardant per pale of the second and vert : crest, out of a naval crown a demi- lion rampant guardant or ; in the dexter paw a flag gules : motto, Pro Rege. Sir William Burnaby, knighted in 1754, was Admiral and Commander-in-chief at Jamaica, and in the Gulf of Mexico assisted in settling the colony of Pensacola. He was Sheriff of THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 45 Oxfordshire in 1764, and was created a Baronet 31st October 1767. The arms of the Baron de Vauer, azure, a stag's head cabossed or, are supported by two dolphins, each being crested with three peacocks 1 feathers. The dolphin, from the variety and vividness of its tints, is called " The Peacock of the Sea." The dolphin, when sporting on the surface of the water, de- ceives the eye and appears curved, as it is always pourtrayed on ancient coins and in sculpture ; and from those acknowledged faulty representations the heralds adopted the curved form on shields of arms. The dolphin, also, is destitute of scales, like all the cetacea ; but these are shown in heraldic painting, to give better effect to its naturally beautiful colours. " And, as he darts, the waters blue Are streaked with gleams of many a hue, Green, orange, purple, gold." Lewis. THE WHALE. The natural history of the whale is a subject of difficult attain- ment to zoologists, and very little information is yet extant respecting that sea-beast Leviathan, which God of all his works Created hugest, that swim the ocean stream. Although the aquatic animals are not so varied in their species as the terrestrial, they surpass them in size, and their life is 4G THE HERALDRY OF FISH. longer than those of the earth or air. The elephant and ostrich are small In comparison with the whale, which is the largest fish the sea contains ; it lives as long as an oak, and no land animal's life can be compared to it.* The whale is not classed in natural history as a fish, from which species it differs in its entire or- ganization ; but the terms fish and fishery are yet constantly used to designate the whales taken. A late Garter King of Arms granted to John Enderby, Esq. an enterprising merchant of London, who extended the whale fishery in the Pacific Ocean, a crest, described as a whaling harpooner in the act of striking a fish, all in proper colours. A mast of a ship, with its rigging, in a whale's mouth, is borne as a crest by the family of Swallow. The term Fierte is used in French blazonry for the whale when its teeth, fins, and tail are depicted red. Azure, a whale argent fierte gules, are the arms of Wahlen, a German family. Gules, three whales hauriant or, in each mouth a crosier of the last, were the arms of Whalley Abbey, on the banks of the Oalder in Lancashire. This monastery was founded in the year 1309 by Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, for Cistercian monks, and, with the dis- trict of Blackburnshire, has received ample illustration from the pen of one of the vicars of Whalley, T. D. Whitaker, LL.D. Argent, three whales 1 heads erased sable, are the arms of the family of Whaley of Whaley Abbey, in the county of Wicklow ; a seat erected on the site of Ballykine Abbey, in the Barony of Arklow, said to have been originally founded by St. Palladius, the first bishop sent from Rome to Ireland. Argent, on a chevron between three whales' 1 heads erased sable, as many birds with wings expanded of the first, are the arms of the family of Whaley of Dalton in Yorkshire. * Sturm's Reflections. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 47 Almost all the early instances of bearing the whale in English heraldry are what are called canting arms, like that of Tranche- mer, party per fess gules, and wavy argent and azure, repre- senting the sea, with a knife or, plunged therein.* Modern authors on heraldry are accustomed to treat too slightingly this species of armorial hearing. Menestrier of Lyons, who wrote the first rational and intelligible treatise on blazonry, states truly that " Armes pai-kantes" 1 '' are as ancient as any other heraldic device. His " Methode de Blazon " was after his death published, with additions to the original work, in 1770. Argent, three whales' 1 heads erased sable, with a whale's head erased sable, for crest, are the armorial bearings of the family of Whalley of Lancashire and Nottinghamshire ; some branches of which bear the motto " Mirabile in Profundis,"" relative to the arms. Sir James Whalley Smythe Gardiner, Bart, of Roche Court in Hampshire, is a descendant of the Lancashire family of Whalley, which is ancient. Bernard Whalley rebuilt the church of Billesley, near Stratford on Avon in Warwickshire. Others of the name are recorded in the heraldic visitations of Notting- hamshire, and in Thoroton's History of that county, among which is the family of Colonel Edward Whalley, Lord Whalley, one of Oliver Cromwell's peers. The Rev. Peter Whalley was of an ancient Northamptonshire family ; and, as historian of that county, prepared for the press the manuscripts of John Bridges, Esq. of Barton Segrave, com- menced about 1719. * A very curious collection of Amies parlantes is given in Palliot's Sciences ties Armoires, page 64. 48 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Argent, a chevron between three whales'* heads erased sable, and crest a whale's head erect and erased sable, are borne by one of the branches of the Whalley family : another, ermine, on a bend sable three whales' heads erased or. Per chevron crenelle gules and azure, three whales 1 heads couped argent, are the arms of the family of Wallys or Waleys. Per pale azure and purpure, three whales'' heads erased or, each ingulphant of a spear-head argent, were the arms borne by Sir Hugh Vaughan of Littleton in Middlesex, in the reign of Henry VIII ; and were quartered with azure, a fess or, between three horses' 1 heads argent, bridled gules, within a border gobony ardent and vert. On his standard, which was borne in the field, and was striped gold and green, was a griffin passant double queued gules, fretty or, charged on the neck, breast, and wings with plates, holding in the dexter fore-claw a sword argent ; three whales 1 heads erased and erect or, each ingulphant of a spear-head argent ; and towards the extremity of the standard two similar whales'' heads.* " Some fish with harpoons, some with darts are struck, Some drawn with nets, some hang upon the hook." Excerpta Historica, page 170. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 49 II. C&e pfce, or Huce, atrt dflefng fisj)* The Pike of the fisherman, the tyrant of the river, is the Luce of heraldry ; a name derived from the old French language Lus, or from the Latin Lucius : as a charge, it was very early used by heralds as a pun upon the name of Lucy. Pope Lucius was in this manner characterized by a comparison to the fish, by Puttenham,* a poet who lived when quaintness was admired : Lucius est piscis, rex et tyrannus aquarum, A quo discordat Lucius iste parum. The play upon words was not confined to heraldry, but was used by the most eminent authors, and is to be found in the sermons of Bishop Andrews, and in the tragedies of Shakspeare. The immediate source of the heraldic conceit is ascribed to France, whence the armorial device, allusive to a name, is called a Rebus of Picardy. There is no earlier example of fish borne in English heraldry, than is afforded by the pike, in the arms of the family of Lucy, which was of Norman extraction, and formerly spelt Lucie. Richard de Lucie, who had defended the castle of Falaise against Geffrey of Anjou, was Lord of Diss in Norfolk ; he was also Sheriff of Essex in the reign of Henry II. and built the castle of Ongar, some remains of which are to be seen on an artificial hill, one of the leading peculiarities of a Norman for- tress. Sir Richard Lucy, Lord Chief Justice of England, founded Lesnes priory, near Erith in Kent; and, dying in 1179, was buried within its walls. Weever, an antiquary, who had seen his tomb in 1630, states that upon the belt of the figure of the knight, the fleur-de-lis, the rebus, or name-device of the Lucys, was sculp- tured in many places.^ The heraldic fleur-de-lis was here figuratively used for a pike or spear, to the head of which it bears some resemblance ; and this is more particularly shown in the arms of the family of * Arte of English Poesie, 1.589. t Funeral Monuments. E 50 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Cantelupe : gules, a fess vaire between three leopards' heads jessant fleurs-de-lis. The name seems to imply the dividing or cutting in pieces of the wolf, or other animal ; and in the arms the pike, or fleur-de-lis, is shown thrust through the principal cantle, the head of the animal, in the manner it would be carried in triumph after a successful chase. Nicholas Upton, who wrote in Latin upon heraldry, terms the fleur-de-lis, flos gladioli. The Boke of St. Alban's in these very arms blazons " three floures in manner of swerdis," considering the fleur-de-lis in this instance as no other than the ornamental head of a spear or pike. It is this spirit of allegory which pervades heraldry, and which formed the very essence of Oriental poetry, the source of the romantic fictions embodied in sculpture and painting. Godfrey, the son of Sir Richard Lucy the Chief Justice, was Bishop of Winchester, and rebuilt the east end of that cathe- dral, where, on his death in 1204, he was buried at the entrance of the Lady Chapel. Gules, three luces or, were the ancient arms of the baronial family of Lucy. These are found recorded in one of the most valuable of heraldic authorities, a roll of arms of the reign of Henry III. " Geffrey de Lucie, de goules, a trois lucies d''or. ,1 This roll, compiled between the years 1240 and 1245, was printed in 1829 by Sir Harris Nicolas from a copy which had been presented to the Heralds' 1 College by Sir William Dugdale. Sir Geffrey Lucy died in 1283 : his son and heir, also named Geffrey, was sum- moned to parliament in the reign of Edward I, and his descend- ants in hereditary succession have continued to enjoy the ho- nours of the peerage. A very ancient shield of the arms of Lucy, in which the fish are THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 51 white upon a red ground, yet remains within a quatrefoil in one of the windows of Selby Abbey church, which was formerly enriched with stained glass of tasteful execution. Sir Reginald Lucy, by his marriage with the heiress of Fitz- Duncan, acquired the Honour of Egremont in Cumberland ; his two daughters married brothers of the Multon family. In 1300 Sir Thomas Lucy, having taken the name of his maternal grandfather, held the Barony of Egremont ; and Thomas Lord Lucy, his grandson, held possession of Egremont Castle, the forest of Copeland, and the Honour of Cockermouth. Henry, first Earl of Northumberland, of the Percy family, married the heiress of Anthony Lord Lucy, who died in 1369 ; and, her large inheritance devolving upon the house of Percy, the arms of Lucy continue to be borne quarterly by his descendants with those of Percv. In a curious roll of arms in the heraldic library of the late Rev. Canon Newling, compiled during the lifetime of the Earl of Northumberland, towards the end of the reign of Richard II,* are the arms of " Le Contc de Northumberland S r de Lucy, 11 quarterly, first and fourth or, a lion rampant azure, Percy ; second and third gules, three luces hauriant, two and one, argent, Lucy. The present Duke of Northumberland, a Knight of the Garter, is Earl Percy and Lord Warkworth by creation, and by deseent is Lord Percy, Lucy, Poynings, Fitz-Payiie, Bryan, and La- timer. * Printed in 1834 by Mr. Willement. 52 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The original arms of the Percy family, azure, five fusils in fess or, are still retained ; but the lion rampant, now placed in the first quarter, is the armorial hearing of the ancient Dukes of Brabant. When Lady Agnes, the heiress of Percy, married Josceline of Louvaine, the brother of Alice queen of Henry I, he assumed the name of Percy, but retained the old arms of Brabant, which have been continued by his descendants. His Grace's full achievement, in stained glass, is in the window of University College library, at Oxford. Algernon Seymour, Duke of Somerset, having inherited part of the Percy estate from his mother, the heiress of the Earl of Northumberland, was created in 1749 Earl of Egremont and Lord Cockermouth, with remainder to Sir Charles Wyndham, Bart, who, upon the Duke's death in 1750, became Earl of Egre- mont, &c. George, the second Earl of that title, died in 1837, pos- sessed of the castles of Egremont and Cockermouth, the ancient estate of the Lucys : with the remains of these castles the anti- quary is well acquainted. Families descended from the house of Lucy did not fail to retain the arms of that ancient family amongst the quarterings, thus forming an heraldic as well as a genealogical record of their alliance. This practice of marshalling, or disposal of several arms in one shield, has been used ever since the reign of Edward III, a monarch who deemed it right to quarter the arms of France with those of England, in consequence of his hereditary claims to the sovereignty of that country. An instance is shown in the arms of Thomas Earl of Sussex, K.G. Lord Chamberlain to Queen Elizabeth, in stained glass at New Hall, in Essex, one of the few Tudor mansions which has escaped destruction. This nobleman of the Ratcliffe family, to use the words of a contem- porary, was " of very ancient and noble lyneage, honoured through many descents with the tytle of Fitz- Walters," and through the Fitz- Walters was descended from the family of Lucy. The eight quarterings borne by the Earl include the arms of the heiress whom his ancestor married, and those arms conveyed to her posterity by her heirship, arranged according to priority of descent. In this kind of heraldic display, very com- mon in the large halls of the nobility, the lead-work mingling with the brilliant colours of the arms produces a fine effect, such as few painters, perhaps with the exception of David Roberts, 11. A. have been able to imitate. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 53 Arms, 1, argent, a bend engrailed sable ; Ratcliffe. 2, or, a fess between two chevrons gules ; Fitz- Walter. These are a variation of the arms of the house of Clare, from whom the Fitz- Walters descended. 3, argent, a lion rampant sable, crowned or, within a border azure ; Burnell, of Acton Burnell in Shropshire. 4, or, a saltier engrailed sable ; Botetourt, of St. Briavels in Glouces- tershire. 5, gules, three luces hauriant argent ; Lucy. 6, ar- gent, three bars gules ; Multon of Egremont. 7, or, seme'e of fleurs-de-lis sable ; Mortimer, of Attleborough in Norfolk. 8, argent, an eagle sable, preying on an infant swaddled gules ; Cul- cheth, an ancient Lancashire family. The Ratcliffes were descended from William de Radclyffe, in the reign of Richard I, deriving his name from a cliff of red stone on his estate ; who, after his marriage with Cecilia de Kirkland, assumed her arms, argent, a bend engrailed sable.* Radcliff tower, referred to in the old ballad " The Lady Isabella's Tra- gedy," was founded by James de Radcliff in the reign of Henry VI. The arms of the Earl of Sussex with the same quarterings are sculptured on the monument of his countess in St. Paul's Chapel, Westminster Abbey ; and as founder of Sydney Sussex College, in Cambridge University, her arms were adopted by the Master and Fellows on their official seal. The arms of Lucy are also amongst the quarterings borne by Whitaker's History of Whalley, p. 401. 54 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. the family of Lowtlier, one of great antiquity in Westmoreland, the head of which is the Earl of Lonsdale, K.Gr. When arms were assumed by monastic institutions, they were generally those of the first founders or principal benefactors. The arms assigned to Calder Abbey in Cumberland are those of three great families who had contributed towards its aggrandise- ment. Argent, three escutcheons : 1, or, a fess between two chev- rons gules, for Fitz- Walter. 2, gules, three luces hauriant argent, for Lucy. 3, sable, a fret argent, for Fleming. The only remains of the former grandeur of this abbey, on the banks of the river Calder, are the tower of the conventual church and the tomb of Sir John le Fleming : the tower stands in a deep secluded valley, the sides of which are adorned with hanging woods. One of the most considerable branches of the Baronial house is that of the Lucys of Charlecote, in Warwickshire, where it has been seated ever since the reign of Richard I. From Sir Walter de Charlecote descended William, who assumed the name of Lucy from his maternal ancestor, and bore on his seal in the reign of Henry III. three luces hauriant. His descendant, Sir William Lucy, in the reign of Edward II. bore arms the same as now used by the family. In the roll of arms of that period* appears "Sire de Lucy, de goules, crusule de or, a iij lays de or. 11 Sir Thomas Lucy, knighted by Queen Elizabeth, rebuilt the manor house at Charlecote on the banks of the river Avon, which winds gracefully through the extensive park. This mansion, a Printed bv Sir Harris Nicolas in 1829. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 55 noble specimen of domestic architecture, derives interest from being the work of the reputed prosecutor of Sliakspeare, for which he not only took the liberty of lampooning - the Lord of the Manor in a ballad, but in some scenes of his dramas has intro- duced much punning about the luces in the arms. A prevailing feature of ancient architecture was the orna- mented vanes on standards surmounting the pinnacles of the gables ; on those at Oharlecote the arms of Lucy are fancifully disposed, the three luces being interlaced, between cross crosslets, and the outer edges pierced in the form of fleurs-de-lis. Hr M 1$ ^ The gilded vanes representing small banners bearing the family badge, when placed upon the chateau, were, according to French heralds, one of the distinguishing marks of nobility, and were termed banners, or panonceaux. In the arms of the family of Vieuxchastel of Brittany they are introduced and blazoned, azure, a chateau argent, girouette d'or. Sir Thomas Lucy of Oharlecote, in the reign of Elizabeth, married Constance the heiress of Sir Richard Kingsmill of High Clere in Hampshire ; and from their second son, Sir Richard Lucy, created a Baronet by King James in 161 7, descended the Lucys of Broxbourne in Hertfordshire. 56 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. In the old stained glass windows of the hall at Charlecote is a series of arms in enriched compartments, All garlanded with carven imageries Of fruits and flowers and bunches of knot-grass, showing the various alliances of the Lucy family, with inscrip- tions beneath them.* In the old church of Charlecote is an interesting series of monuments to the memory of different members of the family ; and in the adjoining parish of Hampton Lucy, in which the church has been rebuilt, is an altar window, presented by the rector, the Rev. John Lucy, containing the principal events in the history of the apostle Peter, the patron saint of fishermen, * A description of the windows of the hall, library, and drawing-room, is printed in the Collectanea Topographica, li>37, p. .'54 (i, from which it appears that some compart- ments have been made to agree in style with the older glass, under the direction of Mr. Willement. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 57 as well as of the parish : below these subjects are the arms of the Lord of the Manor, and others of the Lucy family connected with the church, tastefully arranged from the designs of Mr. Willement. Amongst the principal ornaments of the ancient churches were the stained glass windows contributed by wealthy and pious benefactors ; the beautiful colours of the glass tempered the rays of the sun, and considerably improved the architectural effect of the structure. When the windows of churches were enlarged in their dimensions, they were able to contain richly-tinted glass, exhibiting the whole-length figures as well as the achievements of patrons and benefactors enshrined under elaborately ornamented canopies ; these combinations of ancient art " In mellow gloom the speaking frame arrayed ;" and historically traced the access of wealth and power to the church. More frequently the enrichment consisted simply of the armorial bearings with the monogram, or rebus on the name of the founder, as in a border of stained glass yet remaining in one of the windows of Kingsdown church, near Wrotham in Kent, to which the family of Lucy were benefactors, here given as a curious specimen of heraldic drawing ; the ground is red and the luce or pike white. Arms of patronage, of feudal origin, were borne in order to show the dependence of vassals on their particular Lords, as in Cheshire, where the ancient Earls bore garbs on their shield, the vavasours of that county also bore garbs. The ancient Earls of Warwick bore a field chequy, and many gentlemen of Warwickshire retained the same. From the similarity of the arms of Brougham to that of Lucy, it is not improbable that 58 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. they were assumed in consequence of a connexion with that great baronial family. Brougham, in Westmoreland, is situated on the banks of the Lowther, a celebrated trout stream, also famous for their mortal enemy the pike. This manor was held by Lords of the same name from the earliest periods, and the Brougham family have been latterly in entire possession of the estate. There was a marriage in this family with that of Richmond, heirs of the family of Vaux, of Catterlin in Cumberland, one of the branches of the baronial house of Vaux of Gillesland ; and the very first peerage conferred by King William IV. in 1830 was on their de- scendant, Henry Lord Brougham and Vaux, a nobleman equally distinguished by his literary and legal talents, and by his exer- tions as a statesman and orator : his achievement as Lord Chancellor is painted in Lincoln's Inn Hall. The arms of William Brougham, Esq. M.P. are here given from one of the windows of the new Lady Chapel at St. Saviour's, Southwark, in stained glass by Mr. J. II. Nixon, the successful artist in the competition for the painted windows of the southern transept of Westminster Abbey church. The restoration of the Lady Chapel, so highly creditable to all parties concerned, was commenced in 1832 as a Consistory Court for the Diocese of Winchester, and is erected in the early pointed style of architecture corresponding with the choir of the church, built in the thirteenth century. AH the details of the THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 59 former building have been copied with accuracy, exhibiting a specimen of flint work almost unique in a modern structure. In the long elegant triple lancet windows, the glazing is enclosed in frame work, designed by the architect G. Gwilt, F.S.A. in ac- cordance with existing examples of the same early period : here the aid of heraldry has been resorted to as an additional enrich- ment, and the arms of the principal supporters of the work have been executed in stained glass. The same punning propensity which induced the application of the pike to the name of Lucy in England prevailed in France. The family of Luc en Vivarets bore for arms, or, a bend azure, charged with two luces argent ; and the arms of the family of Fontenay de Luc, in Vendome, according to the same authority, are blazoned, azure, a luce or pike naiant argent, in chief an etoile or.* The etoile is a well-known symbol of the Epiphany ; and a fish was employed as a religious emblem by the first Christians. A single fish has been supposed to represent the employment of St. Peter ; but the fish, evidently intended for luces, in the ornamental pavement of the Chapterhouse at Westminster may possibly allude to the early tradition that St. Peter's church was first built by King Lucius. The ged and the pike are synonymous in North Britain, whence the Scottish family of Ged bear for arms, azure, three geds, or pikes, hauriant argent. To this play upon the name Sir Walter Scott alludes with much pleasantry in " Red Gaunt- let. 11 " The heralds, 11 he says, " who make graven images of Pulliot, Sciences des Armoires, p. 548. 60 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. fisli, fowls, and beasts, assigned the ged for their device and escutcheon, and hewed it over their chimneys, and placed above their tombs the fish called a jack, pike, or luce, and in our tongue a god. -11 Of this family was William Ged, an ingenious printer of Edinburgh, who employed the stereotype as early as the year 1725: his Memoirs, published by Nichols in 1781, including an account of his progress in the art, were reprinted at Newcastle in 1819. Geddes, a very ancient family of Tweeddale in North Britain, bears for arms, gules, an escutcheon between three luces' heads couped argent. James Geddes, of Rachan, a gentleman deeply versed in classical literature, and author of an Essay on the Composition of the Ancients, died in 1749. Horsey Mere, on the coast of Norfolk, is mentioned by Camden as the source of a common expression denoting the best fish of this species, Horsey pike, none like. Tin's lake is still remarkable for the quality as well as the quan- tity of its pike, which continue to haunt the long ranges of sedges and bulrushes on the banks ; but the pike in the rivers of Staffordshire are considered to be more beautifully marked than those taken elsewhere. Ramsey Mere, in Huntingdonshire, produces a variety of fish, of which pike, perch, eels, and bream are most abundant. This fishery was one of the earliest benefactions to the abbey of Ram- sey, and nut improbably the cause of its foundation by Ail win, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 01 at the intercession of St. Oswald, Archbishop of York, and Bishop of Worcester. A charter of the time of King Edward III. recites that Ail win, a kinsman of King Edgar, founded here a religious house at the instigation of his fisherman Vulsgeat, who, after an unsuccessful toil in Rames Mere, was warned by St. Benedict in a vision to catch a quantity of fish, called by the inhabitants of that part Hacaed, and then to found a monastery where his bull had torn up the ground, in token of which com- mission the fisherman's finger was bent. The church was finished in five years afterwards, and consecrated A.D. 974: among the grants of Ail win, which were many, were the island on which the abbey stood, and all his fishery at Well. Azure, two geds or luces in saltier argent, and for crest two luces as in the arms, are borne as an heraldic ensign by the family of Gedney of Hudderley, in Lincolnshire, with reference to the northern name of ged which is given to the pike. Gedney of Enderby, in the same county, bears argent, two luces in saltier azure. The arms of Gedney are among the quarterings of the family of Ashby in the window of the hall, and carved on the chimney-pieces of their ancient seat at Quenby in Leicester- shire. Gules, three luces naiant, within a border engrailed argent, are the arms of Pike of London. A family of the same name was seated at Pike's Ash, near Martock in Somersetshire, in the reign of Henry VIII. Pyke of Devonshire bears for arms, per pale argent and gules, on a chevron, between three trefoils slipped, a luce naiant, all counterchanged ; and, for crest, a luce naiant or. The arms of Picke have also an allusion to the name of the 62 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. fish, per chevron wavy argent and vert, in chief two luces chevron- wise, respecting each other, proper ; and in base a hind statant of the first. Piketon bears, argent, three luces naiant in pale gules ; and Pikeworth, azure, three luces naiant within a border engrailed argent. The play upon the name is more evident in the arms of the family of Pickering of Alconbury, in Huntingdonshire, gules, a luce naiant between three annulets argent ; and of the same punning quality is the ornamental device which is affixed to Mr. Montagu's " Guide to the Study of Heraldry," a most interesting introduction to the subject, published by William Pickering. So prevailing is the opinion of the inferiority of canting arms, that it is necessary to repeat that the parody or pun exists not only in the monkish rebus, " Like Prior J3olton with his bolt and tun," but that the noblest peers in the earliest times are found to have been equally characterized by simple objects depicted on their standards having reference to their high-sounding names. The broom plant was the well-known device of the Plantagenets. The Lords Comyn bore a garb or sheaf of cummin or barley : Corbet, a raven, corbeau. The Arundells were known by the swallows, hirondelles,* and Heriz by the herison or hedgehog. * The swallows borno by an ancestor of the family of Arundell, and which his descend- ants display to this day, arc mentioned by Guliclmus Brito, or William the Breton, author of a Latin poem on the exploits of Philip Augustus: Hirundelae velocior alite, quae dat Hoc agnomen ei, fert cujus in ajgide signum. This is one of the earliest specimens of what are called canting arms, or armos parlantes. Vide a notice of the rise and progress of English heraldry in the Pictorial History of England, 1837, vol. i. page fill. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 63 The ancient families of Brooke and Grey assumed the badger, an animal provincially known by the names of brock or gray, and with the fox equally regarded as an object of sport. " To hunt by day the fox, by night the gray." The mulberry, in the same spirit of parody, was the chosen device of the family of Mowbray, founders and benefactors of Byland Abbey in Yorkshire. Argent, on a pale sable a demi-luee or ; crest, out of a ducal coronet, a demi-luce or, are the armorial ensigns of the family of Gascoigne of Gawthorp, a place interesting to every lover of genius and of virtue ; for while the long series of the Lords of Harewood Castle produced nothing but ordinary knights and barons, who fought, and hunted, and died, Gawthorp was the patrimonial residence of Chief Justice Gascoigne, and the fa- vourite retreat of his illustrious descendant, Thomas Earl of Strafford.* Sir William Gascoigne, born at Gawthorp Hall, near Leeds * \Yhitakei\s History of Leeds, p. 1C5. 64 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. in Yorkshire, was Chief Justice of the King's Bench in the reign of Henry IV, and was celebrated no less for his abilities than his integrity. His monument, with his effigies and that of his lady, the heiress of Sir William Mowbray of Kirklington, is yet remaining in Harewood Church, which surpasses perhaps every parish church of the county of York in the number and perfect preservation of the tombs of its Lords. He was the ancestor of another Sir William Gascoigne of Gawthorp, in the reign of Henry VII, whose heiress married Thomas Wentworth, Esq. of Woodhouse, in Yorkshire, from whom descended the Earl of Strafford in the reign of Charles I, the second Earl of that title, the Marquess of Rockingham, the Earls Fitz William, and the Lord Stratford of Harmonds worth. Another descendant of the same family, Sir John Gascoigne of Partington near Wetherby, was created a Baronet by King Charles I. in 1635. This title became extinct in 1810; but the estates devolved to Richard Oliver, Esq. who subsequently as- sumed the name of Gascoigne. The present Marquess of Salisbury married the heiress of Bamber Gascoigne, Esq. of Barking in Essex, and of Childwall Hall in Lancashire, a descendant of this family through Sir Crispe Gascoigne, who was Lord Mayor in 1753. His lordship, after his marriage, used the name of Gascoigne before that of Cecil and all his titles of honour. George Gascoigne the poet, who served with honour in the Low Country wars, was of an Essex family. On his return he turned his attention to the study of letters, and is known by his " Princely Pleasures of Kenil worth, 11 a masque written for the amusement of Queen Elizabeth, whom he accompanied in her stately progress in the summer of 1575. Gascoigne Nightingale, Esq. of Enfield in Middlesex, 1749, changed his name from Gascoigne, pursuant to the will of Sir Robert Nightingale, Bart, of Newport Pond, in Essex, and bore the arms of Nightingale and Gascoigne quarterly.* The Norfolk family of Lilling bear for arms, gules, three luces naiant in pale, within a border argent. The family of Oyry bear, azure, three luces hauriant argent, between as many frets or ; and that of Ostoft, sable, three luces' 1 heads erased argent. Ermine, on a bend sable, three luces' heads erased argent, are * Warburton's Middlesex Illustrated, p. 104. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Go the arms of the family of Gillet, branches of which were seated at Broadfield in Norfolk, and at Ipswich in Suffolk. The head only of the fish was shown in the arms of Gillet, possibly as a play upon the name. The gills on each side of the head are remarkable in the structure of fish, as by them they perform their aquatic respiration. Water entering- at their mouth is forced out again at the opening of the gills, and thus maintains almost a constant stream through them similar to the current of air in the respiration of animals. Sable, three luces hauriant argent, are described as the arms of the family of Fishacre, seated at Combe Fishacre in the parish of Ipplepen, Devonshire, in the reign of Henry IT. Of this ancient house were several members of ecpiestrian rank. Sir Peter Fishacre, who is said to have founded Morleigh church near Totnes, is commemorated by a monument in the chancel. Richard Fishacre, another of this family, acquired reputation by his study of theology, and was the friend of Robert, brother of Roger Bacon, the wonder of his age : he died in 1248, and was buried at Oxford. Martin Fishacre was Sheriff of Devonshire in 1364. The crest of the family of Garling, a fish's head erased, per fess proper, is perhaps intended as a play upon the name, and should be the Garfish, or sea-pike, found upon the coasts of Europe. Le Centropome, the Brochet de Mer of Cuvier, which forms an article of consumption in South America, is a kind of perch, but is called a sea-pike : the sea-luce of heraldry is the hake, the Merlucius of the naturalist. 66 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. THE FLYING FISH. All fish which shine with brilliant colours, and the flying fish, to which air and water seem alike, are peculiar to the seas of the torrid zone. As typical of his own extraordinary elevation, Dr. Robinson, who became Bishop of Carlisle in the reign of Elizabeth, ap- pears to have assumed for his armorial distinction this remark- able fish, not painted according to its true form, but as it was then believed to be, a fish with wings. Azure, a flying fish in bend argent, on a chief of the second, a rose between two torteaux : these are impaled with the arms of his bishopric, argent, a cross sable, charged in the centre with a mitre or. Henry Robinson entered Queen's College, Oxford, in 1568 as a servitor. He was consecrated Bishop of Carlisle in 1598, and died in 1616. A brass plate bearing his portrait, with his arms and an inscription, was placed on the wall of the chancel in his own cathedral when he was buried, and another near the altar of Queen's College chapel. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 67 This beautiful fish, at the time of Sir Francis Drake's success- ful voyage of discovery, for which he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth, was but little known. " Nothing," says his biogra- pher,* " surprised the crew more than the flying fish, which is nearly the same size with a herring, and has fins of the length of his whole body, by the help of which, when he is pursued by the bonito, and finds himself on the point of being taken, he springs up into the air, and flies forward as long as his wings continue wet ; when they become dry and stiff, he falls down into the water and dips them again for a second flight. This unhappy animal is not only pursued by fishes in his natural element, but attacked in the air by the don or sparkite, a bird that preys upon fish." Other early instances of this fish borne in heraldry are the Ger- man families of Von Boltzig of Brunswick, gules, a flying fish in bend argent, winged or ; and Senitz in Silesia, gules, a flying fish in bend argent.-f- Argent, three flying fishes naiant in pale azure, wings and fins gules, are the arms of the family of Bulamfeck. Vert, three flying fishes in pale argent, were the arms granted in 1758 to John Garmston, Esq. of Lincoln. Miss Stickney, in her very interesting Illustration of the Poetry of Life, found little to say on fish ; two kinds only, the flying fish and the dolphin, being familiar in the language of poetry, and conducive to its figurative charm. The former, in its transient and feeble flight, has been made the subject of some beautiful lines by Moore : while the dolphin, from the beauty of its form, and the gorgeous colours which are said to be produced by its last agonies, is celebrated in the poet's lay as an emblem of the glory which shines most conspicuously in the hour of death. * Doctor Johnson. t Sibraaclior. f 2 68 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. III. antr Uoutf). The Barrel is a large, strong, and very handsome river fish, so named from the barbs attached to its month, which enable it to search for food, that is obtained near the bottom and in the deepest parts of the stream. Their beauty and their abun- dance, particularly in the rivers Rhine, Elbe, and Weser, have caused these fish to be much used in foreign heraldry, in which they are always termed Bars, and are generally depicted em- bowed. As a rebus on the name of their fief, barbel were assumed as a distinctive mark on the military banners of the ancient Counts of Bar, a demesne westward of Lorraine, now included in the department of the Mouse ; their arms are, azure, semee of crosses, two barbel endorsed or. The same arms, but within a border as a mark of difference, are found amongst those of the English knights in " The Siege of Carlaverock," an heraldic poem composed at the time of the event, by Walter of Exeter, presenting one of the most faithful THE HERALDRY OF FISH. GO pictures of the manners of the age in which it was written, and containing minute details of the siege of a castle in Scotland by King Edward I. in July 1300. " John de Bar was likewise there, who in a blue banner crusilly bore two barbels of gold, with a red border engrailed." * This knight is supposed to have been one of the sons of Thibaut Count of Bar. As Henry Count of Bar, the eldest son, had a few years before married Eleanor the daughter of King Edward T. of England, it is highly probable that his brother John would be in the King's retinue ; and as his name in the poem follows that of John of Brittany, the King's nephew, and afterwards Earl of Richmond, it is likely that he was attached to the royal person in consequence of that alliance. In the church of Berwick St. John, in Wilt- shire, is a tomb with a figure of a knight in mail armour bearing a shield charged with the arms of Bar, and within a border ; possibly the very same person, but the conjecture is unsup- ported by any other evidence than is presented by the armorial bearings. *f" John Earl of Surrey, one of the most powerful barons of Eng- land, and who stood high in the favour of King Edward III, married Joan, daughter of Henry Count of Bar. His seal, impressed about 1310, bearing a shield chequy, the * Translated by Sir Harris Nicolas, anil printed in 182!]. t Nicolas's edition of the Siege of Carlaverock, page 171. The name of tins knight also occurs in the household roll of the Lord Edward, the King's son, among the Pell Records, printed by Fred. Devon, Esq. 1UJJ7. 70 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. arms of Warren, is ornamented on its sides with the barbel and cross crosslets of the house of Bar ; and also, in allusion to his descent from Hameline Plantagenet, the son of Geffrey Earl of Anjou, the shield is surmounted by the lion passant guar- dant of the house of Plantagenet.* The seal of Joan of Bar, the Countess of Warren and Sur- rey, shows, by the various arms upon it, her ancestral honours, the object of all armorial arrangement. The Countess was the daughter of Henry Count of Bar and Eleanor daughter of King Edward I. The Warren arms are placed in a lozenge in the centre of the seal, and between the arms of Bar. The arms of her mother, a princess of England, are in chief and in base ; and in the smaller compartments into which the surface of the seal is tastefully divided, are the arms of her grandmother, Castile and Leon alternately, in direct allusion to her Spanish descent. - !* This seal, impressed in red wax about 1 347, fully illustrates the method pursued by the heralds of dis- posing various arms, previously to the adoption of quarterings, or the arrangement of the whole in one shield according to modern practice, j The house of Bar merged into that of Lorraine in consequence * Watson's Earls of Warren. f Sandford's Royal Genealogy, p. 1 39. J On monuments erected before the reign of Edward III. separate coats of arms, denoting the honourable alliances of the family, are to be observed, as on the tombs of the Valences, Earls of Pembroke, in Westminster Abbey, which were erected before the practice of quartering arms was adopted. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 71 of the marriage of Eleanor, daughter of Henry Count of Bar, with Rudolph Duke of Lorraine, who was slain at the hattle of Crecy in 1346. Isabel, Duchess of Lorraine and Bar, daughter of Charles the Brave, the grandson of Rudolph, married Rene d 1 Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily, whose arms, quartering Bar, are described in a contemporary poem by his King of Arms, Croissant cVor, the name also of an order of knighthood peculiar to Naples. 23e trot's putSSans rouaumes sous tmivbrc cororme 3Portc en cfytl m Sts avnus, Xc noble Bow Iftene', Sfongrie, ct g>trile, SHeruSalem auSSt, 8tnsi cmc ootr pou$K$ en cet cSmt ici &njou ft J3ar en ptrtrg, tJutfjc^ tit granti venom, (£t un votal eScu Suv le tout o^vvagou.* Rene d'Anjou, King of Naples, Avas the father of Marga- ret, the queen of Henry VI. of England. Her arms in the windows of Ockwell House in Berkshire, with the motto, tumble ft lotall, are engraved in Lysons's Berkshire, and in Wil- lemenfs Regal Heraldry. The same, surrounded by a border vert, are the arms of Queen's College at Cambridge University, founded by the Queen. The house of Lorraine came from the same ancestors as the house of Hapsburg. Gerard, descended from the Landgraves of Alsace, was created Duke of Lorraine in 1048 by the Emperor Henry III. They bore for arms, quarterly, 1st, Hungary, as descendants of Charles Martel, the father of a line of kings, whose epithet of Martel, the hammer, was expressive of his weighty and irresistible strokes when opposed to the Saracens ; the 2nd quartering Naples ; 3rd, Jerusalem ; 4th, Arragon ; 5th, Anjou ; Gth, Uueldres ; 7th, Juliers ; and 8th, Bar ; the whole surmounted by the arms of Lorraine, or, on a bend gules, three alerions argent. The alerion, an eagle without beak or feet, was assumed as an anagram on the name of Lorraine. These arms are generally found surrounded by a mantle, bear- * The three grccit realms under a crowned crest, Noble King Rene bears as chief and best, Hungary, Sicily, and Jerusalem, And here you behold the royal stem, Anjou and Bar, duchies of great renown, And over all the shield of Arragon. 72 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. ing the same quarterings, one of the earliest instances of the use of the mantle in heraldry, which, according to Menestrier, was adopted about 1530. Stephen, son of Leopold, succeeded his father as Duke of Lor- raine in 1729. He ceded that duchy to Stanislaus, King of Poland, and became Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1739. In right of his wife, Maria Theresa, he had the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, and in 1745 was elected Emperor of Germany. The arms of the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary consist of twenty-four quarterings, now belonging to the house of Aus- tria. One of the quarterings containing fish, gules, two barbel addorsed or, are the arms of Pfyrt in Suntgau, a fief which accrued to the Archduke Albert in 1324, in right of his wife Jane, daughter and heiress of Ulric Count of Pfyrt : this was one of the six happy marriages of the house of Austria.* The arms are shown on a banner carried in the splendid representa- tion of Maximilian's Triumph by Hans Burgmair. Azure, two barbel addorsed, and between them a fleur-de-lis in chief, and another in base or, one of the heraldic badges of the Stafford family, appears to be composed from the charges in the arms of Anjou and those of Bar. The representative of a family assumes the right to use its badge, an appendage of rank, formerly worn by the retainers of eminent personages on a con- spicuous part of their dress. Anderson's Royal Genealogies, p. 406. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 73 The house of Stafford descends by ten different marriages from the royal blood of England and France ; and the badge, one of eighteen, is stained on marble, with the well-known Stafford knot repeated many times, on the monument of John Paul Howard, Earl of Stafford, who died in 1762, which is in St. Edmund's Chapel. Westminster Abbey. The knots of silk cord, heraldic ornaments of early use, are each distinguished by the names of families to which they indi- vidually belong, as the Stafford knot, the Bourchier knot, Wake's knot, and Dacre's knot. Azure, two barbel addorsed or, are the arms of the family of Montbeliard of Bar ; their descendants, De Montfaucon, who took the name of Montbeliard, bore for arms, gules, two barbel addorsed or.* Montfaucon de Dampierre, in Franehe Comte, bore gules, two barbel addorsed within a double tressure or. The family of the learned French antiquary, Bernard de Mont- faucon, was originally of Gascony, and descended from the Lords of Montfaucon le Vieux, first barons of the Comte de Comminges. Azure, two barbel addorsed between four roses or, were the heraldic distinction of the ancient Counts of Barby, on the Elbe, the last of whom died in 1659. These arms were afterwards quartered by the Electors of Saxony, the Grand Marshals of the Empire. Barby, after having formed part of Jerome Bonaparte's kingdom of Westphalia, was annexed to Prussia in 1815. * Palliot, Science des Armoirk's, page Id. 74 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The barbel appears to be a very common bearing in the heral- dry of the Continent. A few early instances only will be men- tioned where this fish has been adopted evidently as a play upon the name of the person. Azure, semee of cross crosslets fitchy, two barbel addorsed or, are the arms of the family of Bar de Buranlure ; that of Bartet de Bonneval bears, azure, three barbel in bend sinister or ; Bardin, azure, three barbel naiant in pale argent ; and Barfuse, gules, on a fess argent two barbel naiant azure. As an example of the term mal-ordonnes, or false disposition of the charges in the shield, when one figure is placed above two, contrary to the usual mode of two in chief and one in base, Palliot gives the arms of Barbeau in Burgundy ; party per fess argent and gules, three roses, mal-ordonnees of the last, in chief, and two barbel chevronwise or, in base. This fish is very rarely borne singly in armorial ensigns ; an instance is afforded in the arms of Marchin, a Flemish family, one of whom was in the service of King Charles II. during his Majesty's residence in Holland ; argent, a barbel gules. John Caspar Ferdinand de Marchin, Count of Graville, Mar- quis of Clairmont d'Antrague, Baron of Dunes, Marchin, Mezers, and Modane, Captain- General in the service of the King of Spain, and Lieutenant-General of the forces of King Charles II. of England, was elected Knight Companion of the Order of the Carter at Antwerp in 1658 : he was installed in 1661. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 7.: Gules, two barbel addorsed or, were the arms of Abel Francois Poisson, Marquis de Marigny, brother of the celebrated Madame Pompadour. Argent, two barbel respecting 1 each other, sable, are the arms of the family of Colston, a name sometimes spelt Coulston and Ooulson. The barbel in heraldry being - generally represented embowed, as well as the dolphin, in careless transcription is called a dolphin, as in the instance of the benevolent merchant of Bristol, Edward Colston, in respect to whom the Dolphin tavern in that city is said to owe its sign ; and tradition asserts that his crest was assumed from the circumstance of a dolphin having providentially forced itself into a hole and stopped the leak of one of his ships at sea. He is known to have been remarkably successful, having never insured a ship, and having lost but one. As a great benefactor of the city of Bristol, his portrait, by Richardson, is preserved in the Merchant Adven- turers 1 Hall ; and after his death in 1721, a monument, by Rys- brach, with an inscription enumerating his public charities, was erected in All Saints 1 Church in the same city. Argent, two barbel respecting each other, sable, conjoined with collars and chain pendent or, appear to have been the ori- ginal arms of the family of Colston, from which many branches have descended, bearing some variation in their armorial dis- tinctions. Argent, three barbel hauriant within a border sable, are the arms of one of the branches of this family : and argent, a chevron engrailed gules, between three barbel embowed sable ; crest, an eagle with wings endorsed or, preying on a barbel, are the arms of the family of Coulson of St. Ives in Huntingdonshire. John Charles Wallop, Earl of Portsmouth, in 1763 married Urania, daughter of Coulson Fellowes, Esq. of Hampstead in 76 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Middlesex. Their second son, the Hon. Newton Fellowes of Eggesford in Devonshire, on succeeding to the estates of his maternal uncle, assumed that name in 1794. The arms of Coulson, as borne by Sir John Fellowes, created Baronet by King George I. in 1719, are quarterly, 1st and 4th, azure, a fess dancettee ermine between three lions 1 heads erased or, murally crowned argent, for Fellowes ; 2nd and 3rd, argent, two barbel hauriant, respecting each other, sable, for Coulson. Entravaille is a French term applied to fish when interlaced in the bars or bendlets crossing the shield. Gules, two bars wavy azure, with two barbel addorsed or, entravailles in the bars, are the arms of the family of Riviere de St. Denis des Monts, in Normandy.* The general colour of the barbel is a greenish brown on the head and body, which on the sides becomes a yellowish green, and the fins are tinged with red. There is some difficulty in appropriating the different species of fish in heraldic bearings ; but in the following instances barbel appear to be intended, being a pun on the first syllable of the name of the family. Gules, a fess between three barbel naiant argent ; Barwais. Vert, three barbel hauriant argent ; Bardin. Azure, two barbel hauriant or ; Bare. Gules, three barbel within a border indented argent; Bernard of Essex. Azure, on a fess argent three barbel hauriant sable, within a border engrailed of the second ; Bar- nardes. Argent, on a bend sable, three barbel naiant or ; Bures. Dictionnaire Heraldique. Paris, 1774. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 77 THE CARP. There are no ancient instances of this fish in English heraldry, but it was certainly known here, and is mentioned in " The Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle,' 1 '' the very earliest essay upon this subject, supposed to have been written in the middle of the fifteenth century.* The golden carp were introduced about 1611 : the first of that species sent to France, is said to have been a present to Madame Pompadour. Carp are found in most of the rivers and lakes of Europe, more particularly in Prussia and the Austrian empire, where fresh-water fish are held in much higher estimation for the table than in this country. Azure, two carp addorsed argent, are the arms of the family of Karpfen of Swabia, agreeably to the pictorial manner in which the names of families were represented in their armorial ensigns. y Karpfen bears for crest, on a golden coronet, a carp erect argent, and supporting a buck's attire azure. Colombiere, who wrote on the origin of heraldry, when treating of the arms of Rohan, gules, nine macles or, first used about 1222, says, " Opinions vary about the origin of the macles ; some writers * Printed in 11527, by Pickering, from Wynkyn do Worde's Hoke of St. Alban's, 1496. t Sibmacher's Wapenbuch, 1605. 78 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. call them mascles, or mashes, and in old manuscripts these figures are blazoned like the meshes of a net : but having observed that whatever is remarkable in some countries, has been represented in arms, I am of opinion that the ancient Lords of Rohan, al- though descended from the Princes of Brittany, took the macles because in the duchy of Rohan there are flints which, being cut in two, this very figure appears on the insides, and also that the carp in the fish-ponds of the duchy have the same remarkable mark upon their scales, which, being peculiar to that part of the country, the Lords Rohan had reason to take those figures for their armorial distinction, giving them the name of macles or spots. Some of that house bear the motto, ' Sine macula macla, 1 a mascle without a spot. 11 * The carp is a very strong fish, beautiful in its form, and poeti- cally described as having " scales bedropt with gold. 11 In colour the head is darkest, the body a golden olive, and the belly a yellowish white. Gules, three carp naiant in pale argent, are the arms of the family of De Blocg.-f" There is a species of fish bearing a strong affinity to the carp of England, which is found in Bengal, Where, by a thousand rivers fed, Swift Ganges fills his spacious bed. This fish, the Cyprinus Rohita of the Indian zoologists, is used as a badge of dignity, under the name of Main Maratib, and, agreeably to eastern parade, is borne in ceremonials upon ele- phants before the officers of state. The image of the fish is made of copper gilt, and is partly enveloped in a mantle of green brocade. Mahi is a Persian word meaning a fish generally, and Mahi gir * Diet. Herald. 1725, page 232. t Palliot. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 79 is a fisherman ; but the particular species represented on the banners of the King of Oude is that of a true car]), the Cyprinus Rohita, considered as the most valuable fish which is found in the fresh-water rivers of the Gangetic provinces, and its beauty both in form and colour equals its value for the table.* The Mahi maratib, or dignity of the fish, is said to have originated with the Mogul dynasty founded by Zingis Khan, the conqueror of Asia, in 1206. The fish was selected as a badge from an Oriental legend recorded in the Koran, stating that Abraham, after sacrificing a goat instead of his son Isaac, threw the knife into the water, when it struck a fish. A fish is therefore the only animal eaten by Mahometans without pre- viously having its throat cut. This dignity or order was revived by one of the Emperors of Mogul, who was contemporary with Queen Elizabeth, and was at a recent period conferred upon General Gerard Lake, after his brilliant successes in the Mahratta war, during the administration of the Marquess Wellesley. When the General visited Shah Aulum at the palace of Delhi in September 1803, he received from the Emperor a Persian title, which may be translated " the Victorious in War, the Saviour of the State, and the Hero of the Land." The next year he was created Lord Lake by King George III, and in 1807 was advanced to the title of Viscount Lake of Delhi and Laswaree, with an augmen- tation to his paternal arms indicative of his Asiatic honours. * Hamilton's Fishes of the Ganges, 1 822. 80 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Sable, a bend between six cross crosslets fitchy argent, on a chief of the last the fish of Mogul, per pale or and vert, banded vert, and gules, surmounting the Goog and Ullum, honourable insignia, in saltier. The creed in India appears to consider a fish as the saviour of the world. " In the whole world of creation None were seen but these seven sagos, Menu, and the Fish. Years on years, and still unwearied drew that Fish the bark along, Till at length it came where reared Himavan its loftiest peak. There at length they came, and smiling thus the Fish addressed the Sage : ' Bind thou now thy stately vessel to the peak of Himavan. ' At the Fish's mandate, quickly to the peak of Himavan Bound the Sage his bark ; and even to this day that loftiest peak Bears the name of Naubandhana." * The fish, in the Hindu example here shown, are evidently carp, and are disposed with barbaric fancy in a manner not un- known to heraldry, a tricorporatcd fish meeting under one head, and one eye only seen ; the flower is intended for the celebrated Indian Lotus, the Nilumbium speciosum of the botanist. * Translation of Sanscrit poetry in the Quarterly Review, 10,3.'». THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 81 Azure, three fish conjoined in one head at the fess point, one tail in dexter chief, another in sinister chief, and the third in base, argent, are the arms of the Silesian family of Kreckwitz. Gules, three fish with one head argent, and disposed as the above, are the arms of Die Hiinder of Franconia. Gules, three fish, their heads meeting at the fess point argent, are the arms of Dornheim of Silesia.* Gules, three fish conjoined at their tails in triangle or, their heads sable, are the arms of Bernbach. THE GUDGEON. Gudgeons swim in shoals in the rivers Thames, Mersey, Colne, Kennet, and Avon : the only instances in which these fish are used in heraldry are in reference to the name, and that from the Latin Gobio, or the French Goujon. A Catalogue of the Nobility of England, compiled by Glover, Somerset Herald in the reign of Elizabeth, being the first printed, requires to be quoted with caution. The same may be said of many manuscript lists of early date, well known to the ad- mirers of heraldry by the name of Barons' 1 Books. In several of this latter class is to be found the name of William Gobyon, Earl of Southampton, whose heirs-general were married to Sir Stonor, and to Sir George Turpin, knights, in the time of Edward I. <5^~ U£ ^ <sfes &&& Mi. .^ 1 \ yy Quarterly, 1st and 4th or, 2nd and 3rd barry argent, and gules, all within a border sable, charged with eight gudgeons fe>swise argent are the arms of Gobyon. Sibmacher's Wapenbuch. 82 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Gobions, a manor at North Minis, in Hertfordshire, was held by a family of the same name as early as the reign of Stephen. Grobions, in the parish of Toppesfield in Essex, was named from a knightly family who had large possessions in other parts of that county. Sir Thomas Gobion was Sheriff of Essex and Hertfordshire in 1323; and John Gobion was in the list of the gentry of Essex in 1433.* The manor house of Black Notley is also called Gobions, from having been in possession of a family of that name at an early period. Argent, three gudgeons hauriant, within a border engrailed sa- ble, are the arms of the ancient family of Gobion, of Wareslcy in Huntingdonshire, on the borders of Cambridgeshire. These arms are borne as one of the quartering^ of the Earl of Lanes- borough, the lineal descendant of John Butler, and Isolda the daughter and heiress of William Gobion, seated at Waresley, in the reign of Edward III. Arms quarterly, 1st and 4th argent, three covered cups in bend between two bendlets engrailed sable ; for Butler : 2nd, argent, three gudgeons hauriant, within a border engrailed sable ; for Gobion : 3rd, per pale or and sable, a chevron between three escallops, all counterchanged ; for Brinsley of Nottinghamshire. Mary, the daughter and heiress of Gcrvase Brinsley in the reign of Charles I, married Sir Stephen Butler of Belturbet, in Ireland, the ancestor of the Earl of Lanesborough. * Fuller's Worthies, jwge 342. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 83 Argent, three gudgeons within a border sable, are the arms of the family of Gobaud. Azure, billetty two gudgeons addorsed or, are the arms of Gougeux, a family of Vendome, which as- sumed the surname of Rouville, that of an ancient house of Normandy.* Azure, two gudgeons in saltier argent, in base water, waved proper, are the arms of the French family of Goujon ; a name that ranks high in art. John Goujon was one of the most emi- nent sculptors of the reign of Francis I. ; his relievos have rarely been surpassed, and from the inimitable spirit and grace which pervade his works he is termed the Correggio of sculpture. Water, as shown in the arms of Goujon, is rarely introduced in English heraldry ; but an undulated line expressive of waves, and conveying the idea of water, is commonly used. Rivers that move In majesty, and the complaining brooks That make the meadows green, are equally depicted on the shields of feudal lords where pri- vilege or potency is necessary to be shown. Barry wavy argent and azure, are the arms of the family of Palliot, Science des Armoiriei 84 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Sandford, which derived the name from lands near a passage of the Isis in Oxfordshire, and whose possessions subsequently fall- ing to the Veres, these arms were quartered by the Earls of Oxford of that name, and by their representatives. Gules, two bars wavy or, are the arms of De la River, the name of a family which, as early as the reign of Edward I, was seated at Shefford, a passage of the Lambourn, one of the sources of the Kennet, and like that river abundant with trout, barbel, and pike. The family of Rivers of River Hill, in Hamp- shire, bore for arms, azure, two bars indented or, in chief three bezants with the motto, Secus Rivos aquarum. As a boundary, the river becomes of importance to an estate, and of this the heralds as well as the poets are not unmindful. Drayton notices The furious Teme, that on the Cambrian side, Doth Shropshire as a mcare from Hereford divide. Hotspur, it will be remembered, objects to the division of his country by the Trent, See how this river comes me crankling in, And cuts me from the best of all my land.* The passage of water has been so constant a source of dispute between states and inhabitants that the word river might thence have been the root of rivalry or contention of any kind.-f- Heralds refer the four silver stripes in the arms of Hungary to the principal rivers of the country, the Drave, the Nyss, the Save, and the Danube, all abounding with fish. The arms of Drummond, or, three bars wavy gules, show Hungarian de- scent, the family of the Viscount Strathallan deriving its origin from Maurice, an Hungarian who attended Edgar Athelirig and his sister Margaret, afterwards Queen of Scotland, to Dum- fermlin, and was by King Malcolm III. made Seneschal of Lennox. Water, having reference to some important boundary of the fief, appears to be indicated by the adoption of harry argent and azure, in the arms of the family of Grey, one of the most ancient, wide-spread, and illustrious in the English peerage, descended from that of De Croy, in Picardy, a name having the same deri- * Shakespeare, Henry IV. f Forsyth's Italy. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 8.5 vation as cray and creek, whence also cray fish, and crayer a small ship for ascending rivers. Some branches of this family have varied the arms, and others have an anchor for a device with the word " Fast ;' 1 hut the Earls of Stamford, the Earls of Wilton, and the Earl De Grey, who is descended from the Earls and Dukes of Kent, retain the original arms. A river is represented in foreign shields of arms, flowing as on the surface of the earth. Vert, three rivers fesswise, argent, are the arms of the German family of Gilse, of Hesse. Gules, a river in bend argent are the arms of Lauterbach of the same country.* Gules, in a river in bend argent, three fish azure, are the arms of the imperial town of Onoltzbach.-f- Gules, a river in fess argent, are the arms of the family of Von Buren of Saxony.! Argent on a pale wavy sable, three fish em- bowed or, are the arms of Swartzac in Switzerland. The local site of their original barony is indicated in the arms of the Lords Stourton ; sable, a bend or, between six fountains, allusive of the six springs from which the river Stour has its source near Stourton, on the borders of Wiltshire and Somerset- shire. In the chancel of that church are several monuments of the Stourton family, of which Sir John, the first peer, was created Lord Stourton by King Henry VI. in 1448. A similar origin is assigned for the arms of the family of Home of Nine- wells, a branch of that of Home of Tyningham in Haddington- shire ; vert, a lion rampant argent, within a border or, charged with nine fountains or wells. Palliot. f Sibmachcr. Ibid. 86 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Azure, three fountains, are the arms of the family of Wells of Hampshire. The arms of Twells, a play upon the name, vert, on a fess azure, between six wells proper, a bezant, are sculptured on the tombstone of Matthias Twells in St. Margaret^ Church, Lynn, of which place he was alderman, and who died in 1676. A curious ancient custom, illustrative of the importance of wells, is observed annually at Motcombe, Dorsetshire, where are four large wells, which supply the town of Shaftesbury with water. If a dance is not performed on the Sunday after Holy- rood day, and the bailiff of Gillingham have not his due, he stops the water of the wells of Enmore. Lord Wells used as a badge a bucket with the chains, in allusion to the name, as water bougets were used by the Bour- chiers, Earls of Eu as well as of Essex. The fountain of heraldry should be depicted by a circle, barry wavy argent and azure ; but some modern grants lose the an- tique character of the art, as in the arms blazoned, in a land- scape field a fountain, thereout issuing a palm tree, which were granted to the family of Franco of St. Katherine Coleman, Lon- don, 1760. A whirlpool, heraldically termed a gurges, represents the rapid motion of water in a circular direction, taking up all the field, as in the arms of the baronial family of Gorges, assumed in allu- sion to the name ; argent, a gurges azure. These are found among the quarterings borne by the noble family of Eussell, showing their descent from that of Gorges.* Longford Castle, in Wiltshire, presenting a singular specimen of architecture in its plan, was erected on the banks of the Avon by Sir Thomas Gorges in 1591; he died in 1610, and a monument to his memory is in Salisbury Cathedral. Sir Edward Gorges, in 1620, was created Lord Dundalk by King James I. The banks of rivers, and the heights which command them, almost exclusively monopolize the beauty and compose the cha- racteristic features of every country. Great cities are seldom placed but on a river ; the castle commanded the passes, and the abbey always depended on the contiguous stream. Argent, a fess wavy gules, cottised of the last, are the arms of the family of Waterford ; that of Brooksby bears, barry wavy argent, and sable, a canton gules. Brooksbank of Elland, in Yorkshire, bears * Wiffen's Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell, 1833. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 87 azure, two bars wavy argent, within a border or ; and, argent, a fess wavy azure, within a border sable, are the arms of Brook- bank. The arms of the French family of De Viviers exhibit an in- stance of the amies parlantes. Vivier is a fish-pond, and their arms are, argent, three fish-wells vert, filled with water azure. Gules, three fountains are the arms of Waterhouse of York- shire ; and, sable, three bars wavy, between as many swans argent, are the arms of Waters of Lenham in Kent. THE TENCH. The Tench, a beautiful fish, with small smooth scales tinged with golden colour, is rarely found in the rivers of England, but many of the ponds and ornamental waters in pleasure-grounds abound with tench. Bridges, in his History of Northampton- shire, says, " On Mr. Plowdens estate, who is lord of the manor of Aston, were two-and-fifty fish-ponds in the time of his an- cestor Francis Plowden, who used to boast that he had one weekly to drain throughout the year." Some still remain, and there are vestiges of others now disused. In no other instance but as allusive to the name, is this fish used in heraldry : among the old German families who bear fish is that of Von Tanques, whose arms are three tench. Or, three tench hauriant gules, are the arms of the French family of Tanche. Azure, three tench naiant in pale or, were the arms of Tenche, a Marshal in Flanders, according to Palliot.* * Science dcs Armoiries. 88 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The tench, used in English heraldry as a play upon the name, forms part of the crest of Sir Fisher Tench of Low Leyton, in Essex, descended from a family of Shropshire, and created Baronet by King George I. in 1715. After his death the title became extinct ; but his sister and heiress Elizabeth, married Francis Asty, Esq. of Black Notley, whose daughter and heiress Henrietta, became the wife of Christopher Wyvil in 1739, and at his death the estates fell to Sir Marmaduke Asty Wyvil, Bart. Arms, argent, on a chevron, between three lions' 1 heads erased gules, a cross crosslet or ; for Tench : quartering azure, a fess counter embattled between three dolphins embowed or ; for Fisher : crest, an arm vested gules, turned up argent, grasping a tench in the hand. Heraldry affords modes of illustration which are capable of infinite variety ; and by the French, our prototypes in the art, every incident, or singular tradition susceptible of poetical em- bellishment, or capable of picturesque representation, was adopted in their plan of armorial composition. The following instance may be taken as affording some idea of the extent to which their admiration of amies parlantes was carried. The word souci signifies equally marigold, and care or anxiety. Three marigolds are borne by the family of Lemaitre, azure, trois soucis tfor, arms assumed in allusion to the proverb, Si les valets out les peines, le maitre a les soucis, if the vassals have their la- bour, the lord has his anxiety. One of this ancient family, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 89 Giles Lemaitre, was premier president of the parliament of Paris in 1551. Punning in the spirit of the age was even introduced into epitaphs, as in the distich of Ariosto on the Marchese di Pescara, who commanded the armies of Charles V. in Italy : ■ Piscator maximus Hie ! Nunquid et hie pisces copit ? non : ergo quid ? Urbes. The Marchese was husband of the eminently gifted Vittoria Colonna, and died soon after he had won the memorable battle of Pavia where Francis I. was taken prisoner. THE BREAM. Bream are found in almost all the lakes and rivers of Europe as far northward as Norway. The rivers Trent and Medway are noted for this particular fish, which is very broad in its form, and has large scales. The sprightly Waller notices it as " A broad bream to please some curious taste." On the Continent this fish is in high request ; and " He that hath bream in his pond may bid his friend welcome," is a proverb quoted by Isaak Walton. A/Aire, three bream or, are the punning arms of Breame, an Essex family of some antiquity in that county. After the dissolution of the Cistercian Abbey at Stratford, King Henry VITT. granted the manor of East Ham, part of the monastical estate, to Richard Breame, Esq. who died in 1546, leaving a son Edward, whose heir, on his decease in 1558, was 90 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. his brother Arthur, whose son and successor, Giles Breame, Esq. on his death in 1621, left part of his estate for the foundation and endowment of almshouses and other charitable purposes. A monument to his memory is in the chancel of East Ham church. Gules, three bream hauriant argent, are the arms of De la Mare the name of an ancient family, which held Fisherton on the banks of the Avon in Wiltshire. Geffrey De la Mare, one of the early abbots of Peterborough, bore for arms, azure, three bream bendwise or. In Warburton's list of the arms of the gentry of Middlesex in 1749, are those of William Obreen, Esq. of Tottenham, of foreign extraction : per fess, azure and vert, in chief an armed knight on horseback in full career or, in base a fish naiant of the third, on waves of the first. The Somerset herald has not described the particular species of this fish, which doubtless was intended for a bream in allusion to the name. The Earl Mar- shal expressly commanded Warburton to prove satisfactorily the right of each person to the arms engraved on his map of Mid- dlesex, to the Garter King of Arms ; he then printed his autho- rities for all the arms, rather than submit entirely to the arbi- tration of one " so notoriously remarkable for knowing nothing at all of the matter." * This severe rebuke referred to Anstis, * Preface, page 2, of London and Middlesex Illustrated, by John Warburton, Somer- set Herald, F.R.S. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 91 the son of the celebrated Garter King of Arms mentioned by Prior. Coronets we owe to crowns And favour to a court's affection. By nature we are Adam's sons, And sons of Anstis by election. THE CHUB. Tins fish is very plentiful in the Wye, and the rivers of Wales, and The Chub, of all fish in the silver Trent, Invites the angler to the tournament, is a remark of Captain Richard Franck in his " Northern Me- moirs." It is also found in the Thames and many of the great rivers of England. The chub derives its name from its form, and is called a skelly in the North on account of its large scales. The scales of fish, composed of separate leaves placed above each other in successive layers, probably gave the idea of the scaled cuirass as defensive armour. Another name for the chub is chevin, derived from the French chef, the fish having a large head. Vert, three chub fish hauriant sable, are the arms of Chobb ; and, gules, on a chevron between three chub fish argent, three shovellers sable, on a chief dancette of the second three escallops of the first, are the arms of Chobbe, one of the quarterings borne by Lord Dormer of Wenge, and copied from a pedigree in his lordship's possession. The Dormer family, originally of Normandy, were seated at West Wycombe, in Buckinghamshire, at a very early period. Geffrey Dormer, about 1440, married Eleanor, the daughter and 92 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. heiress of Thomas Chohbe. At the dissolution of the Abbey of St. Albans, the Dormers obtained the manor of Wenge or Wing, and held Ilmer, also in Buckinghamshire, by tenure of the ser- vice of Marshal of the King's Falcons ; whence are derived the supporters to their arms, two falcons ; and their crest, a hand gloved, bearing a falcon on the fist, in allusion to the office, formerly of considerable importance, when Barons of old, and Princes high Lov'd hawking as their lives. THE ROACH. Roach arc abundant in almost all the rivers of Europe. " Unwary roach the sandy bottoms choose," is expressive of the simplicity of this fish, which is termed the water-sheep. Swift says, If a gudgeon meet a roach He dare not venture to approach. This fish in old books of angling is named roche, and is of the highest antiquity as a charge in heraldry, where it is used by those families whose appellation De la Roche arose from their rocky territory. The phrase " sound as a roach, 11 is derived from familiarity with the legend of St. Roche, whose media- tion was implored by persons afflicted with the plague, and a be- lief which existed that the miraculous intercession of St. Roche could make all who solicited his aid as " sound " as himself. The Italian proverb, " E sano come il pesce," connecting the idea of health with a fish, has been translated "sound as a roach; 11 but the naturalist, who is acquainted with the particular species, will not admit the truth of the popular idea. Impressions of seals used during the lifetime of the persons to whom they belonged, are among the best authorities for armorial bearings ; these evidences deserve an attentive inspection, and supply an accurate test for determining the particular ensigns borne at a certain period, when appended to early deeds and (•barters of acknowledged authenticity. An instance of the he- raldic application of the roach is found on the seal used by Thomas Lord De La Roche, and affixed to the JJarons Letter to THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 93 Pope Boniface VIII. respecting tlie sovereignty of Scotland in the year 1301, one of the records preserved in the Chapter- house at Westminster.* . 2 Gules, three roach naiant in pale argent, are the arms of the family of De La Roche, who derived their name from an estate situated on the verge of St. Bride's Bay, on the coast of Pem- brokeshire. The remains of Roche Castle, founded by Adam De La Roche, about the year 1200, stand upon a very remark- able insulated rock of considerable height, and exhibit evidences of its former strength. Adam De La Roche, also founder of the Benedictine Priory of Pwll, near Milford Haven, was buried in the church of Llangwm, on the banks of the Cleddy, where his monument yet remains. The form of the shield, and the motto used upon seals, are both supposed to have depended upon the taste of the person to whom they belonged rather than upon any established principle. The motto used by the Roche family is one of those punning allusions to the name which at an early period were very com- mon, " Dieu est ma Roche ;" and the crest, having the same intent, is a rock. The usage of crests upon helmets in the cam}), may have been confined to persons of the highest rank ; but at a very early period it certainly was not unusual upon seals to place figures of animals on the top of the shield, in the manner of crests ; and supporters to the escutcheon were not * A document well known to the antiquary by the excellent commentary on the seals prefixed to it by Sir Harris Nicolas in the ArcliMologia, vol. xxi. 94 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. improbably introduced on the seals with the same intention, merely as an ornament, without being indicative of superior rank. The great possessions of the Lords of Roche Castle, in the county of Pembroke, fell at length to coheiresses. Ellen, the eldest daughter of Sir Thomas De La Roche, married Edmund Lord Ferrers of Chartley, in the reign of Henry VI, whose lineal representative is the Marquess Townshend, Elizabeth, the second daughter, married Sir George Longue- ville of Little Billing, in Northamptonshire, the ancestor of the Lords Grey De Ruthin and the Viscounts Longueville, whose representative is the Marchioness of Hastings, Lady Grey de Ru- thin by descent. The arms of Roche, formerly in one of the windows of St. David's Cathedral, are described by Browne Willis as those of an ancient and considerable family of Pem- brokeshire.* Sir John Dyve of Bromham, in Bedfordshire, the father of Sir Lewis Dyve, a distinguished royalist, was descended from the Lords De La Roche, through the family of Longueville : he died in 1608, and the arms upon his monument in Bromham church show his alliances by the quarterings, 1, Dyve; 2, Bray; 3, Quinton ; 4, Seywell ; 5, Longueville ; 6, Roche ; 7, Wylde ; 8, Ragon ; 9, Widvile ; 10, Hastings; 11, Apricc. The representation of the murder of St. Thomas a Becket, here copied from the official seal of Thomas Arundel Archbishop of Canterbury in the reign of Richard II, shows the knight about to slay the martyr, bearing a shield charged with three naiant fish, as borne by the Roche family.-f* The names of the four * Survey of the Cathedral of St. David's, 1715, p. ?>6. t The whole seal is engraved in the Archseologia, vol. xxvi. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 95 knights recorded in history as the murderers of Archbishop Becket, are Fitz-Urse, Tracy, Morvile, and Brito ; and al- though the subject has been often represented, no allusion to one of the Roche family as concerned in the Archbishop's death is known. The eccentric Sir Boyle Roche was a scion of a family of the name of Roche, Lords of Fermoy in Ireland, who were ennobled in the reign of Edward II. Gules, three roach naiant or, within a border engrailed ar- gent ; crest, on a rock a heron grasping a roach in its dexter claw, are the armorial ensigns of Sir David Roche of Carass, in the county of Limerick, and of Barnitick in the county of Clare, who was created Baronet 28 June 1838, one of the titles incident to the coronation of her present Majesty. Sable, three roach naiant in pale argent, are the arms of the family of De La Roche of Herefordshire. Azure, three roach naiant argent, within a border or, were the arms of Walter Roche of Bromham, in Wiltshire, whose daugh- ter Edith married Harry Tropenell of Chalfield : these are sculptured on the stone screen of the Tropenell chapel in the parish church. The arms of Tropenell, gules, a fess engrailed ermine, between three griffins'' heads erased argent, in several parts of the house at Chalfield, are accompanied by a yoke such as was used for oxen, the family badge, and the motto " Lejougtyra bellement, 11 which may be rendered, The yoke drew well, or, The yoke sat lightly, expressive either of the tenure under which the estate was held, or of the lord of the manor's devotion to agricultural pursuits. There are few more interesting examples of domestic 96 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. architecture in the kingdom than Chalfield House, which was built by Thomas Tropenell in the reign of Henry VI.* Sable, three roach naiant argent, are the arms of De Roche in Cornwall, a family which may be traced from the twelfth cen- tury, and who derived their name from the natural situation of their possessions at Roche, where a lofty group of craggy rocks, rising out of an open heath, forms a conspicuous and striking object to the surrounding country. Eva, the daughter and heiress of Sir Richard De Roche, married Sir Ralph Arundell, who was Sheriff of Cornwall in 1268, and was the ancestor of the Lords Arundell of Trerice, and the Lords Arundell of Wardour ; from him W. A. H. Arundell, Esq. of Lifton Park, Sheriff of Devonshire in 1841, is also descended. Another heiress of the family of De Roche married Sir William Blundell about 1357, who afterwards assumed the name and arms of Roche. His family continued in possession of the estate till the reign of Henry VIII, when it terminated in four co- heiresses, three of whom married into the families of Fortescue, Penkivil, and Boscawen. Roche, with its picturesque crags, is now the property of the Earl of Falmouth, who quarters the arms of Roche with those of Boscawen as typical of this descent. The family of Roach of Lezant, near Launceston, in Corn- wall, and of Wellcombe, in Devonshire, bears for arms, azure, three roach naiant in pale argent. Or, a bull passant gules, between three roach hauriant proper, a chief chequy or and azure, were the arms of Sir William Roche, son of John Roche of Wickersley, near Rothcrham in Yorkshire, and Lord Mayor of London in 1540. * An account of this ancient residence was printed by T. L. Walker in 1837, THE HERALDRY OF FTSH. 97 Argent, on a bond sable three roach of the field, are the arms of the family of Huyshe of Sand, in Devonshire ; and were as- sumed in the reign of Edward III. by Oliver Huyshe of Doni- ford, in Somersetshire, after his marriage with the daughter and heiress of Simon Roche. This family claim descent from the Wentworths of Booking, in Essex, who through the Spencers were descended from Joan of Acres, the daughter of King Edward I. Richard Huyshe, who lived in the reign of James I, and was distinguished for be- nevolence, founded the hospital at Taunton, which bears his arms on the porch. Alexander Huyshe, eminent in literature, assisted Bishop Walton in the publication of the celebrated Po- lyglott Bible in 1657. One of the circumstances incident to the revival of literature was the foundation of the Academy of Florence, which originated from a society fancifully termed " The Humides," each member being known in the community by the name of some particular fish, or by some appellation relative to water. Grazzini, a j)oet of some eminence, the projector of the society, called himself La Lasca, the roach ; other members were distinguished by the name of some piscatorial occupation. H 98 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. A swan, in pride, devouring a perch, is the crest of Sparke, a Cheshire family ; and a swan devouring a perch is also the crest borne by the family of Loch of Drylaw, in the county of Edin- burgh. The substitution of a roach would better agree with the natural character of the swan, whose food consists chiefly of the various grasses, with the seeds and roots of plants, growing on the margin of the water. A swan has been known to seize a roach, but the prickly fins of the perch might possibly prove its destruction. Gules, a chevron engrailed between three roach naiant argent, on a chief of the second, three herons sable, billed and membered gules, are the arms of the family of Hobbs of Middlesex, which bears for crest a demi heron volant sable, billed gules, holding in the bill a fish argent. Herons were royal game in the days of falconry. The bill is strong and very sharp, and when seeking its food on the banks of rivers this bird seizes the fish with great dexterity. The crest of the family of Beckford, a heron's head erased or, gorged with a collar flory gules, in the beak a fish argent, is one of those punning allusions to the name, Bee fort, shown to be frequent in heraldry. This family is believed to derive its name from the passage of a beck or stream dividing the counties of Worcester and Glou- cester near Tewkesbury. Horace William Bcckford succeeded as third Lord Rivers in 1828 ; the present peer, his son, has assumed the name of Pitt Rivers. A stork, with a fish in its bill, is the crest of the family of Bat- THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 99 tie of Wadsworth, near Halifax in Yorkshire. The stork, abun- dant in Holland and France, is not common in England. Dace and roach are very similar in appearance, but the former is comparatively more local than the roach. Dace do not occur in heraldry, yet being also known by the name of Dare, it is possible they may be typified in the arms of Dare of Norfolk ; sable, a chevron argent between three dolphins or, the general emblem of sea and river fish being here used. THE MINNOW. Most of the brooks and rivers of England produce minnows, beautiful little fish, swimming in shoals on the gravelly bottom of the stream : they are borne in arms by the family of Picton. Argent, three minnows, or pinks, in pale gules. It may be supposed when a number of fish appear as a charge, those of a small size are intended, as in the arms of Coupir : azure, a bend engrailed between six fishes hauriant argent. Minnows are so named in reference to their small size; and on account of the bright red colour that pervades the under parts of the fish, they are called pinks, a name by which the salmon of the first year are also known. The family of Fisher of Stafford, had a grant of arms in the reign of James I : or, a kingfisher proper ; the crest, a king- fisher with a fish in its beak. This splendid little bird, which is found in almost every part of the globe, sits near the margin of a streamlet on the watch for the minnow, or the smaller species of fish, fluttering its wings, and exposing its brilliant plumage to the sun ; or, hovering in the air, darts unerringly on the fish, and sometimes remains for a 2 100 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. several seconds under the water before it has gained the object of its pursuit. The quantity of minnows that a brood of young kingfishers will consume is quite extraordinary,* and this fish is, without doubt, intended in the crest of Fisher. It is to the brilliancy of its colours that this little bird is in- debted for the means of alluring its prey ; the fish, attracted by the brightness and splendour of its appearance, are detained whilst the wily bird darts upon them. From the similarity of the means used, it has been suggested that the mode of taking fish by torchlight may have originated from the practice of the kingfisher. Poets cherish the idea of perfect safety which the mariner attaches to the halcyon days : it is expressed in one of Cowpers similes : As calm as the flood When the peace-loving halcyon deposits her brood. When the kingfisher is engaged in hatching her young, the sea is believed to remain so calm that the sailor ventures his bark on the main with the happy certainty of not being exposed to a storm. Thus an interest is attached to Halcyons, of all the birds that haunt the main, Most lov'd and honor'd by the Nereid train. t THE LOACH. Tm.s fish, nearly the colour of the gndgeon, is wattled like the barbel, and is to be found in many rivulets; but the upper Avon, * Yarrell's History of British Birds. t Fawkes's Translation of Theocritus, seventh Idyl. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 101 which waters the plains of Wiltshire, is more celebrated for its loach than other streams. On the hanks of this river, a little below Amesbury, is Durneford ; and it appears most probable that the particular produce of the river was alluded to in the arms of Walter de Durneford, in the reign of Edward III, azure, three fish naiant in pale argent. A family of the name of Dernford bear, azure, two fish hauri- ant or ; and another Dernford, azure, three fish, the tails of two in chief, and the head of one in base or, all meeting in the centre of the shield or nombril point. The introduction of surnames into France and England was nearly coeval ; that is, about the tenth or eleventh century. The assumption was at first confined to the higher orders of society ; as a distinction It was not framed for village churls, But for high dames and mighty earls. The most customary source whence names were derived seems to have been from manors, the lords of which having originally inserted the preposition de between their christian name and local denomination, by degrees sunk it, thus forming the surnames of the present day. The prevalence of this class of names is accounted for from the vassals and dependants following the example of their lords, and styling themselves of the castle, town, or village wherein they resided. Thus arbitrarily assumed, surnames were changed and altered at the pleasure of the bearer ; and they can scarcely be said to have been permanently settled in this country until the era of the Reformation.* * Remarks on the Antiquity of Surnames, by J. II. Markland, Esq. F.S.A. in Arclue- ologia, vol. xviii. In the Roll of Battle Abbey, the addition to the christian name is used. 102 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. IV. €i)t ©fiafiot, <£urnarfcf, iWullet, anfc bereft* The Chabot of heraldry is a species of bullhead found in almost all the fresh-water streams of Europe from Italy to Sweden. The fish is remarkable for the large size of its head, and is also known by the name of the miller's thumb, which being used as the gauge of the produce of the mill and to test the quality of the flour, incessant action produces a form resembling the flattened head of this fish. The chabot is always borne in pale, the head being in chief, and the back of the fish shown. Or, three chabots gules, are the arms of the ancient house of Chabot. Philip Chabot, Count of Ncwblanch, and Lord Admiral of France, was elected a Knight of the Garter at Calais, where a chapter was held during a second interview between King Henry VIII. and Francis I. in 1532. Henry, accompanied by the Lady Anne Uoleyn, who had been created Marchioness of Pembroke, landed at Calais on the 11th of October, where he was honour- THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 103 ably received with a procession ; and on the 20th of the same month the two kings met in a valley near Sandyfield, between Calais and Boulogne. The ostensible design of this interview was to concert measures for a joint expedition against the Turks ; but the real intention was, by alarming the Pope and the Em- peror, to accelerate King Henry's divorce.* Philip, Count of Newblanch, was afterwards installed, 18 May 1533, by proxy, in the stall formerly occupied by Sir Henry Guldeford, whose collar was, by the King's command, given to the Earl of Suffolk, in exchange for that borrowed by the King from the Earl at Calais, which was delivered to Sir Philip Cha- bot, the Admiral of France. -f* Lady Isabella Charlotte Fitz-Gerald, the daughter of William Robert Duke of Leinster, married in 1809 Major-General Louis William Viscount de Chabot, K.C.H. the son of the Count de Jarnac, who bears the same arms : or, three chabots gules. Azure, three chabots or, scaled and shaded of the field, with a crescent in chief of the second, are the arms of the family of Chabot an Maine ; J and that of Rouxel of Britany bears, azure, three chabots argent. THE GURNARD. This fish, common on the English coast, is borne in heraldry by an ancient family of the name of Gornay : azure, a bend or, between three gurnards naiant argent. There are several species, grey, red, and the piper, which last is distinguished by the large size of the head, and on this account the species is named bull-head. The peculiar quaintness of heraldic composition is not in any instance more forcibly shown than in the arms of Gorney, where, in extension of the pun, a bull's head is used as a charge, in accordance with the common name of the gurnard. This figurative delineation of the name exhibits a whimsical turn of thought perfectly in unison with the literary habits of the Elizabethan period, where the conceit is often difficult to discover through the veil that is cast over it. * Original Letters, 1 824, vol. ii. p. 22. The notes by Sir Henry Ellis, as well as the Letter-, themselves, are found to throw new light on various passages of English history. t Austis's Register of the Order of the Garter. + Palliot. 104 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Although the heraldic devices are perfectly susceptible of alle- gorical illustration, yet, by too minute inquiry into the details, the deficiency of correct taste sometimes found, will dissolve the charm which captivates ; and it must be admitted that the more fanciful conceptions are not of a nature to be closely scrutinized. Some branches of the family of Gorney bear for arms, sable, three bulls' heads erased argent, a play upon the common name of the fish, which is varied in other branches of the same family, who bear, sable, a chevron between three bulls"' heads cabossed or, the heads in this instance being full-faced without any part of the neck being visible. Bull is commonly used to express the large comparative size of any species, as the bull-trout of Northumberland are said by Walton to be larger than any found in the southern parts of the kingdom. The family of Gurney of Norwich bears for arms, argent, a cross engrailed gules ; but their crest exhibits the usual play upon the name, a gurnard erect upon a chapeau. John Gurney of that city, in the reign of Charles II, was the intimate friend and supporter of George Fox, the founder of the society of Quakers. His descendant, Hudson Gurney, Esq. F.ll.S. Vice-President of the Society of Antiquaries, is author of a poetical translation of Apuleius's Fable of Cupid and Psyche : his observations on the Bayeux Tapestry are also printed in the Archajologia. In Cornwall the gurnard is known as the tub fish, and is borne in heraldry by the family of Tubbe of Trengoffe, in the parish of Warleggan, near Bodmin : argent, a chevron sable, between three tub fish hauriant gules : crest, an otter passant, in his mouth a tub fish; granted in 1571. These arms are painted in one of the chambers of Court, a mansion at Lanreath, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 105 near Fowey, formerly the seat of the family of Grylls ; they are also displayed amongst the benefactors of St. Neot's church, celebrated for the profusion and beauty of its stained glass. The windows of this church underwent a complete restoration at the expence of the Rev. Gervase T. Grylls, of Helston, in 1829. One contains the history of St. Neot, the pious sacristan of Glas- tonbury Abbey, in twelve compartments ; perhaps the only in- stance of the legend of a local saint so represented, and one of the most splendid specimens of stained glass in the kingdom. The hermit's fish-pond, now remaining in the valley near his cell, afforded materials for one of the legendary tales represented in the window. In this pool there Avere three fishes, of which Neot had Divine permission to take one, and only one, every day, with an assurance that the supply should never be diminished. Being afflicted with a severe indisposition, his disciple Barms one day caught two fishes, and having boiled one and broiled the other, placed them before him : " What hast thou done V ex- claimed Neot ; " lo, the favour of God deserts us ; go instantly and restore these fishes to the water. ,, While Barius was absent Neot prostrated himself in earnest prayer, till he returned with the intelligence that the fishes were disporting in the pool. Barius again went and took only one fish, of which Neot had no sooner tasted, than he was restored to perfect health.* History of St. Moot's, in Huntingdonshire, by the Rev. G. C. Gorhain, p. 32. 106 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. THE MULLET. The Mullet of English heraldry is not the far-famed fish so called, but a bearing in form of the rowel of a spur, which is of very ancient and general adaptation.* In France, the red mullet, a fish which is common in the Mediterranean, formed a charge in the arms of the family of Roujou ; argent, a rouget, or red mullet, in pale. The arms of the family of Raoul, also an example of this fish, are, azure, a mullet, with four annulets, three in chief and one in base, argent. It is evident that the grey mullet is the fish intended to be represented in some British crests described as a hawk or eagle preying on a fish. The osprey, or sea-eagle, said to have been formerly trained for hawking fish, is termed the mullet hawk, and on this account the bird is represented with a grey mullet in its claw in Mr. YarrelFs History of British Birds. In the title-page of Mr. L. W. Dillwyns valuable contri- butions towards a History of Swansea, 1840, is an engraving of the ancient seal of the corporation, which is described as a castle double towered, on each tower a banner, above on a shield an eagle rising with a fish, the tail end in its mouth. It is, how- ever, suspected that the bird on the seal is not an osprey, but a swan, borne in allusion to the name of the town, Swansea, pun- ning heraldry being common on town seals and in the arms granted to corporate bodies. Sue the arms of Fitz-Jumc?, \>. 40, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 107 The crest of Moult, a fish naiant azure, spotted or, may be intended for the mullet, or perhaps the smolt, a young salmon. Crest, on a fish a sparrow-hawk, borne by Levesque, would have been better designated by the osprey. A hawk perching 1 on a fish is the crest of Grandford ; and that of Edridge is a hawk on its prey. The numerous species of the falcon tribe are found in almost every part of the world, from the frigid to the torrid zone. The larger birds feed on fish, and seldom devour the whole, but, like the lions, leave the fragments to other animals. The family of Hanbowe bears for crest an eagle with wings expanded and inverted, on a dolphin. The heraldic mullet has occasioned much disquisition on the origin of the word, supposed to be derived from molette, and French heralds admit six points to the star so denomi- nated. In the earliest rolls of arms it is called a mole, and a molet, whether pierced or not ; and in .some of the seals * at- tached to the Barons' 1 Letter, the bearing is represented with six points. On a seal of William Clinton Earl of Huntingdon in 1387, the mullet in the arms has the same number. A change in the form from six to five points seems to have taken place in England in the beginning of the fifteenth century ; and it is known that the spur-rowel, to which the mullet is compared, was never of five points before the time of King Charles I, nor indeed of six points before that of King Henry VI. Previously the spur was furnished with a rouelle, or little wheel, sometimes ser- rated ; facts which can be proved by reference to the collection * Seals attached to the letter from the Barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII. in the year 1301, engraved by order of the Society of Antiquaries in 1729. 108 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. of ancient armour at Goodrich Court, in Herefordshire, the seat of Sir Samuel Meyrick.* The Boke of St. Alban's-f- calls this bearing macula, whence it has been supposed to represent a meteor rather than a spur- rowel. Guillim gives another derivation, and says, " others think that heralds have borrowed this word mullet from a kind of fish so called, not that which is usually known by that name, but another, not unlike in shape to the figure used in armoury, found upon the sands at the ebbing of the sea, and called a five- finger, but anciently known by the name of mullet.'" The sea-star here alluded to, is mentioned in Bishop Sprat's History of the Royal Society. j It is said that the Admiralty Court laid a penalty on those engaged in the oyster fishery " who do not tread under their feet, or throw upon the shore, a fish called five-finger, resembling a spur-rowel, because that fish gets into the oyster when they gape and sucks them out. ,, Without admitting that the heraldic charge is derived from the starfish, which it appears once bore the name of mullet, it may not be improper to mention that its form is shown in the arms of the noble families of Douglas, Vere, St. John, Ash- burnham, Bonvile, Sutherland, and in the arms of the episcopal see of Bangor. A work on Starfishes was published by John Henry Link, F.R.S. a naturalist of Leipsic, in 1733 ; but this class of fish remained little known in England : recently a History of British Starfishes, by Mr. E. Forbes, has proved of extraordinary in- terest by his mode of treating the subject. In this valuable addition to Natural History, the figure of the Butthorn, of the genus Asterias, is found to resemble closely the mullet of English heraldry. * Plate LXXX. of the engraved illustrations published by J. Skelton in 1830. t Printed in 1486. J Printed in 1667. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 109 THE PERCH. The Perch, among fish, presents the greatest perfection of form : its colours are brilliant and striking, and it is second only to the pike in boldness and voracity. There is scarcely a river or lake of any extent in Great Britain where " the bright eyed perch with fins of Tyrian dye,' 1 '' is not abundant. In heraldry the perch very rarely is used. One of the families of the name of Oldfield bears three perches as an armorial distinction. The crest representing a swan devouring a perch has been shown to be contrary to the known habits of that bird : * heralds are generally careful enough to avoid an anomaly in their de- signs, but in transcribing the blazon from a painted shield the particular description offish might easily be mistaken. The best artists have not always been employed, but it is well known that, both in execution and design, considerable ability has been occasionally exerted in the composition of heraldic subjects. The arms, carved about the Elizabethan period, in one of the rooms of Eockingham Castle, in North- amptonshire, are perhaps the finest specimens extant of masterly skill in armorial embellishment. In ancient sculpture, accord- ing to the poets, the representation of fish was most perfect. Martial has paid an elegant little compliment to the chief of sculptors :— Mark Phidias' fish, group'd by yon stony brim, Add but a drop of water, and they swim. The river Yare, in Norfolk, abounds with the ruffe, a beau- tiful little fish, which is peculiar to it,*f- of the same class and closely allied to the perch. A fountain charged with a fish in the crest of Yarrell, is, on account of the name, presumed to be intended for a type of the Yare, and its peculiar produce, the ruffe. The credit of the discovery of the ruffe or pope, with which Cuvier commences his division of the " Percoid fishes, 11 is assigned to the learned Dr. Caius, or Kaye, physician to Queen Eliza- beth, who found it first in the river Yare, near Norwich. The colours of the ruffe are golden green, inclining to olive brown on the back, and silvery towards the belly. * Vide p. 98. + History of Yarmouth, 1770. 110 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. In form fish are the most varied beings in the creation ; and fancy can scarcely depict a shape to which a resemblance will not be found : they are of enormous bulk, or of the most graceful appearance, but among all, the characteristic shape of the fish may be traced. It is also remarked by naturalists that the bony structure of fish is best exhibited in the skeleton of the perch ; the characters of the different genera are in some measure taken from the form of the bones in the head, but the lowest rank in our systems is allotted to fish in the scale of vertebrated animals. In the vast range of heraldry the skeletons of fish are assumed as armorial bearings by families of Germany and Switzerland. Gules, two skeletons of fish, in saltier argent ; with the very appropriate crest, an otter sejant, are borne by the family of Gradel, of Borden, in Bavaria.* The Counts of Windischgratz, of the Bench of Franconia, quartered with their own paternal arms those of Gradner : gules, the back-bone of a fish in bend sinister or. The old nobility of Germany, constituting the Benches, or Colleges of the Counts, were petty sovereigns, had numerous vassals, and differed little from the ancient Barons of England. At an early period architects, as well as heralds, availed them- selves of the fish skeleton as an ornament : a kind of angular masonry, called herring-bone work, is one of the discriminat- ing features of a particular date. In the erection of Castleton, Colchester, Guildford, and other ancient castles, the Norman masons showed great ingenuity in laying their materials upon their edges in such a way as to offer combinations resembling Si1)machor 1 s Wapcnbnch, 1(505. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Ill the spinous bones of a fish, termed herring-bone work, like the opus reticulatum of the Romans, and the zigzag meshes of a fishing-net. In consequence of the productiveness of the Dutch fishery it is proverbially said that the city of Amsterdam is founded on herrin "-bones. Sable, a skeleton of a fish embowed argent, are the arms of Von Praromon, a Swiss family. There is something in the assumption of a skeleton for an ensign that suggests the idea of oppression to which the less powerful were subjected. In Swit- zerland every variety of feudal right was early found and long preserved : and it is the remark of an elegant historian, that although the affairs of the Swiss occupy a very small space in the great chart of European history, in some respects they are more interesting than the revolutions of mighty kingdoms.* At the beginning of the seventeenth century an instance of the spirit and temper with which feudal claims were pursued is found in France. Peter de Bourdeilles (better known by the name of Brantome, of which he was Abbot), Lord and Baron of Riche- mont, Chevalier, Gentleman of the Chamber to King Charles IX. and Henry III, and Chamberlain to the Duke of Alencon, hav- ing instituted a law-suit against a citizen for refusing to swear fealty and homage to him as seigneur ; and foreseeing that he could not live to the end of the suit, bequeathed his wrath by will to his heirs, ordering them to pursue " ce petit galant, sprung from a mean family, and whose grandfather had been a notary ;" thus overwhelming the citizen with his nobility, and leaving him to be dealt with by his successors. * Hallam's Middle Ages. \ 112 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. flT&e Salmon, €rout, Smelt, an& CKragltng, foftij tittv enemg tfie <&tttx* In no country of the world are the salmon fisheries so exten- sive, or their value of so much importance as in Great Britain. The fisheries in the rivers Severn and Wye are noticed in the Domesday Survey. In the Severn the salmon are of the finest quality ; the river from Shropshire proceeds in its course to Worcester, thence to Gloucester, below which the estuary as- sumes the name of the Bristol Channel. The earliest salmon that comes in season to London is brought from the Severn. Gules, three salmon hauriant argent, allusive to the produce of this river, are borne for arms by a family of the name of Gloucester. Another family of the name of Gloucester bears, azure, a fess argent, in chief two leopards 1 faces or, and in base a salmon hauriant of the second. The manor of Berkeley, one of the largest in the kingdom, includes the fishery of the Severn ; and the Lords Berkeley had the sole right of salmon fishing. A fishery of considerable extent belonged to the Abbot of St. Augustine's at Bristol, a monastery which was founded by the Lord of Berkeley in the reign of Stephen.* * Atkyns's History of Gloucestershire. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 113 The seal of the Lord of Berkeley, in the reign of Edward III, bears his arms with a merman and mermaid supporting the shield. On the monument, at Wooton-under-edge, of Thomas Lord Berkeley, who died in 1417, he is represented in armour, with a collar of mermaids, denoting his maritime jurisdiction.* The high value and importance of fisheries was acknowledged in the earliest periods : in Egypt, those of the river Nile were free to the public, but the fisheries on the canals connected with the Nile and the lake Mceris formed part of the hereditary domains of the crown. These fisheries, it appears, daily paid a large tribute to the royal treasury during the six months in which the water flowed through the canal into the lake ; and during the other six months a smaller sum, forming a branch of revenue appropriated to the queens of Egypt as pin-money. -f- Kingston-upon-Thames, a residence and place of coronation of several Anglo-Saxon monarchs of England, bears a type of pri- vilege of fishery upon the town seal. By charter of Philip and Mary, a fishing weir is held by the corporation of Kingston in consideration of repairing the bridge, which was formerly of wood, but has been lately rebuilt with stone, and the emblems of their privilege, three salmon, are sculptured over the centre arch. The river Eowey traverses some of the pleasant parts of Corn- wall, forming a valley above the town of Lostwithiel, in which the remains of Hestormel Castle are finely surrounded with wood. >; Engraved in Hollis's Monumental Effigies. t Athenaeum, 1837, on the arts of the Egyptians. 114 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The right of fishery in the Fowey belonged to the manor of the ancient Earls of Cornwall, whose seat was Restormel Castle, and whose stannary court for the tin mines was in the town. The seal of Lostwithiel, about the time of King Henry IV, shows the castle and the fish, indicative of the feudal rights of the earldom. In reference to the noted produce of the Tweed, the royal burgh of Peebles bears for arms, vert, three salmon counter naiant in pale argent, with the motto, Contra nando ineremen- tum, in allusion to the benefit derived to the town from the pro- gress of the salmon up the stream to deposit their spawn. Lanark, a royal burgh on the Clyde, one of the finest rivers of Scotland, bears two salmon naiant, with other charges, in the arms of the corporation. The principal salmon rivers in Scotland are, the Tay, the Don, the Spey, the Brora, and the Awe ; the quantity of fish killed is immense, no less than fifty thousand salmon are said to have been taken in the river Tay in the course of one year. A very productive salmon fishery at Helmsdale in Sutherlandshire, is one of the ancient privileges of that earldom ; and on the banks of this rapid stream are the remains of a tower built by Margaret Countess of Sutherland in the fifteenth century, one of those marks of regality of which time has left so few in Great Britain, even to the most powerful families. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 115 The Lords of the Isles, highland chieftains, descendants of Somerled, hear arms indicative of the produce of the hays and creeks in their domain : quarterly, 1st, argent, a lion rampant gules; 2nd, or, a hand in armour, holding a cross crosslet fitchy gules ; 3rd, or, a lymphad, or fishing vessel, with sails furled sahle ; 4th, vert, a salmon naiant argent. The ancient Lords of the Isles are now represented by the Lord Macdonald, whose chief seat is at Armidale in the Isle of Skye, one of the largest of the Hebrides, in which are several rivers containing abundance of salmon and trout. Most of the Irish rivers and lakes abound in salmon ; the royal piscary of Banne, in the comity of Londonderry, is re- markably productive. In the year 1776 the salmon fishery on the river Banne proved extraordinarily successful, the take of one net at one drag was in that season one thousand four hundred and fifty-two fish, the largest hawl on record.* The town seal of Coleraine, situated upon the eastern bank of the lower Banne, shows the fish as an object of importance. The famous salmon leap on the Banne, at Castle Roe mill, is a fall of about seven feet, but at low stream only five feet. The O'Neills, claiming descent from Milesius, are among the most ancient of the original families of Ireland. Conn O'Neill the chief, on disclaiming the title of Prince, and submitting to the English crown, was created Earl of Tyrone, at Greenwich, * Notes on Nets, a very curious and instructive work upon the subject, by the Hon. and Rev. Charles Bathurst, LL.D. i 2 116 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. by King Henry VIII, in 1543. His son, Matthew O'Neill, in the same year was created Lord Dungannon, a title derived from the name of the ancient castle and residence of the lords of Ulster, the most northerly division of Ireland. It stood on the banks of one of the tributaries to the Blackwater, a river of the county of Antrim, famed for its salmon equally with the Erne and the Banne : the latter river flows into Lough Neagh, the largest lake in Ireland, and stored with salmon. On its banks is Shane's Castle, the seat of General Earl O'Neill, Vice-Admiral of the coast of Ulster. The arms of this family are, per fess wavy, the chief argent, charged with a sinister hand gules, the base water, therein a salmon naiant. The red hand of Ireland, the device of the ancient Lords of Ulster, was granted to baronets, on the institution of the order, as a symbol of the assistance afforded to King James in sub- duing the elan O'Neill, and in the reduction of that province. Gules, three salmon naiant or, are the arms of Sir Richard Keane, Baronet, of Cappoquin in the county of Waterford ; the same arms, surmounted by a chief, on which is a view of a for- tress, are borne by General the Bight Honourable Lord Keane of Ghusnu, in Affghanistan, G.C.B. and G.C.H. Ord is a name implying edge or border, of which the Ord of Caithness, on the border of Sutherlandshire, is a prominent in- stance. There are several manors called Ord on the banks of the Tweed, a boundary stream celebrated for salmon ; its pro- duce is typified in the arms of the Ord family of Northumber- land, from which are descended several considerable branches besides that of Ord of Fenham. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 117 Sable, throe salmon hauriant argent, are the arms of the family of Orel of Fishburn, in the bishopric of Durham, ancestors of the late Craven Ord, Esq. of Greenstead Hall in Essex, F.R.S. The same arms, sable, three salmon hauriant argent, are borne by Sir John Powlett Orde, Baronet : of this family was Thomas Orde, Esq. Secretary to the Treasury, who married Jane Mary, the daughter of Charles Duke of Bolton, and assumed the name of Powlett on succeeding to the ducal estate. In 1797 he was created Lord Bolton. The present nobleman bears the original arms of Powlett : sable, three swords in pile argent, hilted or, with the addition 118 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. of a canton to show liis paternal descent ; argent, charged with a shield sable, bearing a salmon hauriant. Crest, a falcon rising or, the breast and each wing charged with an estoile gules, and gorged with a ducal coronet azure, in the beak a salmon. The Seigneur Du Bartas, in his Commentary of the Week of Creation, notices the ascent of various fish to the rivers in spring.* So dainty salmons, clievins thunder-scar'd, Feast-famous sturgeons, lampreys spcckle-starr'd, In the spring season the rough seas forsake, And in the rivers thousand pleasures take. The arms of the family of Sea of Underdown, near Canter- bury, seem to be derived from the known habits of the salmon : argent, a salmon hauriant between two flanches azure, each charged with three bars wavy of the field. Crest, two lobsters 1 claws erect gules, each holding a fish argent. Salmon pass the summer in the sea, or near the mouth of an estuary, and in winter inhabit fresh water : many provincial couplets relate the time when the descent of the fish to the sea takes place ; late in June the fry are rarely observed in the rivers. The last spring-floods that happen in May, Carry the salmon fry down to the sea. Translated liv Sylvester. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 119 Iii the months of July and August these very fry, or smolts, come up as grilses to the same rivers which they left in May, and in this state they remain until December, when they revisit the sea, and upon their next return to the fresh waters they appear as perfect salmon. As the salmon ascend the rivers their progress forward is not easily stopped. These fish shoot up the rapids with the velocity of arrows, and make very wonderful efforts to surmount cascades and other impediments to their advance by leaping, frequently clearing an elevation of not less than ten feet, and having gained the water above pursue their course. It is this property of the salmon which is alluded to in the arms of the family of Way, a name implying passage, or power of progression, possessed in so remarkable a degree by the salmon, which frequent almost every sea, and traverse the whole length of the largest rivers. There are several profitable fisheries on the Rhine, which abounds with salmon ; one is near Basle in Switzerland, above four hundred miles from the sea, an extraordinary run for the fish, which must pass, in their passage from the North Sea, the cities of Levden, Utrecht, Cologne, Coblentz, Mayence, Worms, Manheim, Spire, and Strasburg. Azure, three salmon hauriant argent, are the arms of the family of Way, of Denham Place, in Buckinghamshire, a family which came originally from the banks of the Wey, a river of Dorsetshire, and acquired the manor of Denham by descent. On the monument at Acton, in Middlesex, of J. Raymond Way, Esq. who died in 1 804, the fish are sculptured on the shield as in the arms of Ord,* being a variation from the original coat. Gules, a chevron or, between three salmon hauriant argent, are the arms of the family of Way of Devonshire. * Vide page 1 1 7. 120 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The produce of the river has sometimes given name to the stream. Braddan, in the Isle of Man, is known as Kirk Salmon, being- situated on a river abounding with that fish two miles from Douglas, where it falls into the sea and forms the harbour, one of the best in the Irish Channel. In America the river Salmon is one of the branches of the Connecticut, the largest river in New England. Salm, the German word for salmon, is the name of several scignories of the empire on the borders of the river Salm, one of the tributaries of the Moselle. Salmon are here borne as terri- torial ensigns in reference to the name of the fief. Gules, semee of cross crosslets or, two salmon addorsed argent, are the arms, and two salmon addorsed, tails upward, argent, are borne as a crest by the Princes of Upper Salm, in Lorraine, descended from the Wildgraves and Khingraves of Daun and Kyrburg, feudal titles, which attest the antiquity of German families. The Wildgraves were Counts of the forest of Ardennes ; the Rhingraves were Counts of scignories on the banks of the Rhine, whose territories differing in extent, they equally, within their demesnes, exercised the rights of sovereignty. In reference to this feudal constitution of the empire, Charles V. remarked that in other dominions he was obeyed by subjects, but in Ger- THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 121 many lie commanded kings. A similar expression had been previously applied to Charles Martel, from whom the Carlovinian, or second race of kings of France, derive their descent. C'est co Martel, le Prince dc Francois, Non Roy de nom, mais le maister des Roys. The Princes of Salm are descended from Philip Otto, who was made a Prince of the Empire in 1623, and claim alliance with the royal family of England through the grand-daughter of Frederic, the Elector Palatine, and the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King James I. The same arms and crest * are borne by the Counts of Lower Salm, or Salm Reifferschied, lineally descended from Loherus, Duke of the Moselle, and the Dukes of Limburg, whose ancient castle at Salm crowns the summit of a hill. In France salmon arc borne in heraldry as a play upon the personal designation. Sable, fretty argent, on a chief gules a salmon naiant or, are the arms of Salmon. Another French family of the same name bear, azure, a chevron or, between three salmon hauriant. The name of Salmon is not uncommon in England, and almost every one of that name, from early periods and entitled to bear arms, assumed the fish as a family device. John Salmon, Prior of Ely, afterwards Lord Chancellor to King Edward II. and Bishop of Norwich, built the episcopal palace about 1320, and also a chapel at the west end of the cathedral at Norwich. He died at Folkstone in 1325. Thomas Salmon, Abbot of Cerne in Dorsetshire, rebuilt the gatehouse of that abbey in 1509, which is enriched with his arms, the arms of the abbey, and with the royal badges of the house of Tudor. Sable, three salmon hauriant argent, are the arms of the family of Salmon of Finningley, in Nottinghamshire. The same arms are upon a monument in the church of Leigh in Essex, in memory of Ilobert Salmon, one of the Masters of the Trinity House, who died in 1G11 ; also on a mural tablet in the chancel of Wadhurst church in Sussex, in memory of the Rev. Wil- liam Salmon, who died in 1830. The family of Salmon of Willaston Hall, Nantwich, in Cheshire, bear the fish gold ; that of Salmon, in Yorkshire, bear the field red and the fish * Sibmacher's Wapenbuch, 1C05. 122 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. white : and other families of the same name bear only two fish hauriant. Thomas Salmon, M.A. Rector of Meppershall in Bedfordshire, was the father of Thomas, the author of an historical account of St. George and the Order of the Garter in 1704, and of Natha- niel Salmon, the historian of Hertfordshire. The family of Salmond retains the fish only in the crest, a salmon naiant or ; that of Salmine bears for arms, gules, two salmon hauriant addorsed argent. Azure, on a fess or, three roses gules between three salmon hauriant argent ; crest, an arm erect, vested bendy or and azure, holding in the hand a demi-fish azure, are the arms of the family of Knight of the city of Gloucester. Sable, a chevron ermine between three salmon hauriant argent, are the arms of the family of Cater of Kempston, in Bedford- shire, and that of Cater of Papworth Agnes, in Huntingdonshire. A Cater is a purveyor ; and, in allusion to the name, salmon were possibly chosen for arms, as forming an important part of a great entertainment. A Roman tessera, bearing two fish in saltier, an invitation ticket to a feast, is engraved in Montfaucon's Antiquities.* Salmon chines boiled, was one of the dishes in the first course, consisting offish, at Archbishop Nevile's dinner. * Vol. iii. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 12:3 One dish in each course was the standard ; and at a fish feast to knights, clerks, and esquires, during Lent, in the thirteenth century, the standard was half a salmon with the chine. Other dishes at the same feast were, a fresh conger, three fat pikes, five fat eels, and twenty-seven fat roaches, half a hundred lam- prouns, and oysters. Sometimes the standard was only an orna- ment ; St. George, the griffin, Sec. are named as standards ; and it may he remarked that the painted temples decorated with sweetmeats, which still make their appearance at city feasts, are the successors to the standard at the tables of our an- cestors.* Gules, two salmon hauriant argent, are the arms of the family of Sammes ; and azure, three salmon naiant in pale argent, are the arms of that of Sambrooke. Sir Jeremy Sambrooke having married Judith the sister of Sir Nicholas Vanacker, Baronet, of Erith in Kent, succeeded to the Baronetcy, according to the terms of the patent granted by King William III. in 1700. His son, Sir Jeremy Sambrooke, Bart, of Gobions, in Hertfordshire, died in 1754, when the title became extinct. Several monuments of this family are in the church of North Mims. The Earl of Lichfield bears the arms of Sambrooke, azure, three salmon naiant argent, quartered with those of Anson, argent, three bends gules, to show his descent from this family. Sambrooke Adams, Esq. of Sambrooke, in Shropshire, on the borders of Staffordshire, married Janette, sister of the distin- guished Admiral Lord Anson ; and on the death of his lordship's brother Thomas in 1770, their estate devolved to his nephew, * The daily expences of a person of rank in the thirteenth century, printed by the Rev. Joseph Hunter, F.S.A. in the Retrospective Review. 124 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. George Anson, Esq. the father of Thomas Viscount Anson, whose son, Thomas William Viscount Anson, was created Earl of Lichfield in 1831. Argent, three fish naiant in pale sahle, are the arms of the family of Welsh ; and, gules, two fish in saltier argent, are the arms of the family of Sevington. These fish are prohahly in- tended for sewins, which are slightly dissimilar to salmon, and are abundant in the streams of the southern part of Wales, whence they are commonly termed Welsh salmon.* An offering of fish was claimed and allowed to the Abbot of St. Peter's Westminster, for several centuries, on the plea that St. Peter had granted the tithe of all salmon caught in the Thames at the time he consecrated the church. The extent of this claim over the river, made by the abbot on the part of the convent, was equal to that of the present jurisdiction of the Lord Mayor, from Yantlet creek to Staines bridge ; and among many causes assigned for the scarcity of salmon in the Thames in more modern times, it was believed that the fishermen not having made their customary offering to St. Peter was the principal. -J- In the arms of the city of Glasgow, and in those of the ancient see, a salmon with a ring in its mouth is said to record a miracle of St. Kentigcrn, the founder of the see, and the first Bishop of Glasgow. On the reverse of Bishop Wishart^s seal in the reign of Edward II, this supposed allusion to the legendary story of St. Kentigern appears for the first time.| Some of the early Bishops of Glasgow displayed the figure of * Hansard's Trout and Salmon fishing in Wales, p. 1!!. + Rrayley's History of Westminster Abbey. J Ancient Burgh Records of Glasgow, 1832. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 125 a salmon, either on the sides of, or below the shield of arms on their seals, a circumstance which may be accounted for, with- out reference to a miracle, as depicting the produce of the Clyde. The revenue of the church of Glasgow at the Reformation, in- cluded one hundred and sixty-eight salmon, arising from the franchise or fishery in that river. John Cameron, Lord Privy Seal to King James I. of Scotland, and Bishop of Glasgow in 1426, bore on his episcopal seal the figure of St. Kentigern in a tabernacle, below which are his paternal arms, three bars, having a salmon with a ring in its mouth on either side of the shield, which is surmounted by the mitre. The ring is perhaps a type of the annular money current among the Britons. The diocese of Glasgow was erected into an Archbishopric in 1491, with Galloway, Argyll, and the Isles as suffragans. James Beaton, Archbishop of Glasgow and Abbot of Dumferm- line, the uncle of Cardinal Beaton, died Primate of Scotland in 1539. Many munificent marks of his public spirit and piety long resisted time, and remained after the cathedral ceremonies had been deserted for the plain offices of the kirk of Scotland. On the Avails of the Episcopal Palace, or Castle of Glasgow, were sculptured the arms of Beaton, azure, a fess between three mascles or, quartered with Balfour, argent, on a chevron sable an otter's head erased of the first, and below the shield a salmon with a ring in its mouth, as represented on the seals of his predecessors. Another Archbishop Beaton refounded the Scotch College at Paris in 1603, where, on a monument to his memory, are his arms, surmounted by the episcopal hat, and beneath the shield the fish and ring, the emblem of the see of Glasgow. In more recent times, Archbishop Cairncross, in 1684, bore the arms of the see impaled with his paternal coat. The anus of the city of Glasgow are those of the former see, argent, on a mount a tree with a bird on a branch to the dexter, and a bell pendent on the sinister side, the stem of the tree sur- mounted by a salmon in fess having in its mouth a gold ring. " The legend of the fish and the ring," says the Rev. Dr. Dibdin,* " is extant in well nigh every chap-book in Scotland ; old Spotswood is among the earliest historians who garnished up the dish from the Latin monastic legends, and Messrs. Smith, 8 In ;i note to his Northern Tour, p. 694. 126 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. M'Lellan, and Cleland, have not failed to quote his words. They report of St. Kentigern, that a lady of good place in the country having' lost her ring as she crossed the river Clyde, and her husband waxing jealous, as if she had bestowed the same on one of her lovers, she did mean herself unto Kentigern, entreating his help for the safety of her honour ; and that he, going to the river after he had used his devotion, willed one who was making to fish to bring the first that he caught, which was done. In the mouth of this fish he found the ring, and sending it to the lady, she was thereby freed of her husband's suspicion. The credit of this I believe" (continues the same author) "upon the reporters ; but, however it be, the see and city of Glasgow do both of them bear in their arms a fish with a ring in its mouth even to this day. 11 The classical tale of 1'olycrates, related by Herodotus a thou- sand years before the time of St. Kentigern, is perhaps the earliest version of the fish and the ring, which has been often repeated with variations. The ring, Herodotus says, was an emerald set in gold and beautifully engraved, the work of Theo- doras the Samian ; and this very ring, Pliny relates, was pre- served in the Temple of Concord at Home, to which it was given by the Emperor Augustus. The device of the fish and the ring THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 127 is engraved in M. Claude Paradin's Heroical Devices as an emblem of uninterrupted prosperity.* In the koran of Mahomet the legend of the ring and its re- covery by means of a fish is introduced. " Solomon entrusted his signet with one of his concubines, which the devil obtained from her, and sat on the throne in Solomon's shape. After forty days the devil departed, and threw the ring into the sea. The signet was swallowed by a fish, which being caught and given to Solomon, the ring was found in its belly, and thus he recovered his kingdom. 11 -f- The singular preservation of a citizen's ring is recorded at Newcastle-on-Tyne, which Avas found in the belly of a salmon caught in that river. | A well-known monument on the eastern wall of Stepney church bears a shield of arms § which is re- ferred to as commemorating a tradition, that the Lady Berry, in whose memory the monument was erected, was the heroine of " The cruel Knight, or fortunate Farmer's Daughter, 11 a once popular ballad, the scene of which lies in Yorkshire ; it describes a ring thrown into the river, and restored by means of a fish : but the ballad is certainly too old to refer to Lady Berry, who died in 1696. The monument remains, but so injured by the weather that the arms are no longer distinct. Gules, a salmon's head couped fesswise, with a ring in its mouth, between three cinquefoils argent, are the arms of the family of Hamilton of Haggs : crest, a salmon hauriant argent, with a ring in its mouth. Gules, three salmon hauriant, with a ring in each of their mouths argent, are the arms of the family of Sprottie. || * Svmbola Heroica, 1563, p. 50. t Sale's translation of the Koran, chapter xxxviii. p. 321. + Vox Piscis, 1627, p. 13. i Engraved in Salter's Angler's Guide. II Tht! Science of Herauldrie, by Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, 1680 128 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. In Germany, where the traditions of the middle ages are more mingled with historical facts, and embellished in the rela- tion, than in any other country of Europe, it is not to he won- dered that the legend of the fish and the ring is found as an heraldic distinction. The Bavarian family of Die Proy von Findelstein hear for arms, gules, a cubit arm proceeding from clouds, and habited azure, grasping a fish in the hand, with a golden ring in its mouth ; and for crest, on a coronet a hand and fish as in the arms, beneath a tree.* The Germans, so tenacious of the customs of their ancestors, may have intended by the ring to refer to the first attempt at money : rings of gold and silver were formerly used, and are current even to this day amongst the natives of Guinea. In German heraldry, fish, as devices, are much more frequently found, and their positions in the shields are infinitely more varied, than in the armorial bearings of England. The arms on the engraved vignette at page 1 were selected from those of ancient families in the empire of Germany.-f* * Sibmachcr's Wapenbuch. t From Sibmachcr's Wapenbuch, 1G05, a curious collection, containing the arms of the empire, of the potentates of the German nation, with their quarterings, crests, and helmets ; also the arms of other states and places, in number upwards of three thou- sand. An edition of this work was printed at Nuremberg, by A. Wagcnman, in 1G30. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 129 The centre shield bears, or, on a bend azure, a salmon party per pale argent and gules ; the crest, a willow surmounted by a salmon in bend, as in the arms. These are the ensigns of the family of Die Rosengriin of Meissen, in Upper Saxony. The dexter shield of the vignette bears the arms of the family of Dornheim of Silesia, gules, three trout, their heads meeting in the centre of the escutcheon; the heraldic position of the trout, seemingly fanciful, is derived from the habits of fish, which are active and amusing. A naturalist, crossing a brook, saw at the bottom of the stream the resemblance of a flower, which consisted of a circular assemblage of minnows, their heads all meeting in a centre, and their tails diverging at equal distances, which being elevated above their heads, gave the fish the exact appearance of a flower half blown ; the object that attracted them all was a dead minnow, which they seemed to be devouring.* The other shield, azure, three barbel embowed with their heads to the centre argent, shows the arms of Von Hanfstengel of Meissen, on the banks of the Elbe, a river abounding with fish, and in all the features of natural beauty second only to the Rhine. The devices of early heraldry were necessarily chosen from objects familiar to the vassals of the fief ; and, in accounting for the adoption of implements in daily use, their importance must not be considered with regard to the present state of civilization. The earliest method of taking fish, that used by the Nimrods of Egypt, previously to the invention either of hooks or nets, Mas by spearing, -f* a mode still practised in Scotland, where many salmon are killed by torchlight, when they ascend to the stream heads. The leister, or spear with barbed points, is form- ed like a trident, or with a head resembling the pheon of heraldry, instruments which are borne in the arms of families holding a right of fishery in productive rivers. The animated scenes which occur in the north when persons are engaged in salmon-hunting, are described by Sir Walter Scott. J The hunters chase the fish at full gallop, and strike them with their barbed spears in the same manner as hunters spearing boars are represented in old tapestry. * Van-ell's History of British Fishes. + A sculptured stone, excavated at Chester in 173ft, and engraved in Lysons's his- tory of the county, as a Roman remain. shows a fisherman with his spear and basket. :!: Red Gauntlet. 130 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The salmon are so swift in their own element, that to pursue and strike them is the task of a good horseman, with a quick eye and determined hand, with full command hoth of horse and weapon. Le trident de Neptune Est le sceptre du monde, is a well-known expression of La Harpe to denote naval supe- riority : this sceptre, an ensign of sovereignty of greater anti- quity than the crown, is derived from the triple-toothed fishing- spear, assumed in heraldry as emblematical of the piscatorial jurisdiction, included in the privileges of a manor. Carew, the historian of Cornwall, notices this incident in the family of Glynn, whose seat is on the hanks of the river Fowey : — " Mas- ter Glynn, of Glynn ford, manifesteth by this compound name the antiquity of his descent, and the ordinary passage there over the Fowey. The store of salmon which this river affordeth caused his ancestor to take the fishing-spears for arms.' 1 * The elder line of the Glynns became extinct in the early part of the fourteenth century, when the heiress married Sir John Carminow, of Boconnoc ; but a branch, of which was John Glynn, Esq. Recorder of London, is now possessed of the seat of their ancestors. The family of Glynn of Helston bears for arms, argent, three salmon-spears sable. That of Shorley, or Chorley, bears, argent, three fisliing- spears gules. The Soap-makers 1 Company, incorporated in 1 638, bears for arms, azure, a dolphin naiant between three fisbing- spears or; and a spear civet, issuing out of water, and sustain- ing a dolphin, is the crest of the family of JJellismo. That Survey of Cornwall, 1G02. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 131 of Walley bears for arms, argent, three whale-spears, or har- poons, sable. In Germany, where feudalism still lingers, the heraldic indi- cation of piscatory rights is much used. Gules, a fishing-spear argent, the points upward, is the armorial distinction of the family of Von Der Gabel, of ancient Thnringia, a province watered by several productive rivers, the source of manorial revenue. Argent, a fishing-spear sable ; and crest, a salmon fixed on a spear, were borne by Baron Von Ebnet, of Suabia.* Another kind of fishing-spear, the pheon, is well known as the emblem of royalty, and, under the denomination of the broad R. the abbreviation of Rex or Regina, is the form which is struck by officers of the Grown, and particularly those belonging to the Custom House, when making a capture, to denote the regality or right of possession. It is the regal mark also used on all naval stores in the royal dock-yards, &c. The pheon, the barbed head of a spear, is not used under that name in French heraldry; at least, it is not mentioned by Palliot.-f" Neither does the pheon occur in the older rolls of English heraldry; but, as a charge, was borne, at a very early period, by the baronial family of Malpas, from which the noble * Sibmacher's Wapcnbuch, 1G05. f His " Perfect Science of Armory" professes? to give the armorial index of Lowan (idiot, an advocate of Durgundy, the most voluminous on the subject. K 2 132 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. house of Egerton is immediately descended, also by the family of Rawdon, ancestors of the Marquess of Hastings. Two pheons are shown on the seal of Sheffield ; and azure, a pheon argent, within a border or, charged with eight torteaux, are the arms of the family of Sharp of Yorkshire and Durham, punning, with some propriety, on its use in striking the fish. The pheon differs from the head of an arrow ; but in heraldry, and particularly in the arms of the different branches of the family of Kemys, it is used as the arrow-head. In the same manner the dart is often confounded in poetry with the arrow. Argent, three broad arrows, two and one, bendwise sable ; crest, a trout naiant, the arms of the family of Corbally of Ireland, seem to refer rather to the trout-spear than the arrow. Or, a pheon azure, is the armorial ensign of the noble fa- mily of Sidney, originally of the maritime county of Sussex. Sir Philip Sidney, eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney of Pens- hurst, K.G. was the most accomplished man of his age ; and his brother, Sir Robert Sidney, K.G. created Earl of Leicester by King James, was the patriarch of seven earls of this illustrious family, whose present representatives are, Sir John Shelley Sid- ney, Bart, the Lord De Lisle and Dudley, G.O.H. and the Lord Strangford, Gr.C.B. &c. Sable, a pheon argent, is borne by the family of Nicholls of Penrose, in Cornwall; and that of Nicholls of Middlesex bears sable, three pheons shafted rompe argent, the head of the spear being in this instance shown fixed to a light staff for use. Argent, a chevron between three pheons reversed, are the arms of the family of Sulyard of Haughley, in Suffolk, the point of the pheon being placed upwards, contrary to the usual mode of showing the weapon. Other means of taking salmon are referred to in blazonry : sable, three salmon hauriant argent, a chief or, are the arms of Kidson of Bishop's Wearmouth, in Durham, assumed jwssibly from the similarity of name to the kiddle, or weir, made on the river to catch the fish, and often corrupted to kittle : kettle-nets, used for the same purpose, might originate the phrase " a kettle of fish. 11 The arms of the family of Kydale, or Kendale, are, argent, a chevron between three dolphins naiant sable ; and the same are borne by the family of Kendall of Pelyn, in Cornwall. Ashmole says " Fish love not old kydles as they do the new. 11 * Thcatrum Chemicuin, I'i.VJ. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. THE TROUT. The trout, a delicate spotted fish, varying in its size, form, and colour, is found in almost every quarter of the globe. Trout caught in the river Colne, near LTxbriclge, are brought alive to the London market; but the largest trout in England are found in the river Hull, a branch of the Humber. On all streams famed for the production of trout the fisheries are guarded with pecu- liar care. The town of Stafford, the birth-place of that distinguished angler, Isaak Walton, is on the Sow, a river noted for the quality as well as the quantity of its trout and grayling. A charter from King John confirmed the privileges which had been held by this town from remote antiquity ; and the Corporation seal, showing the fish in the stream, with the castle on the bank, alludes to the right of fishing 1 in the Sow. It is here that this river receives the waters of the Penk, noticed by Drayton.* As Sow, which from her spring At Stafford meeteth Penk, which she along doth bring To Trent. The seal of the town of Newcastle, in the same county, situated on another branch of the river Trent, also bears an allusion to a franchise or right of fishery. It represents a castle, and beneath its walls a stream, in which are two fish; • Polvolhion. 134 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. upon the gatehouse stands the constable with his horn, and his lieutenant, bearing a partizan. In Berkshire an extensive fishery on the river Kennet is held by the burgesses of Hungerford. Their ancient horn of tenure bears the crescent and star, a badge of the Plantagenets, and the word $}uugcrfort(. Another horn, of the same size and shape, also preserved in the town-hall, is inscribed, $ohif a - gamr Ufa* gt»c- ante grant- tljc* rtall - fishing- to- hungcrfovtJ- tolmu* from- eltfm- Stub- to- ivi$ly Sttl* crccptwg-s'onv Scbcral- mil- potmU SMjos'ophat- Ultras'- constable- 1634. The river Kennet, rising on Marlborough Downs, and dividing Wiltshire from Berkshire, produces a variety of fish, but its trout have been long celebrated both for size and flavour. One fish, of the extraordinary weight of seventeen pounds, caught in the Kennet, was accepted by Queen Charlotte as a present from Lord Craven.* In Wordsworth's poems is a chivalrous legend of the horn of Egremont Castle : other horns of tenure are, the Pusey and Borstal horns, those of the forests of Savernake, Wirral, and Delamere, and Lyulplfs horn at York. Conway Castle, founded by King Edward I. beautifully situated on the estuary of a river abounding with excellent trout, is held of the Crown by Owen Holland at an annual rent, and a dish of fish to the Earl of Hertford as often as he passes through the town.-f* Peterchurch, in Herefordshire, is situated on the river Dore, a celebrated trout stream, and the figure of a large trout with a chain round its head is sculptured on the western wall of the nave of the church, but no tradition assigns the cause of its position in that place, and no grant of a fishery is recorded. Certain lands near Helston were held by the service of pro- viding a fishing-boat, with nets, for the King's use, in Loo-pool, when the sovereign should visit 1 lelston. This lake, the most considerable in Cornwall, is remarkable for a peculiar and excel- * Lysons's Berkshire, 1813. t Cough's Camden's Britiinnia, 1789. THE HERALDRY OF FTSTT. 135 lent species of trout. The manor of Truthall, on the borders of Loo-pool, in Sithncy parish, belonged to the Priory of St. John's. Bernard Penrose, the last prior, died in 1532. The family of Penrose of Sithney bore for arms, ermine, on a bend azure three roses or; the crest, a Loo trout. This family became extinct in the elder line by the death of John Penrose, Esq. in 1744. A branch, settled at Tregethon in the reign of Elizabeth, still remains. The Rev. Thomas Penrose, whose early poems were noticed in " The Pursuits of Literature," died in 1779, and was buried at Newbury. Francis Penrose, M.D. and John Penrose, M.A. of Corpus Christi College, Ox- ford, were also authors. The characteristic features of the country are the most usual source whence the names of places are derived; rivers and hills- retain their British names, and those of manors are almost always significant: the local name ofTrouts in Surrey, another in Corn- wall, and Trouts dale in Yorkshire, all indicate the prevalence of trout in their streams. There is no fish that deviates so much as the trout ; a variety is even met with in the same river ; the salmon-trout, the white- trout, and the sea-trout, all differ from the great grey-trout of the lakes. Like the salmon, they make up the stream in the season, when numbers enter the becks or burns that fall into the lakes of Cumberland. The trout is fond of those swift clear streams : where it is well known to anglers lie lifts his silver gills ahove the flood, And greedily sucks in th' unfaithful food. The Troutbeck of Westmorland, famous for the excellence and number of its trout, takes its rise on the fells, and rushes through a picturesque and wooded glen towards Windermere 1 , the largest of the English lakes : this stream gave name to a district whence sprang the ancient family of Troutbeck. Their arms, yet existing among those of numerous benefactors in the cloisters of Canterbury Cathedral in the reign of Henry TV, exhibit a tasteful method of disposing the fish as an heraldic 136 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. charge, azure, three trout fretted, tete a la qmue, argent; the crest, a head on a wreath of trout, is from a copy of Glover's Ordinary of Arms. In the Troutbeck Chapel of St. Mary's Church in Chester were formerly sumptuous monuments in memory of Sir William Troutbeck, who was slain at the battle of Blore-heath in 14o9, and of his son, Sir Adam Troutbeck, who died in 1512. The heiresses of this family married into the noblest houses of the kingdom. Margaret, heiress of Sir Adam Troutbeck of Mobber- ley, in Cheshire, in the reign of Henry VIII. married Sir John Talbot of Grafton, in Worcestershire, whose lineal descendant is the Earl of Shrewsbury. These arms are painted, with those of other alliances of this illustrious family, on the walls of the Talbot Gallery at Alton Towers, near Cheadle in Staffordshire. The same arms, illustrative of descent, arc quartered by the Marquess of Anglesey, K.G. and are included in the quarterings borne by Sir Ralph Coningsby of North Minis, in Hertfordshire, described by Peacham as a worthy gentleman, well deserving and beloved of his country.* The representative of this family was the late Earl of Essex, who inherited Hampton Court, in Herefordshire, the principal seat of the Coningsbys. The institutions of chivalry, of uncertain origin, can be traced to the eleventh century, and acquired full vigour during the crusades. With chivalry, the progress of which has been com- pared to a river, -f- originated those maxims and ceremonials which * Bookc of Blazoning Armes, 1(330. f Kurd's Letters on Chivalry and Romance, 1762. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 137 were condensed into a code of laws for the tournament ; and gave importance to all distinctions of rank where the great utility of heraldry was acknowledged. The knights assumed the most costly apparel, wearing over their armour a tabard, with their arms embroidered on it in brilliant colours. The art of arming with despatch and caution, necessary for the protection of their persons, demanded much skill and ability. A beautiful illumination exists of Sir Geffrey Luttrell preparing for a tournament, in which a lady presents his tilting helmet, and another holds his emblazoned shield.* A scarcely less inter- esting document, and one of importance for the illustration of heraldry, is a Roll of the Kings, Bannerets, and Knights in the reign of Henry VI. -f* This manuscript commences with King William the Conqueror, who is represented landing from his ship, and is followed by all the Kings of England, down to Henry VI. ; the bannerets in their surcoats of arms, with their banners emblazoned, and the knights mounted on horses with caparisons bearing their arms, and engaged in apparent combat. r ~^/rcmcrtbe(o~- The arms of Troutbeck on the tabard of the knight and on the housings, here given from this curious manuscript, differ from * In the Luttrell Psalter, and engraved in Carter's Ancient Sculpture and Painting, and in the Vetusta Monumenta. f In the British Museum, Hail. MS. 420.5. 138 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. the usual method of bearing the fish. Those of Hamme, vert, two luces endorsed argent, are the arms of a Suffolk family, assumed from a reference to the Latin hamus, or the French hame^on, a fish-hook, punning upon the name. Amongst freshwater fish the trout is acknowledged to be preeminent in beauty ; and, as it is the object of the herald to show the finest species in his designs, when the particular fish are not described, trout are presumed to be intended. The family of Freshwater were formerly seated at Tollesbury, on the banks of the river Blaekwater in Essex ; in the church of which is a memorial brass of Thomas Freshwater, who died in 1517. The family afterwards resided at Heyb ridge, higher up on the same river, and bore for arms, azure, a fess ermine be- tween two fish argent ; crest, two fish in saltier argent, their tails in chief entiled with a coronet or. Azure, five fish hauriant or, three and two, are the arms of the family of Freshacre ; and, gules, three fish in pale between ten cross crosslets fitchy, are the arms of Ostreche of London. Azure, a trout in bend argent, speckled gules, between six mullets of the second, the arms of the French family of Orcival, are given by Palliot as an instance of the heraldic term mar- quetc, or speckled. Vert, three trout hauriant or, spotted gules, are the arms of the family of Dogge. That of Osborne of Lon- don bears, argent, on a bend sable, three trout or. Germany, watered by many noble rivers, produces abundance of trout in perfection : this fish is borne in the arms of several ancient princes of the Empire, and is also more used by families as an heraldic ensign than in England, where freshwater fish arc in less esteem. Two golden trout depicted on a red banner was the territorial ensign of the old Counts of Mumpelgard, or Montbeillard, in Burgundy. Henrica, their heiress, married Everhard Count of Wirtcmbcrg, in 1397, by which alliance this fief afterwards became annexed to his dominions. The Counts of Wirtcmberg, the comites or chosen friends of the Emperor, descended from Conrad, created by Henry IV. in 1110. Ulric, who added considerably to his domain, was made Standard-bearer of the Empire in 1336. The important seig- nories of Teck and Heidenheim were subsequently acquired by Count Everhard VI. founder of the University of Tubingen, who was created Duke of Wirtemberg and Teck by the Emperor Maximilian, at the celebrated Diet of Worms in 1495. The Duke's arms, environed by the collar of the Order of the THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 139 Golden Fleece, the most ancient collar of knighthood, are on his tomb in the cathedral of Tubingen.* Frederic, the Magnanimous, Duke of Wirtemberg, the patri- arch of the modern Stutgardian, Neustadian and Julian houses, received the Order of the Garter from King James in 1603. The ceremonial of his investment at Stutgard, by Robert Lord Spencer of Wormleighton, is detailed in Ashmole's History of the Order. In 1797 Prince Frederic William, son of the reigning Duke of Wirtemberg, married the Princess Royal of England, and succeeded to the dukedom in the same year. The Duke was elevated to the Electoral dignity in 1803, and finally proclaimed King of Wirtemberg 1 Jan. 1806. In the arms of the kingdom the trout are still borne, showing the territorial acquisition. * Quarterly, 1. Or, three attires of a stag fesswise and in pale sable, for Wirtemberg Duchy. 2. Bendy fusilly or and sable, for the seignory of Teck. 3. Azure, the Impe- rial banner fixed to its staff in bend, for the hereditary office of Standard-bearer. 4. Gules, two trout addorsed and in pale or, for Montbeillard. The crests are those of Wir- temberg and Teck : the first for the office of Great Huntsman of the Empire, a hunting- horn, with estrich feathers in the mouth, in allusion to the right of hawking. 140 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The arms of the seignory of Pfirdt,* one of the hereditary fiets of the house of Austria, are shown on a banner borne by a cavalier in the Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian. The whole procession, designed by Hans Burgmair, about 1512, is contained in one hundred and twenty-nine subjects, cut on wood by several engravers. The painter, with a richness of capacity and perfect knowledge of art, has shown every grade of rank in this magnificent cavalcade, which is composed of amulti- * Gulos, two trout addorscd or, and crest, a dcnii-woman between two trout erect, their tails upward. Tliese arms have been mentioned at page 12, but the fish are certainly trout, and the name of the lief is here spelt according to the German authority. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 141 tilde of figures in dresses of ceremony, groups of horses and men combined with masterly skill, each in proper action. The picto- rial effect of this grand work of art is greatly increased by the careful delineation of the armour and weapons, and not less by the attention paid to the endless variety of the heraldry on the tabards and banners of the different counts and officers of state. Pfirdt being one of those fiefs in which the Emperor made war, the cavalier bearing this banner is represented in armour designed after the ancient manner and crowned with a chaplet of honour. Amongst the heralds in the same procession is that of Pfirdt, in a tabard of arms, and bearing his baton. Heraldic composition in Germany was the employment of highly talented artists, and many other works of that country might be referred to as affording examples of superior taste. The Counts of Stolberg, in Sachsen, quartered with their own paternal arms those of the seignory of Wernigerode, which, with the castle, accrued to them in 1329 ; argent, two trout hauriant and respecting each other gules : arms which are reported to have been assumed in allusion to the hereditary office of Master Fishers of the Empire, held by the Counts of Wernigerode. Azure, a fish in fess argent, and a chief or, are borne by the French family of Vaillant. Of this name were, John Foi Vail- lant, the celebrated medallist, and his son, Sebastian Vaillant, the no less distinguished naturalist. As a crest, a trout naiant is borne by the family of Hoddy ; and a swan with wings en- dorsed or rousant, devouring a trout, is the crest of Jane, or Jeane. The arms of Oliver, or, a chevron azure between two hurts in chief, and a trout naiant in base, appear in one of the win- dows of Armagh Cathedral. Even the simplest means of taking fish are assumed as armo- rial bearings, either with a territorial allusion to the situation of the manor, or as a play upon the family name. 142 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Fishing is one of the employments depicted on the monuments of Egypt. The Nile, and the artificial lakes of that interesting country, afforded a supply, which has not failed in modern times ; the waters of Menzaleh abound in fish, and the Arabs say, that the varieties of fish in this lake exceed in number the days of the year : although this may be deemed an exaggeration, it is certain, that whatever be the number of their species, the fishes of this lake multiply infinitely. A kind of trout, still regarded as a delicacy in Egypt, was preserved in covered vessels, to save it from being injured by the heat of the sun : this is shown in a representation of a fisherman taking his store to market, engraved in Calliaud's " Researches on the Arts of Egypt:;* Angling, as a sport, was highly esteemed among the Romans, who had their fish-pools and preserves filled with choice fish ; and it is known that fishing was a favourite amusement of the Emperor Augustus. In the splendour of his appointments may have originated the expression of fishing with a golden hook, and the gorgeous colouring frequently given by poets to the employment of the angler. The pleasant'st angling is, to see the fish Cut with her golden oars the silver stream, And greedily devour the treacherous barb. A fisherman with his rod and line, in a boat, from an antique in the Maffei Collection at Verona, has been engraved, -f- and also a beautiful painting of Venus and Cupid angling, found in the house of the Tragic poet at Pompeii, j The sea-bream and the gilthead are the common fish of the Mediterranean, taken by anglers ; the last, called the dorado, was consecrated to Venus. A species of perch, § also common in that sea, is of a brilliant scarlet colour, but with a very strong spinal fin, and, from the resemblance of this spine to a razor, it is named le harbier. This fish is held sacred among the divers for marine productions, and when caught by a hook, it is instantly relieved by the rest of the shoal cutting the line of the angler with their sharp spines. Massaniello, the celebrated fisherman of Naples, whose resist- ance to the Spanish authority raised him to temporary distinc- tion, and has given him a place in history, was an angler by trade, and retailed his small fish in the market. : Copied in the Athenaeum for 1837. t Montfaueon's Antiquities. '.',. Sir William (jell's Pompeiana, vol. ii. § Serranus Anthias of Cuvier. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 143 Emblematically, fish represent silence and watchfulness. Mute as a fish, is proverbial ; and the practice of anglers involves a proportionate artifice, in allusion to which (iuillim, the herald, indulges a remark, that, " of this trade there are more in the world than will acknowledge themselves of the Company of Fishermen. 1 ' 1 In Germany, women in armorial bearings, are not uncommon, although rarely found in the heraldry of England or France. Azure, a woman, habited in the German fashion, holding two fish argent, are the arms of the family of Iloten, of Aubrach in Franconia. Manors situated on the banks of rivers, lakes, or trout-streams, affording fishing stations, command the finest scenery, combin- ing often the sublime, beautiful, and picturesque. The power of waters, says Wordsworth, over the minds of poets has been acknowledged from the earliest ages ; through the " Flu- mina amem sylvasque inglorius" of Virgil,* down to the sublime apostrophe to the great rivers of the earth by Armstrong, and the simple ejaculation of Burns. The Muse, nae poet ever fund her, Till by himsel' he learned to wander Adown some trotting burn's meander. M. Soumet, a modern French author, bears arms perfectly in unison with the poet's attachment to the trout stream. Azure, the lyre of Apollo or, on a chief gules a trout naiant. These, with the arms of his contemporaries, are in the stained glass windows of the Pavilion Saint James, erected by M.Beauchesne in the environs of Paris.*}" * Georgics, lib. ii. f See an interesting description of Le Memoir dc Beauc/iesne in La Presse, April Hill ; with the arms of contemporary poets. Sir Walter Scott, with the same feeling* enriched Abbotsford with the arms of his friends and companions. 144 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. A cubit arm holding a trout, is the crest of the family of Gibbens, assumed, perhaps, in reference to the French word gibier, game. The crest of the family of Peat is a hand holding a fish. Heraldry aimed chiefly at a simple illustration of the name of the family, or territorial possessions from which the names were derived. Fish-hooks, when borne in arms, probably allude to the chief employment on the estate, near one of those streams, the importance of which has been shown. The arms of the family of Bosdon are, argent, a fess between three fish-hooks sable. Argent, a fess sable, between three fish- hooks gules, are the arms of Penkerth, a family perhaps origi- nally of Penketh, on the banks of the Mersey of Lancashire. Sable, a chevron between three fish-hooks argent, are the arms of Medville, a name referring to a situation on water, either a river or a lake. The motto to the arms of Kilrenny, an ancient fishing town in Fifeshire, is indicative of the perseverance necessary to the fisherman. " Semper tibi pendeat hamus," let the hook always be hung out. A fish-hook was the cognizance of William Nevilc, Lord Fau- conberg, K.G. which is noticed in some contemporary political verses, " The Fisher has lost his angle hook," adverting to his capture by the French when sent ambassador to Normandy to treat for peace* By King Edward IV. this nobleman was created Earl of Kent, and made Lord Admiral of England. Azure, an angling-hook argent, are the punning arms of the German family of Angelloch, on the banks of the Rhine. Hooks, the well-known implements of angling, a later invention than the trout-spear, were originally of rude form, either of * Excerpta flistorica. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 145 bono or the hardest wood, exhibiting a striking contrast to the finely-tempered and polished Limerick hooks of the present day. The art of angling, now reduced to perfection, owes much to that amiable enthusiast, Izaak Walton, whose works have made many disciples besides the Walton and Cotton Club, instituted in 1817. Their badge, representing an angler with his attend- ant, and the motto, " Dum eapimus, capimur," is engraved in Mr. Jesse's " Angler's Rambles." The Walton Club of New- castle have assumed an heraldic device, the arms of that town, impaling argent, three trout naiant counter naiant. THE SMELT. The smelt is taken in abundance in the river Humber and on the coast of Lincolnshire, and is in great request from its delicate and peculiar flavour ; in colour, the back of the fish is pale green, and the lower part silvery white. Azure, a chevron between three smelts naiant argent, are the arms of the York- shire families of Smelt of Kirby Fleetham, near Catterick ; and of Beverley. Spiering, the Dutch name for smelt, nearly approaches that by which this little fish is distinguished in Scotland, the spar- ling, found in great plenty in the Frith of Forth and the river Tay. Or, three sparlings, or smelts, hauriant, are the arms of the family of Sparling of Felton Hall, in Shropshire. " West- ward for Smelts," is the title of a book of tales of different fish- women, as, " The Fish-wife's Tale of Brentford," &c. printed in 1G20. Few, if any, smelts are now found in the Thames. L 140 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. THE GRAYLING. The Grayling is a species of trout, but it is found that many rivers abounding with trout do not contain grayling". A certain peculiarity of its local distribution in England gave rise to a supposition that the grayling had been introduced by the monks, by whom it was held in esteem. Saint Ambrose named the grayling the flower of fish, from its pleasing colour and agreeable smell. This fish is presumed to be intended in the arms of Cardinal Bentivenga, in which the rose is also introduced and commented upon in these lines to his memory : Bentivenga sacra est hac purpura amictus ; in ivnda Ludcntem pi seem respiee et inde rosas. He was confessor to Pope Nicholas III. and died in 1289. His arms, azure, a fish naiant argent, on a chief or, a chevron sable between two roses,* were surmounted by the cardinal's hat, then a novelty, it having been first worn at the interview be- tween the Pope and Louis IX. of France, at Lyons in 1247. The supposition that most of the rivers which contain gray- ling flow near the remains of monasteries is incorrect; as this fish is not found in the rivers of Kent, Dorsetshire, Devon- * Ciaconius, Hist, of the Popes, 1G79. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 147 shire, or Cornwall, where conventual edifices were formerly nu- merous. One of the sources of the river Severn is named the Graylin. A hand holding a fish, the crest of the family of Grayley, or Grelley, of Lancashire, is doubtless a play upon the name ; also, the arms of the Kentish family of Graydon, argent, on a chevron azure, between three otters sable, each devouring a fish, as many otter-spears or ; the crest, a demi-otter devouring a fish : the motto, " Ad escam et usum," for food and use, alludes, seemingly, to the employment of the otter for the purpose of catching fish. In heraldry the grayling are termed umber-fish, from their French name ombre; and the punning arms of the family of Umbrell are argent, three umber-fish naiant. The general colour of this fish is a bright brown, beautifully varied with gold and green reflexions in different lights ; its name grayling is supposed to have reference to the gray lines along the body of the fish. THE OTTER. Guillim mentions a shield of arms in one of the windows of the hall of New Inn, London, argent, a beaver erect sable, armed gules, devouring a fish ; but, from the known habits of the beaver, it is presumed that an otter must have been in- tended. Beavers feed entirely on vegetables ; the otter, on the contrary, lives exclusively on fish, frequenting small streams and lakes, and in search of its prey swims and dives with peculiar ease and elegance : The amphibious monster ranges all the shores, Darts through the waves, and every haunt explores. l 2 148 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Three otters passant, in pale, each devouring a fish, the arms of the family of Proude of Canterbury, are sculptured on the arched ceiling of the beautiful cloisters of the cathedral in that city. The name of Proude may have the same origin with that of the Prud-homme, who among fishermen is chosen to preside over the community. From the French word loutre, an otter, this animal was assumed in the insignia of the family of Luttrell, argent, a fess between three otters sable, being the arms ; and an otter devour- ing a fish, the crest. They were seated at Irnham in Lincoln- shire, and Robert Luttrell of Irnham was summoned to Parlia- ment in the reign of Edward T. One of the branches inherited Dunster Castle, in Somersetshire, from the Mohuns ; and an- other obtained the castle and estate of Luttrells-town in Ireland, from which last branch were descended the Earls of Carhamp- ton. Otters are also borne in arms by the family of Hartopp, baronets. Sable, a chevron vaire, or and gules, between three otters passant or, are the arms of the family of Lotysham of Somerset- shire, which bears for crest an otter's head devouring a fish. The otter makes incredible havoc among fish, a main induce- ment to keep up the ancient sport of otter-hunting with hounds bred for the purpose : Would you preserve a numerous finny race, Let your fierce dogs the ravenous otter chase. In this sport the otter-spears are used ; and after the chase the animal is borne home in triumph. The crest of the family of Homfray of Wales near Rotherham in Yorkshire, is an otter passant, wounded in the shoulder ; and azure, a dexter hand THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 149 holding on the point of a sword, argent, an otter's head couped or, are the arms of the family of Fender. Ermine, a chevron between three otters' heads couped sable, a chief vert, are the arms of the northern family of Otterbourne ; a name derived from a stream near Hexham, one of the haunts of the otter, and rendered memorable as the scene of the battle of Chevy Chase. Argent, a chevron between three otters' heads erased sable, are the original arms of the family of Balfour of Scotland ; and a castle argent, having on the battlement a woman attired gules, holding an otter's head, is the crest of Balfour of Grange. Argent, three otters' heads erased gules, are the arms of Ful- larton of Ayrshire. In the beautiful stained glass windows of the old manor-house at Ockwells, near Bray, on the banks of the Thames, are the arms of the family of Norreys, with the supporters, two otters collared and chained, each devouring a fish. Tavo otters argent, were assumed for supporters of the arms of James Brydges, the princely Duke of Chandos. The Salters' Company, incorporated in the year 1530, obtained subsequently the addition to their arms of supporters, which are two otters sable bezanty, ducally collared and chained or. Two otters are also used as supporters to their arms by the Scottish family of Kinloch, with a mermaid for a crest.* The sea-dog of heraldry is no other than the male or dog otter, being a four-footed animal, but is drawn, according to heraldic fancy, with a broad fin continued down the back from the head to the tail ; the feet webbed, and its whole body, legs, and tail covered with scales. In the northern parts of the king- dom the otters frequent the sea, and are known to extend their rambles to a considerable distance from the shore. Three sea- dogs or marine otters are borne in the arms of Fennor of Sussex, and in the arms of Harry of Cornwall. Lord Stourton, whose title is derived from a manor watered by a stream abounding with trout, has for supporters to his arms two sea-dogs, or otters ; and a sea dog's head is the crest of the ancient family of Broughton. * Nisbot. 150 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. VI. <Ef)z ^erring, ^ilcfiartr, an* gprat* The Herring, a sea fish, derives its name from Aairang, an old French word implying troop or army. The deep seas swarm with herrings, which usually appear together in large numbers, and in due season visit the coast of every region of the globe. Herring fisheries were of importance in the eleventh century as a source of revenue. Hugh de Montefort's manors in Suffolk yielded numerous rents of herrings ; the manor of Beccles in that county, in King Edward the Confessor's time, yielded thirty thousand herrings to the abbey of Saint Edmund, and in William the Conqueror's time this revenue was increased to sixty thou- sand herrings.* Yarmouth has long been the great mart for herrings, and of the fishery the Barons of the Cinque Ports were the original lords. -f- King John, the great patron of commerce in Norfolk, having granted the burgesses of Yarmouth a charter, they after- wards assumed the exclusive _right of the fishery for herrings, and, as indicating this right, the old seal of the borough bears a fishing-boat, with the herrings in the sea beneath. * Introduction to Domesday Book, by Sir Henry Ellis, t Lyon's History of Dover. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 151 Thomas Nash, a Suffolk poet of the time of Queen Elizabeth, quaintly assumes, in his 4 " Herrings Tayle," that ' ; this fishery brings more ships to Yarmouth than were assembled at Troy to fetch back Helen." The expert and persevering fishermen of this town are still unrivalled in the herring fishery, which now employs about two hundred fishing vessels ; and the quantity of herrings cured, red or smoke-dried, is said to have sometimes amounted to one hundred thousand barrels in a year. In 1852 the burgesses of Yarmouth granted the College of St. George at Windsor a last of red herrings, to be delivered annually ; and in 1671, when King Charles II. visited this town, the Corporation presented his Majesty with four golden herrings and a gold chain. The priory of the Black Friars at Yarmouth, founded about the year 1270, had some franchise or right of fishery conceded to the convent. The herrings appear upon the seal of the priory, which bears also the Virgin Mary, between Saint Dominic and Saint Nicholas, patrons of the convent and town. At Heringflete, in Suffolk, was a priory of Austin canons, and also near Yarmouth Avas the hospital or college of Heringby, both very probably supported by the produce of the fishery. 152 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Azure, three herrings naiant argent, were the original amis of the borough of Yarmouth : the Corporation at present hear for arms, party per pale gules and azure, three demi-lions passant guardant or, conjoined with as many demi-herrings argent. An Italian, eating a capon on a fast-day, termed it " pesce d'una corte,*" a fish from a coop ; hut, reversing this expression, the herring, from its noted mart, is called a Yarmouth capon. Lowestoft, a town situated on the most easterly point of land in England, partakes with Yarmouth the trade in the fishery and curing of herrings : a Lowestoft fisherman's toast, even dur- ing the progress of the Reformation, was, Here 's to his Holiness the Pope, with his triple crown, With nine dollars each for every cask in the town ; the nine dollars having reference to the price at which it was hoped the herrings would sell per barrel on their arrival in Italy. The ancient town of Dunwich, on the coast of Suffolk, now ruined by the encroachments of the sea, had a considerable herring fishery ; and the seal of Robert, Bailiff of Dunwich in the year 1218, bears the fish.* The staple trade of the town of Southwold, in the same county, was greatly diminished in consequence of the Reform- ation ; fast-days had ceased to be so frequently observed, and the demand for herrings had decreased. A token, struck at Southwold in 1667, bears the fish in allusion to the trade. 5>* The royal burgh of Inverary, at the head of Loch Fyne, has a considerable herring fishery. It was incorporated by King Charles 1 ; and the arms of the town are, the waves of the loch, in which is suspended a sean with five herrings entangled in it, typical of its chief produce. The Royal Company of Fishing, established in Scotland by King Charles II, bore appropriately for arms, azure, two her- rings in saltier, surmounted by an imperial crown or, with the motto, " Messis ab alto, 11 Our harvest is from the deep. The great herring fishery in Scotland was, in reality, founded by the British * Engraved in Gardner's History of Dunwich, 1754. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 153 Fishery Society in 1786, for the express purpose of forming sta- tions in the highlands and islands of North Britain. The celebrated South Sea Company, established in 1711, for encouraging the fishery, bears for arms, azure, a globe, on which are depicted the Straits of Magellan and Cape Horn ; on a can- ton the arms of Great Britain ; in the sinister chief point two herrings in saltier, crowned or : and the crest, a ship in full sail ; supporters, on the dexter side, Britannia,* and on the sinister, a fisherman holding in his hand a string of fish. The colour and form of the herring are beautiful ; the back is blue, with green and other reflexions when viewed in different lights ; the side and belly of the fish are silvery white. As a charge in heraldry, the herring is borne in reference to the name by several families of antiquity. On the seal of John Heringot of Westwell, in Kent, in the reign of Henry III. is a shield with a border charged with six herrings ; azure, three herrings erect, between six cross crosslets fitchy or, the arms of Heringod of Elmstead, are sculptured on the ceiling of the cloisters of Canterbury Cathedral ;-f- azure, semee of cross crosslets, six herrings naiant in pale or, are the arms of Heringod of Icklesham, in Sussex, in the reign of Henry III. The German family of Heringh, on the banks of the Rhine, bear for arms, argent, three herrings in bend azure.J The arms of the ancient family of Heringham also show the herrings, as a play upon the name. Gules, three herrings hauriant argent, appear in stained glass amongst the quarterings in the arms of the first Earl of Bed- * The earliest representation of Britannia, as a tutelar goddess, is to be found upon a ni( dal of the Emperor Commodus. + Willcmcnt's Heraldic Notices. i Palliot, 154 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. ford, K.G. in the windows of the chapel at Chenies in Bucking- hamshire, showing his descent from Sir John Russell, Speaker of the House of Commons, the son of Sir John Russell of Kings- ton, in Dorsetshire, and Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sir John Heringham of Chaldon, in the same county, the descendant of a family seated at Chaldon in the reign of John. Langton Hering and Heringston, also in Dorsetshire, seem to have de- rived the name from the same family. Gules, crusilly, three herrings hauriant argent, were the arms of Archbishop Herring. Thomas Herring, the son of the Rev. John Herring, Rector of Walsoken, in Norfolk, was horn in 1691 : as chaplain to the King he attended his Majesty George II. to Cambridge in 1728, having previously preached against " The Beggar's Opera." He was made Bishop of Bangor in 1737, and Archbishop of York in 1748: being one of the preachers of the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, his arms, as Archbishop of York, are in one of the stained glass windows of their Hall. In 1747 he was created Archbishop of Canterbury ; and, residing chiefly at Croydon, his arms, impaling those of the archiepiscopal see, were placed in the Hall of that palace. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 155 Sable, three herrings hauriant argent, a chief or, were the arms of Sir Thomas Kytson, Sheriff of London in 1533, who held estates in the counties of Suffolk, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, and Nottingham. His daughter, Katherine, married Sir John Spencer of Wormleighton, in Warwickshire, one of the ancestors of the Earl Spencer ; and the arms of Kytson, typical of this descent, are quartered in the achievement of that noble family. Sir Thomas Gage, Baronet, of Hengrave, in Suffolk, is a repre- sentative, through the noble family of Darcy, of that of Kytson.* John Gage Rokewode, Esq. F.R.S., the historian of Hengrave, and son of Sir Thomas Gage, the sixth Baronet, has taken the name and arms of Rokewode. Vert, a herring hauriant argent, were the arms of Benjamin Harenc, Esq. of Foots Cray, Sheriff of Kent in 1777, and his crest, still playing upon the name, a heron, holding in the bill a herring". Argent, on a chevron engrailed between three wolves' 1 heads erased sable, a lozenge or, between two herrings of the first, are the arms of the family of Harries, of Loughton in Essex, and of Prickwell in Sussex. Azure, a cross flory between six herrings or, are the arms of the family of Heigham. * The arms and many seals of the family of Kytson are engraved in the History of Hengrave, 1822. 156 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Cob is a word of many meanings ; among others, that of her- ring. A young fish is called a herring cob : that this was the case appears from a passage in Jonson's comedy of " Every Man in his Humour,' 1 in which Cob, the water-bearer, punning on his own name, calls himself " the descendant of a king," the herring being known as the king of fish. His ancestor, he says, was " the first red-herring broiled in Adam and Eve's kitchen, and his Cob (that is, his son) was my great, great, mighty great, grandfather." The arms of the family of Cobb of Sandringham, on the coast of Norfolk, near Lynn, are sable, a chevron argent between three cob-fish naiant or, a chief of the last. A branch of this family was seated at Adderbury, in Oxfordshire, in the reign of Elizabeth, and in the chancel of that church is a monument to the memory of some of its members. Thomas Cobb, Esq. of Adderbury was created Baronet by King Charles II. in 1662. Sir George Cobb, Bart., who died in 1762, was the last of the family of Adderbury. Another family of Cobb, of Sbarnbrook, in Bedfordshire, bears gules, a chevron wavy between three cob-fish naiant argent, on a chief of the last two sea-cobs, or gulls, sable. The arms of the family of Cobb of Snettisham, in Norfolk, are party per chevron sable and argent, in chief two sea-cobs respecting each other, and in base a herring naiant or.* * Mackerell's History of Lynn. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 157 FISHING-NETS. The nets used in fishing and fowling very frequently formed part of the heraldic devices assumed as ensigns by the lords of manors in the early periods of history ; instances are given by Palliot * under the words Reseau, netting, and Rets, a net. Azure, a bend argent charged with a net gules, were the arms of Fouet, Seigneur of Domes and Raiz, the first President of the Chamber of Accounts at Dijon ; and azure, a net or, with a chief argent, charged with three escallops gules, were the an- cient arms of Vulcana of Naples. The ornamental reticulations which are found in shields of arms are heraldically termed fretty ; but, if the same is composed of separate pieces, frets ; and strewed over the shield, mascles : these are referred by our own writers on heraldry, Guillim and Nisbet, to the nets used by the fishermen, which probably sug- gested the Rete of the gladiators. It is well known to the classi- cal reader that in the contests of the Retiarii and Mirmillones, the first, with nets of cord, entangled their opponents, whose name of Mirmillones, derived from the Greek, arose from the fish crests by which they were originally distinguished. The importance of the various nets used in river and sea fish- ing, by which the different kinds of fish are procured with facility, was not overlooked ; the larger draught-nets were kept in the manor-house : a great sean and a less sean were deposited in one of the galleries at Skipton Castle. *f* The serfs employed as fishermen, were, in early times, conveyed to a purchaser along with the fishery when it was sold ; the most expert fishermen on our coasts were then unable to avail themselves of the riches by which they were surrounded. Le Fleming, an ancient Cumberland family, bears gules, a fret argent ; Vernon of Shipbrooke, in Cheshire, argent, a fret sable ; and gules, a fret or, is the armorial ensign of the Lords Audley, who use the motto " Je le tiens. 11 Azure, fretty argent, are the arms of the ancient family of Cave of Stanford, in Leicestershire, with the punning motto " Cave, 11 beware the net. These are now borne by the Baroness Brave, daughter of the late Sir Thomas Cave, Baronet, and lineal heiress of Lord Brave in the reign of Henry VIII. * " Science des Arnioirios." + Whitaker's History of Craven. 158 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Or, fretty azure, are the arms of the Lords Willoughby ; and argent, fretty sable, on a canton gules a chaplet or, those of the Lords of Irby, in Lincolnshire, now borne by the Lord Bos- ton. Or, fretty gules, a canton ermine, are the arms of the family of Noel, of which the Earl of Gainsborough and the Earl of Lovelace are representatives. The mascles of heraldry are formed precisely like the meshes of the nets of the fisherman, and were borne in the arms of the most ancient and noblest families. Argent, seven mascles con- joined azure, are the arms of the Lords of Braybrook, in North- amptonshire, from whom, through the family of Latimer, the Lords Braybrooke are descended. Gules, seven mascles conjoined or, are the arms of the families of Quincy and Ferrers : fishing with a golden net was one of the luxuries practised by the Emperor Nero.* Sable, a fret argent, is the armorial distinction of the ancient Lords of Harrington, a manor and sea-port on the coast of Cum- berland, where herrings are plentiful : the literal meaning of the name is herring enclosure. In the reign of Edward II. Sir John de Harrington was sum- moned to Parliament as a peer. The baronies of Harrington and Bonvile became united in the reign of Henry VI. and subse- quently passed to the family of the Lords Grey of Groby, whose representative, the Earl of Stamford, bears the arms of Harring- ton as one of his quarterings to show his lordship's title to the barony by descent. Sable, a fret or, the arms of the Lords Maltravers of Lytchet, in Dorsetshire, seem to have been assumed in direct allusion to * Suetonius. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 159 the name, the net being hard to penetrate. These arms are quartered with those of Howard by the Duke of Norfolk, K.Gr., Lord Maltravers by descent. The noble family of Netterville of Douth Castle, county of Meath in Ireland, bear, argent, a cross gules, fretty or, in allu- sion to the name. Nicholas Netterville was created Viscount Netterville of Douth by King James in 1622. Azure, fretty or, a canton of the last, are the arms, and a salmon naiant the crest, of the family of Willeigh, or Willeley. The sizes of fishing-nets are little known, those used in the river Severn are limited in length to seventy-five yards : * the large and strong nets used in the herring fishery form a kind of hedge in the sea a mile in length, and those used for mackerel extend two miles. "f* THE PILCHARD. The Pilchard is a fish resembling the herring, but is smaller and thicker ; its name is derived from Peltzer, a term by which it was known to the early naturalists. Mount's Bay, on the Cornish coast, is one of the chief stations of the pilchard fishery ; this beautiful bay receives its name from Saint Michael's Mount, a singular rock connected with the town of Marazion by a narrow causeway of pebbles.;}: Job Militon, Esq. Governor of Saint Michael's Mount in the reign of Henry VIII, built Pengersick Castle, on the banks of Mount's Bay. His arms were gules, a chevron or, between three pilchards * Nash's History of Worcestershire. f Notes on Nets, or the Quincunx, by the Hon. and Rev. C. Bathurst, LL.D. J Saint Michael is represented on the old seal of Ilelston holding a shield charged with the arms of England. 160 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. naiant argent. William Militon, Esq. of Pengersick, his son, and Sheriff of Cornwall, died in 1565, when the estate passed to his six sisters, his coheiresses. The same arms, a chevron be- tween three pilchards, are borne by the family of Millington of Devonshire. Argent, a chevron gules between two roses in chief, and a pil- chard naiant, are the arms of the ancient family of Roscarrock of Endellion, a port on the British Channel famed for its pilchard fishery. The annual fishery on the coast of Cornwall is of great importance, and a source of wealth to the whole county. The shoals of pilchards in the autumn are discerned many miles off by the singular appearance of a red line on the sea a mile long, and their progress has no parallel in the history of the finny tribe. They are first seen among the Scilly Islands, thirty miles from the Land's End ; and the shoals, dividing there, pass up the northern and southern channels into the creeks and harbours; and swimming near the surface on the coast, till they arrive at Bude Haven on the north, and off Plymouth on the south, they, without apparent cause, plunge into deep water, and are not discovered afterwards. The borough of Truro, incorporated by Queen Elizabeth in 1589, had formerly jurisdiction over Falmouth, a celebrated fishing station. The seal of the corporation, rudely designed, bears a fishing vessel, and in the waves beneath two pilchards, in allusion to the peculiar produce of Cornwall. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 161 Port Looe, at the month of the river of the same name, is one of the fishing stations whence both pilchards and oil are exported to various ports in the Mediterranean. The seal of the town represents a fishing vessel with three shields on its side, each charged with the arms of the family of Bodrugan, the ancient lords of the manor. A Looe token, struck in the reign of Charles II, during a scarcity of copper money, bears the type i:/w.aH 1 X\ .•:•. M O, of its chief produce, a pilchard, here familiarly termed a Looe trout. The seal of the town of Fowey, dated 1702, bears a shield charged with a fishing vessel, the pilchard fishery being of considerable importance at this port. THE SPRAT. The Sprat seems only to have been assumed in heraldry in reference to a name. Argent, a chevron sable, between three sprats naiant azure, are the arms of the family of Sprat of Dor- setshire. The Rev. Thomas Sprat, author of the History of the Royal Society, was, in the year 1 684, made Bishop of Rochester. M 162 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. His arms are sculptured on the monument, in Westminster Abbey church, erected to his memory and that of his son, the Rev. Thomas Sprat, Archdeacon of Rochester. Sable, a fess between six sprats hauriant or, are the arms of the family of Sprotton. Sprats, small sea fish, are found in abundance on the coast of Suffolk, where they are cured at Aldborough, in almost the same manner as the herrings at Yarmouth. In Scotland these fish are termed garvies, and are taken in the Forth throughout the whole of the year. Inch Garvie, or Sprat Island, is in the middle of the Frith, near Queen's Ferry. A garvie-fish naiant is the crest of a family of Fisher of Scot- land : and azure, three garvie-fish naiant in pale argent, within a border or ; crest, a hand holding a garvie-fish, are the armorial ensigns of the family of Garvine of Scotland. Or, on a bend azure, three sardines argent, are the arms of the family of Sartine of France ; a name derived from the sardine, or sprat, of the Mediterranean. Azure, a bend or, charged with three sardines sable, are the arms of the Neapolitan family of Quarracino.* The sardine is the same as the anchovy, a common fish on the coasts of Spain and France. Palliot. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 163 VII. The Mackerel, above all fish, exhibits the highest degree of elegance in form, and is well known by the brilliancy of its colours : the name is derived from its spotted body, macularius, and in most of the countries of Europe it is called by a term referring to its variegated appearance. These fish are only borne in heraldry in allusion to the name. Charlton Mackerel, in Somersetshire, obtained its designation at a very early period. Gules, three mackerel hauriant argent, are the arms of Mackerell of Norwich, of which family there are monuments in the church of Saint Stephen in that city. Benjamin Mackerell, an industrious antiquary of Norwich, printed a " History of King's Lynn, in Norfolk,' 1 in 1 7*38, and was the author of several heraldic collections, amongst which was " Insignia Armorum," a manuscript, with drawings of the arms of all the nobility of England, &c. in 1728.* Per fess azure and vert, three mackerel naiant in pale, are the arms of the family of Mackrill. Argent, on a chevron between three mackerel gules, a rose, with a chief chequy of the first and second, are the arms of Doc- tor Macbride, the learned Principal of Magdalen Hall, Oxford. The three mackerel, often used as a sign in fishing towns, probably indicate a house of entertainment kept by a fisherman. * H. Bohn's Catalogue, 1841. m 2 164 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The salmon at Flybridge on the Tweed, and the trout at Yewsley on the Colne, are signs which in like manner originated with brothers of the angle. These symbols are not entirely without interest to the poetical mind ; Swift acknowledges that, when travelling with the Lord Treasurer Harley, they Would gravely try to read the lines Writ underneath the country signs. An intelligent author, noticing the variety of signs in Germany, says that " nature, history, and imagination have alike been taxed to supply this gallery of emblems ; they are adapted to every fancy and to every age : besides lions and eagles, lambs and doves, the naturalist will find birds and beasts of every un- natural colour and form.'"* Many old signs of inns are heraldic, and, in the association with local and historical circumstances, these manorial cognizances attain a degree of interest. It re- quires but little knowledge of history to descry the white swan, the ancient badge of the Clares, at the inn of Clare, and the half- moon of the Percys at that of Petworth : the peacock of the Lords de Ros is a sign at Northampton, as well as the goat of the Russells at Woburn. A very common sign is made still more familiar by Shakspeare, as old Nevile's crest, The rampant bear chain'd to the ragged staff. Mackerel arc dispersed over the immense surface of the deep, and approach the shores in all directions, roving along the coast. At the various fishing towns of the kingdom immense shoals are collected and caught, and the mackerel season is one of great bustle and activity. As an article of food this fish must be eaten very fresh, and on that account is cried by the venders even in the public streets of the metropolis; the only remaining instance, it is believed, of the London Cries, which in the time of Queen Anne issued from a hundred mouths, a hundred tongues, And throats of brass inspired with iron lungs ; cries which the gallant Will Honeycomb*!" preferred to the sounds of larks and nightingales, with all the music of the fields and woods. * Turnbull's Austria. t The Spectator. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 165 VTIT. 1f)t StaMocfc, ®oti, $afce, ftfaS* safiittng, antr Burfiot* Tins division of the heraldry appertaining to fish includes the most valuable sort as an article of commerce, and those which are universally known. Haddocks are found in shoals on the coasts of Great Britain, from the Land's End to the extreme North. Findhorn, on the Moray Frith, is particularly famed for its haddocks, which are landed at Leith, and brought to the Edinburgh market by the women of Fisher-row. A punning allusion to the name is found in the crest of the family of Had- dock of Lancashire, a dexter hand holding 1 a haddock. Captain William Haddock, avIio was honoured by a gold me- dal presented by the Parliament for his gallantry in the memo- rable action with the Dutch fleet in IGoo, was the grandfather of Admiral Nicholas Haddock. A popular idea assigns the dark marks on the shoulders of the haddock to the impression left by Saint Peter with his finger and thumb when he took the tribute money out of the fish's mouth at Capernaum;* but the haddock certainly does not now exist in the seas of the country where tin; miracle was performed, although it ranges over a considerable space both north and south. The Dory, called Saint Peter's fish in several countries of Europe, contends with the haddock the honour of bearing the marks of the Apostle's fingers, an impression transmitted to pos- terity as a perpetual memorial of the miracle ; the name of Dory is hence asserted to be derived from the French word adore, worshipped. The fishermen of the Adriatic call it il Janitore, " The Gospol of Saint Matthew, chap. xvii. 166 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. the gatekeeper, Saint Peter being well known as the bearer of the keys of Paradise. Saint Peter was the first of the followers of Christ to declare the glories of salvation, and his artless simplicity and humble character gave effect to his preaching on the minds of the earliest converts. As this saint is the especial patron of fishermen, and of fishmongers, the boat used for fishing in the Thames is called a Peter-boat ; and the keys, the emblem of Saint Peter, form part of the armorial ensigns of the Fishmongers' Company. Party per bend, azure and argent, a key and a fish counter- changed, are the arms of the mitred abbey of Petershausen on the banks of Lake Constance. The Pope is commonly represented in the character of Saint Peter, in the early periods of art, bearing in his hand the keys of heaven.* The power of the keys assumed by the Pope, and understood as the privilege of passing judgment on departed souls, is derived from the metaphorical expression of Christ re- corded in the Gospel. -j* The committal of the keys to Saint Peter forms the subject of one of the Cartoons by RafFaellc at Hampton Court palace, and is worked in tapestry on the walls of the Vatican, founded by Pope Nicholas V, who bore for his personal arms, gules, two crossed keys or. The keys of Saint Peter are also borne in the arms of the Archbishopric of York, in those of the Bishopric of Peterborough, by several of the English and Irish bishoprics, and by Saint Peter's College, Cambridge. ! Sometimes the Apostle is represented with two keys in his hand, and at others with ;i double key, surmounted by a cross. f Saint Matthew, chap. xvi. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 167 A haddock embowed, over an episcopal liat, is the crest of the German Baron von Eytzing.* The type of the connexion between the dignity of the Church and the humble employment of Saint Peter is not entirely dis- regarded by the sovereign pontiff: his signet, the fisherman's ring, Tanello del piscatore, represents Saint Peter drawing his nets ; and the celebrated Naviculo di Giotto, in mosaic, over the portal of Saint Peter's church at Rome, is designed from the same subject. The story of Tobias and the fish, from the Apocrypha, forms part of the heraldry of the Armenian family of Raphael. The arms borne by Alexander Raphael, Esq. Sheriff of London in 1834, are quarterly azure and argent, a cross moline or : "f" in the first quarter a sun in splendour ; in the second the Ark on Mount Ararat ; a city at its base, inscribed Naksivan ; \ in the third, the angel Raphael § and Tobias on the banks of the Tigris, thereon a fish ; and in the fourth quarter an anchor in bend, with the cable entwined or. These arms afford a striking ex- ample of the false taste often shown in modern heraldic com- position : here the very rudiments of the art, the principles which guided the older heralds, and the simplicity of existing models of early date, are all abandoned for the sake of extrava- gant novelty, showing more forcibly than any written satire the decline and corruption of heraldry. The departure from the true and authentic style of arms painting, equally conspicuous, is * Sibmacher. f The cross, a brilliant addition to the splendour of the shield, was made subject to an almost indescribable number of forms, as the chief emblem of Christianity. J "The word Naksivan is Armenian. Noah settled there when he left tlie Ark after the Deluge, and named it from nak, ship, and sivan, rest ; it is consequently the oldest city in the world." — Calmet. § " The name of Raphael, the angel who restored Tobit's sight by means of the fish, implies Divine remedy." — Cm. -MET. 168 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. justly censured by an eminent critic in heraldry.* The charac- teristics of a rude but contemporary era are violently destroyed, the vestiges of early art are confused and annihilated ; and who, the same author inquires, would wish to exchange for the more polished inventions of later times, devices which have been so long regarded with a kind of religious veneration ? Some herald painters were undoubtedly men of talent ; Smirke, Baker, and Catton became members of the Royal Academy. Baker, celebrated for painting flowers, enveloped the arms of the nobility in gorgeous wreaths ; Catton, who excelled in animals, painted the arms on the royal carriages in the early part of the reign of George the Third ; and Smirke, distinguished as an historical painter, enriched the panels of the Lord Mayor's state carriage. As an independent profession, herald painting hardly existed after the year 1790, when Strickland was employed by Hatchet, the principal coachmaker in Long-acre. COD. The Codfish generally live in the seas of cold climates, and by their abundance are important as objects of commerce ; they are taken all round the coast of Great Britain, and on the north and west of Scotland extensive fisheries are carried on, but the Dogger Bank cod are the most esteemed. Sable, a chevron between three codfish naiant argent, are borne as arms by the family of Codd ; and azure, three codfish naiant in pale argent, are the arms of the family of Beck. This fish has a lance-shaped body, covered with small scales; Heraldic Inquiries, by the Rev. James Dallaway, I7f'3. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 169 as it inhabits deep water, its capture is only attempted with the line and hook. Each fisher only takes one cod at a time, and will take from three hundred and fifty to four hundred in a day ; vessels of a hundred and fifty tons' 1 burthen trading to Newfoundland bring home upwards of thirty thousand fish, but, as Lent approaches, the ship will sometimes return with only half her cargo. Dried cod, the stockfish of the early ages, formed a very con- siderable portion of the food of the nation, both during Lent and on the frequent fast-days enjoined by religion. Besides the pure spiritual end, a second object, in civil respects, was probably in- tended, as by the institution of Lent the prosperity of fishermen was successfully advanced. The trade of preserving fish appears to have been, from the very earliest period, more dignified than that of catching them ; the curers and salters of fish are represented on the monuments of Egypt as superior in appearance to the fishermen of that country. The fish of Egypt, as shown in the paintings on the walls of the Theban palaces,* were divided lengthwise by a knife not unlike that now used for splitting the codfish at Newfoundland ; but their fish were cured with fossil salt, pro- cured from the African desert, sea-salt being deemed by the priests impure. Home salted and cured fish were in England considered as superior to foreign, and the latter were forbidden to be imported in the reign of Elizabeth. The fairs of Sturbridge, Ely, and St. Ives, noted for the provision offish, were then much used by the inhabitants of London. Dried fish has long been an article of British commerce, and is chiefly exported to Italy and Spain. One of the most curious productions of the early poetical lite- rature of Spain, collected by the industry of Sanchez, *f- is " The Battle of Mr. Carnal with Mrs. Lent, 1 '' written by Juan Ruiz, who flourished about the middle of the fourteenth century. In this poem, which is not without humour and sprightliness, the beasts and fish are arrayed in mortal combat, ending in the total dis- comfiture of the former : the fish and the holy cause obtain the victory, and Mr. Carnal is condemned to fast, unless in case of illness, upon one spare meal of fish a day. j Previously, the remembrance of the duty of fasting was en- forced by the means of rude sculptures and pictures, and these * CaillaiuTs Egypt. t Colcccion clc Poesias Castellanas, &c. Madrid, 1/90. + Article on Castilian Poetry in thu Retrospective Review, vol. vi. 170 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. necessary helps to popular devotion are also to be found in the enrichments of architecture. A grotesque figure with out- stretched arms, holding up the fish and the wassail bowl, may be considered as an appropriate type of the fasts and festivals of the Church in the eleventh century. This is shown on one of the capitals in the undercroft, or crypt, by no means the least interesting part of Canterbury Cathedral, the erection of which is attributed to Archbishop Lanfranc. It was from these rude attempts of art that the clergy derived the method of instruction in the due observance of church solemnities long before the invention of printing, and when manuscript books were not to be obtained but with diffi- culty and at great cost. It was the general demand for fish at stated seasons, when it formed the sole article of food, which contributed to the wealth and importance of the fish-merchants, who, as a guild, acquired consequence at a very early period in London. In the year 1 21)8, in honour of the return of King Edward I. from his vic- tory over the Scots, the citizens, every one according to their craft, proceeded through the city : the mystery of fishmongers on this occasion assumed the badges of their trade, and had four sturgeons, gilt, carried on horses ; then four salmon of silver on horses ; then forty-six armed knights, riding on horses like luces of the sea, followed by one in the character of Saint Magnus, with a thousand horsemen. To this saint the church in New Fish Street, or Fish-street Hill, was dedicated, and now bears on its front his statue : he was considered, probably, as the pa- tron of the fishmarket. Billings-gate, a port for shipping, was not distinguished as a fishmarket until Parliament, in 16'99, made it a free port for fish. The earliest charters extant in possession of the Fishmongers' 1 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 171 Company, by King Edward III, confirm the grants imme- morially made to them by his predecessors. In 1881, Sir Wil- liam Walworth, a renowned fishmonger, then Mayor of London, slew the insurgent Wat Tyler in Smithfield, in the presence of King Richard II. His dagger is carefully preserved among the archives of the company, and the event was formerly commemo- rated in the city pageants during the mayoralty of a fishmonger. In •' The Triumphs of London,"* performed at the cost of the Fishmongers, upon the inauguration of Sir Thomas Abney, Lord Mayor in 1700, a horseman in armour, with a dagger in his hand, represented Sir William Walworth ; the head of the rebel A Vat Tyler being borne aloft on a pike before him. This was again displayed in 1740, when another of the Fishmongers'' Company happened to be Lord Mayor. King Henry VI. united the Stockfishmongers and other branches of the trade, and incorporated the whole under the general name of the Fishmongers of London,*!* but they were again separated in the reign of Henry VII. j The arms of the Saltfishmongers were gules, three crossed keys saltierwise or, on a chief azure three dolphins embowed argent. Their arms appear in stained glass in the western side of the splendid windows of the north transept of Canterbury Cathedral, together with the arms of the City of London and those of Thomas Bernwell, citizen and fishmonger, who was Sheriff in 1435. § The Stockfishmongers bore for arms, azure, two sea luces in * Printed for R. Barnham, in Little Britain, 1/00. f Charter 11 Henry VI. J 21 Henry VII. i Willement's Heraldic Notices. 172 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. saltier, proper, with coronets over their months or : the fish here intended is the hake, the merlucius of the naturalist, common on the southern coast of England, large quantities of which are pre- served, both by salting and drying, for exportation, chiefly to Spain. The hake is described and figured by Rondelet of Mont- pelier, and was known to the older naturalists before him. These companies of merchants, amongst the most important of the city guilds, had no less than six Halls for the transaction of business, in regulating the fishery, and registering the men and erafts employed in it. Two Halls were situated in Old Fish Street, two in New Fish Street, near London liridge, and two in Thames Street. The two companies of Salt and Stockfish- mongers, both under the patronage of Saint Peter, were united in 1536, when they obtained a charter from King Henry VIII; but the company acts at present under the authority of a char- ter of incorporation, dated 2nd of King James I, to which the great seal of England is attached. This company formerly maintained three chaplains, and, be- sides being benefactors to the churches of Saint Peter, in West Cheap, and Saint Peter, in Cornhill, the southern aisle of Saint Michael's, Crooked Lane, was particularly distinguished as the Fishmongers 1 Chapel, or the Chapel of Saint Peter. The chap- lains assisted at all their funerals, and the superb ornamental pall used on these occasions is yet preserved.* It is made of a rich velvet with a broad fringe, and bears on its sides in embroidery the figure of Jesus Christ delivering the keys to Saint iVter, between the arms of the Fishmongers 1 Company as now It resembles that belonging to the Sadlcrs' Company, which is engraved in Mr. Shaw's " Decorations of the Middle Ages," loll. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 173 used ; at the ends is represented the Apostle Saint Peter in pon- tificalibus : this is called " Walworth's Pall, ,-! but is evidently of the time of Henry VIII, when the arms were granted. The insignia now borne, an amalgamation of the two arms formerly used, were confirmed to the company by Robert Cooke, Clarenceux King of Arms in 1575;* the grant of arms was araiii confirmed in the rear 1634. The present Hall of the Fishmongers"' Company was rebuilt in 1834; on the staircase is the statne of Walworth, by Peirce, and in one of the rooms are eight very curious and ancient pic- tures of fish, in all seasons, containing a hundred different sorts, but it is not known by whom painted. In the old Hall, de- stroyed by the fire of London, were arms in the windows of twenty-two Lord Mayors, of the Fishmongers 1 Company, from * Azure, three dolphins embowed in pale between two pair of sea luces saltierwise proper, crowned or ; on a chief gules, six keys, in three saltiers, ward ends upwards, of the second. Crest, two arms supporting an imperial crown. Supporters, a merman and mer- maid, the first armed, and the latter with a mirror in her left hand. Motto, " All wor- ship be to God only." 174 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. John Lovekin to Sir John Leman ; and twenty-eight Lord Mayors, fishmongers and stockfishmongers, are enumerated by Strype, from the year 1349 to 1716.* Part of the wealth of the company is devoted to charitable purposes, and, among others, to the support of Saint Peter's Hospital at Newington, in Surrey, founded in 1618. The fishermen were incorporated by King James II. in 1687, but they never arrived at the opulence and distinction of the fish-merchants. Fish afford an inexhaustible harvest, ripe for gathering at all seasons of the year, without the labour of tillage, without expence of seed or manure, and without the payment of rent and taxes ; yet Hard is the life the weary fisher finds, Who trusts his floating mansion to the winds, Whose daily food the fickle sea maintains, Unchanging labour and uncertain gains. Long before the discovery of Newfoundland a very consider- able fishery for cod was established off the Orkney and Shetland Islands, but the principal supply for the countries of Europe was obtained from Iceland and the coasts of Norway. Gules, a stockfish argent, crowned or, are the appropriate arms of Iceland. These arms are borne by the kings of Denmark in the royal achievement, illustrating in the simplest manner the source of a chief part of their revenue. All the seas of Denmark, of which the kings assume the sole dominion, are well stored with fish, and the regality is farmed : the predominance of dried fish in this country is noticed by the earliest voyagers, " Of Iseland to write is little nede, save of stockfish." -f- Gules, three fish without heads or, arms quartered by the * History of London. t Hakluyt's Principal Navigations &c. 1589. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 175 family of Bawde,* are presumed to be intended for stockfish, an article of commerce productive of great wealth. Fishing vessels form a charge in the heraldry of families de- rived from ancestors who were bound to perform service to the king on account of their maritime lordships, or in consequence of the insular position of their fiefs. Small undecked vessels, containing not more than two or three fishermen, were originally used on the north-western coasts of Great Britain : the fishermen were, however, skilful and dexterous in catching the different species of the finny tribe which abound in the lakes and rivulets of the Orkneys and the seas around. Azure, a ship at anchor, her oars in saltier, within a double tressure counterflory or, are the arms of the Sinclairs, ancient Earls of Orkney ; now borne by their descendant the Earl of Caithness, Lord Lieutenant of that county. The first Earl of Caithness, Lord Chancellor of Scotland, was the third Earl of Orkney, but surrendered that title to the crown when those islands devolved to King James III. on his marriage with Mar- garet of Denmark. Argent, a lymphad, or fishing galley, sable, with pennant gules, were the arms of the Mac Dougals, ancient Lords of Lorn, in Argyleshire, bounded by the sea : these arms are now quartered with those of Campbell by the Duke of Argyll, Marquess of Lorn, &c. and hereditary Sheriff of Argyleshire ; his grace being descended from Isabel, daughter and heiress of Lord Lorn, who married the first Earl of Argyll, and also inherited the estate of the Mac Dougals. The lymphad, or galley, which occurs so very frequently in Scottish heraldry, is the Highland fishing boat, one of which is represented on a sculptured fragment in Iona or Icolmkill, a celebrated island of the Hebrides. -f" The original is cut into the * Bedfordshire Pedigrees.— Lansd. MS. 864. t MacculloclTs Western Islands, 1819. 176 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. stone, nearly in the manner of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the same form was doubtless used by the ancient Greeks in the construction of those Sea- wandering barks that o'er the iEgcan sail, With pennants streaming to the northern gale. A seal of the family of Campbell of Craiginch, where the fish- ery is a source of considerable revenue, bears a shield gyronny of eight, hanging on the mast of a vessel.* A pair of oars in saltier is the crest of the Campbells of Skip- ness, in the district of Kintyre, assumed with reference to the situation of their domain on the sea coast; the remains of Skip- ncss Castle arc said to be of high antiquity. Argent, a ship with her sails furled sable, is the ensign of the Earldom of Arran, an island on the western coast of North Bri- tain, and is borne with the arms of his paternal house by the Duke of Hamilton, K.G., premier peer of Scotland. Azure, in the base waves vert, a ship in full course or, rigged gules, are the arms of the family of Craike, a name derived from Carack, a ship. It was from the nautilus, a shell-fish, and a re- presentative in miniature of a ship, that the primitive idea of navigation was acquired : man first Learnt of the little nautilus to sail, Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale. The primeval boat may have been an excavated tree, but ves- * Nisbet's Heraldry. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 177 sels were soon afterwards formed of small planks : the rigging of boats on Egyptian monuments proves that they were in- tended for the river. Some of the boats of the Britons were sufficient for voyages from Orkney to Ireland ; in the western islands they were built of oak planks, and carried one mast and sail, with which the intrepid mariners boldly launched into the ocean, neither intimidated by danger nor subdued by difficulties. The mode practised by the bold navigators of the stormy northern ocean of steering their course, before the mariner's com- pass was in use, was exceedingly simple. Flok, a Norwegian, when sailing from Gardarsholme, in Shetland, to Iceland, took on board some crows ; and, after making part of his course, he threw up a crow, which seeing land astern, flew to it : keeping his course some time longer, the second crow sent out, seeing no land, returned to the vessel : the last crow thrown up, seeing land ahead, immediately flew for it ; and Flok, following his guide, fell in with the eastern part of the island.* The invention of the mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio di Melfi, a Neapolitan, about the year 1302, and in commemoration of this discovery, the territory of Principato, where he was born, assumed the compass for an armorial distinction. The variation of the compass was unknown till Columbus, in his first voyage, observed that the needle declined from the meridian as he ad- vanced across the Atlantic ; the dip of the magnetic needle was discovered by Robert Norman in 1576. Even at the close of the fifteenth century England possessed no royal navy ; her fleets were hired of the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, or provided by the merchants, and the Cinque Ports. No ship carried three masts before the year 1488, when the " Great Harry 11 was launched, and which appears to have been the first with that number. In 1515 the "Henri Grace de 01611" was built with port-holes ; previously ships had but one deck, and by the invention of ports the number of decks was increased to two, and even three. Queen Elizabeth, being aware how much the defence of her kingdom depended on its naval armaments, encouraged every attempt to increase its force and promote the arts of navigation and commerce. A ship under reef, drawn round the globe with a cable by a hand out of the clouds, and over it this motto, " Auxilio Di- * Macpherson's Annals of Commerce 1 805. 178 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. vino," is the crest of the family of Drake of Buckland, in Devon- shire, heirs and representatives of the celebrated circumnavigator, Sir Francis Drake, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth on board his own ship, the Golden Hind, at Deptford, 4 April 1581. The impressions of the seals belonging to the corporations of the Cinque Ports, and their dependencies, show the form of the earliest ship, the tenure by which their privileges were held. These were, Dover, Hastings, Romney, Sandwich, Feversham, Hythe, Pevensey, Rye, and Winchilsea. Upon the seal of the Barons of Dover is a faithful representation of the fishing vessel of the time of Edward I. The Barons of the Cinque Ports in the reign of Edward III. were bound to furnish the King with fifty-seven ships, when summoned, to go to war. Shoreham, at the mouth of the Adur, as well as Scaford and Tenterden, bears the fishing vessel, as an ensign, on the town seal. The same emblem of maritime im- portance is to be found on the early seals of the ports of Yar- mouth and Ipswich, of Newport and Newtown in the Isle of Wight, of Lymington, Lyme, and of Portsmouth. In Wales, the corporation seals of Haverford West and Beaumaris are also so distinguished. The mottos of some towns in Scotland are assumed with a similar view. Renfrew, the ancient inheritance of the royal THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 179 house of Stuart, and formerly of more consequence as a port, bears " Deus gubernat navem," God steers the vessel ; and the royal burgh of Montrose, one of the best harbours on the eastern coast, and which gives title to a dukedom, bears as a motto " Mare ditat, rosa decorat," the sea enriches and the rose adorns. Lordships, or fiefs, situated on the sea-coast possess various rights of anchorage, salvage, and fishing ; not only all kinds of ships and boats, but their several parts, are consequently found in the heraldry of lords of maritime manors. Shields of arms are charged with hulls, stems, sterns, and rudders, masts with their tops and tackling, sails, oars, cables, and anchors. It is of parts of a ship also that the naval crown is formed.* The buoy of a ship, blazoned or, is a cognizance of the Nevilles, in allusion to the office of Admiral, held by their ancestor under the Norman kings. The Earl of Abergavenny also quarters with his paternal arms, or, fretty gules, on a canton per pale ermine and of the first, a galley sable, for Neville the admiral ; the charges bearing allusion to the net and the fishing vessel, pressed into the king's service on occasion of war, A ship under full sail was the device of Andrea Doreo, Admi- ral of Spain, with the motto " Omnia fortuna? committo," I commit all to fortune. Gules, the hull of a ship, having only a mast without rigging or, were the arms of the Duke Albertus de Alasco, of Poland, with the motto, " Deus dabit vela," God will give sails. The stern of the Spanish line-of-battle ship " San Jose" was granted to Admiral Lord Nelson in 1801, after the victory of the Nile, as a crest, with a motto, said to have been chosen by the King himself, " Pal mam qui meruit feral," lot him who merits bear the palm. The stern of his own flag-ship, the Royal Sovereign, was, in like manner, granted as a crest to Admiral Lord Collingwood in 1807. Some British admirals have as- sumed the name of the ship in which they gained their renown, as a motto, when it happened to convey some other meaning, as, " Zealous," " Temerairc," " Superb," &c. A ship's mast, the top and sail down, was used as a cognizance by Rene d'Anjou, the father of Margaret, queen of Henry VI. A mainmast, the round-top set off with palisadoes or, and a lion issuant sable, is the crest of the family of Carew of Devonshire. * See page 44, a naval crown, part of the crest of Admiral Sir William Burnaby, Bart. 180 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. A rudder sable, the tiller and stays or, is the badge of the Lords Zouche The antique rudder upon which the goddess leans, and the prow of a ship that appears at her feet, distin- guish Britannia on the Roman medals ; after the Conquest the rudder from the sides of vessels was placed in the centre of the stern. Or, an anchor between three fish naiant azure, are the arms of the family of Habgood. The seal of the town of Cardigan, on the river Teivy, bears, a ship under sail, with the legend "Anchora spei Caeretic est in te, Domine," the anchor of Cardigan's hope is in thee, Lord. In the fishery of the Teivy the ancient coracle, a specimen of the original British navigation, continues to be used. The allegorical figures of Hope, each bearing an anchor, sup- porters to the arms of the Earl of Hopetoun, were probably assumed in allusion to the name of his family, together with the motto, " At spes non fracta," but hope is not lost. As Lord High-Admiral, in the reign of Henry VIII, the Earl of Southampton bore the anchor as a cognizance, and it still remains sculptured on the ceiling of the porch at Cowdray House in Sussex, built by him. In 1539 he received the Lady Anne of Cloves at Calais, on which occasion he wore, suspended to a golden chain, a whistle of gold set with precious stones, such as was then used by officers of the highest rank in communicating orders. The whistle is now only worn by the boatswain, but forms part of the arms granted to Admiral Lord Havvke.* New Hampshire, in the United States, has assumed for arms a ship upon the stocks. A similar device is borne by the town of Devonport, which originated in the foundation of a dockyard in the reign of William III, and was named by King George IV. in 1824. * Sec p;igo 1(1. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 181 There is a kind of aptitude in the names of ships, taken from the piscatory tribe which occupies the same region : the Levi- athan, the Grampus, the Shark, the Dolphin, the Pike, the Otter, and other inhabitants of the deep, as well as the Nautilus, swim the waters with their synonymous navigators. The first preachers of the Gospel were fishermen ; the original church represented, as nearly as might be, in its form the body of a ship, in allusion to that into which Jesus Christ entered ; which was always looked upon as a type of the church ; and as by the Apostolical constitutions the Church was to represent the ship of Saint Peter, the centre avenue formed the nave, and pre- serves the name. A sign ! Beneath the ship we stand ! The inverted vessel's arching side Forsaken, when the fisher-band Went forth to track a mightier tide.* In perfect accordance with this emblem of salvation, the seal of the priory of Saint Bartholomew, Smithfield, founded in 1102 by Habere, a minstrel and favourite of King Henry I, was de- signed to represent the church in a ship, floating on the waves : it is inscribed, " Credimus ante Deum, provide per Bartholo- meum." John de Passelaigue — literally, ship's wake — who was Bishop of Beller, in Burgundy, on the frontiers of Savoy, bore for arms, argent, a chevron gules, in chief two hearts charged with the name of Christ, and in base a ship sable, on waves vert, the sails gules, -f* Fish have often been made the vehicle of religious instruction; and for this purpose all the fine arts have been put in requisition. Amongst many pictures by the first masters, in which the finny tribe are introduced, that of Saint Anthony of Padua preaching to the fish, may be mentioned. This fine picture, by Salvator Rosa, is in the collection at Althorp House in Northampton- shire ; the sermon itself is given in Addison's Travels in Italy. On the conventual seal of Glastonbury Abbey are represented the figures of Saint Dunstan between Saint Patrick and Saint Benignus ; each has his emblem beneath his feet ; the last has a party of fish : perhaps, adds the historian of the abbey, he also preached to them, as Saint Anthony did. J * Ecclesia, a poem, by the Rev. R. S. Hawker, A.M. t Palliot. | Warner's History of Glastonbury Abbey, 1826. 182 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. A fish furnishing the University of Cambridge with a religious feast was the occasion of a tract, entitled " Vox Piscis, 11 or the Book-fish ; containing three treatises which were found in the belly of a codfish in Cambridge market, on Midsummer eve 1626.* This fish is said to have been taken in Lynn deeps, and, after finding a book within it, the fish was carried by the bedel to the vice-chancellor ; and coming as it did at the Commence- ment, the very time when good learning and good cheer were most expected, it was quaintly remarked, that this sea guest had brought his book and his carcass to furnish both. THE HAKE. Hakes are so abundant on the southern coast of England that as many as forty thousand are said to have been landed in one day on the shores of Mount's Bay in Cornwall. In Ireland hakes are taken nearly all round the island, and the fishery affords a principal source of employment in Wexford, the great fishing banks on the coast lying immediately off this county. The mayor's seal of the town of Wexford bears an heraldic illustration of the hake, its peculiar produce : on a fess wavy, between three dolphins embowed, three hakes naiant, with a coronet over each. Greatly out of season; cod gen particularly fine till May. ally comes into good season in October, and is THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 183 Gahvay Bay, on the western coast, is particularly distinguished as the Bay of Hakes, from the vast number of these fish which pursue the herrings into it. Gal way, an ancient town on the north-eastern side of this spacious hay, bears on its seal a fishing vessel, having a shield charged with the royal arms affixed to the mast, to denote the regality ; the fisheries affording an import- ant source of revenue. The inhabitants were formerly divided into thirteen tribes, each having exclusive commercial privileges, not entirely relinquished. Off the coast of Waterford, also, the hake is abundant, and it is said that a thousand fish have been taken with the line by six men in the course of a single night. The hake is frequently borne in heraldry in allusion to the name. Sable, seme of cross crosslets fitchy, three hakes hauri- ant argent, the arms of the family of Hacket of Niton, in the Isle of Wight, are quartered with the arms of Worsley and Pel- ham by the Earl of Yarborough. Agnes, daughter and heiress of John Hacket, Esq. of Niton, married John Lye, Esq. of Dorsetshire : their daughter and heiress, Anne, married Sir James Worsley, Constable of Oarisbrook Castle in the reign of Henry VIII.; by which match the manor of Apuldercomb, and other estates in the Isle of Wight, came into the possession of the Worsley family. Gules, three hakes luxuriant argent, are the arms of the ancient family of Hakehed of Ireland.* Another family of Hacket, also of Ireland, bears for arms, azure, three hakes hauriant argent ; and, vert, three hakes hau- riant argent, are the arms of the family of Doxey, some branches of which bear the fish in the arms or. Harl. MS. 5866. 184 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Argent, a chevron between three hakes hauriant gules, are the arms of the family of Hake of Devonshire ; a part of the country where the fish is abundant. Azure, a dolphin naiant between three cinquefoils argent, are the arms of Hagges of Scotland. THE WHITING. The Whiting is a delicate fish, well known, as it is caught in abundance all round the coast of Great Britain, and appears to be the same as the merlyng of antiquity. Merlyng fried, was among the dishes at the coronation of Katherine, queen of Henry V, which consisted entirely of fish. This fish is only borne in heraldry in reference to the name. A monument in the chancel of the church of Shillingford St. George, on the river Exe in Devonshire, to the memory of the Rev. John Whiting, who died in 1726, bears, three whitings naiant in pale. Another family of the name of Whiting bears for arms, argent, on a bend sable three whitings. Thomas Whiting was Chester Herald in the reign of Henry VIII, and probably bore the same punning allusion to his name for arms. There is extant a kind of literary bijou, a catalogue of Friends' 1 books, written by Quakers, published in 1708: this is much commended by Oldys, the bibliographer, who says, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 185 " Honest John Whiting has in this work borne away the gar- land, and left it a choice legacy to libraries, and as a looking- glass even to learned academies." Azure, three whitings hauriant argent, and crest, a whiting hauriant, are the armorial bearings of the family of Whittington. THE LING. This valuable species of sea-fish was an article of commercial importance in England as early as the reign of Edward III, when the price was regulated. The ports of Spain are the prin- cipal markets supplied with salted and dried ling. Argent, on a fess dancette azure, three lings' heads erased or, are the arms of the family of Caldwell of Staffordshire. Few other instances are probably to be found of the appli- cation of this fish as an heraldic bearing. THE BURBOT. The Bukijot is a species of ling, but lives in fresh water; it is found in the river Cam, as well as in several rivers of Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and Durham. The Trent also produces the burbot. The habits of the burbot are not unlike those of the eel, and, from its lurking and hiding itself in holes like the rabbit, it is called the coney-fish, whence it was doubtless assumed, with the coney, in the arms of Bishop Cheney, as a pun on his name. These are here given impaled with those of the see of Gloucester, created by King Henry VTII. in the year 1542, who endowed 186 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. the bishopric with the revenues of the monastery, founded in honour of Saint Peter at Gloucester, the church of which he ordained should be for ever the cathedral of the see. The arms of the bishopric were composed from the emblem of the patron saint, azure, two keys in saltier or. Argent, on a chevron azure, a coney courant between two burbot or coney-fish hauriant of the field, on a chief chequy argent and azure, a rose gules, were the arms of Richard Cheney, Bishop of Gloucester, who died in 1578, and is buried in the cathedral. In the reign of Edward VI. Richard Cheney was Archdeacon of Hereford, but was deprived of his preferment in Queen Mary's time for upholding the opinions of Luther. After the accession of Elizabeth he was made a prebendary of Westminster, and in 1562 was consecrated Bishop of Gloucester, with liberty to hold the see of Bristol in commendam. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 187 IX. €f)t gole, tZurfiot, Paice, antr dploun&er* Thk Sole inhabits the sandy shores all round England, but those of the southern and western coasts are much larger and superior fish. From its delicate taste, the sole is termed " the partridge of the sea." Argent, a chevron gules between three soles hauriant, within a border engrailed sable, are the arms of the family of Soles of Brabane, in Cambridgeshire.* Vert, a chevron between three soles naiant or, are the arms of Soley of Shropshire. The heiress of a branch of this family married Randal Holme of Chester, deputy of Norroy King of Arms, and author of " The Academy of Armoury," 1 G88. The arms of Soley are sculptured on his monument in Saint Mary's Church, Chester, where he was interred in 1700. Per pale or and gules, a chevron counter-changed between three soles azure and argent, are the arms of the family of Soley of Worcester- shire. Gules, three soles naiant argent, are the arms of the family of De Soles. The whiff or carter of Cornwall is a species of sole, less esteemed : it keeps on sandy ground, at no great distance from land, and is caught as often as any of the salt-water flat-fish. Sable, a chevron ermine, between three carter-fish hauriant ar- gent, are the arms of the family of Carter of London, assumed evidently as a play upon the name. • Guillim. 188 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. THE TURBOT. The Turrot, one of the best, as well as one of the largest of the flat-fish, is found on all parts of the coast of Great Britain. On the shores of Yor-kshire and Durham a very considerable fish- ery for turbot is carried on by the fishermen of Scarborough and Hartlepool ; but preference is generally given to the Dutch, the finest of which are supposed to be taken on the Flemish banks. Azure, three turbots argent, finned or, are the arms of the ancient family of Turbutt of York. There is a monument in the church of Saint Michael Ouse Bridge for William Turbutt, who died in 1648; another William Turbutt was Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1710. These arms are found also on an engraved brassplate in Felis- kirk Church, near Thirsk ; which bears a Latin inscription in memory of William Turbutt of Mount Saint John, who died 13 April 1673. Mount Saint John is the site of a preceptory of the Knights Hospitallers of Saint John of Jerusalem, founded by Algernon Percy in the beginning of the reign of Henry I. Argent, three turbots naiant, are the arms of the family of Tar- THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 189 butt of Scotland ; and argent, three turbots fretted, are the arms of Tarbutt of Middlesex. A turbot naiant azure is the crest of the family of Ridley of Devonshire; and a demi-turbot erect, tail upwards, gules, is the crest of the family of Lawrence ; and was so borne by the late Sir Thomas Lawrence, President of the Royal Academy. Milton has a beautiful sonnet to " Lawrence, of virtuous father virtuous son. 1 '' The father was Henry Lawrence, President of the council of the Protector, created a peer in 1657. He was allied to Cromwell, and, after the death of Oliver, proclaimed Richard Cromwell his successor. He died in 1664, and was buried in the chapel of Saint Margaret at Stansted le Thele, in Hertfordshire, where his arms, a cross raguly, impaling those of Peyton, and the crest, a demi-turbot, are sculptured on his tomb. John Lawrence of Ramsey, in Huntingdonshire, in the reign of Henry VIII, was the ancestor of the family at Saint Ives, in the same county, of which Sir John Lawrence, the father of the President of the Council, was knighted at Windsor by King James I. previously to the coronation. It is from one of the younger sons of the President that the Lawrence family of Studley Park, and Hackfall in Yorkshire, are descended. The Lawrences of Ashton Hall, in Lancashire, are of very early origin. That estate has passed through heiresses from them to the Butlers of Raweliff; from the Butlers to the Rat- cliffs of Wimersley ; and from them to the Gerards of Bromley ; and Ashton Hall, through the heiress of the last Lord Gerard, descended to the Duke of Hamilton, K.G., who was created Duke of Brandon in 1711. Another branch of the Lawrence family was seated at Hert- ingfordbury in the reign of Henry VII, and became allied to the great and illustrious, to the ambitious Dudley, Duke of Nor- thumberland ; to the Earls of Warwick ; to Lord Guildford Dud- 190 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. ley; the brilliant Leicester; and to Sir Philip Sidney. Lord Heytesbury, as heir of the Vernons, is the representative of this branch of the Lawrence family.* One of the peculiar features of the old city of London was the number of houses enriched with plaster- work, skilfully modelled in imitation of foliage, fruit, heads of men, and animals, and most prominent heraldic insignia. A house of this description bore on its front the turbot crest and arms of Lawrence, dif- ferenced by a canton, and was the residence of Sir John Law- rence, Lord Mayor in 1665 : he was the grandson of a Fleming, who left the Netherlands in the reign of Elizabeth and settled in Great Saint Helen's, where Sir John built a mansion not un- worthy of the Doge of Genoa, " la superba. 1 ' The Genoese nobility do not disdain to follow mercantile pursuits, and derive a rich source of revenue from the exports of the city ; in early times, when a nobleman engaged in trade, his nobility was said to sleep. The Emperors of Germany allowed printers to bear coat armour in acknowledgment of the importance of the dis- covery : printing was then practised by many who were of noble family as well as by eminent ecclesiastics. The solidity of the anchor used by Aldus corresponds with prudence ; the dolphin was an ancient emblem of swiftness, and its meaning was, that to work successfully it was necessary to labour without relaxa- tion, to be deliberate in choice, and quick in execution. THE BRILL. The Brill, or brctt, a fish of the turbot kind, frequenting, like that fish, sandy bays, as well as deep water, is taken in abun- dance on the southern coast of England. Azure, three bretts naiant, are the arms of the family of Bretcock ; and the crest of the family of Britwesill is a brill naiant. Naturalists seem to be of opinion that the celebrated turbot of Ancona, the subject of Juvenal's satire, was a brill, the Rhombus * Gentleman's Magazine for 181.5 and 1829. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 191 vulgaris of Cuvier. The fish which desired to be caught for the Emperor's table was of unequalled size, and quite filled the fish- erman's net ; nets are certainly used at the beginning of the season, but in warm weather the fish make for deep water, when the fishermen have recourse to their many-hooked lines. THE PLAICE. These fish, commonly called Dutch plaice, are taken wherever lines or nets can be used on the English coast, but the Diamond ground, off the coast of Sussex, produces the fish most remarkable for purity of colour and for the brilliancy of their spots, which are of a bright orange red. English heraldry does not afford an instance of plaice, but Palliot gives an example in the arms of the Danish family of Bukens : azure, on a bend argent, three plaice of the field, in chief an escutcheon chevrony or and gules. " The best fish swim near the bottom 11 is an expression ap- plicable to the varieties of flat-fish ; and it is remarked by the naturalist that, as birds are seen to occupy very different situa- tions, some obtaining their food on the ground, others on trees, and not a few at various degrees of elevation in the air, so are fish destined to reside in different situations in the water. The flat-fish are, by their depressed form of body, admirably adapted to inhabit the lowest position, and where they occupy the least space among their kindred fish.* * Yarrell's British Fishes. 3 92 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. THE FLOUNDER. This fish is found near the mouths of large rivers and in the sea all round the coast of Great Britain ; it is termed flounder from its manner of swimming when close to the ground ; at Yar- mouth it is called a hutt, and in Scotland, a fluke, on account of its flattened form. Sable, a fluke argent, is the armorial dis- tinction of a family of the name of Fisher. Captain Franck gives a lively description of this fish in his rambling memoirs of angling, which are full of amusement to the traveller, the soldier, and the fisherman. By way of a gene- ral rule, he commences with — He that intends tlie flounder to surprise, Must rise betimes, and fish before sunrise. " The flounder is a fish that 's as bold as a buccaneer, of much more confidence than caution, and is so fond of a worm that he 1 11 go to the banquet though he die at the board. He is a resolute fish, and struggles stoutly for victory with the angler, and is more than ordinarily difficult to deal with, by reason of his build, which is altogether flat, as it were a level. The flounder delights, I must tell you, to dwell among stones ; be- sides, he \s a great admirer of deeps and ruinous decays, yet as fond as any fish of moderate streams ; and none beyond him, except the perch, that is more solicitous to rifle into ruins, inso- much that a man would fancy him an antiquary, considering he is so affected with reliques. , ' > * Under its name of butt the flounder appears in the heraldry of * Franck 's Northern Memoirs, 1694. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 193 the family of Butts of Dorking, in Surrey, which bears for arms, argent, a saltier gules, between four ermine spots, on a chief of the second, three buttfish hauriant of the first : crest, an arm couped at the elbow and erect, grasping a buttfish, or flounder. Argent on a bend sable, three fish of the field, are the arms of the family of Sankey of Cawdwells, a manor in the parish of Edlesborough, in Buckinghamshire. Sable, three fish in bend between two cottises argent, are the arms of the family of Sankey of Worcestershire. The particular species of fish is not de- scribed, but it is possible flounders are intended, from the known preference of the flat-fish to the sandy bottom of the water, and the slight play upon the name afforded by that circumstance. 194 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. X. GTfje <&el, (longer, antr Eampreg. The form of the " fine silver eel, ,, unlike that of many other fish, is well known ; but the whiteness of the belly is not the only mark to know the best fish, the colour of the back should be of a bright coppery hue. Eels inhabit almost all the rivers, lakes, and ponds in England, and are found in almost every part of the world. Being caught with the greatest ease, they were, in early times, more common as food than other descrip- tions of fish. Fisheries formed one of the most important sources of revenue in the Anglo-Norman period of history, and wherever the produce in kind is mentioned it seems to have consisted chiefly in eels, herrings, or salmon. The rent in eels appears to have been paid numerically, and sometimes it was paid by sticks, the eels being strung on tough willow twigs, every stick bearing twenty-five. The revenue produced by mills is variously stated, sometimes in money and in grain, but occasionally from the fish- ery in the mill-stream, consisting chiefly of eels.* Elmore, on the banks of the Severn, near Gloucester, received its name from the number of eels there taken. Gules, on a chief or, a dolphin azure, are the arms of the family of Elmore : the dolphin being used as the emblem of the fishery. The lords of manors in the Isle of Ely were entitled to more than a hundred thousand eels, so productive of this fish were the fens, which were formerly overflowed with water. Argent, a chevron engrailed gules, between three eels nowed, or twisted like a knot, are the arms of the family of Radley of Yarborough, which is situated on the banks of the Ankholme, a river celebrated for its production of eels in an old Lincolnshire proverb — Ankholme eel and Witham pike, In all the world there is ne sike. The eel occurs frequently in English heraldry in reference to a family name. Argent, three eels naiant in pale, are the arms of Ellis of Treveare, the most westerly part of Cornwall, an * Introduction to Domesday Book, by Sir Henry Ellis. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 195 ancient family, of which John Ellis, Esq. late M.P. for Newry, is a descendant. Argent, three eels embowed, in pale, sable, are the arms, and on an eel vert, an eagle displayed, is the crest, of the family of Eales. Argent, two eels hanriant confronts vert, between two etoiles gules, are the arms, and an eel naiant vert, is the crest, of the family of Arneel of Scotland. Five arrows or, entwined by an eel, are borne as a crest by the family of Elwes of Stoke, near Clare, on the banks of the Stour in Suffolk, of which Sir Gervase Elwes was created baronet in 1 660. A hand gauntleted, grasping an eel, is the crest of the family of Elleis of Southside, in Scotland, and of that of Ellice of Clothall, in Hertfordshire. An arm embowed vested azure, turned up argent, holding in the hand an eel, is the crest of the family of Enghanes. One of the branches of the house of Bretel, in France, bears for arms, or, a chevron gules, between three mullets azure, on a chief of the last an eel argent ; other branches bear on the chief a lamprey or a salmon.* Azure, a saltier between four eels naiant or, are the arms of the family of Fleury, of Ireland ; and, argent, three eels naiant in pale azure, are the arms of the family of Ducat, of Scotland. Or, a fess gules, between an eel naiant in chief azure, and a lion's head erased in base gules, are borne by the Scottish family of Cuthbertson, a variation seemingly from the arms of Cuthbert, or, a fess gules, in chief a serpent azure, the serpent here being assumed as an emblem of the name of Cuthbert, which implies one famed for knowledge : Quique gcrit certum Cuthbert do luce vocamen. A heron's head, with an eel in its bill, is the crest of the family * Palliot. o 2 196 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. of Mercer of Aldie, in Perthshire, and, with their motto, " Grit Poul, 11 is sculptured on the Castle of Aldie, erected in the six- teenth century. A demi-stork, wings expanded sable, the outside of the wings argent, holding in the bill an eel azure, was borne on a wreath argent and vert, by Sir John Styell in the reign of Henry VIII.* Two storks, with wings elevated, and an eel in the bill of each, are borne as supporters to the arms of the Right Hon. J. Hobart Caradoc, Lord Howden of Grimston in Yorkshire. In Boisseaus Heraldry "f several French families are men- tioned as bearing eels in their arms. Lauzon, azure, three eels in pale argent, Goulas, gules, three eels two and one argent, on a chief azure, a lion passant or ; and Buzannal, or, a chevron gules, in chief two Cornish choughs, and on a chief argent, an eel naiant. Anguillaria, an Italian family, noticed by Palliot, bears for arms, argent, two eels in saltier azure, within a border indented argent over gules. Examples of eels in Spanish heraldry are found in the arms borne by the great Houses of Guzman, Pacheco, and De Lara. The grandees of Castile, in the earliest age of heraldry, assumed the Pendon y Caldera, the banner and caldron, as well-known military badges; the banner as the rallying ensign of command, showing ability to raise troops, and the caldron, or camp-kettle, denoting power to feed them : these charges are common in the oldest heraldry of Spain. The French heralds, in their blazon- ing, term the caldron chaudiere, and the contents serpents; but, as the chaudiere implies cooking-pot, it is presumed they are intended for eels. The olla or pipkin of Spain, in which the national and savoury stew is concocted, is equivalent to the cal- dron of the Rico ffombre, or rich man. " Hurl. MS. 1632. t Promptuairc Armorial, 1(5.">7. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. is: Azure, two caldrons or, with eels issuing therefrom, within a border ermine, are the arms of the illustrious family of Guz- man, and were so borne by Cardinal Enrique de Guzman de Haro in 1627. X X X X X Argent, two caldrons or, harry indented gules, with six eels issuing therefrom, three on either side, are the arms of the family of Pacheco ; and, gules, two caldrons or, harry sable, with eight eels issuing therefrom, are the arms of De Lara. The very singular arms, resembling eels, of the ancient Abbey of Whitby, at the mouth of the river Esk in Yorkshire, refer to antediluvian remains, which are supposed to belong to the order of molluscous animals, termed by geologists Cephalopoda, animals in a chambered cell, curved like a coiled eel, and better known as Ammonites, from a fancied resemblance to the horns of Jupiter. The arms are blazoned, azure, three snakes encircled or, as now borne by the town of Whitby. A weir-basket filled with fish is depicted upon the seal, in the reign of Henry IV, of William Weare of Weare Gifford, on the river Torridge, in Devonshire. The punning motto of this family is " Sumus, 11 we are. Many eels are taken in weirs formed on the banks of rivers : in the Thames, the eel-pot or wicker basket is used in various parts ; being opposed to the stream, the eels are thus intercepted in 198 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. their progress, and become a source of revenue to the lords of manors possessing the several fisheries. An eel-pot, per pale argent and vert, the badge of Lord Wil- liams of Thame, Lord Chamberlain to Queen Mary, is now borne by the Earl of Abingdon, the representative of Henry Lord Norris, who married Margaret, the daughter and heiress of Lord Williams. A wivern, with wings endorsed gules, standing on a fishweir devouring a child, and pierced through the neck with an arrow, is the crest of the family of Venables, Barons of Kinderton in Cheshire, ancestors of the Lords Vernon of Kinderton. Per bend azure and vert, a fishweel or willow-basket, in bend or, are the arms of the family of Wheler ; and, argent, a chevron ermine, between three fishweels, their hoops upward vert, are the arms of the family of Wylley. Or, a chevron between three fishweels sable, are the arms of the ancient family of Foleborne. The fishweels or weirs are exceedingly picturesque features of scenery ; when the rivers arc high, the overfalls of the water form a cascade, but at all times they afford a variety to the view, breaking the line of the river and producing some slight water- fall. Fishguard, a town at the mouth of the Gvvain, in Pem- brokeshire, derives its name from the fishgarth or weir in the river, which is famed for its trout and salmon, as well as eels. An allusion to the dam or weir is doubtless intended by the THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 199 fish in the arms of the family of Dame, sable, three fish naiant in pale or; and perhaps also in those of the family of Twicket, argent, a fess between three fish hauriant gules : the name having reference to the small passage or wicket, in the weir. A fishweel or, is the crest of the family of Colland. Gules, an otter or, springing from a fishweel vert, are the arms of Jugerde de Beverlak.* Sable, a chevron between three eel-spears argent, are the arms of the family of Stratele or Strateley. Great numbers of eels are taken by means of these long- handled four-pronged spears, and nowhere is the practice of eel- spearing more common than at Streatley, on the banks of the Thames, whence the family probably derived their name. A pheon or, handled argent, entwined with an eel, is the crest of the family of Ewer of Luton, in Bedfordshire ; and an eel en- twined round a shafted pheon is the crest of the family of Granell. THE CONGER. The Conger, or sea-eel, formerly esteemed for the table, is found in deep hollows of the rocks on various parts of the west- ern coast of England : off the French coast are considerable conger banks, where prodigious quantities are still taken for maiqre days. In the time of King Henry III. Rochelle was celebrated for its conger eels. The old town seal of Congleton, in Cheshire, bears a tun floating on waves between two congers respecting each other, and upon the tun a lion statant ; a very indifferent play upon the name of the town. 200 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Gules, on a fess argent, between three congers'* or dragons' 1 heads erased or, as many trefoils slipped sable, are the arms of the family of Oongleton of Northamptonshire. Argent, a chev- ron between three demi-congers naiant gules, are the arms of the family of Shambrooke. Congers acquire a very large size, and are recorded by natu- ralists to have occasionally measured more than ten feet in length and eighteen inches in circumference, weighing from eighty to one hundred and thirty pounds. They are borne in arms by the family of Conghurst, azure, three congers hauriant argent. The head of this fish is more frequently found in heraldry. Sable, three congers' 1 heads erased and erect argent, are the arms of Hotoft, an ancient family of Nottinghamshire. Some branches of the family bear for crest, a conger's head erect and erased azure, gorged with a mural coronet or, with chain and ring of the last. Argent, a chevron between three congers' heads erased, are the arms of the family of Canbrook ; and, per chevron gules and or, three sea-dragons ducally crowned counterchanged, are the arms of the family of Easton of Devonshire. The conger is known to be so voracious as not to spare even those of its own species ; it has the power to crush with its jaws the strong shells of lobsters and other crustaceous fish. It pos- sesses great tenacity of life, together with great strength, and often proves a formidable antagonist to the fisherman, if assailed in its quarters among the rocks. These characteristics support the assumption that the conger is the prototype not only of the wivern, or sea-dragon of English heraldry, but of the poetical dragon, the dragon of the monkish legends, the representation of Evil, and the sorpent of the romances. It would not be difficult THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 201 to show that the dragon, a leading symbol of heraldry, has the same source as the Urgunda of the Mexicans, the great serpent on the Chinese banner, and the sea-snake of the Scandinavians. The destruction of dragons appears to have been one of the most common of all miracles in the earlier ages of the Church ; besides the well-known exploits of Saint George, Saint Michael, and Saint Margaret, ecclesiastical history abounds in similar legends. The simple explanation of these, lies in considering the various victories represented to have been gained over dragons, as so many conquests obtained by virtue over vice. Some of these miracles have another allegorical signification, and are sup- posed to be intended to typify the confining of rivers within their proper channels, or limiting the incursions of the sea. The emblem of St. Margaret, their patron saint, is borne in the arms of the corporation of the ancient borough of Lynn, in Norfolk. Azure, three congers'* or dragons' heads erased and erect, the jaws of each pierced with a cross crosslet fitchy or, were the arms of the priory founded by Bishop Herbert de Losing, in the time of William Rufus ; the same as now borne by the town of Lynn. Margaret the Virgin, the tutelary saint and especial patroness of Lynn, is represented on the corporation seal on a dragon, and wounding it with the cross : the inscription is, " svb . marga- RETA . TERITVR . DRACO . STAT . CRVCE . L^ETA." The Same Saillt, Sub- duing and trampling upon the dragon, is also represented on the conventual seals of West Acre Priory, Thetford, and Norwich Priories, and that of Saint Margaret at Hilburgh, all in the same countv. 202 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. The Order of the Dragon Overthrown, the knighthood of Hun- gary, was instituted by the Emperor Sigismund in 1418, for the purpose of engaging the Hungarian nobility in the defence of the frontiers of that country against the Turks. A dragon was an ancient ensign of this part of Germany, and, after Trajan's Dacian war, was substituted for the eagle of the Romans, and from them passed as a standard to several European nations. A dra- gon was depicted on the banners of the Anglo-Saxon kings of England, and was so borne by the Milesian kings of Ireland : during the Crusades it was considered as the symbol of the Bri- tish nation. From having been used by Cadwallo, and other potentates of Wales, it descended to King Henry VII, and by him the red dragon was assumed as one of the supporters of the royal arms of England ; and Rouge dragon pursuivant was created. Two dragons argent, were afterwards used by the city of London in the same manner, but charged on the wing with the cross of Saint George. THE LAMPREY. Azure, on a bend or, three lampreys of the field, are the arms of the family of Oastleton of Suffolk ; and, or, three lampreys, are the arms of the family of Lamprell. The proper colour of the body of the lamprey is olive brown, spotted on the back and sides with dark green. Sable, three lampreys in pale argent, are the arms of the family of Radford of Dawlish, in Devonshire. The lamprey is a fish common in some of the rivers on the southern coast of England, and particularly so in the Severn. At Worcester, where it is prepared in various ways for the table, THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 203 the lamprey is in high estimation ; and it has been a custom for the citizens of Gloucester annually to present the sovereign with a lamprey pie. The lamproun, which often occurs in old accounts of provisions, is supposed to he a different fish from the lamprey ; both are mentioned as provided for Archbishop War- ham's installation feast in 1503. The murtcna of the Romans, from the Mediterranean, generally translated lamprey, is also a different fish, more of the eel kind. The remora, or sucking-fish, common in the Mediterranean, was well known to the Romans, and is famed for its power over the vessel of the mariner : — The sucking-fish beneath, with secret chains Clung to the keel, the swiftest ship detains. It is mentioned as borne in arms on the authority of Peacliam.* That quaint writer says, " Of fishes you shall find in armes the whale, the dolphin, the salmon, the trout, barbel, turbot, her- ring, roach, remora, and escallop shells ; " and adds, that " you must be very heedful in the blazoning of fishes, by reason of the variety of their natures.' 1 '' The arms bearing the remora, alluded to by Peacham, are not known ; but as an emblem of prudence this fish is used in heraldry. The dexter supporter of the arms of the Earl Howe is described, in some authorities, as Prudence habited argent, mantled azure, holding a javelin entwined with a remora. It is a fish seldom exceeding a foot in length ; the tail and fins are comparatively very small. * On Blazoning Arms, in the Gentleman's Exercise, 1630. 204 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. XL The Sturgeon, a large sea fish, is occasionally caught on the eastern coast of England, and, when taken near land, is con- sidered a royal fish, and is sent to the king. Whatever fish the vulgar fry excell Belong to Csesar, wheresoe'er they swim, By their own worth confiscated to him. In the northern parts of Europe this fish is numerous. A great sturgeon fishery is at the mouth of the Wolga, in the Caspian Sea. They are caught in weirs, similar to those used in Scotland for salmon. Sturgeon are abundant in the Danube, and attain a large size ; but those taken in the Theiss, one of the branches of that river, are remarkable for fatness and delicate flavour. The flesh of this fish, when fresh, is very fine, and more like veal than even turtle. It is of the roe that the caviar, so much prized at Constantinople, is prepared. Azure, three sturgeons argent, fretty gules, are the arms of the family of Sturgney ; and, azure, three sturgeons naiant in pale or, over all fretty gules, are the arms of the family of Sturgeon of Whepstead, near Bury, in Suffolk, who bear for crest a stur- geon naiant or, fretty gules. On the monument of Sir John Spelman, 1545, in Narborough Church, Norfolk, are inlaid portraits, engraved on brass, of the knight and his lady : on the lady's mantle are the arms of Stur- geon, quartered with those of her own family, Frowick of Gun- nesbury, in Middlesex. She is represented kneeling at a prie- dieu, and over the figures is an engraving of the Resurrection.* * Engraved in Cotman's Sepulchral Brasses in Norfolk. 1819. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 205 XII. %f)t 13og=fi$i), £ea=iiong, an& otfjer JttcmgteriBu The Dog-fish is a kind of shark, found on the shores of Great Britain : of this species the white shark is the most terrific to mankind, being supposed to have a particular desire for human flesh. The gula of this fish is so wide that a man may be swal- lowed entire. A shark issuant regardant, swallowing a man, is the crest of the family of Yeates of Ireland. A shark's head regardant, and swallowing a negro, is the crest of the family of Molton. A very similar crest was granted to that of Garmston, mentioned at page 67. Sir Brook Watson, Alderman of Lon- don, created Baronet in 1803, lost his leg from the bite of a shark in the harbour of Havannah, and assumed for crest, a demi-triton, grasping a trident and repelling a shark in the act of seizing its prey. The incident is also commemorated in a pic- ture by Copley, at Christ's Hospital. Almost all the species of shark have received some name resembling hounds, as beagle, rough-hound, smooth-hound, spotted-dog, and dog-fish, from their habit of following their prey, or hunting in company or packs. Argent, three dog-fish in pale sable, are the arms of the family of Gesse. (Jules, a mallet dog-fish argent, are the arms of the family of Malvish ; * a demi dog-fish sable is the crest of the family of Meer of Dorsetshire. - Randle Holme. 206 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Unnatural animals appear in the heraldry of all nations. It is related that an Austrian nobleman asked an English ambassador at Vienna, whose arms presented a griffin, " in what forest that beast was met with ? " to which the ambassador readily answered, " the same in which the eagles with two heads are found." The monsters found in antique sculpture are generally com- binations of parts of known animals ; the sea-lions and sea- horses, originating in the superstition of mariners, are embel- lished by art and fable. The lion and the horse being well known and familiar animals, the creatures of the water obtained similar names, whenever a fancied resemblance would appear to warrant the application of them. Or, on a bend wavy, between two sea-lions sable, three bucks'' heads caboshed argent, and crest, a sea-lion supporting an anchor, are the insignia of Sir Robert Harland, Baronet, of Orwell Park in Suffolk, who is de- scended from a distinguished naval commander. A sea-lion sejant, is the crest of the Earl of Thanet, a title derived from the isle of Thanet, a district on the Kentish coast, where the inhabitants, partaking of the amphibious character of the sea-lion, live by sea and land, making the most of both ele- ments, as farmers and fishermen. The Earl of Thanet, by descent THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 207 from the Cliffords, is also lord of the honor of Skipton in Craven. Two sea-lions argent, guttee de l'armes, were assumed as sup- porters by the Viscount Falmouth, the title granted to the brave Admiral Boscawen for his important services in America. A tower in flames, on its side a sea-lion azure, its paws pressing against the tower, was granted as a crest to Sir John Thomas Duckworth, Bart, of Weare, in Devonshire. It was this gallant admiral who forced the passage of the Dardanelles in 1807. A sea-lion and anchor was granted as one of the supporters of the arms of Viscount Bridport, second admiral in command on the memorable 1st of June 1794. The lion, the king of beasts, is the type of bold and invincible courage ; and a fanciful animal, the marine lion, is assumed as the emblem of those qualities, so absolutely necessary to a naval commander : it is always represented in heraldry with the upper part of a lion and the tail of a fish. The sculptors of antiquity, as well as the poets, appear to have had great pleasure in con- verting lions into aquatic animals : at Rome lions spout water at several fountains, and on the channels of roofs they are made to fill an office by no means characteristic of the fiercest of beasts. Delphinum sylvis appingit, fluctibus aprum. The sea-horse, more common in heraldry than the sea-lion, is also of classical origin ; the horse was closely connected with the history of Neptune, and upon Roman festivals in honour of the ocean god, led horses, crowned with garlands, formed a prin- cipal part. Neptune is also represented flying over the surface of the sea in a chariot formed of a large shell, drawn by winged horses. The poets of the northern nations, who delighted in hierogly- phical personifications, sometimes term a ship the horse of the ocean, and the savage chief who pursues the flying damsel is said to traverse the waves on an enchanted steed in some of the older ballads and popular tales recited by the scalds. In this manner the classical fable of Andromeda and the sea-monster may be explained, by the probable fact of her being wooed by the captain of a ship, who attempted to carry her off, but was prevented by the interposition of a more favoured lover. Plutarch admits that the celebrated monster Chimara was derived from a captain of pirates, whose ship bore the figures of 208 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. a lion, a goat, and a dragon. Another explanation is, that it was a burning mountain of Lycia, the top of which was the resort of lions, the middle of goats, and the marshy ground at bottom abounding with serpents. Bellerophon, who first made his habitation on the mountain, is thus said to have conquered the Chimsera. King Philip II, after his marriage with Queen Mary of England, assumed as a device, Bellerophon fighting with the monster, inscribed " Hinc Vigilo,"" implying that he only wanted a favourable time to combat the heresy of this king- dom.* Sea-horses, as an emblem of naval dominion, are sculptured on the front of the Admiralty of England, and are often assumed as supporters to the arms of noblemen whose honours are derived from the distinguished success of their ancestors at sea : they form the supporters of the arms of the towns of Newcastle "f" and Cambridge, and of the Pewterers 1 Company in London. Azure, a chevron between three sea-horses or, are the arms of the ancient family of Tucker of Milton, in Kent. A sea-horse forms one of the charges in the arms of the un- rivalled David Garrick : he was the grandson of a merchant of France, who settled in England upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Both the sea-horse and dolphin were de- picted on the standard of Trevellian in the reign of Henry VIII; | and, argent, a sea-horse rampant, issuing from waves vert, are the arms of the family of Eckford of Scotland. As a crest, the sea-horse is borne by the noble families of Brudenel and Jenkinson, the Earls of Cardigan and Liverpool. In form the sea-horse of heraldry bears resemblance to the * Menestrier. t The arms of Newcastle arc among the embellishments of Mr. Martin's catalogue of privately printed books. } Coll. Topog. vol. iii. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 209 hippocampus brevirostris of Cuvier and the early naturalists ; two found on the Hampshire coast are engraved in Mr.YarrelPs His- tory of British Fishes. The griffin, half eagle half lion, of classical origin, is found upon many basso relievos at Rome : the iron griffins ornaments of the Strozzi Palace at Florence, wrought in the time of Lorenzo the Magnificent, are curious specimens of art, and still as sharp as when they came from Oaparra's smithy.* The sea-griffin, an imaginative instance of marine zoology, half eagle half fish, ap- pears in architectural sculpture on a capital of the Anglo-Norman Church of Iffley, in Oxfordshire, -f- and is also found in heraldry. Argent, a marine griffin sable, is the armorial ensign of the family of Mestich, in Silesia ; and a sea-griffin rampant, that of Use- dom, in Pomerania, an island at the mouth of the Oder, in the Baltic, belonging to the kingdom of Prussia. The unicorn is entirely fabulous, like the griffin and chimsera : the long twisted horn which is commonly seen is the weapon of defence of the sea-unicorn, a fish which possesses two horns, although they are seldom found perfect, being liable to be de- stroyed by accidents. The unicorn of heraldry is derived from the horse armed with a spiked ehanfron ; and it is this fictitious animal with a fish's tail which is intended in the Prussian arms, per fess argent and gules, a sea-unicorn counter-changed, borne by the family of Die Niemptscher ; and gules, a fish with the head of a stag or, is the ensign of the family of Die Pogorsker und Ruditzky, in Silesia.]: Capricorn, one of the zodiacal signs, having the head of a goat and the tail of a fish, is represented on the medals of Augustus, to signify, according to the medallists, his horoscope, from which the empire was predicted to him at Apollonia. * Forsyth. + Engraved in Britton's Architectural Antiquities, vol. v. \ Palliot. V 210 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. XIII. €#e £*al, Jftrnnaifc, antr Crttotu The seal is an amphibious animal, living 1 chiefly in the water, being provided with two broad fin-like feet for swimming*. Phoebe, or Fochia, a seaport of Ionia, received its name from the seals which abound in its vicinity. The rude state of sci- ence and the ignorance of the earlier naturalists have already been mentioned ; the seal was consequently assumed in heraldry as a fish, though not considered as such by modern zoologists. The seal frequents the mouth of the Tees, and commits havoc among the salmon ; it is also found in the river Severn ; a stuffed seal, long preserved in the hall of Berkeley Castle, was the hero of many traditional tales of captives devoured by it. Both seals and porpoises kept their place on the table as late as the begin- ning of the sixteenth century : there were twelve porpoises and seals brought for the feast when Archbishop Nevile was en- throned at York in 1465, and both are mentioned in the account of Archbishop Warham's feast in 1503. Parts of the seal are borne in the heraldry of some ancient families of Great Britain. Argent, a chevron between threo seals 1 heads couped sable, were the arms of James Lord Ley, a distin- guished lawyer, Chief Justice of the Court of King's Bench, and Lord Treasurer of England, in the reign of James I, and who was created Earl of Marlborough by King Charles I. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 211 Or, a seal's foot erased and erect sable, are the arms of the family of Beringburgh ; and, argent, a chevron between three seals 1 feet erased and erect sable, are the arms of the town of Yarmouth.* Among the islands and on the shores of Scotland seals are plentiful. Broadford, in the Isle of Skye, is situated on the Streamlet of Seals. Two seals are the supporters of the arms of Sir Fitz Roy J. G. Maclean, Baronet, whose ancestor, Sir Lach- lan Maclean of Morvern, in the Isle of Mull, was so created by King Charles I. in 1632. Around Juan Fernandez are always seen thousands of seals, either sitting on the shores of the bays, or going and coming in the sea, round the island. It is the opinion of an eminent natu- ralist that the seal was the prototype of the mermaid and triton, the splendid fictions of the classical poets ; its round head and hand-like feet, he urges, might readily aid the imagination in forming a creature half human, half fish ; no egregious violation of verisimilitude is required, and the distortion of actual fact might arise from the result of fear, or, what is more probable, from the love of the marvellous, natural to superstition. -f- The relation of a being half fish and half human, is of the ear- liest authority ; Berosus J mentions a fish, Oannes, worshipped in Chaldea, which had the body of a fish with the head and hands of a man ; a compound deity, imagined, probably, in allu- sion to some stranger who had arrived in a ship, and had in- structed the people in the arts of civilization/"* In Canada the Nibanaba, half human half fish, s dwells ..in th,e waters of Lake Superior, according to the fanciful mythology of the Indians. The accounts of the appearance of mermaids are very nume- rous ; there is testimony enough to establish their former exist- ence in history, exhibiting instances of the credulity, not of the weak and illiterate, but of men of learning, the best instructed of any in the ages in which they lived. It is very rare that more than one mermaid is reported to have been seen at a time, but it appears that on the coast of Ceylon some fishermen, in the year 1560, brought up at one draught of the net no less than seven mermaids and mermen ; of which fact several Jesuits were witnesses. The physician to the Viceroy of Goa, who examined them with care, and dissected * Guillim. t Bell's British Quadrupeds. J Babylonian Antiquities. 212 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. them, asserted that, internally as well as externally, they were found conformable to human beings.* In the museum at Surgeons 1 Hall is preserved a fish, which is classed by the naturalists of the present day among the mam- malia, a species of that kind which gave rise to the fabulous stories of the mermaid : it is about eight feet in length, and bears resemblance to the seal. The fins terminate, internally, in a structure like the human hand; the breasts are very prominent, and their situation on the body has led, no doubt, to the popular belief: in other respects the face of the fish is far from looking like that of the human race, and the long hair of the mermaid is entirely wanting. It was brought from Bencoolen, in Sumatra, in December 1820.-f" A form enormous ! far unlike the race Of human birth, in stature or in face. Advocates for the existence of the mermaid are not wanting in modern times, and it has been found necessary to show tbat such a creature, as it is usually described, must be utterly de- fenceless in the wide ocean, and consequently the prey of the shark and every other sea-monster that approached, being with- out speed to fly or strength to resist. Mermaids could only exist in the sea, like other defenceless fish, by going in large shoals, and preserving their race from destruction by their num- bers ; but, if so, the disputed fact of their existence would long ago have been cleared up. - " Few eyes," says Sir Thomas Browne, j "have escaped the picture of a mermaid ; Horace's monster, with woman's head above and fishy extremities below, answers the shape of the ancient syrens that attempted upon Ulysses." The syrens were tbree in number, inhabiting an island off Cape Pelorus : § these nymphs, emblematical of the allurements of pleasure, are repre- sented as beautiful women to the waist, and otherwise formed like fish, deriving their name from the most obvious part of their character, singing ; their melodious voices charmed all who approached them, till Ulysses, shunning their enticement, passed the dangerous coast in safety, and the point where the syrens destroyed themselves was afterwards known in Sicily as Sirenis. The mermaid of French heraldry is called a syren. Azure, a * Hist, do la Compagnie de Jesus. t Gent's. Map;. May 1821. J Enquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors. § Now called the Earo di Messina, from the lighthouse on its summit. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 213 .syren with comb and glass argent, within a border indented gules, were the arms of the family of Poissonnier : the heiress of this house marrying into that of Berbissy, an ancient house of Dijon, the latter assumed the syren as a tenant, or supporter, to their own punning arms, a/.ure, a brebis or sheep argent, which ap- pear in the stained glass windows of the church of Notre Dame.* The mermaid of German heraldry is often represented with two fishy extremities ; gules, a mermaid affront ee, holding her two tails or, and crowned with the same, are the arms of Fenn- den of Augsburg. The noble family of Die Rietter of Nurem- berg- bears, per fess sable and or, a mermaid holding her two tails, vested gules, and crowned or ; the crest, a mermaid, the same as in the arms, on a coronet. -f- The Nereids attendant on the sea-gods were fifty in number, young and handsome women, who sat on dolphins 1 backs, and had the power to grant a prosperous voyage and favourable return. The mermaid is sometimes confounded with the nereid by the poets as well as painters.]: The invention of the mer- maid, — for it must be considered only as fiction — has been pro- bably owing to a desire of finding analogies and correspondences in the works of nature. As an architectural enrichment mermaids were a prevailing feature in the middle ages; one of the rudely-sculptured capitals in the church of Figeau in Languedoc is composed of mer- maids. § The ancient sculptors of England were not deficient in ingenuity, and among other fanciful productions the mermaid appears to have been a favourite subject. On one of the subsellia * Palliot. t Sibmacher. J This was the case in a beautiful picture of a mermaid by Henry Howard, R.A. in 1841, to illustrate a passage of Shakspeare. £ Engraved in the Voyage Pittoresquc. 214 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. in the stalls of Exeter Cathedral is a mermaid holding a fish in each hand ; and another grotesque carving, on the roof of Dul- verton Church in Somersetshire, represents a mermaid holding her fishlike tail in one hand and a fish in the other ; on her sides are two fish, one in an ascending and the other in a descending position.* A chasuble embroidered with mermaids, worn by a canon of Poictiers in 1350, is engraved on his monumental slab formerly in the Abbey of St. Genevieve.-f- One of the earliest instances in England . of the assumption of the mermaid in heraldry is found on the seal of Sir William Bri- were or Bruere. This William Briwere was in great favour with King Richard I, and equally a favourite with King John ; he reaped from the bounty of the two sovereigns a plentiful harvest of lucrative wardships and valuable grants : besides numerous in- ferior manors, he obtained the borouQ-hs of Brid<jfewater and dies- terfield, and had licence to build three castles on his estates in Hampshire, Somersetshire, and Devonshire ; he founded the ab- beys of Tor, Dunkeswell, and Mottisfont, and died in 1226. The heiresses of the last Lord Briwere married into the families of Broase, Wake, Mohun, and Percy. His cousin, William Bri- were, was Bishop of Exeter in 1224. The mermaid of the painter is represented as furnished with a mirror, and comb for her hair ; such also was the primitive toilette of the Shepherdess Torralva in her pilgrimage, as related by Cervantes ; " and these, 1- ' says Mr. Inglis, " I have myself seen in La Mancha carried by a young woman, who had little else to carry. "+ A mermaid is the crest of the Lords Byron of llochdale, a * Gout's. Mag. for 1834. t One of the subjects of Mr. Shaw's Decorations of the Middle Ages. ]- Rambles in the Footsteps of Don Quixote. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 215 family renowned from the Conquest, several of that house having been mentioned in history. In the reign of Henry VIII, the Priory of Newstead was granted by that monarch to Sir John Byron, Constable of Nottingham Castle and Warden of Sherwood Forest. Another Sir John Byron took part in the battles of Edgehill and Marston Moor ; in the latter his three brothers also bore a part. On Marston, with Rupert, 'gainst traitors contending, Four brothers enrich'd with their blood the bleak field ; For the rights of a monarch, their country defending, Till death their attachment to royalty seal'd. George Gordon Noel, Lord Byron, the celebrated poet, was de- scended from Admiral Byron, who, in the ship Dolphin, circum- navigated the globe.* A mermaid is the crest of the family of Marbury of Walton, near Runcorn, in Cheshire, which became possessed of that manor in the reign of Edward III. by marriage with the heiress of the Waltons, its former lords. It is also the crest of the ancient family of Skeffington, of Skeffington in Leicestershire ; and is borne by its present representatives, Viscount Massareene, Vis- count Ferrard, and Sir Lumley Skeffington, Baronet. The Earl of Portsmouth bears a mermaid for a crest ; Sir John Wallop, K. G. in the reign of Henry VIII, a distinguished admiral of this family, bore a black mermaid with golden hair. Lord Herbert relates that " Sir John Wallop burnt divers ships and one-and-twenty villages, landing many times in despite of the French, which seemed the more strange, that his soldiers exceeded not eight hundred men. 11 -!" * Lord Byron, who sacrificed his life in the cause of the Greeks, assumed the arms and crest of the house of Noel with the motto of Byron, after hi- marriage, t Life of Henry VII 1. 216 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. It may be remarked that, however singular a black mermaid may appear, a black virgin is not uncommon in the churches of the Continent, and the richest shrine in Bavaria is that of the Black Virgin of Altoting. The mermaid, as a crest, is found in heraldry to be almost as abundant as salmon in the Tay ; it is borne by a hundred knights, Approved in fights, and men of mighty name. A few instances of note will show the prevalence of this remark- able combination in heraldry : the form of the mermaid, that of a most beautiful woman, has the same poetical origin as the classical story of Venus Anadyomene, the goddess rising from the sea, near Cyprus, wafted on shore by Zephyrs, and received by the Seasons. In this form, but with a fish tail, the mermaid is borne as a crest by the families of Bonham, Broadhurst, Gar- nyss, Hastings, Johnson, Lauzun, Mason, Rutherford, Moore of AVickford in Hampshire, and Newman of Cheltenham : to the last-named the mermaid crest was granted in 1611. Or, a mermaid with comb and glass, is the armorial distinc- tion of the family of Lapp of Wiltshire ; gules, three mermaids argent, are the arms of that of Basford ; and argent, a mermaid gules, crined or, holding a mirror and comb of the last, are the arms of the family of Ellis of Preston, in Lancashire. Gules, a mermaid argent, comb and glass or, are the arms of Prestwich of Holme, in Lancashire, the heiress of which family married the first Lord Ducie of Morton, in Staffordshire. I hi Bee of Vardes, a French family mentioned by Palliot, have for supporters to their arms two mermaids each holding a guidon, that on the dexter side being charged with the ancient arms of Burgundy, the sinister with the arms of ancient Cham- pagne. Two mermaids are the supporters of the arms of the THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 217 kingdom of Naples. In Great Britain mermaids are assumed as supporters by the Viscounts Boyne and Hood, the Earls of Howth and Caledon, and by the heads of the families of Sinclair of Rosslyn and Scott of Harden. Two mermaids crowned are used as supporters to the arms of the borough of Boston, in Lin- colnshire, the key of the associated counties ; these were allowed and confirmed to the corporation in 1568. The mermaid of heraldry is sometimes found without her usual attributes; the crest of the Kentish family of Sepham is a mer- maid proper, ducally crowned, crined, finned, and comb or, bear- ing in her left-hand sea-weeds vert ; another, on a coronet, hold- ing in her hands a bottle and glass, is the crest of Van Voorst of Utrecht. The crest of the family of Thome, of Melverley in Shropshire, is a mermaid rising out of a coronet, crined or, with a dolphin hauriant of the same, devouring her left-hand. An example is also found in the crest of Die Erstenberger : the arms of this Austrian family are, bendy fusilly, argent and gules, three barbel embowed of the last ; crest, a mermaid without arms, and having wines charged with barbel, as in the shield. Fa vine* gives an example of a crest borne by the House of Lusignan, called La Melhisine, a very beautiful syren in a bath or tub, who with one hand combs her thick hair over her shoul- ders, and with the other holds a mirror. Two mellusines, their * Theatre of Honour, Hi lft. 218 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. lower half representing- an eel, are also described as the support- ers of the arms of this illustrious house. These were assumed in memory of Isabel, the betrothed wife of Hugh de Lusignan, Count of La March, the Mellusine of the romances, one of the most celebrated beauties of her time, who was carried off by King John, and married to him by the Archbishop of Bour- deaux. The King afterwards brought her to England as his Queen, and she was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury at Westminster, in the year 1200; after the King's death she married Hugh de Lusignan. As a sign the mermaid is very common in England ; the ear- liest literary club on record, including a cluster of distinguished poets, was formed by Sir Walter Raleigh at the Mermaid in Friday-street, about the year 1600, a tavern long celebrated as the resort of Shakspeare, Jonson, Camden, Selden, and the bene- volent Alleyn, founder of Dulwich College. The tritons of the classical mythology possessed the power of calming the ocean and abating the most violent storms at plea- sure. Glaucus, one of these sea deities, is celebrated as the assistant of the Argonauts. The triton, or merman, is very rarely seen at sea, differing in that respect from the mermaid, for an obvious reason, all those who believe they see the latter being men, fishermen or sailors ; were those who live on the sea women, it is most probable that less woidd have been related of mermaids, and more of the mermen. Heraldry presents an illustration of the triton in the arms assumed by Sir Isaac Heard, many years Garter King of Arms, with an intended allusion to his preservation at sea. Argent, a triton proper, crowned or, bis trident sable, issuing from waves, his left hand grasping the head of a ship's mast; on a chief azure, the arctic polar star of the first, between two water-hongets of the second. Motto, " Naufragus in portum." THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 219 Sir Isaac Heard was originally in the royal navy, and when in the Blandford, oft' the coast of Guinea, in the year 1750, he was carried overboard by a tornado, and saved from drowning by his shipmates. As a crest, a triton issuant from sedges, and wreathed about the temples with the same, is borne by Sir Tatton Sykes, Baro- net, of Sledmere in Yorkshire. A merman, holding in his hand a hawk's bell, is the crest of the family of Lany, of Newick in Leicestershire, and of Cratfield in Suffolk. Two tritons with tri- dents are the supporters of the arms of Lord Lyttelton, of Frank- ley in Worcestershire ; and a triton is used as the dexter sup- porter of the arms of the Earl of Sandwich, the first peer of whose family was a distinguished naval commander in the reign of Charles II. A triton and mermaid are both assumed as the supporters of the arms of the family of Campbell of Ardkinlas, from which is descended the Campbells of Dunoon, Carrick, and Blytheswood, all in Scotland. 220 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. XIV. Amongst the various productions of nature, shellfish claim at- tention on account of their great variety ; the regularity and delicacy of the shells, and the heauty of their colours, are strik- ingly curious. Each sea has its own kind, and every part of the ocean is inhabited by its peculiar tribe of shellfish, which decrease in size and beauty with their distance from the equator ; those of the southern region are distinguished by essential characters from the analog-ous species in the northern seas. Very few have been assumed in heraldry, and amongst those few the escallop holds pre-eminence. Gules, six escallop shells argent, are the punning arms of the baronial family of Scales, or de Eschales, of Middleton Castle, near Lynn in Norfolk : their crest is also an escallop shell. The seal of Robert Lord Scales is affixed to the Barons 1 letter in 1301 ; the banner of the same person is described in the heraldic poem of the Siege of Carlaverock, " the handsome and amiable Robert de Scales bore red, with shells of silver. 1 '' The barony of Scales was inherited by the male descendants of this Lord until the reign of Edward IV. when Anthony Wood- vile, son of Earl Rivers, having married the daughter and heiress of Thomas, seventh Baron, was summoned to parliament as Lord Scales. He assumed as a cognizance a star charged with an escallop, to show his affinity to the house of Baux ; and also THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 221 instituted Scales Pursuivant of arms, a kind of heraldic mes- senger attached to his household. At the death of Anthony Lord Scales without issue, the barony fell into abeyance between the daughters of Roger fourth Lord Scales, in which state it still continues. Azure, three escallops or, were borne by the baronial family of Malet of Eye, on the river Waveney, in Suffolk, after the mar- riage of Sir Baldwin Malet with the heiress of Sir Hamelyn Deandon. At an earlier period Robert Malet held the office of Chamberlain of England, and founded a Priory at Eye, dedi- cated in honour of Saint Peter the Apostle. Besides one hun- dred and twenty manors in Suffolk which were comprised in the honour of Eye, he held many lordships in Essex, and granted the manor of Goldingham to his good knight, Sir Hugh. The arms of Goldingham are, argent, a bend wavy gules, and their badge is an oyster dredge.* Sir Alan de Goldingham was Sheriff of Essex in 1308, and the estate continued in the possession of his descendants till Christopher Goldingham sold it to Sir Stephen Soame, Lord Mayor of London in 1559. The Corporation of Colchester now holds the royalty of the river Colne, and grants licences for dredging its bed. The pearls which are used in heraldry to denote the gradations of rank in the coronets of peers are the produce of the pinna marina, the large pearl-oyster of the East Indies. The escallop is termed the shell of Saint James, as being his especial cognizance. A stupendous metamorphosis was performed in the ninth century, (to use the language of Gibbon,) when from a peaceful fisherman of the Lake Gennesareth the apostle Saint James was transformed into a valorous knight, who charged at the head of the Spanish chivalry in battles against the Moors. The gravest historians have celebrated his exploits ; the miracu- lous shrine of Compostella displayed his power ; and the sword * Harl. MS. 4632. 222 THE HERALDRY OF . FISH. of a military order, assisted by the terrors of the Inquisition, was suffered to remove every objection of profane criticism.* The great Spanish military order of Santiago de la Espada is said to have been instituted in memory of the battle of Clavijo, in which no less than sixty thousand Moors were killed. At this battle Saint James appeared on a white horse, the housings charged with escallops, his own particular cognizance, fighting for tha Christians under Eamira King of Leon, in the year 844. The saint was thus represented in his military character on the standard of the order used in the army of Ferdinand and Isabella at the conquest of Granada : the bandera de Santiago now pre- served in the armoury at Madrid is of the time of Charles V, and, in addition to the figure of the saint, bears the Emperor's arms ; also Saint Andrew and the cross of Burgundy. Saint James is here copied from the banner,*f* where he is shown as he appeared on the day of battle, and above him, on the banner, is the Deity, pointing out '-the proper^ victims of Saint James's wrath. The city of Compostella, in Gallicia, became the seat of the * Decline and Kail of the Tinman Empire. t Engraved in the Armcria Heal de Madrid, 1841. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. r 223 order of Saint James, from the legend of the real body of the saint having - been discovered there in the eighth century, and which became almost immediately an object of pilgrimage. Ships were loaded every year with devotees to his shrine, who carried out large sums to defray the expences of their journey, and it appears that the pilgrims, in many instances, united trade with their devotion.* The peculiar badge of the order of Saint James is a red cross like a sword, charged with a white escallop shell ; and the motto of the order, " Rubet ensis sanguine Ara- bum, 11 red is the sword with the blood of the Moors. The escallop shell, a beautiful ornament, is used in the enrich- ments of other orders of knighthood ; that of Saint James, in Holland, while it existed, consisted of a badge and collar formed of escallop shells. An order of knighthood, denominated the Ship and Escallop shell, was instituted by Saint Louis, to induce the nobility of France to accompany him in his expedition to the Holy Land, and particularly to engage their assistance in the works at Aigue Mortes in Languedoc, where the king and his sons had embarked. The order soon became extinct in France, but existed for three centuries in Naples and Sicily. The collar of the order of Saint Michael, founded by Louis XI. in 1476, was also richly garnished with golden escallops, and bore pendent the figure of that saint trampling on the dragon. Argent, three escallops sable, were the arms of Buckenham Priory, in Norfolk, founded about 1146, by William de Albini Earl of Arundel, and Queen Adeliza his wife, the widow of King Henry I. The seal of this ancient Priory bears the figure of Saint James, as a pilgrim, with the escallop shell in his hat, a pilgrim's staff in one hand and a scrip in the other. * Original Letters, edited by Sir Henry Ellis. 224 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Gules, three escallops argent, are the arms of the baronial family of Dacre, a name said to have been assumed by an an- cestor who had served at the siege of Acre in Palestine. The arms of Thomas Lord Dacre of Gillsland, who died in 1525, sculptured on his monument in Lanercost Priory Church,* are supported by the dolphins of Greystoke. The barony of Dacre of Gillsland, now held by the Earl of Carlisle, K.G., was originally in the family of Vaux, and descended to the Multons, the heiress of which married Sir Ralph Dacre, who built Naworth Castle in the reign of Edward III, where the dolphin badge of Greystoke -f- is carved in the hall. The well-known badge of the family of Dacre, an escallop, united by a knot to a ragged staff, is an heraldic composition indicative of the office of hereditary forester of Cumberland. From the Multons of Cockermouth the Lucy family was pa- ternally descended, and hence Percy's Cross, as it is called, an ancient pillar near Woolcr, sculptured with luces and other heraldic devices of the Percy and Lucy families, is supposed to be a boundary stone of part of the great Lucy estate, which devolved to the Earl of Northumberland, and not the record of a battle, as generally surmised. Dr. Fuller, in his History of the Crusades, J describes the seve- ral additions to the heraldry of noble families derived from a de- voted service in Palestine, particularly the introduction of escal- lop shells, palmers 1 scrips, and pilgrims' staves ; and instances, amongst others, the gallant Sir Nicholas de Villiers, ancestor of * Engraved in the Border Antiquities. t The dolphin also appears in the heraldic enrichments of Greystoke Castle, the seat of Henry Howard Molynenx, Esq. J Fifth Book, Chapter xxiv. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 22-5 the Duke of Buckingham of that name, who originally bore for arms, sable, three cinquefoils argent. " He followed King Edward I. in his crusade to the Holy Land, and then and there assumed five escallop shells on a plain cross. I believe,'' 1 the learned author continues, " (be it spoken with loyalty to all kings-of-arms and heralds, their lieutenants in that faculty,) that the will of the bearer was the reason of the bearing ; or if at the original assum- ing of them there was some special cause, yet time hath since cancelled it." Quarterly, or, and gules, on a bend sable, three escallops argent, are the arms of the Lords Eure, the escallops being an addition to the arms of the house of Olavering, from which the family derives its descent. King Richard I. granted the manor of Eure, or Iver, on the banks of the Colne in Buckinghamshire, to Robert Clavering, whose descendants, taking the name of Eure from this lordship, assumed the escallops as an armorial distinction, and were ancestors of Sir William Eure of Witton Castle, in Durham, created Lord Eure by King Henry VIII., and of the family of Eure of Axholme, in the same county. The arms of Ralph Lord Eure, of Witton and Multon, Presi- dent of the Council of the Lords Marchers of Wales, quartered with those of Clavering, De Burgh, Fitz Piers, Yescy, Aton, and Vesci, were formerly in the council chamber of Ludlow Castle.* Azure, three escallops or, are the arms of Sir John Pringle, Baronet, the name being a supposed corruption of Pilgrim. One of the sons of the second baronet of this family was Sir John Pringle, President of the Royal Society, who died in 1782, and is buried in Westminster Abbey Church. Argent, three escallops gules, are the arms of the family of Pilgram von Eyb of Nurem- berg : and azure, three escallops argent, a chief or, are those of another family of the same name. Or, a pilgrim 1 s scrip azure, charged with an escallop shell crowned argent, are the arms of the family of Romieu of Aries, in Provence. -f- A demi-pilgrim is the crest of the family of Walker of Uppingham, in Rutlandshire. Argent, three palmers' staves sable, the heads and rests or, on a chief of the second three escallops of the first, are the arms of the family of Palmer. The escallop shell is borne as an appropriate crest by the families of Pilgrim and Dishington ; its use as a cup, spoon, and * Documents connected with the History of Ludlow, printed by the Hon. Robert Henry Clive in 1841, p. 205. t Palliot. 226 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. dish recommended the shell to the pilgrim, by whom it was con- stantly worn in the cap or on the cloak. It was also worn by the palmer, who professed poverty and went upon alms to all shrines, differing from the pilgrim, who travelled only to a cer- tain place and at his own charge. Of the latter, Sir Walter Raleigh has given a sketch : * Give me my scallop shell of quiet, My staff of faith to walk upon ; My scrip of joy, immortal diet, My bottle of salvation. The cockle, a smaller shell of a similar kind, is used in the heraldry of Prussia. Barry of four, argent and azure, semcc of cockleshells counterchanged, are borne by the Silesian family of Von Strachwitz, which has for crest two wings also charged with cockles, f $t&. An escallop shell without the ears, denominated a vannet in French heraldry, is rarely borne. Azure, a vannet or, is the armorial distinction of the family of Vannelat, where it is used as a play upon the name. The escallop shell, a frequent charge in English heraldry, is con- spicuous in the arms of the Dukes of Bedford, Marlborough, and Montrose; in the arms of the Earls of Jersey, Spencer, Claren- * Remains, ](>57. + Stomacher's Wapcnhuch. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 227 don, Albemarle, and Bandon ; the Marquess Townshend, and Viscount Sidney: it is borne also by the Lords Dacre, Petre, Lvttelton, Auckland, Churchill, Lynedoch, and Lyndhurst ; and by the Baronet families of Tancred, Fludyer, Pollen, Wigram, Cotterell, Hudson, Hardy, Morshead, Graham, and Brooke of Great Oakley. The introduction of shells into military equipments is a custom brought from the East. Cowries, small shells covered with a coat of enamel, are employed in the caparisons of British hussar regiments ; the bridles of their horses are ornamented with strings*and tufts of them, in imitation of the " camels tufted o'er with Yemen's shells." Several sorts of wilks or whelks, turbinated shells, are found represented on the coins of ancient maritime cities, as Cuma and Tarentum ; this shell appears also on the Tyrian medals. The purpura buccinum, bearing resemblance to a horn, is known as the peculiar symbol of the city of Tyre, where it was used in the process of dyeing the beautiful sea purple long celebrated as the Tyrian dye, now superseded by the discovery of cochineal. In heraldry, this shell is borne as a play upon the family name. Sable, a fess engrailed between three wilks or, are the arms of Sir John Shelley, Baronet, of Maresfield in Sussex, the repre- sentative of one of the heiresses of the Barony of Sudeley. Of the same lineage was Sir Richard Shelley, Prior of the order of Saint John of Jerusalem, who. in 1561, was ambassador from the King of Spain to Venice and Persia. The same arms are also borne by Sir Timothy Shelley, Baronet, of Castle Goring in Sussex, father of the late Percy Bysshe Shelley, the poet. Gules, on a chevron between three wilks argent, as many demi-lions rampant sable, are the arms of the family of Wilkins 228 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. of Kent. Gules, a fess vaire between three wilks or, are the arms of that of Wilkinson, of Dorrington in Durham. The family of Wilkinson of Bishop's Wearmouth bears, gules, a chev- ron vaire, or and azure, between three wilks of the second. Sable, a chevron between three wilks argent, are the arms of the family of John, some branches of which bear a fess in the arms instead of the chevron. The lobster, the crab, and the crayfish are borne in heraldry. The lobster, as an enemy to serpents, was sometimes used as an emblem of temperance, and two lobsters fighting as an emblem of sedition. The union of a lobster with the human form, in the person of a sea-god, is found represented in the house of the Dioscuri at Pompeii.* Argent, a lobster gules, is the armorial ensign of the family of Von Melem of Frankfort ; the crest, two wings argent, each charo-ed with a lobster. The suits of armour, on the principle of the lobster's shell, consisting of lamina), being made with overlapping plates, which ' Engraved in Sir William Cell's Pompeiana, 1832. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 229 enabled the .steel to give way to every motion of the body, were called Ecrevisses, from their resemblance to the lobster, by the French knights of the reign of Henrv IV. when these suits were much used. The shells of fish are known to vary according to the rough- ness or smoothness of the sea they live in ; Juvenal's epicure ■ at first sight could tell A crab or lobster's country by its shell.* Gules, on a bend or, a lobster sable, is the arms of the Spanish family of Grilla. Another branch of the same noble family bears o-ules. on a bend or, three lobsters sable. -f* The history of the nobility of Spain is marked by a very curious but rare book, which neither princes nor priests have been able to suppress ; it bears the name of " El Tizon de Espafia? the brand of Spain, and its purpose is to trace the pedigrees of the grandees up to some infidel ancestor, either a Moor or a Jew, destroying by that means all claim to purity of descent, it being a severe reproach to the hidalgos, that some amongst their ancestors stood on their legs for baptism, ; ' Bautizado en pie" meaning one who had re- ceived adult baptism.:}; Argent, a lobster gules, was the armorial ensign of Cardinal Nicolas de Cusa, who was of German descent; he died in 14-64. Azure, a lobster in bend gules, are the arms of the family of Die Gergelase ; § and argent, two lobster's claws in saltier gules, those of the English family of Tregarthick. The crayfish, or river lobster, is found in great perfection in Hungary, where it attains considerable size, and is highly valued by the gourmands of Vienna ; it is asserted that, of all shellfish which industry brings from the bottom of the sea or the river, the crayfish is the most delicious. Barry wavy, argent and gules, three crayfish or, are the arms of the ancient family of Atwater. Dr. William Attwater was in 1499 Canon of Windsor and Registrar of the order of the Gar- ter; in 1502 he was Dean of the Chapel Royal; and in 1509 Dean of Salisbury. Cardinal Wolsey, who held him in great esteem, took his advice in all public business, and procured him to be his successor in the Bishopric of Lincoln. He was conse- crated on the 12th Nov. 1514, and dying at Wooburn Palace * Sat. iv. Dr. Badham's translation. \ Nobleza del Andaluzia, 1588. % Don Leucadio Doblado's Letters, bv J. Blanco White, l" - 2"2. § Sibmacher. 230 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. in 1520, was buried in his cathedral, under an intagliated slab with his portrait. The arms of Bishop A tt water, a variation from the original coat, were granted in 1509, by Thomas Wri- othesley, Garter King of Arms, and are here copied from the Parliament roll of 1515, the sixth year of the reign of King Henry VIII. Barry wavy, ermine and gules, on a chevron be- tween three crayfish or, a rose between two lilies gules, stalked vert, impaled with the arms of the see of Lincoln ; gules, tw r o lions passant guardant in pale or, on a chief azure, the Virgin Mary with a sceptre, holding the infant Jesus, all or. They are evidently composed of those of William the Conqueror, in whose reign the bishopric was established at Lincoln ; the arms having the Virgin Mary, to whom the cathedral is dedicated, in the chief, or placed above the insignia of the King. A crayfish vert, is the crest of the family of Dykes, of Dykes- licit 1 in Cumberland, now represented by Fretchville Lawson Mallantine Dykes, Esq. of Dovenby Hall, near Cockennouth, she- riff of the county. The crayfish is not uncommon in the heraldry of France. Or, three crayfish gules, are the arms of Thiard of Ihirgundy ; or, a chevron between three crayfish gules, are those of Aleschamps. A dexter is a term of blazonry for any inferior charge in anus placed on the dexter side of the principal ; of THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 231 this Palliot gives an instance in the arms of Platen of Saxony — azure, a crayfish in bend gules, having on the dexter side of the shirk! three etoiles argent. Prawns are assumed in the heraldry of the family of Atsea of Heme, in Kent, one of the heiresses of which married Edward Craford of Mongham : their arms are, harry wavy of six, or and gules, three prawns naiant in the first and of the second. The crab, the emblem of inconstancy, appears on a shield of Francis I, one of the finest specimens of art in the collection of armour at Goodrich Court ; and according to Sir Samuel Meyrick the crab was intended as an allusion to the advancing and retro- grade movements of the English army at Boulogne, under the celebrated Charles Brandon Duke of Suffolk, in 1523. The shield, the work of Negroli, a Milanese armourer, was presented by the Parisians to their gallant king after the retreat of the Duke. A golden crab, one of the cognizances of the Scrope family, was painted on the portrait of Henry Lord Scrope.* The crab also appears as a crest on the seals of several members of this noble family.*f" Argent, a chevron engrailed sable, between three crabs gules, are the arms of the family of Bridger of Warminghurst, in Sussex, the heiress of which married Sir George Shiffner, Baro- net, of Combe Place, invar Lewes. Azure, a chevron argent, between two fleurs-de-lis in chief and a crab in base or, are the arms of the family of Crab of Robs- law, in Scotland ; and argent, a chevron engrailed between three crabs gules, those of the family of Bythesea of Ightham, in Kent. * Willement's Heraldic Notices of Canterbury. l!i"J7. t Engraved in the Scrope and Grosvenor Roll, 1832 ; a document possessing the highest interest for the descendants of old English families. 232 THE HERALDRY OF FISH. Another family of Bythesea, formerly of Axbridge in Somerset- shire, now of Week House, near Trowbridge, hears for arms, argent, on a chevron engrailed sable, between three crabs, the claws towards the dexter gules, a Roman fasces erect, surmount- ing two swords in saltier, and encircled by a chaplet or. A crab erect or, is the crest of the Yorkshire family of Danby. The turtle, or sea-tortoise, is found in heraldry in some few in- stances. Argent, a chevron between three turtles gules, are the arms of the family of Ribb ; and vert, a turtle passant argent, is the ensign of that of Gouldie of Scotland. The assumption of starfish in heraldry has been already men- tioned in the attempt to assign the origin of the mullet, or five- finger.* One of this species, the sea-urchin, -f- common to the shores of Great Britain and Ireland, is borne in arms ; it va- ries in its form, being sometimes found almost spherical, and sometimes much depressed, which has led zoologists to sup- pose that several species are included under that name. It is usually of a reddish colour with white spines, which are, in some instances, tipped with purple. The sea-urchin lives in various depths of water, and usually congregates in greatest numbers on a clear sea bottom. Gules, three sea-urchins in pale argent, are the arms of the family of Alstowne ; and azure, three sea-urchins argent, those of Alstanton. With this the heraldry of fish is naturally concluded; the variety of examples it affords is by no means exhausted, but might readily have been carried to a much greater extent, and should the selection here made induce the reader to pursue the At page 1 07, ante. f Echinus sphaera, the sea-egg of the fisherman. THE HERALDRY OF FISH. 233 examination of the subject farther, he will soon find an abundant field for research. It is almost unnecessary to repeat, that in the earlier ages of heraldry, where its chief interest lies, only the best-known and simplest objects were employed as ensigns on the banner, like the horse-shoes of Ferrers, or the heames, the badge of the family of St. John ; that the zenith of heraldic splendour was at a period unenlightened by modern discoveries in natural history, and as nations became more civilized the importance of heraldry gradually lessened, excepting as a most interesting illustration of the manners of the times which produced and encouraged it, and of the state of the arts in which heraldry was constantly employed. It is pleasing to its admirers to reflect, that, however indifferent the presentagc may affect to be with regard to the heraldry of early days, few persons disdain the honourable distinction conferred by a grant of arms, one of the necessary consequences of an admission to gentility. The cele- brated Linnaeus is only one amongst many who acquired nobi- lity by literary and scientific pursuits. The peasant family of this universal naturalist derived its name from a remarkable lin- den tree, and it was not till after he had obtained eminence in the path he had himself chosen that he was enabled to purchase an estate, and assume the name of Von Linne, with a coat of arms expressive of the science he cultivated ; at the same time receiving from his sovereign the order of the polar star and a patent of nobility. After his death, in 1778, this great naturalist was commemorated by a monument in the cathedral of Upsal, the ancient seat of the Swedish government. INDEX. In describing tin- blazonry, tclwre the colour of the fish is not named, the proper or natural colour is intended. A. Abbot De la Mark, 90. Abbotsford, note, 143. Abergavenny, Earl of, 179. Abingdon, Earl of, 198. Acre, siege of, 224. Adderbury, monument at, 156. Adeliza, Queen, 223. Adoxter, an heraldic term, 230. Admiral, office of, 1 79. Admiralty, emblems at, 200. Aigue Mortes, 223. Ailsa, Marquess of, 29. Albemarle, Earl of, 227. Albertus de Alasco, arms, 179. Albini, William d\ 223. Aldborough sprats, 162. Aldie Castle, 196. Aldine edition of British Poets, 20. Aldus's mark, 20, 190. Alerions, 71. Aleschamps, arms, 230. Alexander III, Pope, 2.5. Allume, 13. Alstanton, arms, 232. Alstowne, ditto, 232. Althorp, picture at, 181. Alton Towers, 136. Altoting, shrine at, 216. Alva, Duke of, 33. Amiens, Rose de Mer, 8. Ammonites in arms, 197. Amphitrite, 9. Anchorage, 1 79. Anchovy, the, 162. Ancona, turbot of, 190. Andromeda, fable of, 207. Anello del piscatore, 167. Angelloch, arms, 144. Anglesey, Marquess of, 13(i. Angling, 142. Anglo-Saxon banner, 202. Anguillaria, arms, 196. Anjou, anus, 71. „ badge, 179. Ankholme eels, 1 94. Annular money, 125. Anson, arms, 123. Anstis, Garter, 90. Anthony of Padua, Saint, 181. Antique monsters in sculpture, 206. Apollo, 7. Archbishopric of Glasgow, 125. Argonauts, 218. Argyll, Duke of, 1 75. Arion, 1 1 , 23. Armagh Cathedral, glass in, 141. Amies parlantes, 47. Armorial mantle, 41. Arms of Fishmongers, 173. „ Merchants, 31. „ painting, 167. Arneel, arms and crest, 195. Arragon, arms, 71. Arran, Earldom of, 176. Arrangement of subjects, 14. Arundel, Archbishop, 94. „ Earl of, 223. Arundell device, 62. Lords, 96. Ashburnham, arms, 108. Aslibv family, 61. Ash ton Hall, 189. Askham, arms, 31. Asterias, 108. Aston, fishponds at, 87. Aton, 225. Atsea, arms, 231. Attwater, Bishop, 230. Atwater, arms, 229. Auckland, Lord, 227. Audley, Lords, 157. Augustus, Emperor, 142. „ medals of, 209. Austria, house of, 140. Auvergne, Lords of, 22. I?. Bailiff of Dumvich, seal, 152. Baker, R.A. 168. Balfour, aims, 1 25. „ ditto and crest, 149. Ballykine Abbey, 46. Bandera de Santiago, 222. Bandon, Earl of, 227. Bangor bishopric, arms, 108. 236 TNDEX. Banne fishery, 1 1 5. Banner of Bar, 68. „ and caldron, 1 96. „ of Dauphine, 22. „ of the Dragon, 202, „ ofPfirdt, 140. „ of Scales, 220. Bannerets, Roll of, 137. Bar, Counts of, 68. Bar de Buranlure, arms, 74. „ Joan of, seal, 70. Barbeau, arms, 74. Barbel, the, 68. Barbier, Le, 142. Barby, Counts of, 73. Bardin, arms, 74, 76. Bare, ditto, 76. Barfuse, ditto, 74. Barnardes, ditto, 76. Barons' Books, 81. „ of Cinque Ports, 1 50. „ of Dover, seal, 178. „ letter, 98, 220. Baronets' badge, 116. Barry in heraldry, 84. „ wavy, 83. Bartet, anus, 74. Bath Institution, MSS. at, 33. Bartholomew, St. priory of, 181 Barwais, arms, 76. Basford, ditto, 216. Battie, crest, 98. Baux, house of, 220. Bawde, family, 175.* Bay of Hakes, 183. Bayeux, Bishop of, 39. Beaton, Archbishop, arms, 125. Beaumaris, seal, 178. Beavers, 147. Bee d'oie, 41. Beccles, manor, 150. Beck, arms, 1 68. „ Sir Justus, 4 1 . Becket, St. Thomas a, 94. Beckford, crest, 98. Bedford, Duke of, 226. Karl of, 153. Beller, Bishop of, 181. Bellerophon, 208. Bellismo, crest, 130. Bencoolen, 212. Bengal fish, 78. Bcnignus, Saint, 181. Bentivenga, Cardinal, 146. Berbissy, arms, 213. Beringburgh, arms, 211. Berkeley Castle, seal at, 21(1. Lords of, 112. „ seal, 1 1 3. Hemard, arms, 76. IVnihach, ditto, 81. Bermvell, Thomas, 171. Berosus, 211. Berry, Lady, 127. Billingsgate, 170. Bishops of Glasgow, 124. Bishopsgatc-street, house in, 24. Black mermaid, a, 215. Blenerhasset, arms, 38. Bleverhasset, ditto, 38. Blundell, family, 96. Boats of the Britons, 177. Boatswain's whistle, 180. Bocking, seal of Dean of, 36. Bodrugan, family, 161. Boke of St. Albans, 50. Bolnhurst, monuments at, 25. Bolton, Lord, 117. „ rebus of, 62. Boltzig, arms, 67. Bones offish, 110. Bonham, crest, 216. Bonvile, amis, 108. „ barony, 158. Book-fish, the, 1 82. Boscawen, family, 96. Bosdon, arms, 144. Boston, Lord, 158. „ supporters, 217. Botetourt, arms, 53. Boulogne, Counts of, 18. Boundary rivers, 84. Bourchier, badge, 86. Bourdeilles, de, 111. Boyne, Viscount, 217. Brabant, Dukes of, arms, 52. Brand of Spain, 229. Brandon, Charles, 231. „ Duke of, 1 89. Brantome, 111. Braybrooke, Lords, 158. Braye, Baroness, 157. Bream, the, 89. Breame, arms, 89. Brescia, families of, 28. Bretcock, arms, 1 90. Bretel, house of, 195. Bridger, arms, 231. Bridport, Viscount, 207. Brighton, arms, 30. Brill, the, 1 90. Brinsley, arms, 82. Bristol, Bishop of, 186. „ monastery at, 1 1 2. Britannia, 1 53. „ emblem, 180. British fishery, 153. „ fishes, number of, 2. „ Museum, specimens of fish in, 2. Britwesill, crest, 190. Briwere, Lord, 214. Broad H, the, 131. Arms shown in vignette, p. 233. INDEX. 237 Broadford, N. B. 211. Broadhurst, crest, "21 6'. Broase, family, 214. Brooke, device, 63. „ of Great Oakley, family, 227. Brookbank, arms, 86. Brooksbank, ditto, 86. Brooksby, ditto, 86. Brougham, ditto, 58. Broughton, crest, 1-49. Browne, amis, 28. Brudenell, crest, 208. Bruere, Lord, 214. Brutus, medal of, 16. Bryan, Lord, 51. Brydges, Duke of Chandos, 149. Buckenham Priory, 223. Buckingham, Duke of, 225. Buckley, Samuel, his sign, 24. Bukens, amis, 191. Bulamfeck, arms, 67. Bull trout, the, 104. Bull-head, the, 1 03. Buoy of a ship, 179. Burbot, the, 185. Buren, arms, 85. Bures, ditto, 76. Burgesses of Paris, anus allowed to, 31. Burgmair, Hans, 140. Burgundy, cross of, 222. „ guidon, 216. Burnaby, arms, 44. Burnell, ditto, 53. Butler, ditto, 82. Butlers of Senlis, ditto, 1 . Butt-fish, the, 192. Butthorn, the, 108. Butts, arms and crest, 193. Buzannal, arms, 196'. Byland Abbey, 63. Byron, Admiral, 215. „ Lords, 214. Bythesea, arms, 231, 232. Byzantine coin, 17. C Cables, 179. Cadwallo, ensign of, 202. Caen, tiles at, 12. Cairncross, Archbishop, seal (if. 125. Caithness, Karl of, 1 75. Calder Abbey, arms, 54. Caldron, the, a Spanish ensign, 196. Caldwell, arms, 1 85. Caledon, Karl of, 217. Calendar, rural, 4. Cambridge, arms of Queen's College, 71. „ codfish at, 182. „ supporters of the anus, 208. St. Peter's College, 166. Cameron, Bishop, seal of, 125. Campbell, crest, 1 76. „ family, 1 75. „ families, 21 9. Campbell, seal, 1 76. Canbrook, anus, 200. Cantelupe, ditto, 50. Canterbury, Archbishop of, 19. „ Cathedral, capital at, 170. •>•> r, crypt at, 1 70. „ „ pavement at, 6. Caparra, 209. Capital at Canterbury, 170. Capricorn, 209. Car of Amphitrite, 9. Carack, a ship, 176. Caradoe, Lord Howden, 196'. Cardigan, Earls of, 208. seal of, 180. Cardinal's hat, 146. Carew, crest, 179. Carhampton, Earls of, 1 48. Carlaverock, siege of, 68, Carlisle, Bishop of, (>(>. „ Earl of, 224. Carp, the, 77. Carrick, 29. Carter, arms, 187. „ fish, the, 187. Carving, old, 42. Cassilis, Earl of, 29. Castile, grandees of, 196. „ and Leon, arms, 1, 70. Castle French, Ireland, 27. Castleton, arms, 202. Cater, ditto, 1 22. Cathcart, ditto, 30. Catton, R.A. 168. Cave, arms, 157. Cerne, abbot of, 121. Ceylon, mermaids at, 211. Cliabot, arms, 102. „ an Maine, ditto, 1 03. „ the, 102. Chalfield manor, 9r>. Chamberlain of England, 221. Champagne, guidon, 216. Chandos, Duke of. 119. Chaplains of the Fishmongers, 172. Chapter-house, Westminster, pavement, 59. Charlecote, 54. Charles II, King, 151. V. 222. „ Martel, 71. Charters of the Fishmongers, 1 70, 1 72. Chasuble, ornament, 214. Chaudiere, the, 196. Cheney, arms, 186. Chenies, glass at, 154. Chequers in Bucks, arms at, 27. Chester, Earls of, 57. „ monuments in St. Mary's Church 1 36'. Chevin, the. 91. Chinuera, the, 207. Chinese serpent, 201 . Chivalry, 136. Chobb, arms, 9 1 . 238 INDEX. Chobbe, amis, 91. Chorley, ditto, 130. Christ, symbol of, 12. Christ's Hospital, picture at, 205. Chrysanaleia, the golden fishing, 32. Chub, the, 91. Church, the, 181. Churchill, Lord, 227. Cinque Ports, seals of, 178. Civray, church of, 5. Clare, badge of, 1G4. „ house of, 53. Clarendon, Earl of, 226. Classification of the dolphin, 16. Clavering, house of, 225. Clavijo, battle of, 222. Clinton, arms, 107. Clovis, 25. Coli, meaning of, 156. Cobb, arms, 156. Cobtish, 156. Cockermouth, honor of, 51. „ Lord, 52. Cockle, the, 226. Codfish, the, 168. „ at Cambridge, 1 82. Codd, arms, 168. Coin of the Dauphin, 22. „ Marius, 16. „ Syracuse, 15. „ Byzantium, 17. „ Cuma, 227. „ Tarentum, 227. Colchester, corporation, 221. Coleraine, seal, 115. Colland, crest, 1.99. Collar of mermaids, 113. Collingwood, Lord, 179. Colston, arms, 75. Combat of fish, 1 6.9. Company, Fishmongers', 171. Compass, discovery of, 177. Compostella, city of. 222. Comvn, device, 62. Coney-fish, the, 1 85. Conger, the, 19.9. Conghurst, arms, 200. Congleton, ditto, 200. „ town seal, 199. Coningsby family, 136. Constantinople, Emperors of, 1 7. Conway Castle, 134. Conyers, Baroness, 29. Cootcs, arms, 31 . Copley, picture by, 205. Coquerel, Nicholas de, 8. Coracle, the, 180. Coibally, anus, 1 32. Corbet, device, (12. Cornwall, Earls of, 1 14. Coronation feast offish, 184. Coronet of the Dauphin, 23. Cotterell family. 227. Cotton, amis, 21. Coulson, arms, 75. Coupir, ditto, 99. Courage, emblem of, 207. Courtenay, arms, 19. „ family, 18. Cowdray, sculpture at, 180. Cowries, 227. Crab, the, 231. „ of Robslaw, arms, 231. Craford, family, 231. Craike, arms, 176. Crayer, 85. Crayfish, 85, 229. Crests upon seals, 93. Crown, the naval, 179. Crows used in navigation, 177. Croydon Palace, 154. Crusades, arms referring to, 224. Culcheth, amis, 53. Cuma, coins of, 227. Cumberland, forester of, 224. Curers of fish, 169. Curteis, arms, 31. Custom-house mark, 131. Cuthbert, amis, 195. Cuthbertson, ditto, 195. Cyprinus Rohita, 78. D. Dace, the, 99. Dacre, badge, 224. „ of Gillsland, K G., Lord, 224. „ Lord, 227. Dag, the Hebrew word, 12. Dagger of Walworth, 171. Dame, .amis, 199. Danby, crest, 232. D'Anjou, Rene, 71, 179. Darcy family, 1 o5. Dare, arms, 99. Dauphin, arms of the, 23. „ coin of, 22. Dauphine, banner, 21. De Bloeg, arms, 78. „ Burgh, 225. „ Crov, arms, 84. „ Cusa, Cardinal, 229. „ Eschales family, 220. „ Grey, Earl, 85. „ la Mare, amis, 90. „ la River, ditto, 84. „ l;t Roche, ditto, 93, 95. „ la Roche, Lord, 92. „ Lara, arms, 197. „ Lisle, Lord, 132. „ Montfaucon, 73. „ Roche, 96. „ Ros, badge of, 164. „ Soles, arms, 1 87. „ Viviers, ditto, 87. Dean of Rocking, 36. Deandon, Sir Hamelyn, 221. Deaneries, 36. Dolphin Classics, 23. IXDEX. 239 1 >enderah, Temple of, 4. Denmark, King of, 174. Der Gabel, arms, 131. Dernford, ditto, 101. Device of the Fish and the Ring, 127. Devonport, arms, 180. Devonshire, Earls of, 1!!. Diamond ground, the, 191. Dip of the needle, 177. Dishington, crest, 225. Dog-fish, the, 20.5. Dogge, arms, 138. Dogger-bank cod, 1G8. Dog-otter, 149. Doliin, arms, 27. Doltinton, ditto, 28. Dolphin, the. 1 5. „ family, 27. „ sign of, 24. Dolphinley, arms, 28. Dolphins painted by Raphael, 8. Dorade, the, 142. Doreo, device of, 179. Dormer, Lord, .91. Dornheim, arms, 129. Dory, the, 165. Douglas, arms, 108. Dover, seal of, 178. Doxev, arms, 183. Dragon, the. 200. „ overthrown, order, 202. Drake, crest, 178. Dravcot, 41. Dried fish, 169. Drummond, arms, 84. Du Bee, supporters, 216. Ducat, arms, 19.3. Ducie, Lord, 216. Duckworth, Sir J. T. 2(>7. Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, 189. Dulverton church, 214. Dundalk, Lord, 86. Dungaimon, Lord, 116. Dunkeswell Abbey, 214. Dunkirk, arms, 31. Dunwich, 1,52. Durham, 15i>hop of, 38. Dumeford, arms, 101. Dutch plaice, 191. Dykes, arms, 230. Dyve, ditto, 94. Bales, arms and crest, 195. Karl, the ( ireen, 22. Early instances of arms. 36. East* Ham, 89. Easton, arms, 200. Lastly, Prior, 6. Ebnet, arms, 131. Kckford, ditto. 21)8. Ecrevisse, armour called, 229. Edgehill, battle of, 215. Edridge, crest, 107. Edward I, King, 225. „ II, Roll of Arms, 54. Eel, the, 194. „ pot, a badge, 198. „ spears, 34, 199. Egerton family, 132. Eglintoun Castle, tournament at, 29. Egremont, barony of, 51. Egypt, fisheries of, 113. Elettorali of Venice, 27. Elizabeth, Queen, 177. Elleis, crest, 195. Ellice, ditto, 195. Ellis, arms, 194. „ of Preston, 216. Elmore, arms, 194. Elwes, crest, 195. Emblem of fish, 33. Endellion, port of, 160. Enderby, crest, 46. Enghanes, crest, 195. Enmore, wells at, 86. Entravaille, 76. Erstenberger, amis, 217. Escallop, the, 220. Essex, Bourchier, Earls of, 86. „ Earl of, 136. Etruscan sarcophagi, 8. Eu, Earls of, 86. Eure, Lords, 225. „ of Axholme, 225. Ewer, crest, 199. Exeter, Bishop of, 19, 36, 214. „ Cathedral, 214. „ „ paving-tile at, 12. Eye, honor of, 221. Eytzing, crest, 167. Fairs noted for fish, 169. Falcons, 92. Falmouth, 160. Earl of, 96. Fast days, 1 69. Fauconberg, K.G., Lord, 144. February, 4. Feliskirk church, 188. Fellowes, arms, 76. Fender, ditto, 149. Fennden, ditto, 213. Fennor, ditto, 149. Fermoy, Lords of, 95. Ferrard, Viscount, 215. Ferrers, arms, 158, 233. „ of Chartley, 94. Feudal claims, 111. „ system in Germany, 120. Feversham, seal of, 178. Ffrench, crest, 27. Fielding family, 41. Fierte, 46. Figeau, 213. Fish and Ring, device of, 126. 240 INDEX. Fish, arms, 34. „ combat, 169. „ feast, 123, 184. „ hooks, 144. „ merchants, ] 70. „ number of, in British Museum, 2. „ ditto, at Paris, 2. „ of Mogul, 80. „ offering, 124. „ ponds, 87. Fishacre, arms, Go. Fisher, arms, 34, 88, 192. „ of Scotland, crest, 1 62. „ of Stafford, arms, 99. Fisheries of Egypt, 113. Fisherton, De la Mere, 90. Fishery of the Nile, 4. Fishguard, 198. Fishing, 142. „ nets, 157. „ Royal Company, 152. „ spear, 130. „ stations, 143. „ vessels, 175. Fishmongers' Company, 31 . 171—174. „ „ arms, 173. Fishweel, 198. Fitz Gerald, Lady Isabella, 103. „ James, arms, 40. ,, Piers, 225. „ Walter, arms, 53, 54. „ William family, C4. Five-finger, the, 108. Flat-fish, 191. Flavio di Melfi, 177. Fleet, arms, 35. Fleets hired, 1 77. Fleming, arms, 54, 157. Fleur-de-lis, 49. Fleury, amis, 1 95. Flok, the Norwegian, 177, Florence, academy of, 97. flounder, the, 192. Fludd, arms, 21. Fludver family, 227. Fluke, the, 192. Flying- fish, the, 66. lochia, -2\\). Foleborne, arms, 1 .98. Fontenay de Luc, arms, 59. Form of fish, 35. Fortescue family, 96. Fouet, amis, 157. Fountain in heraldry, 8(1. Fowey, seal of, 1 6 1 '. France, anus, 24. Fmnck's Northern Memoirs, 192. Francis I. shield of, 231. Franco, anus, 80. Frankland, ditto, 26. Franklin, ditto, 25, 2(i. Henjaniin, 26. Freare, arms, 37. French, arms, 27. Frense church, monument in, 38. Freshacre, anns, 138. Freshwater, ditto, 138. Fretty, 157. Friends' books, 184. Fro wick family, 204. Fry of fishes, 37. Fryer, arms, 37. Fullarton, arms, 149. Funeral pall, 172. Fyne, Loch, herrings, 152. Fyshar, arms, 34. O, Gabel, Von Der, arms, 131. Gage family, 155. Gainsborough, Earl of, 158. (.(alley, the Highland, 175. Galwav Bav, 183. „ " seal of, 183. Gardiner, arms, 47- Garfish, the, 65. Garling, crest, 65. Gannston, arms, 67. „ crest, 205. Garnyss, ditto, 216. Garrick, David, 208. Garvie fish, the, 1 62. Garvine, arms, 1 62. Gascoigne, ditto, 63, 64. Gawthorp, 63. Ged, aims, 59. „ the, 59. Geddes, arms, 60. Gedney, ditto, 61. Genoa, cross of, 21. Cienoese nobility, 190. Geoige, Saint, 201. Gerard, Lord, 189. Gergelase, arms, 229. German signs, 164. Gesse, arms, 205. Gibbons, crest, 144. Gillet, arms, ()."■>. Gilse, ditto, 85. Gilthead, the, 142. Giotto, mosaic by, 167. Glasgow, arms, 124. Glastonbury Abbey, seal of, 181. Glaucus, 218. Gloucester, arms, 112. Bishop of, 186. Glover's Catalogue of Nobility, 81 ( ilynn, arms, 130. Gobaud, ditto, 83. Gobion, ditto, 82. Gobvon, ditto, 81. Godfrey of Bouillon, 18. Godolphin, arms, 28, 29. Golden carj), 77. Goldingham, badge, 221. Goodman's Fields estate, 33. INDEX. 241 Goodrich Court, armour, 108, 231. ( forges, arms, 86. Gornay, ditto, 103. Gorney, ditto, 103. Gougeux, ditto, 83. Goujon, ditto, 83. Goulas, ditto, 196. Gouldie, ditto, 232. Gradel, ditto, 111. Gradner, ditto, 110. Graham family, 227. Granada, anus, 1. Grandford, crest, 107. Granell, ditto, 1.99. (jraville, arms, 74. Graydon, anus, 147. Grayley, ditto, 147. Grayling, the, 146. Grazzini, 97. Great Harry, the, 177. „ St. Helen's, house in, 190. Greek boats, 1 76. „ empire, 1 7, 20. Grellcy, crest, 147. Grey, arms, 84. „ de Ruthin, Lords, 94. „ device, G3. „ of Groby, Lords, 158. Grevstoke, badge, 224. Griffin, the, 209. Grilla, anus, 221). Grylls family, 111,). Gudgeon, the, 81. Guildford, Dudley, Lord. 189. Guilds, city, 1 72. Gurnard, the, 103. Gurncy family, 104. Guzman, Cardinal, 197- Gwyrme, Richard, portrait of, 41. H. Habgood, arms, 1 80. Ilacaed, fish so called, Gl. Hacket, arms, 183. Haddock, crest of, 1G5, the, LG5. Hagges, arms, 184. Hake, ditto, 1!!4. „ the, 172, 182. Hakehed, arms, 1 83. Hakes, Bay of, 188. Halcyon days, 100. Halls of the Fishmongers, 172. Hamilton, Duke of, 17G, 18.'). „ of I Jaggs, arms, 127. llanime, arms, 138. Hampton Lucy, church, 5G. Hanbowe, crest, 107. tlanfstengel, arms, 129. Hardy family. 227. Ilarene, arms, 1 55. Harland, Hart. Sir Robert, 20G. Harries, arms, 155. Harrington, Lords, 158. Harry, arms, 149. Hartopp family, 148. Hastings, crest, 21G. „ Marchioness of, 94. „ Marquess of, 1 32. „ seal of, 178. Hatfield, Bishop, 39. Hauriant, 13. Haverfordwest, seal of, 178. Hawke, Lord, 10. Hawking fish, 106. Head family, 40. Heard, Sir Isaac, 218. Heigham, arms, 155. Helmet, a distinction, 31. Helmsdale, 114. Helston, 134. „ seal of, 15.9. Hengravc, History of, 155. Henri Grace de Dieu, the, 177. Henry III, Roll of Arms, 50. „ VII, King, 202. „ VIII, Roll of Arms, 34, 230. Herald painters, 188. Heraldic dolphin, 15. „ signs, 164. Herbert, Bishop, 201. „ Lord, 215. Ilorbst, John, 11. Hereford, Bishop of, 19. 11 eringby College, 151. Heringflete Priory, 151. Heringh, arms, 153. Heringham, ditto, 153. Ileringod, ditto, 153. Heringot, seal, 153. lleriz, device, 62. Heron, the, 98, 155. Herring, Archbishop, arms, 154. „ cob, 1 56. „ the, 150. Herringbone work, 110. Hertford, Karl of, 134. Heytesbury, Lord, 190. Highland fishing-boat, 175. Hindu symbol, 80. Hingham deanery, 36. Hippocampus brevirostris, 209. llobbs, arms, .98. Hoddy, crest, 141. Holleys, amis, 31. Holme, Randal, 187. Homage, 111. Home of Ninewells, arms, 85. Homfray, crest, 148. Honours of Fishmongers, 82. Hood, Viscount, 21 7. Hooks, 144. Hope, allegorical figures of, 180. „ family, 180. Elopetoun, Fail of, 180. 1 forns of tenure, 1 84. Horse, the, 207. 242 INDEX. Horsey Mere, GO. Hotoft, amis, 200. Hounds, sharks named from, 205. Howard family, 159. Howden, Lord, 1 96. Howe, Earl, 203. Howth, Earl of, 217. Hudson family, 227. Hulls of ships, 179. Humides, the, 97. Hiinder, amis, 81. Hungary, ditto, 84. Ilungerford, horn, 134. Lord, 19. Huntingdon, Earl of, 107. Huntsman of the Empire, 139. Hutchinson, arms, 21. Huyshe, ditto, 97. Hythe, seal of, 178. I. Iceland, amis, 174. Ictis, the Greek word, 12. Iffley church, 5, 209. Ihner, manor, 92. Inch Garvie, 162. Inconstancy, emblem of, 231. Inskipp, 21. Invention of the compass, 177. Inverary, arms, 152. Iona, sculpture at, 175. Ipswich, seal of, 178. Irby, arms, 158. Iremonger family, 37. Isabel, Queen, 218. I scan, amis, 36. Isle of Ely, eels in, 194. Iver, in Bucks, 225. J. James, arms, 38 — 41). ,, Saint, 221. Jane, crest, 141. Jarnac, Count de, 103. Jeane, crest, 141. .Tenkinson, ditto, 208 Jersey, Earl of, 226. Joan of Acres, .97. „ Bar, seal of, 70. John, arms, 228. „ King, 150, 218. Johnson, crest, 216. Juan Fernandez, 21 I . Jugerdc, arms, 1 99.* K Karpfen, arms, 77. Katherine, Queen of Henrv V, li Keane, Lord, 116. Keldon, 38. Kcmys, arms, 1 32. Kendall, ditto, 132. Kenilworth, visit to, 23. Kenn, amis, 21. Kennedy family, 29. Kent, Dukes of, 85. „ Earl of, 144. Kentigern, Saint, 124. Kettle nets, 132. „ offish, 132. Keys of St. Peter, 166. Kiddle, or weir, 132. Kidley, arms, 189. Kidson, ditto, 132. Kilrenny, motto, 144. Kinderton, Barons of, 198. King John, play of, 22. „ of the Moors, 32. Kings, Boll of, 137. Kingsdown church, 57. Kingfisher, the, 99. Kingsmill, 55. Kingston, seal of, 113. Kinloch, supporters, 149. Kirk Salmon, 120. Kirkland, amis, 53. Knight of Gloucester, arms, 122. „ of the Dolphin, 29. Knights, Roll of, 137. Knots, 73. Koran, the, 127. Kreckwitz, arms, 81. Kydale, ditto, 132. Kytson, ditto, 1 55. La Lasca, 97. „ Mancha, 214. „ March, Count of, 218 „ Tour, house of, 22. Lady Chapel, St. Saviour's, 58. Lake, arms, 80. „ Lord, 79. „ Superior, 211. Lamprell, arms, 202. Lamprey, the, 202. Laniproim, the, 203. Lanark, arms, 1 14. Lanercost Priory, 224. Lancsborough, Earl of, 82. Langton Ilering, 154. Language of heraldry, 2. Lany, crest, 21 9. Lap]), arms 216 Latimer family, 158. „ Lord, 5 1 , Lauterbach, arms, 85. Lau/.on, ditto, 196. Lau/.un, crest, 216. Lawrence family, 189. Le Fleming, arms, 157. Leeds, Duke of, 29. Legend of St. James, 223. „ the ring, 125. Shown in vignette, p. 233. INDEX. 2rs Leicester, Earl* of, 132. ' Leigh, monument at, 121. Leinster, Duke of, 103. Leister, or spear, 129. Leniaitre, amis, Uii. Lcman, ditto, 32, 33. Lent, institution of, 169. Leon, arms of, 7<l. ., King of, 222. Leslies Priory, 4!). Leversege, arms, 37. Levesque, crest, 107. Ley, Lord, 210. Libro, d'Oro. 27. Lichfield, Earl of, 123. Lilling, arms, 64. Limburg, Dukes of, 121. Lincoln, Bishop of, 22.9. Ling, the, 185. Linnaeus, 233. Lion of St. Mark, 21. Lis. l'empire des, 2.5. Little Britain, sign in, 24. Liverpool, Earls of, 208. Loach, the, 100. Lobster, the, 228. Loch, crest. 98. Loggie of Raphael, 8. London, Bishop of, 19, 41. ,, city of. supporters, 202. ,. cries, 164. ,. Lord Mayors of. 3 1 . „ old city of, 1.90. pageants, 32, 3.5. Longford Castle, 86. Lonsdale. Earl of, .54. Loo Pool, 134. Looe, seal of, 161. „ token, 161. Lord Admiral, 1 44. „ High Admiral. 180. ,, „ Treasurer to Queen Amu ., Mayors, fishmongers, 17-5. Lords Marchers, 22.5. .. of the Isle>, 11.5. Lordships, maritime, 179. Lorn, ancient lords of, 175. .. Marquess of, 17-5. Lorraine, arms, 7 1. Lostwithiel, seal of. 114. Lotus of India, 80. Lotvsham, arms, 148. Loiiis XI. 223. ., Saint. 223. Loutrc, the. 148. Louvaine, Josceline of, .52. Lovelace, Earl of, 1.58. Lovken, John, Lord Mayor, 32. Lowdham. 38. Lowestoft, 1.52. Lowther family. .5 t. Luc en Yivarets. arms. .59. Luce, the. 19. Lucv. arms, 50, .58, .5,5. Lucy family. 56. „ rebus of, 57. Ludlow Castle, 22.5. Lusignan, house of, 217. Luttrell, arms, 148. „ psalter, 137. Lyme, seal of, 178. Lymington, seal of, 178. Lymphad, the, 1 75. Lyndhurst, Lord, 227. Lynedoch, Lord, 227. Lynn, arms, 20 1 . „ town seal, 201. Lyttelton, Lord, 219. M. Mac Dougal, arms, 175. Macbride, ditto, 163. Macdonald, Lord, 115. Mackerel, sign, 163. the, 163. Mackerell, amis, 163. Mackrill, ditto, 163. Maclean, Sir Fitz Roy. J. G. 211. Macles, 77. Madrid, royal armoury, 222. Maffei Collection, 142. Magnus, Saint, 170. Mahi Maratib, 78. Maidstone, college at, 19. Mai Ordonnees, 74. Malet Barony. 221. Malpas. arms, 131. Maltravers, Lords, 158. . Malvish, arms, 205. Mantle, heraldic, 71. Marbury, crest, 215. Marchers of Wales, 225. Marchin, arms, 74. Margaret d'Anjou, 71. Saint, 201. Marignv, Marquis de. 75. Marigolds. 88. Mariner's compass, 177- Maritime manors, 179. Maiius, coin of. 16. Marlborough, Duke of, 226. „ ' Earl of. 210. Marquete, or speckled, 1 38. Marshal of the Falcons, 92. Mar-hailing arms, 52. Marston Moor, battle of, 215. Martel, Charles, 71, 121. Mary Queen of Scots, 22. Mascles, 158. Mason, crest, 21(5. Massaniello, 142. Massareene, Viscount. 215. Master Fishers of the Empire. 141 Ma>ts of >hips. 1 79. Maximilian, triumph of, 140. Medal of Brutus, 18. Vespasian, 1 7. 244 INDEX. Medal of Vitellius, 7. Medals of Tyre, 227. Mcdville, arms, 144. Meer, crest, 205. Melem, arms, 228. Mellusine, La, 217. Menestrier, 47. Menzaleh, Lake, 142. Mercer, crest, 195. Merchants, arms of, 31. Merlyng, the, 184. Mermaid, 113,211. „ manufactured, 3. „ sign, 218. Merman, the, 218. Morton College, porch, 5. „ gatehouse, 4 1 . Mestich, arms, 209. Metje, ditto, 27. Michael, Saint, 201, 223. Miehielli of Venice, 27. Milan, device, 21. Milesian kings, 202. Militon, arms, 159. family, 29. Miller's thumb, the, 102. Millington, arms, 160. Minnow, the, 7, 99, 129. Miracle of the Lis, 25. Mirmillones, the, 157. Moeris lake, 113. Mogid emperor, 79. „ insignia, 80. Mohun family, 214. Molton, crest, 205. Monsters, antique, 206. Montagu's Guide to Heraldry, 62. Montausier, Duke of, 23. Montbeillard, Counts of, 138, 139. Montbeliard, arms, 73. Montfaucon, ditto, 73. Montrose, Duke of, 226. „ motto of, 1 79. Monypenny, arms, 10, 30. Moore, crest, 216. Morshoad family, 227. Mortimer, arms, 53. Moselle, Duke of the, 121. Motcombe, custom at, 86. Mottisfont Abbey, 214. Motto of the Dauphin, 23. Mottos of admirals, 179. „ seaports, 1 78. „ upon seals, 93. Moult, crest, 107. Mount St. John, 188. Mount's Hay. 159. Mowbray, device, 63. Mullet hawk, 106. „ of heraldry, 1 07 „ the, 106. AlulUm, arms, 53. Milton family, 51 . Multons of Cockernioutli, 224. Mummy cases, painted, 5. Mumpelgard, Counts of, 138. Munday's Chrysanaleia, 32. Muraena, the, 203. Murder of Archbishop Becket, 94. Mute as a fish, 143. N. Naiant, 13. Names of ships, 181. Naples, anus, 71. „ supporters, 216. Narburgh church, 204. Nautilus, the, 1 76. Naval crown, 179. „ dominion, emblem of, 208. „ mark, 131. Nave of a church, 181. Naviculo di Giotto, 167. Navigation, primitive, 176. Negroli, shield by, 231. Nelson, Lord, 179. Neot, Saint, 105. Neptune, 10. Neptune's trident, 130. Nereids, the, 213. Nero, emperor, 158. Nets, 157. Nottorvillo, Viscount, 159. Nevile, Archbishop, 210, „ crest, 164. „ Lord Fauconberg, K.G. 144. Neville, cognizance, 1 79. New Hall, Essex, 52. „ Hampshire, arms, 180. „ Inn, arms at, 147. Newblanch, Count of, 102. Newcastle, town of, 208. „ tradition, 127. „ under- Lyne, seal, 133. Newfoundland fish, 169. Newington hospital, 174. Newman, crest, 216. Newnham Paddox, glass at, 41. Newport, Isle of Wight, seal, 178. Newstead Priory, 215. Newtown, Isle of Wight, seal, 178. Nibanaba, the, 21 1. Nicholas V, Pope, 166. Nicholls, arms, 132. Niemptscher, ditto, 209. Nightingale, Gaseoigne, 64. Nile, fishery, 4. Nobility of Genoa, 190. „ Spain, 229. Venice, 27. Noel, arms, 158, 215. Norfolk, Duke of, 159. Norreys, supporters, 149. Norris, Lord, 198. North Minis, monuments at, 123. Northumberland, Karl of, 51. Norwich, Bishop of, 121. Notre Dame, Paris, 5. INDEX. 24; Notre Dame, glass at, 213. Nottingham Castle, "21"). 0. Oannes, 211. Oar, silver, a badge, 44. ( (ars, in arms, 43, 179. Obreen, arms, 90. Oceanus, 9. Ockwell, glass at, 71, 149. Okehampton, Lord of, 1 ii. Oldfield, amis, 109. Oliver, ditto, 141. Ombre, the, 147. O'Neill, Earl, 110. „ family, 1 1.5. Onoltzbach, anns, 85. Onslow, motto, 17. Oporinus's mark, 1 1 . Orcival, arms, 138. Ord, ditto, 117- ., manors, 116. Orde, anns, 117. Origin of heraldry, !i. Orkney, Earls of, 175. Orton, arms, 38. Osborne, ditto, 1 38. family, 29. Osprey, the, 106. Ostoft, arms, 64. Ostreche, ditto, 138. Oswald, King, 4(1. Otranto. arms, 31 . Otter hunting, 148. „ the, 147. Otterbourne, arms, 1 49. Oude, King of, 79. Oxford, Earls of, 84. Oyry, arms, 64. Oyster dredge, a badge, 221 . „ of the East Indies, 22 ] Pacheco, arms, 197. Pacific Ocean, 2. Pageants, 32, 35, 179. Palatine, Count, 39. Pall, funeral, 172. Palmer, arms, 225. Palmers'' scrips, 224. Pame, 13. Panel, carved, 42. Panonceaux, 55. Paris, fish in the museum at, 2. Parliament, Roll of Henry VIII, 34, 230. Partridge of the sea, the, 187. Passelaiguo, amis, 181. Patronage, ditto of, 57. Pavement at Canterbury, 6. Westminster, 59. Pavilion St. James, 143. Peacock of the sea, 45. Pearl oyster, the. 221. Pearls in heraldry, 221. Peebles, arms, 114. Pelham family, 1 83. Pembroke, Earls of, note, 70. Pcngersick Castle, Cornwall, 29, 159. Penkerth, arms, 144. Penkivil family, 96. Penrhyn Castle, 6. Penrose, anus, 135. Perch, the, 109. Percy, arms, 52. „ badge, 164. „ house of, 51, 214. Percy's Cross, 224. Pescara, Marchese di, 89. Peter-boat, the, 166. „ Saint, 166. Peterborough, bishopric of, 166. Peterchurch, Herefordshire, 134. Petershausen Abbey, 166. Petre, Lord, 227. Pevensey, seal of, 178. Pewterers' Company, 208. Pfirdt, arms, 140. Pfreimbt, ditto, 7. Pheon, the, 131. Philip II, Kin?, 208. „ of Valois, 22. Philipot's Origin of Heraldry, 8, Phocae, 210. Picardy, rebus of, 49. Picke, amis, 6 1 . Pickering, ditto, 62. „ William, his mark, 21, 62. Picton, amis, 99. Pictures of fish, 173, 181. Pike, arms, 6 1 . „ the, 49. Piketon, amis, 62. Pilchard, the, 159. Pilgram, arms,. 225. Pilgrim, crest, 225. Pilgrim's staves, 225. Pink, the, 99. Pinna Marina, 221. Pisces, the zodiacal sign, 4. Plaice, the, 199. Plantagenet device, 62, 134. Plaster- work, 190. Platen, arms, 231. Pliny's Natural History, 2. Pogorsker, arms, 209. Pointz Barony, 41. Poisson, anus, 75. Poissonnier, ditto, 213. Pollen family, 227. Polycrates, 126. Pompeii, lobster at, 228 . „ picture at, 142. Poole, amis, 3 1 . Pope, Nicholas V, 166. „ or Ruffe, the, Id!). Portsmouth, Earl of, 75, 215. „ seal of, 178. 246 INDEX. Postmaster General, time of Queen Anne 26. Power of the keys, 166. Powlctt, arms, 117. Poynings, Lord, 51. Praromon, arms, 111. Prawns, 231. Preaching to fish, 181. Prestwieh, arms, 216. Primeval boat, 176. Principato, arms of, 177. Pringle, Sir John, 225. Printers, allowed anus, 190. Privy seal of St. Bartholomew, 101. Procession Roll, 32, 34, 35. Propontis, fish of, 17. Proteus, 9. Proude, arms, 148. Proverbs, painted, 29. Proy von Findelstein, arms, 128. Prudence, emblem of, 203. Prudhomme, the, 148. Purple dye, 227. Purpura Buccinum, 227. Pursuivant Rouge Dragon, 202. „ Scales, 220. Pwll Priory, 93. Pyke, amis, 61. Q. Quarracino, arms of, 162. Quartering, amis, 52. Queen's College, Cambridge, 7 1 . Quenby Hall, 61. Quincy, arms, 158. R. Radford, arms, 202. Radley, ditto, 194. Rainwell, ditto, 31. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 218, 226. Ramira, King of Leon, 222. Ramsey Abbey, 61. „ mere, 60. Raoul, arms, 106. Raphael, arms of, 167. Raphael's dolphins, 8. Rapid motion of fish, 35. Ratcliff, arms, 53. Ravenna, pulpits at, 12. Rawdon family, 132. Rebus of Lucy, 57. Picardy, 49. Red hand of Ireland, 116. Regal mark, 131. Remora, the, 203. Rene d'Anjou, arms, 71 . badge, 179. Renfrew, motto of, 1 79. Bennington, arms, 31 . Rcstormcl Castle, 1 1 3. Itetiarii, the, 157. Rhine, fishery, 119. Rhingrave, 120. Ribb, arms, 232. Richard II. Roll of Arms, 51. Riehemont, Baron of, 111. Richmond family, 58. Rietter, amis, 213. Ring, device of the fish and the, 126. „ money, 128. „ the fisherman's, 167. Rivers, amis, 84. „ Earl, 220. „ Lord, 98. Riviere, arms, 76. Roach of Lezant, ditto, 96. „ the, 92. Robert of Dunwich, seal, 152. Roberts, R.A. 52. Robinson, Bishop, arms, 66. Roche, Baronets, 95. „ Castle, 93. „ in Cornwall, 96. „ Lords of Fennoy, 95. „ of Bromham, 95. „ Saint, 92. „ seal of Lord de la, 92. „ Sir William, arms, 96. Rochelle, 199. Rochester, Bishop of, 34, 161. Rohan, arms, 77. Roll of Anns, Edward II, 54. „ Henry III, 50. Richard II, 51. Roll of Parliament, Henry VIII, 34, 230. Roman tessera, 1 22. Romieu, arms, 225. Romney, seal of, 178. Rose de Mer, Amiens, 8. Rosengriin, arms, 129. Roscarrock, ditto, 160. Roten, ditto, 143. Rouge Dragon, 202. Roujou, arms, 106. Rouville, ditto, 83. Ronxel, ditto, 103. Royal Company of Fishing, 1 52. „ Navy, 177. Rudders in arms, 179. Ruffe, the, 109. Ruiz, poem by, 169. Russell, anus, 21. „ crest, 164. „ family, 27, 86. „ Sir Robert Frankland, 27. Russeyl, arms, 41 . Rutherford, crest, 21 (i. Rye, seal of, 178. S. Sadbcrg, Earl of, 39. Sagittarius, 7- Sails of ships, 179. Saint Anthony of Padua, 181. „ David's' Cathedral, 94. „ Genevieve Abbey, 214. „ George, 201. „ John, arms, 1 08. „ badge, 233. „ Margaret, 201. „ Margaret's church, York, 5. INDEX. 247 Saint Mary's church, Chester, monuments in, 136. „ Michael, 201. „ Michael's Mount, 1.').'*. „ Neot, History of, 111."). „ Peter's fish, 165. „ „ grant, 124. „ „ History of, 56. „ „ keys, 166. „ Roche, 9-2. Salisbury, Marquis of, 64. Salm, Counts of, 121. „ Princes of, 120. „ river, 120. Salmine, arms, 122. Salmon, ditto, 121. „ hunting, 129. „ of France, anus, 121. „ river, 120. „ sign of the, 1 G4. „ spears, 130. „ the, 112. Salmond, arms, 122. Salters' Company, 149. „ offish, 1 69. Saltfishmongers, 171. Salvator Rosa, picture by, 181. Sambrooke, arms, 121!. Sammes, ditto, 123. Sandford, ditto, !!4. Sandwich, Earl of, 219. „ seal of, 178. Sankey, arms, 193. Sardine, the, 162. Sartine, arms, 162. Scales, Lord, 220. „ of carp, 78. „ of chub, 9 1 . „ Pursuivant, 220. Scotch college, monument at, 125. Scots, Queen of, 22. Scott of Harden, 217. Scriptures, fish named in the, 1 2. Scrope, cognizance, 231. Sculpture, early, 170, 213. Sea, arms, 1 1 8. „ bream, 1 42. „ cobs, 156. „ dog, 149. „ emblem of the, 8. „ griffin, 209. „ horse, 207. „ lion, 206. „ Serjeant's, device, 4 1 . „ snake, 201. „ star, 108. „ tortoise, 232. „ unicorn, 209. „ urchin, 232. Seal, the, 210. Seals — ■ Arundel, Archbishop. 94. Baronial, 92. Barons of Dover, 178. Booking, Dean of. 36. Seals — continual. Brighton, 30. Briwere, Lord, 214. Buckenham Priory, 223. Cairncross, Archbishop, 125. Cameron, Bishop, 125. Campbell, 1 70. Cardigan, 180. Cinque Ports, 1 78. Coleraine, 1 1 5. Congleton, 199. De la Roche, 93. Dover, 1 78'. Dumvich, Bailiff of, 152. Feversham, 1 78. Fowey, 161. Gal way, 183. Glasgow Bishops, 125 ( flastonbury Abbey. 181. Hastings, 178. Hatfield, Bishop, 39. HaverfordWest, 178. Helston, 159. Heringot, 153. Iiilburgh Priory, 201. Ilingham Deanerv, 36. llythe, 178. Ipswich, 178. Kingston, 1 1 3. Kytson, 155. Looe, 161. Lostwithiel, 1 1 4. Lucy, 54. Lyme, 178. Lymington, 178. Lynn, 201. Municipal, 178. Newcastle-under-Lyne, 1 33. Newport, Isle of Wight, 178. Newtown, ditto, 1 78. Norwich Priory, 201. Pevensey, 178. Portsmouth, 178. Romney, 178. Rye, 178. St. Bartholomew's Priory, 181 Sandwich, 1 78. Scales, Lord, 220. Scrope, 231. Seaford, 178. Sheffield, 132. Shoreham, 178. Stafford, 133. Sunning Deanery, 36. Surrey, Countess of, 70. „ " Karl of, 6' 9. Swansea, 106. Tenterden, 1 78. Thetford Priory, 201. Weare, 197. West A civ Priory, 201. Wexford, 182. Winchilsea, 178. Yarmouth, 150. „ Priorv, 151. 248 INDEX. Seaman family, 37. Sedition, emblem of, 228. Senitz, arms, 67. Sepham, crest, 217. Sermon to fish, 181. Serramis Anthias, 142. Settle's Triumphs of London, 35. Sevington, arms, 124. Shambrooke, ditto, 200. Shark, the, 205. Sharp, arms, 1 32, Sheffield, seal of, 1 32. Shell of St. James, 221. Shelley, arms, 227. Shellfish, 220. Sherwood Forest, Warden, 215. Shield, form of, 93. Shiffner, Sir George, 231. Ship and escallop, 223. „ of St. Peter, 181. Ships on seals, 178. „ names, 181. Shoreham, seal of, 178. Shrewsbury, Earl of, 136. Sidney, arms, 132. „ Sussex, college, 53. „ Viscount, 227. Sign of the Dolphin, 24. „ Mermaid, 218. Signs in Germany, 164. „ of inns, 164. „ the zodiac, 4. Sinclair, arms, 175. „ of Rosslyn, 217. Sirenis, 212. Sizes of nets, 159. Skerlington, crest, 215. Skeletons of fish, 110. Skipness Castle, 176. Skye, Isle of, 115. Smelt family, 1 45. „ the, 145. Smirke, R.A. 168. Smolt, the, 107. Soame, Sir Stephen, 221. Soapmakcrs' Company, 1 30. Sole, the, 187. Soles, arms, 187. Soley, ditto, 187. Solomon's ring, 127. Somerled, 1 1 5. Souci, or marigold, 88. Soumet, arms, 143. Sound as a roach, 92. South Sea Company, 1 53. Southampton, Dolphin inn, 24. Earl of, 81, 18(1. Southilete, arms, 3.5. South wold, token, 152. Sovereignty, emblem of, 31. Spain, Brand of, 229. Spanish heraldry, 196. „ poetry, 169. Sparke, crest, 98. Sparling family, 1 15. Sparling, the, 145. Speckled trout, 1 38. Spelman, Sir John, 204. Spencer, Earl, 155. Lord, 139. Spiering, the, 145. Sprat, arms, 161. „ Bishop of Rochester, 161 „ the, 161. Sprottie, arms, 127. Sprotton, ditto, 162. St. John, ditto, 108. „ badge, 233. Stafford, badge and knot, 72. „ seal of, 133. Stained glass — Amiens, 8. Armagh Cathedral, 141. Canterbury ditto, 171. Charlecote, 56. Chenies, 154. Fishmongers' 1 Hall, 173. Hampton Lucy, 5(j. Kingsdown, 57. Lincoln's Inn, 154. Moulins, 8. New Inn, London, 147. Newhall, 52. Newnham Paddox, 41. Notre Dame, 213. Ockwell House, 71, 149. Pavilion St. James, 144. Penrhvn Castle, 6. Qucnby Hall, 61. St. David's Cathedral, 94. St. Neot's, 105. St. Saviour's, 58. Selby Abbey Church, 51. University College, 38, 52. Stamford, Earls of, 85, 158. Standard at a feast, 123. „ bearer, 1 39. „ of Courtenav, 1 8. of Trevellian, 208. „ of Vaughan, 48. „ at Windsor Castle, 1 ! Starfish, the, 108. Steering, mode of, 177. Stephen, King, 7. Stepney, monument at, 127. Sterns of ships, 179. Stevne at Brighton, 30. Stockfish, 31, 174. Stockfishmongers, 171. Stolhcrg, Counts of, 141. Stonor, 81. Stork, the, 98. Stothard, R.A. 21. Stourton, arms, 85. Lord, 1 19. Strachwitz, amis, 226. Stratford, Earl of, 63. Strangford, Lord, 1 32. Strateiey, arms, 199. Stratford Abbey, 89. INDEX. 249 Strathallan, Viscount, 84. Streamlet of seals, 211. Strickland, the herald painter, 168. Strozzi Palace, 209. Stuart, royal house of, 179. Sturgeon, arms, 204. the, 204. Sturgney, arms, 204. Styell, crest, 190. Suckingfish, the, 203. Sudelev, barony of, 227. Suffolk, Duke of, 231. Sulyard, aims, 132. Sunning, deanery, 36. Supporters, heraldic, 42, 93. Surgeons' Hall, a fish at, 212. Surnames, 101. Surrey, Earl of, seal, G9. Sussex, Earl of, 52. Sutherland, arms, 108. „ Earldom, 114. Swallow, crest, 46. Swan, rousant, 141. „ the, 98. Swansea, seal, 106. Swartzac, arms, 85. Swiftest fish, the, 35. Sykes, Sir Tatton, 219. Symonds, aims, 41. Syracuse, coin of, 15. Syrens, the, 212. Tabard, 137. Talbot family, 136. Tanche, arms, 87. Tanques, ditto, 97. Tapestry of the Vatican, 166. Tarbutt", arms, 188, 189. Tarentum, coins of, 227. Taylor, the water poet, 43. Teck, amis, 1 39. Temperance, emblem of, 228. Tenant, a, 213. Tench, arms, 88. ,. the, 87. Tenterden, seal of, 178. Tenure, horns of, 134. Territorial names, 101. Tethvs, 9. Thanet, Earl of, 206. Thiard, arms, 230. Thome, crest, 217. Ticket to a feast, 122. Tile at Exeter, 12. Titus, baths of, 8. Tobias and the fish, 167. Tollesbury, monument at, 138. Torr Abbey, 214. Torralva, the shepherdess, 214. Tortoise, the sea, 232. Tournament at Eglintoun Castle, 29. the, 1 37. Townshend, [Marquis, 94, 227. Tranchemer, arms, 47. Treasurer, Lord, 210. Tregarthick, arms, 229. Trevellian, standard of, 268. Trevelyan, 44. Treviso, families of, 28. Trident of Neptune, 130. Tritons, 218. Triumph of Maximilian, 140. Triumphs of London, the, 35, 171. Tropenell, arms, 95. Trout, sign, 164. „ the, 133. Troutbeck, arms, 136. „ tabard, 137. „ Westmoreland, 135. Troutsdale, 135. Truro, seal of, 160. Truthall, 135. Tubfish, the, 104. Tubbe, arms, 104. Tubingen, monument at, 139. Tucker, arms, 208. Turbot of Ancona, 190. „ the, 188. Turbutt, arms, 188. Turpin, 81. Turtle, the, 232. Twells, arms, 86. Twickett, ditto, 199. Tyre, medals of, 227- Tyrian dye, 227. Tyrone, Earl of, 115. U. Ulster, Lords of, 116. Ulysses, 212. Umberfish, the, 147. Umbrell, arms, 148. Unicom, the, 209. Unnatural animals, 206. Upsal Cathedral, 233. Upton, crest, 41. „ Nicholas, 50. Urchin, the sea, 232. Urgunda, the, 201. Usedom, arms, 209. Vaillant, arms, 141. Valence, Earls of Pembroke, 70. Van Voorst, crest, 217. Vanacker, Sir Nicholas, 123. Vandeput family, 33. Vanes, 55. Vannelat, arms, 226. Vannet, the, 226. Variation of the compass, 177. Vatican, the, 1 06. Vauer, Baron, 45. Vaughan, anus, 48. Vaux, 5."., 224. Venables, crest, 198. Venetian nobility, 27. Venice, lion of, 21. < 250 INDEX. Venus, 7. „ Anadyomene, 216. „ fish consecrated to, 142. Vere, house of, 84, 108. Vernon, arms, 1,57. „ Lords, 1 98. Verona, antique at, 142. Vesci, 225. Vescv, 225. Vesica piscis, 12. Vespasian, medal of, 17. Viennois, Counts of, 21. Vieuxchastel, arms, 55. Vignette at page 1, explanation of, 128. Villiers, Sir Nicholas de, 224. Vitellius, medal of, 7. Vivier, 87. Vox piscis, 182. Vulcana, arms, 1 57. W. Wahlen, arms, 46. Wales, ensign of, 202. Walker, crest, 225. Walley, arms, 131. Wallop, Sir John, 215. Wallys, anus, 48. Walterton, ditto, 24. Walton and Cotton Club, 1 45. „ Club, Newcastle, 145. „ family, 215. Walton's mark, 21. Walworth, Sir William, 171. pall, 173. „ statue, 173. Warburton's Anus of Gentry, 90. Warham, Archbishop, 210. Wark worth, Lord, 51. Warren, Karl of, 69. „ Countess of, 70. Warwick, Lads of, 57, 189. Water ■ bailiff's badge, 44. „ in heraldry, 83. Waterford, arms, 86. „ hakes at, 183. Waterliouse, anus, 87. Watermen's Company, 43. Waters, arms, 87. Watson, Sir Brook, 205. Waves in heraldry, 83. Way, arms, 1 19. „ of Devonshire, arms, 119. Weare, seal of, 197. Weil's on rivers, 197. Wells, arms, 86. „ badge, 86. „ of Knmore, 86. Welsh, arms, 124. „ salmon, 124. Wengc, manor of, 92. Wentworth family, 64. Wernigerode, Counts of, 1, 141. Westminster, Abbot's claim, 124. „ Chapter-house, 59. Westward for smelts, 145. Wexford, seal of 182. Whale, the, 45. Whaley, arms, 46. Whalley Abbey, 46. „ family, 47. Wheler, arms, 198. Whelk, the, 227. Whiff, the, 187. Whirlpool in heraldry, 86. Whistle, a badge of office, 180. Whitby, town of, 197. Whiting, arms, 184. „ the, 184. Whittington, amis, 185. Wigram family, 227. Wildgrave, 120. Wilk, the, 227. Wilkins, anns, 227. Wilkinson, ditto, 228. Willeigh, ditto, 159. Willeley, ditto, 1 59. Williams, Lord, 198. Willoughby, Lords, 158. Wilton, Earls of, 85. Winchilsea, seal of, 178. Winchester, Bishop of, 19, 50. Windisehgratz, Counts of, 110. Windsor Castle, standard at, 18. Winter, Robert, 11. Wirtemberg, Counts of, 138. „ King of, 139. Wishart, Bishop, 1 24. Witton Castle, 225. Women in heraldry, 143. Woodvile, Lord Scales, 220. Wooler, pillar near, 224. Wooton-under-Kdge, monument at, 113. Worlidge's Gems, 9. Worsley family, 183. Wylley, arms, 198. Wynne, ditto, 38. Wyvil family, 88. Y. Yarborough, Earl of, 183. Yarmouth, arms, 152. „ priory seal, 151. „ town ditto, 150, 178. Yarrell, crest, 109. Yeates, ditto, 205. Yoke, a badge, 95. York, Archbishop of, arms, 154, 166. w porch of St.Margaret's Church, 5. Z. Zingis Khan, 79. Zodiac, 4. Zouche, Lord, ] 80. .ONDON : PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY, BANGOR HOUSE, SHOE LANK. The. following Works, published by Mr. Van Voorst, are Portions of a Series illustrative of the NATURAL HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. PROFESSOR RYMER JONES'S GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, AND MANUAL OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 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